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CHAPTER 7
MANAGING DIVERSE HUMAN RESOURCES
MANAGERIAL CHALLENGES FROM THE FRONT LINE:

Jean-Jacques Beaussart, Chief Procurement Officer, National City Corp.
This profile of Beaussart provides a real-life example of how a line manager, in this case the
Chief Procurement Officer, can be faced with a human resource management problem. A key
subordinate who had been with the company for many years and was close to retirement was
failing to meet new performance goals. Beaussart had discussed this with the employee six
months ago, but the employee still wasn’t hitting the goals. Beaussart’s problem… should he
fire the employee or not? The employee could sue claiming age discrimination.
Suggested Questions:
1. What are the issues Beaussart needs to consider?
2. Why do you think the manager is not hitting the performance targets?
3. Whose fault do you think it is that the manager is not hitting the performance targets?
4. Is there anything else Beaussart could do instead of firing the manager?
THE STRATEGIC ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Without bright motivated people, companies cannot survive and prosper no matter what
products or services they offer. It’s the people who design and manufacture and sell the products
or provide the services.
HR and Strategy Formulation

1. Human resources are frequently regarded as a source of competitive advantage
a. Employee’s capabilities are hard to copy
b. These same capabilities create value for customers
HR and Strategy Implementation
1. While not all strategies are built around a firm’s employees, all strategies are
implemented by employees.
2. Employees must be recruited and managed so as to help with the implementation of a
firm’s strategy. (In Chapter 4, one of the necessary elements for successful
implementation of strategy called for by the McKinsey 7S framework is staff.)
3. Many HR activities are a part of the strategic framework of the company:
a. Planning
b. Job analysis
c. Recruiting
d. Selection
e. Socialization
f. Training
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Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
4. These activities must fit with the firm’s strategy and its environment to facilitate high
productivity and performance.
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES THAT GET THE RIGHT PEOPLE

1. There are two main HRM goals
a. Getting the right people
i. This is accomplished through aligning HRM activities with the firm’s
strategy
b. Maximizing their performance and potential
2. Success or failure in one activity can influence success or failure in the other.
Planning
There are three major concerns:
1. Forecasting Demand
a) Assessing the future human resource needs
b) What kind of employees will be needed?
c) How many of each kind will be needed?
2. Assessing Supply
a) Determining the availability of the types of people needed
b) Check demographic trends (c.f. Chapter 4: General Environment Analysis)
i) Birthrates
ii) Educational levels
3. Formulating Fulfillment Plans
a) Creating plans for how to meet the needs
b) There are several ways companies can meet employee shortfalls
i) Utilize part-time of temporary workers
ii) Outsource the jobs – hire another company to provide the service to your firm rather
than hiring your own employees to handle the job(s)
Job Analysis
(1) This is the determination of the scope and depth of jobs and the requisite skills, abilities,
and knowledge that people need to perform their jobs successfully.
(2) The process of Job Analysis includes:
(a) Collecting data and insights about individual jobs
(b) Creating a Job Description: a list of duties and capabilities required for the job
(c) Creating a Job Specification: a statement of the skills, experience, and education
required of a candidate for the job
A MANAGER’S CHALLENGE:
Wal-Mart Suits up in the War for Talent
Even given the recent recession, WalMart is desperate for new managerial talent. In the past
they have promoted from within, but they are opening so many new stores, they do not have a
plethora of home-grown talent. Where were they to find the number of new managers they
needed? In 2008, Wal-Mart started recruiting junior military officers as they retired from the
services. The JMOs already had leadership ability and skills; they just needed to learn retail.
2
1. Is it more difficult to train for leadership or for day to day managerial skills? Why?
2. What types of knowledge, skills, and abilities do JMOs bring to the non-military workplace?
3. What negative issues might arise when hiring JMOs?
Check it out!
http://www.paq.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=Main.AboutUs WalMart’s corporate site
Recruiting
1. Once a firm has defined the type of individuals needed, they next step is to attempt to attract
those individuals to the firm.
2. Questions involved at this stage include:
a) Can you give the desired people what they want
i) You must first find out what they want
b) Can your competitors offer them more
3. There are several approaches used to attract desired people
a) Job Posting
i) An internal recruiting method whereby a job, its pay, level, description, and
qualifications, are posted or announced to all current employees.
ii) Ever more frequently, job posting is being done via email notification
iii) Advantages
(1) Ensures all qualified applicants an opportunity to apply for open positions
(2) Helps current employees judge the type and qualifications of job openings in the
firm in order to plan their career paths and acquire necessary training
iv) Disadvantages
(1) Unqualified applicants may apply.
(2) These applicants require explanations as to why they were not qualified
(3) Without adequate explanation, trust in the posting system erodes.
b) Advertisements
i) Placed in general or specialized magazines and increasingly on the internet
ii) Advantages
(1) Allows for focusing at the national, regional, or local level.
(2) Allows for focusing on general or specialty skills
c) Employment Agencies
i) Effectiveness predicated on the agency’s accurate understanding of both your
organization and the job
ii) Most frequently used for higher level jobs
iii) This is expensive and cost inefficient for lower level jobs
iv) Executive search firms are used when searching for senior management level
prospects.
d) Employee Referrals
i) One of the most effective recruiting methods
(1) Employees can make successful matches between a given job and an individual
(a) Employees have an understanding both of the company and of the job
(b) Employees know the strengths and weaknesses of the person they recommend
3
(c) Employees put their own credibility on the line and so are unlikely to make
rash recommendations
(2) Effectiveness is less if the company is looking for an applicant for a job the
employee has not held.
e) School Placement Centers
i) Wide range of educational levels from high school through technical school to all
levels of colleges and universities.
ii) Advantages
(1) They are cost and time efficient for the company
(a) The schools do much of the prescreening and filtering out of unsuitable
candidates
(2) The company can reach applicants they might not otherwise see
(a) Can set up virtual interviews
(b) Can run online job fairs
iii) Disadvantages:
(1) The campus may deal with so many students and companies that they have
limited knowledge of either, leading to less effective recommendations.
f) Internet
i) Major companies list jobs on their corporate websites
ii) There are resume centers on line to link applicants and companies
(1) http://www.monster.com/
(2) Careerbuilder.com
(3) hotjobs.yahoo.com/
ENHANCEMENT: What you post on Facebook can hurt you!
As part of its 2009-2010 research concerning future workplace trends, the Society of Human
Resource Management (SHRM) found that on 2008 only 3% of organizations used social
networking sites such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter to look up candidates before inviting
them for an interview. By 2009, (the last year for which data is available) that number had
grown to 25% of firms. SHRM also researched the effect an individual’s posts on social
networks might have on their desirability as a job candidate.
If a job candidate’s social networking profile showed evidence of unprofessional

behavior, to what extent would you be less likely to hire the candidate?
Not at all less likely, that’s the
candidate’s personal life 14%
Somewhat less likely 45%

A lot less likely; it tells a lot about the
candidate as a person 41%
4
Elance.com Survives and Thrives
Electronic technology has made it increasingly easier for organizations to find the freelance
talent they need. It has also made it easier for the talent to find the projects they are qualified for.
This managerial challenge box describes Elance.com, a 12 year old company which recently
announced they have 104,000 employers listed and posted approximately 302,000 jobs last year.
The box details its linking process.
1. Why is this an important recruiting and hiring technique for companies?
2. What advantages and disadvantages can you propose resulting from this practice?
Check it out!
http://www.elance.com/ When I checked the site today (3/24/11), it had 50,009 jobs posted in
the last 30 days, 360,864 contractors listed, and the work done to date had reached $361,099,228.
Selecting
1. Selection depends on accurate and effective planning, analyzing and recruiting.
2. Selecting involves choosing the best candidate(s) from the group that has been recruited.
3. Selection techniques must be valid.
a) They must be able to differentiate between those who would be more successful in the
job and those who would be less successful (predictive validity).
b) This allows them to stand up to any potential legal challenge as to their fairness.
4. Companies use a variety of selection techniques:
a) Interviews
i) The most widely used selection technique
ii) There are two basic types of interviews
(1) Unstructured interviews
(a) Interviewers have a general idea of the questions they will ask, but not a
standard set
(b) Questions vary from candidate to candidate
(c) Low levels of predictive validity
(2) Structured interviews
(a) Interviewers ask a standard set of questions of all candidates
(b) Have high levels of predictive validity
(c) Validity is enhanced further when the interview is filmed
(d) Validity is also enhanced by spending approximately the same amount of time
with each candidate
b) Work Sampling
i) Attempts to duplicate or exactly duplicate the job that will be done by the candidate if
hired.
ii) Performance on the work sample is expected to presage performance on the job
iii) Provide reasonably accurate predictions of job ability
iv) Very expensive in time and money
c) Work simulation
5
i) Tests and tasks judge abilities needed for the job
ii) Tasks are related to job skills but are not actual job tasks (i.e., the text mentions
assembling a flashlight as a test of manual dexterity for an auto assembly job.)
d) Assessment Centers
i) A series of tasks and tests is administered to the candidate
ii) Each is assumed to judge one or more elements of the job requirements
iii) Effective both when hiring new workers and in promoting current employees to new
jobs.
e) Written Tests
i) Widely used
ii) Cost effective – they can be administered to a number of candidates at the same time.
iii) Intelligence and cognitive ability tests are accepted as valid in selecting for
supervisory and management jobs
iv) Personality test my indicate the ability to work well with others but not of task
performance ability
v) The validity of integrity tests is questionable.
f) Background and Reference Checks
i) These are attempts to verify factual information provided by the candidate
(1) 10-15% of applicants lie or exaggerate factual information
ii) Reference checks seek candid information from previous co-workers about a
candidate’s qualifications and past performance.
(1) Law suits against previous employers who made negative statements have led
many companies to provide nothing but factual information, nothing subjective.
g) Physical Examinations
i) Allow companies to hire those able to handle the physical challenges of given jobs
ii) They also protect employers
(1) Reduce insurance claims
(2) Identify high risk candidates
iii) Physical qualifications tested must relate directly to the job to be valid
iv) Drug testing is done to insure that an employee’s judgment and capabilities are not
impaired on the job.
ENHANCEMENT: SHRM 2009-2010 Workplace Forecast

The Society for Human Resource Professionals releases a workplace forecast every two years.
Here are some of the highlights of the 2009-2010 forecast. The first table gives an overview of
the changes in workplace trends from 2003-2009. The second table gives the workplace trends as
of 2011.
Top 10 workplace trends: 2003 to 2009

2003 2005 2007 2009
1. Use of technology to Rising health care costs Rising health care costs Continuing high cost of
communicate with health care in the United
employees States
2. Rising health care costs Focus on domestic safety Increased use of Large numbers of Baby
and security outsourcing (offshoring) Boomers (those born
of jobs to other countries between 1945 and 1964)
6
retiring at around the
same time
3. Increased vulnerability of Use of technology to Threat of increased Threat of increased
intellectual property communicate with health care/medical costs health care/medical costs
employees to the economic to the economic
competitiveness of the competitiveness of the
United states United states
4. Managing talent Growing complexity of Increased demand for Aging population
legal compliance workplace flexibility
5. Greater demand for high- Use of technology to Retirement of large Growing need to develop
skilled workers than for perform transactional HR numbers of Baby retention strategies for
low-skilled workers functions Boomers (those born current and future
between 1945 and 1964) workforce
at around the same time
6. Labor shortages Focus on global security New attitudes toward Federal health care
aging and retirement as legislation
Baby Boomers reach
retirement age
7. Change from Preparing for the next Rise in the number of Preparing organizations
manufacturing to wave of retirement and individuals and families for an older workforce
information/service labor shortage without health insurance and the next wave of
economy retirement
8. Increase in employment- Use and development of Increase in identity theft Threat of recession in
related government e-learning United States or globally
regulation
9. Focus on domestic safety Exporting of U.S. Work intensification as Labor shortages at all
and security manufacturing jobs to employers try to increase skills levels
developing countries productivity with fewer
employees
10. Ability to use technology Changing definition of Vulnerability of Demographic shifts
to more closely monitor family technology to attack or leading to a shortage of
employees disaster high-skilled workers
Top 10 Trends for 2011

1. Continuing high cost of employee health care coverage in the United States
2. Passage of federal health care legislation
3. Increased global competition for jobs, markets, and talent
4. Growing complexity of legal compliance for employers
5. Changes in employee rights due to legislation and/or court rulings
6. Large numbers of Baby Boomers (1945-1964) leaving the workforce at around the same
time
7. Economic growth of emerging markets such as India, China, and Brazil
8. Greater need for cross-cultural understanding/savvy in business settings
9. Growing national budget deficit
10. Greater economic uncertainty and market volatility
Source: SHRM Workplace Forecast (SHRM, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008)
SHRM
7
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES THAT MAXIMIZE PERFORMANCE
Once individuals have been hired, companies need to maximize their performance. There are
many techniques for improving job performance.
1. Socialization and Training
a) Early socialization shapes several areas of employee behavior
i) Retention
ii) Performance
iii) Development of potential
b) Performance and potential are enhanced through many organizational measures and
programs
i) Orientation
(1) Programs present a broad overview of the company and industry
(2) Work unit orientation helps new hires learn about their particular unit, work group
and job
(3) Programs are maximized through:
(a) Minimal paperwork – only that which is essential
(b) An informal meeting with the new supervisor
(c) Alternating heavy and light info sessions
(d) Providing a glossary for company terminology
(e) Provide a personality compatible “buddy” to help the individual settle in to the
new job.
ii) On-the-Job Training (OJT) Techniques
(1) Most widely used training techniques in organizations
(2) Exhibit 8.5 gives a list of the variety of OJT techniques.
iii) Off-the-Job Training
(1) Most commonly conducted in a classroom by outside experts
(2) Includes online and correspondence courses
iv) Technical, Interpersonal, and Conceptual Training
(1) Programs objectives include
(a) Addressing any employee technical, interpersonal, or conceptual gaps
including everything from remedial reading and math education to
supercomputer programming
(b) Improving employees’ interpersonal skills including listening, conflict
resolutions, negotiation, and coaching
(c) Improving employees conceptual abilities including problem solving, decision
making, and planning.
(2) Regardless of content most programs aim to
(a) Improve employees’ understanding of what is and is not correct behavior
(b) Improve employees’ knowledge of why behaviors are correct or incorrect
(c) Offer opportunities to practice desired behaviors
(d) Give feedback on performance and additional practice
(3) Evaluating the effectiveness of training programs
(a) Smile index: gauging employee satisfaction with the training.
(i) When participants enjoy a program, they are more likely to retain the
content and utilize it.
8
(ii) Enjoyment, however, does not necessarily predict desired impact on
behavior
(b) Pre- and post- training assessments
(i) more rigorous than satisfaction measures
(ii) gauges knowledge and performance before and after the training
(iii)does not address cost-effectiveness
(c) Determining cost effectiveness can be difficult
(i) You must measure both direct and indirect costs
(ii) Managers must determine the time period to measure – how long do the
training benefits last?
2. Job Design
a) The focus is on structuring or restructuring job components
b) Job analysis figures out what the components of a job are, and job design figures out how
to put them together to increase performance and productivity.
c) Traditionally the job was designed and then the appropriate worker was found for the job.
d) Today it is at least as likely to have to adjust a job to fit the available personnel.
e) Some redesign efforts mix both approaches
i) Job sharing
(1) Situation in which two individuals share the same job
(2) Individuals must be able to coordinate well and have similar capabilities.
ii) Reengineering
(1) Fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve
dramatic improvements in critical contemporary measures of performance such as
cost quality service, or speed
3. Evaluating Employees’ Performance
a) Performance appraisal is concerned with:
i) Establishing performance objectives and standards
ii) Measuring employee performance against those standards
iii) Providing feedback to employees
b) The objectives and strategy of the firm determine the performance standards
c) This is one of the most important but also one of the most difficult managerial tasks
i) Greatest difficulty may come from the need to offer feedback to employees,
especially negative feedback
d) There are several types of appraisal systems
i) Graphic Rating Scales
(1) Each scale contains a list of qualities on which the employee is measured
(2) Probably the most popular method
(a) Scales are relatively quick and easy to complete
(b) Evaluation items and scales are the same for all employees making it easy to
compare performance across employees
(3) There are two key limitations to graphic rating scales
(a) The characteristics being measured may not be clearly defined
(b) Different managers can interpret the measurement items differently as well as
differing in their interpretations of what excellent, average or poor means,
thus reducing the cross-employee correspondence of the results.
9
ii) Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)
(1) Designed to keep the advantages of graphic rating scales (ease and speed of use)
while eliminating the disadvantages.
(a) Characteristics to be measured are defined much more clearly
(b) Performance is measured in terms of specific behaviors rather than abstract
qualities such as excellent and poor.
iii) 360-Degree Feedback
(1) These systems involve collecting appraisal evaluations from an individual’s boss,
peers, and subordinates.
(2) Sometimes evaluations are also gathered from customers and/or suppliers
(3) Allows a review of an individual’s performance from several different viewpoints
(a) This allows for a more comprehensive review.
(b) Data collection from so many sources encourages employees to pay attention
to all of their relationships not just their relationship with the boss.
(4) Disadvantages include
(a) Time and effort involved to collect, process, and feedback all the data
(b) Validity has been called into question
(i) Low level employees overrate themselves
(ii) Modest level employees tend to be underrated by supervisors
(iii)Peers tend to overestimate poor performers
(c) The number of American companies using this technique has risen from 25-
60% from 1995-2005
e) Effective Performance Feedback
i) Feedback is ineffective when
(1) Performance measures were not clear in the beginning, and the employee then
receives a negative review.
(2) The employee believes the manager is biased
(a) This can be overcome by the recording over time of both positive and
negative critical incidents which validate comments in the performance
review.
(3) Effective performance reviews:
(a) Review key work objectives, goals, and standards
(b) Summarize the employee’s overall performance using specific positive and
negative incidents
(c) Discuss the causes of weak performance and allow for employee rebuttal
(d) Offer alternative means of improving and seeks employee input about them
(e) Establish agreed timetable and review process for improvement
(f) Establish objectives, timetable and standards for next review
(g) End on a positive note.
Compensation
1. The primary function of rewards and pay are employee retention and motivation
2. Rewards and pay should also be linked to the firm’s strategy
a) This is a good point to review both the elements of positive reinforcement and the
importance rewarding the desired rather than undesired behaviors from Chapter 10
(Motivation)
10
3. The three major parts of firms’ compensation systems are
a) Pay
i) Pay structures are generally based on the level in the organization and the type of
position
ii) Pay structures allow for a range of pay within a given classification
(1) In Broadband systems
(a) The range is large, covering a broad variety of job types
(b) They offer greater flexibility to match changing industry conditions
(2) At-risk (variable) compensation
(a) Pay varies depending on specified conditions
(i) Performance standards
1. incentive plans
2. seen more frequently throughout the organization whereas they used to
be limited to top management
b) Benefits
i) Traditional benefits include medical, dental, and life insurance
ii) Some benefits are mandated by federal or state law
iii) Mandated benefits vary widely from country to country
iv) Costs can reach 20-40% of base pay
v) Companies are more frequently offering cafeteria benefits – which may reduce
benefits program costs
(1) Employees receive a number of ‘benefit dollars’ which they can spend on which
ever benefits fit their family and life-style
c) Rewards and Motivation
i) Individual managers have greater control over non-monetary rewards such as
recognition and praise.
ii) Managers need to be keenly aware of what behaviors they are actually rewarding
Employee Development
1. Companies through the HR department do plan for those career paths they would like to see
their top performers follow. These are usually tied to the company’s strategy
2. Individual managers also help employees define and manage their careers by assessing the
individual employee’s needs and providing or recommending specialized training.
a) Use integrated teams
b) Use cross-functional job rotation
3. Promotion
a) Skill development can lead to promotion
b) Promotions frequently lead to geographic relocation
i) This is a particular problem for dual-career couples especially if the transfer is an
international one
ii) Companies are expanding programs to assist with partner relocation
4. Termination
a) Firing for cause usually involved criminal behavior or violation of company policies
i) There are usually detailed written criteria for ‘cause’ terminations
ii) Managers may be required to follow certain steps leading to this type of termination
b) Failure to perform can also lead to termination
11
i) Prior to firing for failure to perform, managers usually work with the employee in an
attempt to improve the performance to acceptable levels.
ii) If this doesn’t work, frequently the HR department will be brought in to handle the
actual termination.
5. Layoffs
a) The termination of groups of employees due to economic or business reasons, not
performance issues.
b) Handling layoffs in a reasonable manner help companies recruit high performers again in
the future.
i) Reasonableness may include out placement, job hunting, and/or retraining assistance.
6. Labor Relations
a) Wages, benefits and other terms of employment may be covered by union contract.
b) Managers are challenged to meet the needs of the organization while acting within the
constraints of union contracts.
MANAGING A DIVERSE WORKFORCE

1. Diversity is measured on a wide range of characteristics including race, age, gender, religion,
cultural background, education, and mental and physical disabilities.
a) The US workforce is undergoing a tremendous demographic transformation
i) The working age white population is expected to decline from 82% to 63% from
1980-2020
ii) At the same time, minority working age population should double from 18%-37%
(1) The Hispanic/Latino working age population should triple, from 6-17%
b) Two drivers of this demographic shift
i) There are a larger number of minority younger (age 0-44) Americans
ii) Increasing numbers of white workers are exiting the workforce as the baby boomer
generation begins to retire.
ENHANCEMENT: SHRM 2009-2010 Workplace Forecast
Demographic Trends Most Likely to Have a Major Impact on or Cause a Radical Restructuring
of the Workplace
Major Radical
Impact Restructuring
Aging population driving an increase in health care costs 59% 13%
Aging of the workforce 44% 8%
Demographic shifts leading to a shortage of skilled workers 43% 14%
Retirement of large numbers of baby boomers at around the 43% 21%
same time
Growth in the number of employees who have both eldercare 38% 4%
and childcare responsibilities at the same time (“sandwich”
generation)
Increase in the age individuals choose to retire 38% 8%
Generational issues: Recognizing and catering to groups such as 34% 6%
Gen Y (born 1980-2000) and Gen X (born 1965-1980)
12
Growth in the number of employees with eldercare 34% 4%
responsibilities
Implications of the Latino/Hispanic population as the nation’s 29% 7%
largest minority group
Growth in the number of employees for whom English is not 26% 5%
their first language
2. Gender and Diversity

a) Women make up 46% of the US workforce
i) > 59% of American women work outside the home; 75% of these work full-time
(1) 38% of women work in management, professional, and related occupation
(2) 35% of women work in sales and offices
(3) 20% of women work in services
(4) The remainder work in production, transportation, natural resources, construction
and maintenance
ii) 4 million women are self-employed.
b) Women are underrepresented in managerial and executive positions
i) This phenomenon is known as the “glass ceiling”
ii) The “Glass ceiling” exists internationally
(1) The Civil Rights Act of 1991 prohibits organizations from discriminating against
women when awarding overseas assignments, except when the laws of a specific
country forbid women in managerial positions.
Marriott Embraces and Leverages Diversity
Marriott’s employees in the United States are 61% minority and 55% women, and speak more
than 50 languages. Many, if not most, of these workers are in entry level jobs, and face
childcare, language, and financial challenges. Marriott promotes generally from within and
realized that they needed to retain the best of their workers as well as work to reduce turnover.
They have done so through extensive training programs in English, in business skills such as
punctuality, and by revising their childcare programs. Marriott regularly appears on Fortune’s
100 Best Places to Work list.
1. Why should a company spend money training low level workers? Aren’t they just easily
replaceable?
2. What does the text mean when it states that some consider Marriott’s management to be too
paternalistic? Why is this type of management not regarded highly? Do you think Marriott is
acting to paternalistically?
3. What elements of the HR process can you see or infer in the text that contribute to Marriott’s
success
Check it out! http://www.blogs.marriott.com/ This is Bill Marriott’s Blog. B. Marriott is the

Chairman and CEO of Marriott International
13
http://www.marriott.com/corporateinfo/default.mi This is the company information website.
3. Sexual Harassment
a) Increasing attention has been paid to this issue in the last decade
b) There are two basic forms of sexual harassment
i) Quid pro quo: requests of suggestions that sexual relations are required in exchange
for continued employment or promotion
ii) Hostile environment: jokes, comments, unwanted touching, and pictures that
communicate unwanted sexual innuendo
c) Companies are increasingly offering sexual harassment training to their employees in an
attempt to educate them about the law and avoid harassment behavior and situations.
4. Laws and Regulations Affecting HRM
a) The HR department is the most involved of any organizational department with laws and
regulations covering employees.
b) Most laws and regulations are aimed at providing equal opportunity for new applicants as
well as current employees
i) See Exhibit 8.11 for a list of United States laws and regulations affecting employment
since the mid-19th century.
c) There are several issues that have arisen from or driven this regulation
i) Affirmative action programs
(1) These programs dictate hiring and firing criteria and are aimed at correcting past
inequities based on gender, race, and ethnicity, age, or religion.
ii) Bona Fide Occupational Qualifications
(1) Individuals may be denied employment based on what at first appear to be
discriminatory measures that actually are real, important, physical qualifications
needed to perform a given job.
ENHANCEMENT: BFOQs
BFOQ stands for Bona Fide Occupational Qualification.
A BFOQ can be a defense for an employer that has engaged in intentional discrimination. The
burden is on the employer to prove a BFOQ, and it is a difficult burden.
Title VII and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) prohibit discrimination
because of:
• Race
• Color
• Religion
• Sex
• National origin
• Age
14
The BFOQ defense is available only in cases of discrimination because of:
• Religion
• Sex
• National origin
• Age
As Title VII puts it: Discrimination is OK "in those certain instances where religion, sex, or
national origin is a bona fide occupational qualification reasonably necessary to the normal
operation of that particular business or enterprise."
No BFOQ for race or color discrimination.
Examples:
• State prison hires only men as guards in a jungle-atmosphere male-only prison.

• French restaurant hires only French chefs. (It won't work when hiring janitors because it's
not "reasonably necessary" to the authenticity of the restaurant.)
• Airline requires pilots to retire at the age of 60. (Won't work for flight engineers because
the government does not require it and the Airline could individually test the engineers to
see which ones would be a high risk.)
Source: http://www.lawmemo.com/101/2006/01/bfoq_19_1.html
5. Diversity and the Firm’s Performance

a) Results of 20 years of research are mixed. Some studies show a positive relationship
between the level of diversity within a firm and the firm’s performance; others found a
negative relationship
b) Diverse groups have both assets and liabilities
i) Assets include different perspectives, knowledge, experience, education, and values
that can contribute to innovation and creativity.
ii) Liabilities include the same list which can also act as sources of friction,
communication problems, mistrust, and lowered group cohesion
6. Leveraging the Diversity of Your Firm’s Workforce
a) Managers can do many things to improve the performance of a diverse workforce:
i) Use heterogeneous teams appropriately. Be aware that heterogeneous teams
outperform homogeneous teams in situations that are complex and multi-faceted
ii) Know Themselves: Managers need to be aware of their own attitudes, and perhaps
biases, towards diverse others
iii) Prepare themselves and others – provide diversity training
iv) Provide support – make sure minority employees have access to mentors and to
support systems so they do not feel isolated
v) Guide behavior: reinforce behaviors that lead to increased acceptance of minorities.
Discourage or punish behavior that does not facilitate acceptance and integration.
15
Marriott Embraces and Leverages Diversity
Marriott’s employees in the United States are 61% minority and 55% women, and speak more
than 50 languages. Many, if not most, of these workers are in entry level jobs, and face
childcare, language, and financial challenges. Marriott promotes generally from within and
realized that they needed to retain the best of their workers as well as work to reduce turnover.
They have done so through extensive training programs in English, in business skills such as
punctuality, and by revising their childcare programs. Marriott regularly appears on Fortune’s
100 Best Places to Work list.
1. Why should a company spend money training low level workers? Aren’t they just easily
replaceable?
2. What does the text mean when it states that some consider Marriott’s management to be too
paternalistic? Why is this type of management not regarded highly? Do you think Marriott is
acting to paternalistically?
3. What elements of the HR process can you see or infer in the text that contribute to Marriott’s
success
Check it out! http://www.blogs.marriott.com/ This is Bill Marriott’s Blog. B. Marriott is the

Chairman and CEO of Marriott International
http://www.marriott.com/corporateinfo/default.mi This is the company information website.
7. How Globalization is Affecting Diversity

a) As firms grow, they expand into more countries
i) This growth is facilitated by new telecommunication and transportation technology
ii) In the future most of the world’s workers will be in developing countries
b) There are many challenges facing HR managers as a result of this expansion
i) Is the same performance appraisal form applicable around the world?
ii) Can the reward system be standardized or must it be adapted to each country?
iii) How can the same level of training and opportunity be offered to individuals in all of
the varied countries in which a company does business?
iv) How do you select managers who will be posted abroad? How do you train them?
ENHANCEMENT: How globalization is affecting management

SHRM asked what kind of impact the top current globalization trends will have on organizations.
Top Globalization Trends
Major Minor No Impact

Strategic Operational
Impact Impact
16
Increased global competition for jobs, markets and 72% 22% 6%
talent
Growth of emerging markets such as India, China 63 24 13
and Brazil
Greater need for cross-cultural understanding/savvy 61 32 7
in business settings
Increased expansion of U.S. companies into the 59 34 7
global marketplace
Growing importance of managing talent globally 58 29 13
Increased global labor mobility 48 44 8
Increased multiculturalism within organizations 45 48 7
Increased use of virtual global teams 45 40 15
Growth of the world’s middle class consumers 43 49 8
Need for increased security abroad for expatriates 42 39 19
Stricter cross-border policies for global business 39 45 16
practices
Rapid turnover and skills shortages in key 31 47 22
offshoring destinations such as India and China
Increased economic, social, and political power of 30 59 11
women around the world
Public backlash against globalization and power of 24 52 24
multinational corporations
Increased corporate leadership role in dealing with 23 53 24
global problems such as poverty and disease
Decline in the number of foreign students who stay 13 57 30
and work in the United states
Source: SHRM Workplace Forecast (SHRM, 2011)
ENHANCEMENT: HRM Websites

The following websites contain a great deal of information.
http://www.paq.com/ Position Analysis This eDOT site allows researchers,
Questionnaire attorneys and expert witnesses to review
the input of field analysts. Data inputted
http://www.paq.com/in Information on PAQ from the PAQ questionnaires and other
dex.cfm?FuseAction= sevices available subject matter job analyses are
Main.AboutUs automatically entered into this database.
http://www.bls.gov/ US Bureau of Labor Information on:

Statistics Website • Inflation and consumer spending
• Wages, earnings, and benefits
• Productivity
• International information ( foreign
labor statistics, import/exports
17
price indices)
• Occupations: Includes the
OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK
HANDBOOK, wages by area and
occupation, STANDARD
OCCUPPATIONAL
CLASSIFICATION (SOC)
• Demographics: census data
• Employment and Unemployment
https://www.jobdescrip Job Descriptions. com Provides customizable job descriptions by
tion.com/JDCLanding. title and industry.
asp? Provides a free test drive, then is available
by subscription
http://online.onetcenter O*NET (the occupational “The Occupational Information Network

.org/ information network) (O*NET) is a database of occupational
requirements and worker attributes. It
describes occupations in terms of the
http://www.doleta.gov/ skills and knowledge required, how the
programs/onet/ work is performed, and typical work
(general info about and settings”
portal to O*NET
SVP = Specific Vocational Preparation
http://www.opm.gov/ US Office of Personnel Information on competencies

Mgmt
MANAGERIAL CHALLENGES FROM THE FRONT LINE: The rest of the story
Rather than simply firing the manager for not meeting the new performance goals, Beaussart met
with the employee and redefined his job. The employee was assigned to focus on managing the
company’s new offshoring and outsourcing activities. The new job focused on areas of the
manager’s strengths and interests and resulted in a win/win situation for Beaussart and the
manager.
Closing Case: Alliant Energy Puts Spark into Diversity
18
This case describes the efforts of Alliant, a power and natural gas company out of Wisconsin, to
increase diversity of its workforce and its suppliers, particularly minority and women owned
businesses. The case gives a close look at Alliant’s efforts to improve diversity awareness. This
case offers an opportunity to link back to concepts in Chapter 3 on culture and forward to
Chapter 11 on communication.
1. Why is Alliant so committed to diversity? How will this benefit the company?
More diversity in suppliers increases creativity and viewpoints. By seeking out diverse
local suppliers, Alliant is investing in its community (and acting socially responsible!)
In terms of employees, Alliant will benefit not only from the different ideas of their
diverse employees, the firm will also be able to attract and retain highly motivated and
satisfied employees.
2. Do you believe the company is forcing the issue of diversity? Is it necessary to make
diversity training mandatory for all employees? Explain your answer.
It appears that the diversity training was needed. It makes sense from even a strictly
communication standpoint. Reasons and expectations were missing or misunderstood.
The workers were not adequately aware of the need to change and therefore were not
changing. The diversity training gave them the explanation of why things were changing
and explained to them how they could succeed in the new environment, thus reducing
some of their resistance to change.
3. Independent surveys suggest that companies cannot easily quantify the effects of diversity.
How would you suggest that Alliant measure the costs and benefits of having a diverse
workforce?
a) Alliant could measure the number of complaints about discrimination or defamation

from workers. It could survey workers about diversity issues on an annual or semi-
annual (depending on cost) basis.
b) A company that ignores workforce diversity is missing an opportunity to leverage the

diverse knowledge and skill sets of its workers for increased company performance. It is
also setting itself up for lowered productivity due to increased conflict.
TEAM EXERCISE
Time Required: 10 minutes preparation; 5-10 minutes for the role play. 20 minutes for
group discussion
19
Props: None. Although if you have not assigned the case to be read prior to class,
you may want to bring several copies of it with you for those students who
have not brought their books.
Group Size: 4 group members are presenting this as a role play; 4-7 if using it as a
group case analysis.
Purpose: To explore the meaning of a “hostile work environment”
Notes: I think this exercise can be handled better as a group case discussion than
as an actual role play. There are no real roles set up here. The student
group s can meet and discuss the case. Then the entire class can discuss
the various groups’ answers.
A new female firehouse recruit has complained of the hostile environment in the firehouse. In
particular she complains of offensive jokes, offensive pictures on lockers, and “accidental”
interruptions of her shower. The other female on the squad who has been there for over a year
disagrees. The firehouse has been until recently a male environment with typical male humor,
conversation, and bonding.
1. What actions would you take?
Whether or not the rookie is overreacting, this is a serious allegation and more be treated
as such. This is not just a social or ethical issue; it is also a legal issue. You should
investigate the allegations thoroughly. Perhaps some issues can be resolved through
compromise (pictures in, instead of on, the lockers for example) It would be a good idea
to arrange for sexual harassment training for the whole squad.
2. Suppose, in talking individually with the guys in the squad, some say that they can see that a
couple of the younger, single guys might be a bit ‘macho’ in their conversations among
themselves. What would you do if these younger guys report that they feel the new female
recruit is simply eavesdropping on private conversations?
First remind them that this is now an open environment. If they need to have
conversations that should not be overheard by females, they need to have them in a female
free environment.
3. How would the fact that the new female recruit seems to be as physically strong and more
skilled then two of the younger ‘macho’ guys in the squad affect your actions? What would
you do differently if she were not a good performer?
Neither question should be an issue in how this situation is handled. One of the keys here
is equitable treatment. No matter who makes the complaint, it needs to be treated
seriously, following all proper procedures. (c.f..; Procedural Justice in Chapter 2.).
20
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as if its entire mass were concentrated at its centre. The cause of the
tides is the difference in the attraction of the sun and moon upon the
body of the earth as a rigid sphere, and upon the water of the
oceans, as a fluid envelope whose particles, while not free to escape
from the earth, are free to move, or slide, among one another in
obedience to varying forces. The difference of the force of attraction
arises from the difference of distance. Since the moon, because of
her relative nearness, is the chief agent in producing tides we shall,
at first, consider her tidal influence alone. The diameter of the earth
is, in round numbers, 8000 miles; therefore, its radius is 4000 miles.
From this it follows that the centre of the earth is 4000 miles farther
from the moon than that side of the earth which is toward her at any
time, and 4000 miles nearer than the side which is away from her.
Consequently, her attraction must be stronger upon the water of the
ocean lying just under her than upon the centre of the earth, and it
must also be stronger upon the centre of the earth than upon the
water of the ocean lying upon the side which is farthest from her. The
result of these differences in the force of the moon's attraction is that
the water directly under her tends away from the centre of the earth,
while, on the other hand, the earth, considered as a solid sphere,
tends away from the water on the side opposite to that where the
moon is, and these combined tendencies cause the water to rise,
with regard to its general level, in two protuberances, situated on
opposite sides of the earth. These we call tides.
Fig. 6. The Tidal Force of the Moon.
The solid earth is represented surrounded by a shell of water. The water on the
side toward the moon is more attracted than the centre of the earth, C; the water
on the opposite side is less attracted. The lines of force from the moon to the parts
of the water lying toward A and B are inclined to the direct line between the
centres of the earth and the moon, and the forces acting along these lines tend to
draw the water in the directions shown by the arrow points. These are resultants of
the horizontal and vertical components of the moon's attraction at the
corresponding points on the earth, and the force acting along them tends to
increase the weight of the water wherever the lines are inclined more toward the
centre of the earth than toward the moon. On the side opposite the moon the same
effects are produced in reverse, because on that side the general tendency is to
draw the earth away from the water. Consequently if the earth did not rotate, and if
it were surrounded with a complete shell of water, the latter would be drawn into an
ellipsoidal shape, with the highest points under and opposite to the moon, and the
lowest at the extremities of the diameter lying at right angles to the direction of
the moon.
Some persons, when this statement is made, inquire: “Why, then,

does not the moon take the water entirely away from the earth?” The
answer is, that the effect of the tidal force is simply to diminish very
slightly the weight of the water, or its tendency towards the earth's
centre, but not to destroy, or overmaster, the gravitational control of
the earth. The water retains nearly all its weight, for the tidal force of
the moon diminishes it less than one part in 8,000,000. Still, this
slight diminution is sufficient to cause the water to swell a little above
its general level, at the points where it feels the effect of the tidal
force. On the other hand, around that part of the earth which is
situated half-way between the two tides, or along a diameter at right
angles to the direction of the moon, the latter's attraction increases
the weight of the water, i. e., its tendency toward the earth's centre
(see Fig. 6). Perhaps this can better be understood, if we imagine
the earth to be entirely liquid. In that case the difference in the force
of the moon's attraction with difference of distance would be
manifested in varying degrees throughout the earth's whole frame,
and the result would be to draw the watery globe out into an
ellipsoidal figure, having its greatest diameter in the line of the
moon's attraction, and its smallest diameter at right angles to that
line. The proportions of the ellipsoid would be such that the forces
would be in equilibrium.
Owing to a variety of causes, such as the rotation of the earth on
its axis, which carries the water rapidly round with it; the inertia of the
water, preventing it from instantly responding to the tidal force; the
irregular shape of the oceans, interrupted on all sides by great areas
of land; their varying depth, producing differences of friction, and so
on, the tidal waves do not appear directly under, or directly opposite
to, the moon, and the calculation of the course and height of the
actual tides, at particular points on the earth, becomes one of the
most difficult problems in astronomical physics.
We now turn to consider the effects of the sun's tidal force in
connection with that of the moon. This introduces further
complications. The solar tides are only about two-fifths as high as
the lunar tides, but they suffice to produce notable effects when they
are either combined with, or act in opposition to, the others. They are
combined twice a month—once when the moon is between the earth
and the sun, at the time of new moon; and again when the moon is
in opposition to the sun, at the time of full moon. In these two
positions the attractions of the sun and the moon must, so to speak,
act together, with the result that the tides produced by them blend
into a single greater wave. This combination produces what are
called spring tides, the highest of the month. When, on the other
hand, the moon is in a position at right angles to the direction of the
sun, which happens at the lunar phases named first and last
quarters, the solar and the lunar tides have their crests 90° apart,
and, in a sense, act against one another, and then we have the neap
tides, which are the lowest of the month.
Without entering into a demonstration, it may here be stated as a
fact to be memorised, that the tidal force exerted by any celestial
body varies inversely as the cube of the distance. This is the reason
why the sun, although it exceeds the moon in mass more than
25,000,000 times, and is situated only about 400 times as far away
from the earth, exercises comparatively so slight a tidal force on the
water of the ocean. If the tidal force varied as the square of the
distance, like the ordinary effects of gravitation, the tides produced
by the sun would be more than 150 times as high as those produced
by the moon, and would sweep New York, London, and all the
seaports of the world to destruction. In that case it might be possible,
by delicate observations, to detect a tidal effect produced upon the
oceans of the earth by the planet Jupiter.
4. The Atmosphere. The solid globe of the earth is enveloped in a
mixture of gases, principally oxygen and nitrogen, which we call the
air, or the atmosphere, and upon whose presence our life and most
other forms of life depend. The atmosphere is retained by the
attraction of the earth, and it rotates together with the earth. If this
were not so—if the atmosphere stood fast while the earth continued
to spin within it—a terrific wind would constantly blow from the east,
having a velocity at the equator of more than a thousand miles an
hour.
Exactly how high the atmosphere extends we do not know—it may
not have any definite limits—but we do know that its density rapidly
diminishes with increase of height above the ground, so that above
an elevation of a few miles it becomes so rare that it would not
support human life. The phenomena of meteors, set afire by the
friction of their swift rush through the upper air, prove, however, that
there is a perceptible atmosphere at an elevation of more than a
hundred miles.
From an astronomical point of view, the most important effect of
the presence of the atmosphere is its power of refracting light. By
refraction is meant the property possessed by every transparent
medium of bending, under particular circumstances, the rays of light
which enter it out of their original course. The science of physics
teaches us that if a ray of light passes from any transparent medium
into another which is denser, and if the path of this ray is not
perpendicular to the surface of the second medium, it will be turned
from its original course in such a way as to make it more nearly
perpendicular. Thus, if a ray of light passes from air into water at a
certain slope to the surface, it will, upon entering the water, be so
changed in direction that the slope will become steeper. Only if it falls
perpendicularly upon the water will it continue on without change of
direction. Conversely a ray passing from a denser into a rarer
medium is bent away from a perpendicular to the surface of the first
medium, or its slope becomes less. This explains why, if we put a
coin in a bowl, with the eye in such a position that it cannot see the
coin over the edge, and then fill the bowl with water, the coin seems
to be lifted up into sight. Moreover, if any transparent medium
increases in density with depth, the amount of refraction will increase
as the ray goes deeper, and the direction of the ray will be changed
from a straight line into a curve, tending to become more and more
perpendicular.
Now all this applies to the atmosphere. If a star is seen in the
zenith, its light falls perpendicularly into the atmosphere and its
course is not deviated, or in other words there is no refraction. But if
the star is somewhere between the zenith and the horizon, its light
falls slopingly into the atmosphere, and is subject to refraction, the
amount of bending increasing with approach to the horizon.
Observation shows that the refraction of the atmosphere, which is
zero at the zenith, increases to about half a degree (and sometimes
much more, depending upon the state of the air), near the horizon. It
follows that a celestial object seen near the horizon will ordinarily
appear about half a degree above its true place. Since the apparent
diameters of the sun and the moon are about half a degree, when
they are rising or setting they can be seen on the horizon before they
have really risen above it, or after they have really sunk below it.
Tables of refraction at various altitudes have been prepared, and
they have to be consulted in all exact observations of the celestial
bodies.
Fig. 7. Refraction.
Suppose an observer situated at O on the earth. The sun, at S, has sunk below
the level of his horizon, O H, but since the sun sends out rays in all directions there
will be some, such as S A B, which will strike the atmosphere at A, and the
refraction, tending to make the ray more nearly perpendicular to the surface of the
atmosphere, will, instead of allowing it to go on straight over the observer's head to
B, bend it down along the dotted line A O, and the observer will see the sun as if it
lay in the direction of the dotted line O A S′, which places the sun apparently above
the horizon.
5. Dip of the Horizon. Another correction which has to be applied

in many observations depends upon the sphericity of the earth. We
have described the rational horizon, and pointed out how it differs
from the sensible horizon. We have also said that at sea the sensible
horizon nearly accords with the rational horizon (see Part I, Sect. 3).
But the accord is not complete, owing to what is called the dip of the
horizon. In fact, the sea horizon lies below the rational horizon by an
amount varying with the elevation of the eye above the surface.
Geometry enables us to determine just what the dip of the horizon
must be for any given elevation of the eye. A rough and ready rule,
which may serve for many purposes, is that the square root of the
elevation of the eye in feet equals the dip of the horizon in minutes of
arc, or of angular measure. The reader will readily see that the dip of
the horizon is a necessary consequence of the rotundity of the earth.
It is because of this that, as a ship recedes at sea her hull first
disappears below the horizon, and then her lower sails, and finally
her top-sails. The use of a telescope does not help the matter,
because a telescope only sees straight, and cannot bend the line of
sight over the rim of the horizon. Atmospheric refraction, however,
enables us to see an object which would be hidden by the horizon if
there were no air. In navigation, which, as a science, is an outgrowth
of astronomy, these things have to be carefully taken into account.
Fig. 8. Dip of the Horizon.
It is to be remembered that it is the sensible horizon which dips, and not the
rational horizon. The sensible horizon of the observer at the elevation A dips below
the horizontal plane and he sees round the curved surface as far as a; in other
words his skyline is at a. The observer at the elevation B has a sensible horizon
still more inclined and he sees as far as b. If the observation were made from an
immense height the observer would see practically half round the earth
just as we see half round the globe of the moon.
Polar Streamers of the Sun, Eclipse of 1889

The Solar Corona at the Eclipse of 1871 From drawings.
6. Aberration. A few words must be said about the phenomenon

known as aberration of light. This is an apparent displacement of a
celestial object due to the motion of the earth in its orbit. It is
customary to illustrate it by imagining oneself to be in a shower of
rain, whose drops are falling vertically. In such a case, if a person
stands fast the rain will descend perpendicularly upon his head, but if
he advances rapidly in any direction he will feel the drops striking
him in the face, because his own forward motion is compounded with
the downward motion of the rain so that the latter seems to be
descending slantingly toward him. The same thing happens with the
light falling from the stars. As the earth advances in its orbit it seems
to meet the light rays, and they appear to come from a direction
ahead of the flying earth. The result is that, since we see a star in the
direction from which its light seems to come, the star appears in
advance of its real position, or of the position in which we would see
it if the earth stood fast. The amount by which the position of a star is
shifted by aberration depends upon the ratio of the earth's velocity to
the velocity of light. In round numbers this ratio is as 1 to 10,000.
The motion of the earth being in a slightly eccentric ellipse, the stars
describe corresponding, but very tiny, ellipses once every year upon
the background of the sky. But the precise shape of the ellipse
depends upon the position of the star on the celestial sphere. If it is
near one of the poles of the ecliptic, it will describe an annual ellipse
which will be almost a circle, its greater diameter being 41″ of arc. If
it is near the plane of the ecliptic, it will describe a very eccentric
ellipse, but the greater diameter will always be 41″, although the
shorter diameter may be immeasurably small. The effects of
aberration have to be allowed for in all careful astronomical
observation either of the sun or the stars. This is done by reducing
the apparent place of the object to the place it would have if it were
seen at the centre of its annual ellipse.
7. Time. Without astronomical observations we could have no
accurate knowledge of time. The basis of the measurement of time is
furnished by the rotation of the earth on its axis. We divide the period
which the earth occupies in making one complete turn into twenty-
four equal parts, or hours. The ascertainment of this period, called a
day, depends upon observations of the stars. Suppose we see a
certain star exactly on the meridian at some moment; just twenty-
four hours later that star will have gone entirely round the sky, and
will again appear on the meridian. The revolving heavens constitute
the great clock of clocks, by whose movements all other clocks are
regulated. We know that it is not the heavens which revolve, but the
earth which rotates, but for convenience we accept the appearance
as a substitute for the fact. The rotation of the earth is so regular that
no measurable variation has been found in two thousand years. We
have reasons for thinking that there must be a very slow and gradual
retardation, owing principally to the braking action of the tides, but it
is so slight that we cannot detect it with any means at present within
our command.
In Part I it was shown how the passage across the meridian of the
point in the sky called the vernal equinox serves to indicate the
beginning of the astronomical “day,” but the position of the vernal
equinox itself has to be determined by observations on the stars. By
means of a telescope, so mounted that it can only move up or down,
round a horizontal axis, and with the axis pointing exactly east and
west so that the up and down movements of the telescope tube
follow the line of the meridian, the moment of passage across the
meridian of a star at any altitude can be observed. Observations of
this nature are continually made at all great government
observatories, such as the observatory at Washington or that at
Greenwich, and at many others, and by their means clocks and
chronometers are corrected, and a standard of time is furnished to
the whole world.
There are, however, three different ways of reckoning time, or, as
it is usually said, three kinds of time. One is sidereal time, which is
indicated by the passage of stars across the meridian, and which
measures the true period of the earth's rotation; another is apparent
solar time, which is indicated by the passage of the sun across the
meridian; and a third is mean solar time, which is indicated by a
carefully regulated clock, whose errors are corrected by star
observations. This last kind of time is that which is universally used
in ordinary life (the use of sidereal time being confined to
astronomy), so it is necessary to explain what it is and how it differs
from apparent solar time.
Fig. 9. Sidereal and Solar Time.
C is the centre of the earth, and O the place of an observer on the earth's surface.
Suppose the sun at A to be in conjunction with the star S. Then, at the end of
twenty-four sidereal hours, when the earth has made one turn on its axis and the
place O has again come into conjunction with the star, the sun, in consequence of
its yearly motion in the ecliptic, will have advanced to B, and the earth will have to
turn through the angle A C B before O will overtake the sun and complete a solar
day; wherefore the solar day is longer than the sidereal.
In the first place, the reason why sidereal time is not universally
and exclusively used is because, although it measures the true
period of the earth's rotation by the apparent motion of the stars, it
does not exactly accord with the apparent motion of the sun; and,
naturally, the sun, since it is the source of light for the earth, and the
cause of the difference between day and night, is taken for all
ordinary purposes, as the standard indicator of the progress of the
hours. The fact that it is mid-day, or noon, at any place when the sun
crosses the meridian of that place, is a fact of common knowledge,
which cannot be ignored. On the other hand, the vernal equinox,
which is the “noon mark” for sidereal time, is independent of the
alternation of day and night, and may be on the meridian as well at
midnight as at mid-day. Before clocks and watches were perfected,
the moment of the sun's passage over the meridian was determined
by means of a gnomon, which shows the instant of noon by the
length of a shadow cast by an upright rod. Since the apparent course
of the sun through the sky is a curve, rising from the eastern horizon,
attaining its greatest elevation where it meets the meridian, and
thence declining to the western horizon, it is evident that the length
of the shadow must be least when the sun is on the meridian, or at
its maximum altitude. The gnomon, or the sun-dial, gives us
apparent solar time. But this differs from sidereal time because, as
we saw in Part I, the sun, in consequence of the earth's motion
round it, moves about one degree eastward every twenty-four hours,
and, since one degree is equal to four minutes of time, the sun rises
about four minutes later, with reference to the stars, every morning.
Consequently it comes four minutes later to the meridian day after
day. Or, to put it in another way, suppose that the sun and a certain
star are upon the meridian at the same instant. The star is fixed in its
place in the sky, but the sun is not fixed; on the contrary it moves
about one degree eastward (the same direction as that of the earth's
rotation) in twenty-four hours. Then, when the rotation of the earth
has brought the star back to the meridian at the end of twenty-four
sidereal hours, the sun, in consequence of its motion, will still be one
degree east of the meridian, and the earth must turn through the
space of another degree, which will take four minutes, before it can
have the sun again upon the meridian. The true distance moved by
the sun in twenty-four hours is a little less than one degree, and the
exact time required for the meridian to overtake it is 3 min. 56.555
sec. Thus, the sidereal day (period of 24 hours) is nearly four
minutes shorter than the solar day.
It would seem, then, that by taking the sun for a guide, and
dividing the period between two of its successive passages over the
meridian into twenty-four hours, we should have a perfect measure
of time, without regard to the stars; in other words, that apparent
solar time would be entirely satisfactory for ordinary use. But,
unfortunately, the apparent eastward motion of the sun is not regular.
It is sometimes greater than the average and sometimes less. This
variation is due almost entirely: first, to the fact that its orbit not being
a perfect circle the earth moves faster when it is near perihelion, and
slower when it is near aphelion; and, second, to the effects of the
inclination of the ecliptic to the equator. In consequence, another
measure of solar time is used, called mean solar time, in which, by
imagining a fictitious sun, moving with perfect regularity through the
ecliptic, the discrepancies are avoided. All ordinary clocks are set to
follow this fictitious, or mean, sun. The result is that clock time does
not agree exactly with sun-dial time, or, what is the same thing,
apparent solar time. The clock is ahead of the real sun at some
times of the year, and behind it at other times. This difference is
called the equation of time. Four times in the year the equation is
zero, i.e., there is no difference between the clock and the sun.
These times are April 15, June 14, Sept. 1, and Dec. 24. At four
other times of the year the difference is at a maximum, viz. Feb. 11,
sun 14 min. 27 sec. behind clock; May 14, sun 3 min. 49 sec. ahead
of clock; July 26, sun 6 min. 16 sec. behind clock; Nov. 2, sun 16
min. 18 sec. ahead of clock. These dates and differences vary very
slightly from year to year.
But, whatever measures of time we may use, it is observation of
the stars that furnishes the means of correcting them.
Morehouse's Comet, October 15, 1908
Photographed at the Yerkes Observatory by E. E. Barnard with the ten-inch Bruce
telescope. Exposure one hour and a half.
Note the detached portions which appeared to separate from the head and retreat
up the line of the tail at enormous velocity.
Morehouse's Comet, November 15, 1908

Photographed at the Yerkes Observatory by E. E. Barnard, with the ten-inch Bruce
telescope. Exposure forty minutes.
8. Day and Night. The period of twenty-four hours required for
one turn of the earth on its axis is called a day, and in astronomical
reckoning it is treated as an undivided whole, the hours being
counted uninterruptedly from 0 to 24; but nature has divided the
period into two very distinct portions, one characterised by the
presence and the other by the absence of the sun. Popularly we
speak of the sunlighted portion as day and of the other as night, and
there are no two associated phenomena in nature more completely
in contrast one to the other. The cause of the contrast between day
and night must have been evident to the earliest human beings who
were capable of any thought at all. They saw that day inevitably
began whenever the sun rose above the horizon, and as inevitably
ceased whenever it sank beneath it. In all literatures, imaginative
writers have pictured the despair of primeval man when he first saw
the sun disappear and night come on, and his joy when he first
beheld the sun rise, bringing day back with it. Even his uninstructed
mind could not have been in doubt about the causal connection of
the sun with daylight.
We now know that the cause of the alternate rising and setting of
the sun, and of its apparent motion through the sky, is the rotation of
the earth. Making in our minds a picture of the earth as a turning
globe exposed to the sunbeams, we are able to see that one half of
it must necessarily be illuminated, while the other half is in darkness.
We also see that its rotation causes these two halves gradually to
interchange places so that daylight progresses completely round the
earth once in the course of twenty-four hours. If the earth were not
surrounded by an atmosphere, exactly one half of it would lie in the
sunlight and exactly one half in darkness, but the atmosphere
causes the illuminated part slightly to exceed the unilluminated part.
The reason for this is twofold: first, because the atmosphere, being
transparent and extending to a considerable height above the solid
globe, receives rays from the sun after the latter has sunk below the
horizon, and these rays cause a faint illumination in the sky after the
sun as viewed from the surface of the ground has disappeared; and,
second, because the air has the property of refracting the rays of
light, in consequence of which the sun appears above the horizon
both a little time before it has actually risen and a little time after it
has actually set. The faint illumination at the beginning and the end
of the day is called twilight. Its cause is the reflection of light from the
air at a considerable elevation above the ground. Observation shows
that evening twilight lasts until the sun has sunk about 18° below the
western horizon, while morning twilight begins when the sun is still
18° below the nearest horizon. The length of time occupied by
twilight, or its duration, depends upon the observer's place on the
earth and increases with distance from the equator. The length of
twilight at any particular place also varies with the seasons.
It will probably have occurred to the reader that, since day and
night are ceaselessly chasing each other round the globe, it must be
necessary to choose some point of beginning, in order to keep the
regular succession of the days of the week. The necessity for this is
evident as soon as we reflect that what is sunrise at one place on the
earth, is sunset for a place situated half-way round, on the other
side. To understand this it will be better, perhaps, to consider the
phenomena of noon at various places. It is noon at any place when
the sun is on the meridian of that place. But we have seen that every
place has its own meridian; consequently, since the sun cannot be
on the meridian of more than one place at a time, each different
place (reckoning east and west, for, of course, all places lying
exactly north or south of one another have the same meridian), must
have its own local noontime. Since the sun appears to move round
the earth from east to west, it will arrive at the meridian of a place
lying east of us sooner than at our meridian, and it will arrive at our
meridian sooner than at that of a place lying west of us. Thus, when
it is noon at Greenwich, it is about 7 o'clock A.M., or five hours before
noon, at New York, because the angular distance westward round
the earth's surface from Greenwich to New York is, in round
numbers, 75°, which corresponds with five hours of time, there being
150 to every hour. At the same moment it will be 5 o'clock P.M., or five
hours after noon, at Cashmere, because Cashmere lies 75° east of
Greenwich. That is to say, the sun crosses the meridian of
Cashmere five hours before it reaches the meridian of Greenwich,
and it crosses the meridian of Greenwich five hours before it reaches
that of New York. At a place half-way round the circumference of the
globe, i.e. 180° either east or west of Greenwich, it will be midnight
at the same instant when it will be mid-day, or noon, at Greenwich.
Now let us consider this for a moment.
The arrows show the direction in which the earth turns (from west to east). It is
always noon at the place which is directly under the sun. Call it Sunday noon at
Greenwich, at the top of the circle; then it is 10 A.M. Sunday at a point 30° west and
2 P.M. Sunday at a point 30° east, and so on. Exactly opposite to the noon point it is
midnight. By common consent we change the name of the day, and the date, at
midnight; consequently it is Sunday midnight just east of the vertical line at the
bottom of the circle and Monday morning just west of it. If we cross that line going
westward we shall pass directly from Sunday to Monday, and if we cross it going
eastward we shall pass directly from Monday to Sunday. Since, by convention, this
is a fixed line on the earth's surface, the same change will take place no matter
what the hour of the day may be.
It is customary to change the name of the day at midnight. Thus at

the stroke of midnight, anywhere, Sunday gives place to Monday.
Suppose, then, that the day when we see the sun on the meridian at
Greenwich happens to be Sunday. Sunday will then be, so to speak,
twelve hours old at Greenwich, because it began there at the
preceding midnight. Sunday will be only seven hours old at New
York, where it also began at the preceding midnight. In California,
45°, or three hours, still farther west than New York, Sunday will be
only four hours old, since the local time there is only four hours after
midnight. Go on over the Pacific Ocean, until we arrive at a point
180°, or twelve hours, west of Greenwich. There, evidently, Sunday
will just have been born, the preceding day, Saturday, having expired
at the stroke of midnight. Now if we just step over that line of 180° in
what day shall we be? It cannot be Sunday, because Sunday has
just begun on the line itself. It cannot be Saturday, because that
would be counting backward. Evidently it can be no other than
Monday. Let us examine this a little more closely. It is Sunday noon
at Greenwich. We now go round the earth eastward instead of
westward. At 90°, or six hours, east of Greenwich, we find that it is 6
P.M. Sunday and at 180°, or twelve hours, east of Greenwich we find
that it is Sunday midnight, or in other words Monday morning. But
the line of 180° east of Greenwich coincides with the line of 180°
west of Greenwich, which we formerly approached from the opposite
direction. So we see that we were right in concluding that in stepping
over that line from the east to the west side, we were passing from
Sunday into Monday. It is on that line that each day vanishes and its
successor takes its place. It is the “date-line” for the whole earth,
chosen by the common consent of every civilised nation, just as we
have seen that the meridian of Greenwich is the common reference
line for reckoning longitude. It lies entirely in the Pacific Ocean,
hardly touching any island, and it was chosen for this very reason,
because if it ran over inhabited lands, like Europe or America, it
would cause endless confusion. Situated as it is, it causes no trouble
except to sea captains, and very little to them. If a ship crosses the
line going westward the captain jumps his log-book one day forward.
If it is, for instance, Wednesday noon, east of the line he calls it
Thursday noon, as soon as he has passed over. If he is going
eastward he drops back a day on crossing the line, as from
Thursday noon to Wednesday noon. The date-line theoretically
follows the 180th meridian, but, in fact, in order to avoid certain
groups of islands, it bends about a little, while keeping its general
direction from north to south.
9. The Seasons. We now recall again what was said in Part I,
about the inclination of the ecliptic, or the apparent path of the sun in
the heavens, to the equator. Because of this inclination, the sun
appears half the year above the equator and the other half below it.
When it is above the equator for people living in the northern
hemisphere, it is below the equator for those living in the southern
hemisphere, and vice versa. This is because observers on opposite
sides of the plane of the equator look at it from opposite points of
view. For the northern observer the celestial equator appears south
of the zenith; for the southern observer it appears north of the zenith,
its distance from the zenith, in both cases, increasing with the
observer's distance from the equator of the earth. If he is on the
earth's equator, the celestial equator passes directly through the
zenith. For convenience we shall suppose the observer to be
somewhere in the northern hemisphere.

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Morehouse's Comet, November 15, 1908

It is customary to change the name of the day at midnight. Thus at

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