sensors
Article
Comprehensive Simulation Framework for Space–Air–Ground
Integrated Network Propagation Channel Research
Zekai Zhang 1 , Shaoyang Song 2,3 , Jingzehua Xu 1 , Ziyuan Wang 4 , Xiangwang Hou 4 , Ming Zeng 3 , Wei Men 4, *
and Yong Ren 4
Citation: Zhang, Z.; Song, S.; Xu, J.;
Wang, Z.; Hou, X.; Zeng, M.; Men, W.;
Ren, Y. Comprehensive Simulation
Framework for Space–Air–Ground
Integrated Network Propagation
Channel Research. Sensors 2023, 23,
9207. https://doi.org/10.3390/
s23229207
Academic Editor: Patrick Seeling
Received: 4 August 2023
Revised: 13 September 2023
Accepted: 21 September 2023
Published: 16 November 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23229207
1 Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China;
zhangzej21@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn (Z.Z.); xjzh23@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn (J.X.)
2 Yangtze Delta Region Academy of Beijing Institute of Technology, Jiaxing 314000, China;
1120191930@bit.edu.cn
3 School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China;
mzengzm@163.com
4 Department of Electronic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China;
wangziyu21@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn (Z.W.); hxw21@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn (X.H.); reny@tsinghua.edu.cn (Y.R.)
* Correspondence: menwei@tsinghua.edu.cn
Abstract: The space–air–ground integrated network (SAGIN) represents a pivotal component within
the realm of next-generation mobile communication technologies, owing to its established reliability
and adaptable coverage capabilities. Central to the advancement of SAGIN is propagation channel
research due to its critical role in aiding network system design and resource deployment. Neverthe-
less, real-world propagation channel research faces challenges in data collection, deployment, and
testing. Consequently, this paper designs a comprehensive simulation framework tailored to facilitate
SAGIN propagation channel research. The framework integrates the open source QuaDRiGa platform
and the self-developed satellite channel simulation platform to simulate communication channels
across diverse scenarios, and also integrates data processing, intelligent identification, algorithm
optimization modules in a modular way to process the simulated data. We also provide a case study
of scenario identification, in which typical channel features are extracted based on channel impulse
response (CIR) data, and recognition models based on different artificial intelligence algorithms are
constructed and compared.
Keywords: space–air–ground integrated network; propagation channel research; scenario
identification; QuaDRiGa; satellite channel simulation platform
1. Introduction
The 6G networks are envisioned to be highly reliable, with wide coverage and low
latency, enabling a wide range of promising services and applications [1–3]. As 6G envisions
an amalgamation of communication, computation, and sensing, it calls for a communication
infrastructure that surpasses existing boundaries. SAGIN, by seamlessly integrating space,
air, and ground communication domains, offers a fertile ground for the manifestation of
6G’s transformative attributes [4,5]. The network’s capacity for high data rates, ultra-low
latency, massive connectivity, and reliable communication aligns harmoniously with 6G’s
overarching objectives [1]. Unfortunately, due to constraints such as limited resources and
complex structure, it is difficult for SAGIN to achieve optimal performance. Therefore, it is
necessary to carry out research on SAGIN network design, optimization, and control, and
the study on propagation channels is the basis of these topics [6].
The heterogeneous nature of SAGIN necessitates a nuanced comprehension of com-
munication propagation channels that spans diverse domains. In space, air, and ground,
scenarios encompassing line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) propagation,
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 2 of 15

multipath effects, and atmospheric conditions influence communication efficacy and relia-
bility [7]. Profound insights into these communication propagation channels are pivotal to
developing communication strategies for SAGIN that optimize performance and reliability.
The research of communication propagation channels can be roughly divided into channel
modeling and scenario identification. For channel modeling, it aims to reveal the relation-
ship between physical environment and channel attributes, that is, to characterize wireless
channels through key channel parameters, and to find the correlation between different
parameters and environments for modeling. Then, the established channel model can be
used to predict other time-domain, frequency-domain, and spatial channel characteristics
that have not yet been measured. Environmental changes will affect the design of channel
model, physical layer, and network layer, especially for intelligent transportation systems
such as vehicle networks [8–10]. Real-time scenario identification is conducive to the
adaptive adjustment of complex network architectures such as SAGIN, that is, appropriate
channel model and transmission mode can be selected for specific environments to improve
communication quality.
The above analysis shows the significance of studying SAGIN communication propa-
gation channels, which can feed back to the upper layer design and adaptive adjustment of
SAGIN, and further promote the development of 6G mobile network. However, commu-
nication propagation channel research is faced with many challenges, one of which is the
lack of intelligent and efficient analysis methods [6]. Traditional research methods based
on statistics are easily restricted by experimental conditions, and it is difficult to obtain
sufficient measurement data, and the process is time-consuming and laborious [11]. In
response to this challenge, more and more researchers have begun to learn from machine
learning (ML)- and artificial intelligence (AI)-related technologies to study channel feature
extraction, channel estimation, and wireless communication scenario recognition [12–14].
In addition, it is often necessary to collect a large amount of data to support propagation
channel research. However, the data collected in the actual environment is incomplete and
noisy, and the measurement process is time-consuming and labor-intensive. Therefore,
adopting simulation platform to simulate channel data has become a new way [15]. At
present, the relatively mature wireless channel simulation platform is QuaDRiGa [16], but
it is not suitable for space domain simulation, so it is difficult to use it in the research of
communication propagation channels of heterogeneous networks such as SAGIN.
Enlightened by the previous analysis, to further understand the SAGIN propagation
channel, this paper designs a comprehensive simulation framework, which can simulate the
communication channel data across different scenarios and support users to process and
analyze the obtained channel data. The primary contributions of this article are summarized
as follows:
• We design a comprehensive simulation framework for data simulation, processing, and
analysis of SAGIN communication propagation channels, which provides a paradigm
for researchers.
• To make up for the shortcomings of existing channel simulation platforms in space
domain simulation, the framework integrates a self-developed modular low-orbit
satellite communication channel simulation platform.
• Based on integrated simulation platforms, we first simulate different communication
scenarios, and then construct scenario recognition cases, in which the importance of
different channel characteristics for different link types is analyzed, and the recognition
effects of different artificial intelligence algorithms are analyzed.
The rest of this article is organized as follows. Related work is stated in Section 2.
In Section 3, we introduce the proposed simulation framework and self-developed low-
orbit satellite channel simulation platform. In Section 4, the channel characteristics and
algorithms used in this paper are introduced. In Section 5, we show the generation of
simulation data, extract channel features based on the simulation data, and evaluate the
importance of different features to different scenario classifications, and finally study the
scenario recognition cases. Finally, the conclusions and future work are given in Section 6.
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 3 of 15

2. Related Work
This section introduces the state-of-the-art research in the field of SAGIN propagation
channels and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of different solutions.
The traditional statistical analysis method needs a lot of expert annotation work
and cannot meet the demand of time-varying transmission channel research. Inspired
by the power of machine learning and artificial intelligence, researchers have begun to
use them to carry out comprehensive research on channel characterization/modeling and
prediction [11]. Yang et al. [17] used K-means to carry out scenario recognition based
on multi-dimensional channel features. Based on real-time measurement data, AlHajri
et al. [18] used weighted KNN to realize classification and recognition of different indoor en-
vironments. Oroza et al. analyzed the performance of random forest, AdaBoost, and KNN
in estimating the received signal intensity [19]. Based on initial parameters such as propa-
gation distance, link elevation angle, and visibility conditions, Zhang et al. [20] established
a prediction model of UAV channels by using random forest and KNN method. In addition,
artificial neural networks have shown great potential in the research of communication
transmission channels. In [21,22], backpropagation (BP) artificial neural networks and
convolutional neural networks (CNNs) were adopted and trained with channel statistics to
recognize LoS/NLoS scenarios, respectively. In order to avoid the gradient disappearance
problem, a single-layer MLP network was proposed to obtain the path loss of a specific
band ultra-wideband (UWB) channel [23]. The communication scenarios studied in the
above literatures are all ground or low-altitude networks, while the studies [24,25], respec-
tively, used generalized artificial neural networks and long short-term memory networks
in the prediction of satellite communication channels, and predicted the received power
through weather information such as temperature and humidity and relative speed.
The development of simulation platform plays an important role in evaluating the
communication performance of SAGIN [15]. On the one hand, the design of the training
database is the key to any ML- or AI-based schemes, and it is time-consuming and difficult
to expect to obtain a large amount of data through actual measurements. In this case, using
the simulation platform to synthesize data to build the training database is an effective
method. On the other hand, any algorithms used for SAGIN evaluation need to be con-
tinuously optimized to improve performance, and it is also very challenging to deploy
these algorithms for experiments in practice, in which case, simulators can be used instead
of unnecessary practical experiments for pre-training. At present, a lot of work has been
performed to evaluate the performance of ground networks using network simulation
platforms such as OPNET [26], Network Simulator NS.3 [27], and MATLAB/Simulink [28].
Researchers combined VISSIM, NS-2, etc., to evaluate the communication coverage capa-
bility of the air networks; the transmission delay and data offloading problems of satellite
networks were studied based on these simulation tools [29,30]. However, most of these
works focus on a single network segment of ground, air, and space, and there are no
effective suggestions for a unified simulation of SAG environments.
The key motivation of this paper is to develop a framework for SAGIN propagation
channel research to provide an example for researchers to guide how to simulate channel
data in SAG environment by integrating different simulation tools, how to extract features
from the obtained data to make training sets, and how to use intelligent algorithms to build
models to carry out scenario recognition and other related research.

3. Framework Design and Platform Implementation

In this section, the comprehensive simulation framework for SAGIN propagation
channel research is designed first, and then the modular low-orbit satellite communication
channel simulation platform is introduced to simulate space domain. Finally, the definitions
of commonly used channel features are given for subsequent data processing.
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 4 of 15

3.1. Overall Introduction

The left half of Figure 1 shows the SAGIN channel propagation scenario considered in
this paper. This propagation scenario mainly consists of a space network including low-
earth orbit satellites, aerial network including aerial base stations represented by UAVs, and
ground network including IoT devices, mobile users, vehicle users, and ground stations
that communicate with satellites [31]. This propagation scenario includes a variety of link
types such as space-to-space, space-to-air, space-to-ground, air-to-air, air-to-ground, and
ground-to-ground, and these channels can be divided into LoS and NloS types. At the
same time, these channels are also subject to the interference from complex environments
such as rainfall and noise. To study the complex propagation environments, the SAGIN
propagation channel comprehensive simulation framework, shown in the right half of
Figure 1, is intended to provide a standard example for researchers. It can simulate
channels in different communication scenarios of SAGIN and generate simulation data
for subsequent model training and testing. The framework consists of three layers of
simulation layer, data processing layer, analysis and solution layer; each layer has specified
functions and supports the previous layer. In addition, due to the reserved programming
interface, the framework supports secondary development. The main components of the
framework are described in detail as follows:
• Simulation layer: Existing channel simulation platforms and self-developed platforms
are integrated in this layer to simulate channels and generate channel data of differ-
ent link types. In addition to link types, environmental variables such as weather
conditions and noise can also be considered. In this paper, the QuaDRiGa channel
simulation platform was used to generate channel data for wireless communication
scenarios with link types including ground-to-ground, air-to-ground, and air-to-air.
Due to the relatively high speed of low-orbit satellites, the QuaDRiGa platform is not
suitable for simulation. Therefore, we develop a low-orbit satellite communication
channel simulation platform to generate channel data for wireless communication
scenarios with link types of space-to-air, space-to-ground, and space-to-space.
• Data processing layer: This layer is responsible for processing the data generated by
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15
the simulation layer, including de-noising, feature extraction, and partitioning the
data set for the subsequent training and testing of the model.
• Analysis and solution layer: Machine learning and artificial intelligence technologies
link type;
havesetting rainfall
achieved rate performance
excellent to adjust the weather conditions;
in the field of channelsetting the such
research, signal-to-noise
as channel
ratio prediction
to adjust the
andnoise situation,
scenario etc. The
recognition, butmodular low-orbit
the selection satellite
of methods andcommunication
parameters will
affect
channel the accuracy
model is mainlyof composed
the model. of
Therefore,
a settingthis layer integrates
module, some commonly
communication used
environment
solving
modeling models
module, and is parameter
channel equipped with optimization
generation module,algorithms.
and dynamicUsers can also
update verify
module.
their algorithm
The channel modeling models
processthrough programming
is shown in Figure 2. interfaces such as Matlab and Python.

Illustrationofofsimulation
Figure1.1.Illustration
Figure simulationframework
frameworkfor
forSAGIN
SAGINpropagation
propagationchannel
channelresearch.
research.
 link type; setting rainfall rate to adjust the weather conditions; setting the signal-to-noise
ratio to adjust the noise situation, etc. The modular low-orbit satellite communication
channel model is mainly composed of a setting module, communication environment
modeling module, channel parameter generation module, and dynamic update module.
The channel modeling process is shown in Figure 2.
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 5 of 15

3.2. Modular Low Orbit Satellite Communication Channel Simulation Platform

To make up for the shortcomings of the QuaDRiGa platform in space domain sim-
ulation, we developed a modular low-orbit satellite communication channel simulation
platform which can realize channel modeling and simulation; it can generate large- or
small-scale parameters and channel impulse responses corresponding to satellite communi-
cation channels according to set parameters, which has certain applicability to different
scenarios. The platform can change the communication scenario by setting relevant param-
eters, such as changing the distance between the satellite and the ground to adjust the link
type; setting rainfall rate to adjust the weather conditions; setting the signal-to-noise ratio
to adjust the noise situation, etc. The modular low-orbit satellite communication channel
model is mainly composed of a setting module, communication environment modeling
module, channel parameter generation module, and dynamic update module. The channel
modeling process isofshown
Figure 1. Illustration in Figure
simulation 2.
framework for SAGIN propagation channel research.

Figure 2. Communication
Figure 2. Communication channel modeling flow chart of
of modular
modular low-orbit
low-orbit satellite
satellite simulation
simulation
platform [32].
platform [32].

As
As shown
shown in inFigure
Figure2,2,before
beforegenerating
generatingchannel
channeldata, the
data, communication
the communication scenario
scenariois
first set,set,
is first including
includingenvironment
environment parameter settings
parameter andand
settings communication
communication parameter settings.
parameter set-
According to the set
tings. According parameters,
to the the communication
set parameters, scenarioscenario
the communication of the satellite is modeled,
of the satellite and
is mod-
ephemeris data, position data, and motion data are obtained immediately
eled, and ephemeris data, position data, and motion data are obtained immediately so as so as to conduct
real-time
to conduct dynamic simulation,
real-time dynamicand analyze the
simulation, andvisibility,
analyzerelative speed, and
the visibility, relative
relative motion
speed, and
of the receiver and the sender. If the channel between the receiving and
relative motion of the receiver and the sender. If the channel between the receiving and sending terminals
of satellite
sending communication
terminals is the
of satellite LoS channel, the
communication program
is the automatically
LoS channel, generates
the program large-
automati-
scale and small-scale
cally generates parameters,
large-scale including
and small-scale free spaceincluding
parameters, path loss, molecular
free space path absorption
loss, mo-
loss,
lecular absorption loss, rainfall fading loss, multipath effect, Doppler effect, and
rainfall fading loss, multipath effect, Doppler effect, random phase, etc., randomthe
channel impulse response is obtained by the superposition of Gaussian
phase, etc., and the channel impulse response is obtained by the superposition of Gaussian white noise, pulse
noise, and phase
white noise, pulsenoise.
noise, If
andthephase
channel between
noise. the receiving
If the channel between andthesending
receivingterminals
and send- of
satellite communication is the NLoS channel, the channel impulse response is generated
ing terminals of satellite communication is the NLoS channel, the channel impulse re-
and represented by the corresponding needle diagram. Finally, the time state is updated
sponse is generated and represented by the corresponding needle diagram. Finally, the
to realize real-time dynamic simulation. In order to extract the channel characteristics of
the channel data, all the data in this paper are intercepted from the real-time dynamic
simulation data at a certain time to approximate the collection of static channel data.

3.3. Channel Feature Selection

The channel data obtained from the simulation layer need to be pre-processed, such
as invalid multipath culling and LoS/NloS calibration, and then stored in the database.
Before using these original multipath channel data to identify the scenarios, it is necessary
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 6 of 15

to obtain key channel characteristics such as path loss, shadow fading, Rice K factor, and
Doppler shift by mathematical statistics. Then, the most relevant features are selected for
model training through importance analysis. The important notations are listed in Table 1,
and the definitions of common channel characteristics are given below [33].

Table 1. List of important notations for channel characteristics.

Notations Definitions
PL Path loss
α Path loss factor
P(ψ) Shadowing
ψ Transmit–receive power ratio
K (dB) K factor
−
τ Average time delay
ak , τk , P(τk ) Amplitude, delay, and energy of the kth path
fd Doppler shift
AS Angular spread
ϕk Angular delay of the kth path

(1) Path loss: It describes the gradual attenuation of a signal as it propagates over a
distance, typically in wireless communication scenarios, which is given by Formula (1):
 
l
PL = B + 10αlog10 + p ( l ≥ l0 ) , (1)
l0

where α is the path loss factor corresponding to the specific scenario, B is the decibel path
loss at distance l0 , l is the distance between transmitter and receiver, and p is the shadow
fading.
(2) Shadowing: It refers to the phenomenon where electromagnetic waves encounter
obstacles, such as buildings, along their propagation path, resulting in the creation of
shadow regions that impact signal strength. In practical transmission scenarios, the widely
employed model for describing shadowing effects is the lognormal shadow model:
  2 
ξ 10log10 ψ − µψdB
P(ψ) = √ exp−  ( ψ > 0), (2)
 
2πσψdB ψ 2σψ2 dB

where ξ = 10/ln10, µψdB is the mean of ψdB , ψdB = 10log10 ψ, and σψdB is the standard
deviation of ψdB .
(3) K-factor: The Rice fading channel quality factor (K-factor) is defined as the ratio of
the LoS path signal power to the power of multipath fading within the channel. This factor
represents the complexity of signal propagation; a lower K factor indicates that the signal
power of the LoS path in the signal propagation path is higher and the channel quality is
better, and vice versa.
P
K (dB) = 10lg los , (3)
pnlos
where Plos is the LoS path signal power and pnlos is the multipath fading power.
(4) Average time delay: Defined as the first moment of the delay power spectrum:

∑k a2k τk ∑ P(τk )τk

τ= = k , (4)
∑k ak 2 ∑k P(τk )

where k is the number of paths at the current time, P(τk ) is the energy of the k-th path, ak is
the amplitude, and τk is the delay of the k-th path.
(5) Doppler shift: When the mobile station moves towards the base station, the fre-
quency of the electromagnetic wave signal received by the mobile station will become
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 7 of 15

higher. When the mobile station is far away from the base station, the signal frequency
received by the mobile station will become lower, resulting in a Doppler shift between the
received signal frequency and the transmitted signal frequency.
v
fd = cosθ, (5)
λ
where θ is the angle of reach, v is the receiver moving speed, and λ is the wavelength.

4. Algorithms for Scenario Identification

Many machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms can be used for propa-
gation channel research. In order to evaluate the performance of different algorithms, the
following representative algorithms are considered in this paper for the construction of
scenario recognition models [18].
(1) Decision Trees: Decision trees build a tree-like model by dividing the data set into
smaller subsets and splitting them based on feature attributes such as information gain,
gain ratio, and Gini index. Each internal node represents a criterion for a feature attribute,
and each leaf node represents a category or output result. By following the path from the
root node to the leaf node, the class or output of the sample can be predicted based on the
values of the feature attributes. The information gain of attribute b is defined as follows:

V | Ev |
Ga( E, b) = En( E) − ∑v=1 En( Ev ), (6)
| E|

|o |
En( E) = −∑i=1 pi log2 pi , (7)
where E is the current sample set, i is the class of samples, o is the total class number, pi
is the proportion of class i samples, v is the ordinal number of branch nodes, and V is the
number of possible values of attribute b.
The gain ratio is defined as follows:

Ga( E, b)
Gar(E,b) = , (8)
U (b)

V | Ev | | Ev |
U ( b ) = − ∑ v =1 log2 , (9)
| E| | E|
The Gini index of attribute b is defined as:

V | Ev |
Gi_in( E, b) = ∑ v =1 | E|
Gi ( Ev ) (10)

|o |
Gi ( E) = 1 − ∑i=1 p2i (11)
(2) Random Forest (RF): RF is an ensemble learning method employed to address
classification and regression problems. It constitutes a model comprised of multiple deci-
sion trees. Ultimately, the prediction results from each decision tree are combined using
methods such as averaging or voting to produce the final prediction.
The average method and the voting method are defined as Formulas (12) and (13),
respectively:
1 Q
L ( x ) = ∑ j =1 l j ( x ) (12)
Q

L( x ) = zarg min Q (13)

∑ j=1 m j l jk ( x )
k
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 8 of 15

𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑧arg min ∑𝑄 𝑘

(13)
𝑗=1 𝑚𝑗 𝑙𝑗 (𝑥)
𝑘

where Q
where 𝑄 isis the
thenumber classifiers,l j (𝑙𝑗x(𝑥)
numberofofclassifiers, ) is the output
is the outputof individual
of individual learner l j on𝑙𝑗instance
learner on in-
Q 𝑄
x, m j is𝑥the
stance , 𝑚𝑗weight
is the of individual
weight of individual , and m j𝑙𝑗≥
learner l jlearner 0, ∑𝑚
, and j=𝑗1 ≥ , ∑1.𝑗=1z j𝑚is𝑗 the
m j0= = 1.number
𝑧𝑗 is the of
𝑘
number
class tags, and l jktags,
of class x
( ) and
is the 𝑙 (𝑥)
output
𝑗 is the
of l j output
on z j . of 𝑙𝑗 on 𝑧 𝑗 .
(3)
(3) K-Nearest
K-Nearest Neighbor
Neighbor (KNN): (KNN): KNN KNN operatesoperates on on aa training
training data
data set set that
that contains
contains
labeled
labeleddatadatapoints
pointsand andcorresponding
correspondingcategories categoriesor or values.
values. KNN KNNcalculates
calculatesthe thedistance
distance
between
betweenthe thenewnewdatadatapoint
pointand andseveral
severalexisting
existingpoints pointsin inthe
thetraining
trainingdata dataset,set,and
andthen
then
selects
selects the
the K K neighbors
neighbors that are closest. closest. Next,
Next, the thecategory
categoryor orvalue
valueofofthe
thenew newdatadatapoint
pointis
isdetermined
determinedeither eitherbybymajority
majorityvote voteororby byaveraging.
averaging.Given Giventhe thetest samplex,𝒙,ififitsitsnearest
testsample near-
neighbor
est neighbor sample
sample is is 𝑡, then
t, then the probability
the probabilityofofthe thenearest
nearestneighbor
neighbor classifier
classifier error is is the
the
probability that
probability that x𝑥 and
andt 𝑡classclasslabels
labelsarearedifferent,
different, that
thatis:is:

P(𝑃(𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟)
error ) = = 1 − ∑𝑧∈𝑦P𝑃(𝑧|𝒙)𝑃(𝑐|𝒕)
1− ∑ z ∈ y ( z |x) P ( c |t) (14)
(14)
(4) Neural networks: Neural networks show great potential in classification and re-
(4) Neural
gression networks:
problem. Here, weNeural
considernetworks show great potential
several representative in classification
neural networks such asand re-
back-
gression problem. Here, we consider several representative neural networks
propagation neural networks (BPNNs) and Elman NNs. Since the BPNN deconstruction such as
backpropagation neural networks (BPNNs) and Elman NNs. Since the BPNN
is simple and common, it will not be introduced. An Elman neural network is a typicaldeconstruc-
tion is simple
dynamic and common,
recursive it will not by
network proposed be Elman.
introduced. An Elman
Compared withneural network isstructure
the three-layer a typical
dynamic recursive network proposed by Elman. Compared with the three-layer
of BPNNs, the Elman neural network adds a link layer, and the output of the hidden layerstructure
of BPNNs, the Elman neural network adds a link layer, and the output of the hidden layer
at the previous time is fed back to the hidden layer as the input at the current time, which
at the previous time is fed back to the hidden layer as the input at the current time, which
makes the network have the adaptability of time-varying characteristics, and thus in-
makes the network have the adaptability of time-varying characteristics, and thus increases
creases the global stability of the network. The network structure is shown in Figure 3.
the global stability of the network. The network structure is shown in Figure 3.

Thenetwork
Figure3.3.The
Figure networkstructure
structureof
ofan
anElman
Elmanneural
neuralnetwork.
network.

Referringtotothe
Referring thenetwork
networkstructure
structure of of thetheElmanElman
NNNN in Figure
in Figure 3, relationship
3, the the relationship
be-
between input and output is given
tween input and output is given as [34]: as [34]:

oo((tt))==f [f w 3(ht () t+) b


[w3h
+2 ]b2 ]
 h(t) = g{w1 [u(t − 1)] + w2 x (t) + b1 } (15)
h(t ) = g{w1[u (t − 1)] + w2 x(t ) + b1} (15)
x ( t ) = h (
 x(t ) = h(t − 1)t − 1 )

where u(t) is the input layer vector, h(t) is the hidden layer vector, o(t) is the output layer
where u(t) is the input layer vector, h(t) is the hidden layer vector, o(t) is the output layer
vector, x(t) is the link layer vector, and t is the moment. w1 , w2 , and w3 are the connection
vector, x(t) is the link layer vector, and t is the moment. w1, w2, and w3 are the connection
weights from the input layer to hidden layer, link layer to hidden layer, and hidden layer
weights from the input layer to hidden layer, link layer to hidden layer, and hidden layer
to output layer, respectively. b1 and b2 are thresholds of the input layer and hidden layer,
to output layer, respectively. b1 and b2 are thresholds of the input layer and hidden layer,
respectively. g(·) is the activation function of the hidden layer, and f (·) is the activation
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

to output layer, respectively. b1 and b2 are thresholds of the input layer and hidden layer,
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 respectively. g(·) is the activation function of the hidden layer, and f(·) is the activation
9 of 15
function of the output layer. The activation functions g(.) and f(.) of the hidden layer and
the output layer adopt a sigmoid function:
function of the output layer. The activation functions1 g(.) and f (.) of the hidden layer and
f ( x) = g ( x) =
the output layer adopt a sigmoid function: −x
(16)
1+ e
1
f ( x ) = g( x ) = (16)
5. Experimental Results and Discussion 1 + e− x
In this section,
5. Experimental we present
Results the process of generating channel data using both the
and Discussion
QuaDRiGa platform and our self-developed low-orbit satellite simulation platform. We
In this section, we present the process of generating channel data using both the
analyze how various environmental conditions affect the channel data and assess the
QuaDRiGa platform and our self-developed low-orbit satellite simulation platform. We an-
relative significance of different channel characteristics in recognizing specific
alyze how various environmental conditions affect the channel data and assess the relative
communication scenarios. Additionally, we construct a scenario recognition case and
significance of different channel characteristics in recognizing specific communication sce-
compare the recognition accuracy of different algorithms.
narios. Additionally, we construct a scenario recognition case and compare the recognition
accuracy of different algorithms.
5.1. Data Generation and Analysis
5.1. Data Generation
QuaDRiGa wasand Analysisto generate channel data for various link types, including
employed
ground-to-ground, air-to-ground,
QuaDRiGa was employed to generate and air-to-air. This
channel generation
data for various takes
linkinto account
types, three
including
crucial environmental
ground-to-ground, factors: weather
air-to-ground, conditions,
and air-to-air. Thisnoise levels,takes
generation and into
relative mobility.
account three
Weather conditions are factors:
crucial environmental categorized as either
weather rainfall or
conditions, non-rainfall,
noise levels, and noise interference
relative is
mobility.
classifiedconditions
Weather as low or high, and relativeas
are categorized mobility is divided
either rainfall into stationary,
or non-rainfall, low-speed,
noise and
interference
high-speed
is classifiedconditions. Consequently,
as low or high, and relative QuaDRiGa
mobilitycan produceinto
is divided channel data for
stationary, a total of
low-speed,
36 unique scenarios. On the other hand, our self-developed
and high-speed conditions. Consequently, QuaDRiGa can produce channel data low-orbit satellite
for a
communication
total of 36 unique channel simulation
scenarios. On theplatform was utilized
other hand, to generate channel
our self-developed low-orbitdatasatellite
for link
types involving space-to-space,
communication channel simulation space-to-air,
platform and was space-to-ground
utilized to generate communication.
channel data for Due to
link
the
typessubstantial
involving relative motion space-to-air,
space-to-space, speed of low-orbit satellites, distinct
and space-to-ground numerical settings
communication. Due to
were applied torelative
the substantial represent varying
motion levels
speed of relative
of low-orbit mobility.
satellites, Additionally,
distinct numerical since space-to-
settings were
applied
space to represent
links varying
are unaffected bylevels of relative
weather mobility.
conditions, Additionally,
the low-orbit sincecommunication
satellite space-to-space
links aresimulation
channel unaffected platform
by weather conditions,
generates the low-orbit
channel data under satellite communication
30 distinct scenarios. channel
Thus, a
simulation total
combined platform
of 66generates
scenarioschannel
can be data under 30
effectively distinct scenarios.
generated to facilitate Thus, a combined
comprehensive
total of 66 scenarios can be effectively generated to facilitate comprehensive analysis.
analysis.
shownininFigure
As shown Figure4,4,QuaDRiGa
QuaDRiGa was was used
used to simulate
to simulate air-to-air,
air-to-air, air-to-ground,
air-to-ground, and
and ground-to-ground
ground-to-ground link link communication
communication scenarios
scenarios by by changingthe
changing thepositions
positions of of the
transmitting terminal
transmitting terminal Tx Tx and
and receiving
receiving terminal
terminal Rx.Rx. The
The figure
figure shows
shows the the progress
progress of a
radio wave from the Tx to Rx through the first-bounce scatterer (FBS)
radio wave from the Tx to Rx through the first-bounce scatterer (FBS) and the last-bounce and the last-bounce
scatterer (LBS). Each line represents a multipath component with
scatterer (LBS). Each line represents a multipath component with the same propagation the same propagation
path. The
path. The position
position of
of the
thescatterer
scattererisisrandomly
randomlygenerated
generatedaccording
according totothe statistical
the law
statistical lawof
thethe
of specific scenario.
specific scenario.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4. Scenario
Figure 4. Scenario simulation
simulation using
using QuaDRiGa.(a)
QuaDRiGa. (a) Tx-Position
Tx-Position == (1,
(1, 1,
1, 300),
300), Rx-Position
Rx-Position == (20,
(20, 30,
30,
300). (b) Tx-Position = (1, 1, 300), Rx-Position = (20, 30, 2). (c) Tx-Position = (1, 1, 2), Rx-Position = (20,
300). (b) Tx-Position = (1, 1, 300), Rx-Position = (20, 30, 2). (c) Tx-Position = (1, 1, 2), Rx-Position = (20,
30, 2).
30, 2).

The self-developed dynamic satellite channel simulation platform can obtain the large-
and small-scale parameters and CIR of satellite channels. We simulated the channel impulse
response of the space–ground scenario without rain and noise interference and the channel
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

The self-developed dynamic satellite channel simulation platform can obtain the
large- and small-scale parameters and CIR of satellite channels. We simulated the channel
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 10 of 15
impulse response of the space–ground scenario without rain and noise interference and
the channel impulse response of the space–air scenario with rain and noise interference;
the parameter settings of the platform are shown in Table 2, and the simulation results are
impulse
shown response
in Figure of thepaths
5. Three space–air scenario
can be with
observed inrain and5a,
Figure noise interference;
including thepath
one LoS parameter
and
settings of the platform are shown in Table 2, and the simulation
two NLoS paths, and seven paths can be observed in Figure 5b, including one LoS results are shown
path in
andFigure 5. Three
six NLoS paths
paths. can besimulation,
Through observed initFigure
can be5a, includingthat
concluded onefor
LoS path and
different two NLoS
scenarios,
paths, and seven paths can be observed in Figure 5b, including one LoS path
the channel simulation parameters and CIR are different. Therefore, the proposed satellite and six NLoS
paths. Through simulation, it can be concluded that for different
simulation platform supports the modeling of multiple different scenarios. scenarios, the channel
simulation parameters and CIR are different. Therefore, the proposed satellite simulation
platform
Table supports
2. Parameter the modeling
settings of multiple
of satellite dynamic different
channel scenarios.
simulation platform.

Parameter
Table 2. Parameter Value
settings of satellite dynamic channel simulation platform.
Communication frequency 3.6192 GHz
Parameter Value
Number of originating antennas 1
NumberCommunication
of receiving frequency
antennas 3.6192
1 GHz
Number of originating antennas 1
Rainfall rate 10 mm/h
Number of receiving antennas 1
Longitude of Rainfall
the groundrate station 114°
10 mm/h
Latitude of the
Longitude ofground
the groundstation
station 41°114◦
Latitude of the ground
Semi-major axis station 7371 km41◦
Semi-major axis 7371 km
Eccentricity 0
Eccentricity 0
Orbital inclination
Orbital inclination 65°65◦
The The
perigee angle
perigee angle 0° 0◦
Right ascension of ascending
Right ascension of ascending node
node 300°300◦
Flat near point angle ◦
Flat near point angle 0° 0

(a) (b)
Figure 5. 5.
Figure Three-dimensional
Three-dimensional power delay
power spectrum.
delay (a) (a)
spectrum. Channel impulse
Channel response
impulse in the
response space–
in the space–
ground
ground scenario without rainfall and noise interference. (b) Channel impulse response in the space–
scenario without rainfall and noise interference. (b) Channel impulse response in the space–air
airscenario
scenariowith
withrainfall
rainfalland
andnoise
noiseinterference.
interference.

After thethe
After channel
channelfeatures
featuresare
areextracted
extractedfrom
fromthetheoriginal
originalchannel
channeldata,
data, itit is
is necessary to
to analyze
analyze the
the importance
importanceof ofthe
thechannel
channelfeatures.
features.ForFordifferent
differentscenario
scenariorecognition
recognition prob-
problems,
lems,
the the most
most relevant
relevant features
features areare usually
usually selected
selected forfor training.We
training. Weused
usedrandom
randomforestsforests to
to assess
assess the
theimportance
importanceofoffeatures
features(results
(resultsare
are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 6) which
6) which layslaysthethe foun-
foundation
dation for building
for building intelligent
intelligent recognition
recognition models
models in theinnext
the section.
next section.

5.2. Analysis and Comparison of Scenario Recognition Models Based on Different Algorithms
First, we built the scenario recognition model based on the random forest algorithm,
which can be used to identify link types (space-to-space, space-to-air, space-to-ground,
air-to-air, air-to-ground, and ground-to-ground), weather conditions (whether it is raining
or not), noise conditions (with or without noise), and relative mobility conditions (static,
low speed, and high speed). Relevant channel characteristics are selected as the input of
the model according to Figure 6. As there are numerical differences in Rice K factor, path
loss, delay expansion, and Doppler shift, they need to be normalized, and the model output
is the corresponding label, with a value range of [1,2,3,. . .n]. Confusion matrices are a
Sensors 2023, 23, 9207 11 of 15

common way to evaluate the prediction effect of classification models. It is represented by

an n × n matrix, where n represents the number of categories. The rows of the confusion
matrix represent the true categories, and the columns represent the predicted categories.
Each element Cij in the matrix represents the number of samples that are actually class i but
are predicted to be class j. In order to further understand the results of data prediction and
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
improve the prediction method, a confusion matrix is drawn to observe the performance of
the recognition model.

Figure 6. The importance analysis of channel features for different classification methods.
Figure 6. The importance analysis of channel features for different classification methods.
We used a confusion matrix to give the recognition results of the random forest-based
5.2. Analysis and Comparison of Scenario Recognition Models Based on Different Algorithms
recognition model for link type, weather condition, noise condition, and relative mobility,
First, in
as shown weFigure
built the
7. Asscenario
can berecognition
seen from the model
figure,based
the on the random
prediction forestofalgorithm,
accuracy most link
which can be used to identify link types (space-to-space, space-to-air,
type labels was above 90% and the prediction rate was above 70%; the prediction accuracy space-to-ground,
air-to-air,
of weather air-to-ground,
condition labels and ground-to-ground),
was above 90%; theweather predictionconditions
accuracy (whether
of noiseit condition
is raining
or not),was
labels noise conditions
above 90%; and (with
the or without noise),
prediction accuracy and ofrelative
relativemobility
mobilityconditions
labels was(static,
above
low
98%.speed,
These and high speed).
prediction resultsRelevant
are within channel characteristics
the allowable are selected
error range. Therefore,as the
theinput of
validity
the model according to Figure 6. As there are numerical differences
of the model was proven and the importance of channel feature importance evaluation in Rice K factor, path
loss, delay expansion, and Doppler shift, they need to be normalized, and the model out-
is reflected.
put isThen,
the corresponding
we use an Elman label, withnetwork
neural a value range
to build ofmodel
[1,2,3,...n]. Confusion
to predict the linkmatrices are a
types (num-
common way to evaluate
bers 1–6 represent the six the prediction
scenarios effect of classification
of “space-to-ground”, models. It is
”space-to-air”, represented by
“space-to-space”,
an n × n matrix,
”air-to-air”, where n represents
“air-to-ground”, the number of categories.
and “ground-to-ground”, The rows
respectively). The ofrecognition
the confusion re-
matrix
sults arerepresent
shown in the true categories,
Figure 8, and it can and
be the
seencolumns
that therepresent
predictionthe predicted
effect categories.
is not satisfactory.
Then,element
Each the beetle antenna
Cij in the matrixsearch (BAS) algorithm
represents the number [26] of
was used tothat
samples optimize the network
are actually class i
weight
but of the Elman
are predicted to beneural
class network
j. In ordertotoimprove its learning performance.
further understand The prediction
the results of data
result
and of Elman
improve theafter BAS optimization
prediction method, a isconfusion
shown inmatrix Figure is9. drawn
Comparing the two
to observe thefigures,
perfor-it
can be seen
mance of thethat the prediction
recognition model. accuracy of Elman after BAS optimization has improved.
also abuilt
We used recognition
confusion matrixmodels based
to give the on KNNresults
recognition and BP neural
of the networks,
random so we
forest-based
summarizedmodel
recognition the accuracy of the
for link type, methods
weather used in noise
condition, this paper for different
condition, classification
and relative mobility,
problems
as shown into Table 7.
in Figure 3.As
Thecan classification
be seen from problems considered
the figure, are given
the prediction in the first
accuracy row, link
of most and
the machine learning methods adopted are given in the first column.
type labels was above 90% and the prediction rate was above 70%; the prediction accuracy As can be seen from
theweather
of table, the recognition
condition labelsaccuracy
was aboveof the90%;
random the forest algorithm
prediction is at of
accuracy a high
noiselevel under
condition
various
labels wasclassification
above 90%;problems, and the recognition
and the prediction accuracy ofstability
relativeofmobility
KNN algorithm
labels wasis above
weak,
whileThese
98%. that of BP algorithm
prediction results is are
strong.
withinIn the
addition,
allowable the recognition
error range. accuracy
Therefore,ofthe thevalidity
Elman
algorithm
of the model optimized
was proven by BAS and isthesignificantly
importanceimproved.
of channel feature importance evaluation is
reflected.
Sensors 2023,
Sensors 23, 23,
2023, x FOR
9207PEER REVIEW 12 of1215
of 15

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 7. Confusion matrix for different scenarios. (a) Link types; (b) weather conditions; (c) noise
conditions; (d) relative mobility conditions.

Then, we use an Elman neural network to build model to predict the link types (num-
bers 1–6 represent the six scenarios of “space-to-ground”, ”space-to-air”, “space-to-
space”, ”air-to-air”, “air-to-ground”, and “ground-to-ground”, respectively). The recog-
nition results are shown in Figure 8, and it can be seen that the prediction effect is not
satisfactory. Then, the beetle antenna search (BAS) algorithm [26] was used to optimize
the network weight (c) of the Elman neural network to improve (d) its learning performance.
The prediction result of Elman after BAS optimization is shown in Figure 9. Comparing
Figure
the 7.
Figure
twoConfusion
figures,matrix
7. Confusion can for
it matrix different
befor thatscenarios.
different
seen (a) (a)
scenarios.
the Link
prediction types;
Link (b)(b)
types;
accuracy weather
of conditions;
weather
Elman BAS(c)
conditions;
after noise
(c) noise
optimiza-
conditions; (d)
conditions; relative mobility conditions.
(d) relative mobility conditions.
tion has improved.

Then, we use an Elman neural network to build model to predict the link types (num-
bers 1–6 represent the six scenarios of “space-to-ground”, ”space-to-air”, “space-to-
space”, ”air-to-air”, “air-to-ground”, and “ground-to-ground”, respectively). The recog-
nition results are shown in Figure 8, and it can be seen that the prediction effect is not
satisfactory. Then, the beetle antenna search (BAS) algorithm [26] was used to optimize
the network weight of the Elman neural network to improve its learning performance.
The prediction result of Elman after BAS optimization is shown in Figure 9. Comparing
the two figures, it can be seen that the prediction accuracy of Elman after BAS optimiza-
tion has improved.

Figure8.8. Prediction
Figure Predictionof
oflink
linktypes
typesbased
basedon
onElman
Elmanneural
neuralnetwork.
network.

Table 3. Overall accuracy using different classifiers and features.

Classifier
Classification Mode KNN Random Forest BP Elman Bas_Elman
Link type 67.68% 89.39% 91.60% 70.65% 78.63%
Weather condition 96.97% 96.39% 94.08% 78.03% 83.57%
Noise condition 75.76% 92.77% 94.74% 74.16% 79.05%
Relative mobility 99.79% 99.39% 92.94% 80.01% 79.93%
Figure 8. Prediction of link types based on Elman neural network.
Sensors 2023,
Sensors 2023, 23,
23, 9207
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13
13 of
of 15

Figure 9. Prediction of link types based on BAS–Elman

BAS–Elman neural
neural network.
network.

6. Conclusions
We also built and Future Work
recognition models based on KNN and BP neural networks, so we sum-
Thisthe
marized paper proposes
accuracy a simulation
of the framework
methods used in thisfor SAGIN
paper communication
for different propagation
classification prob-
channel
lems intoresearch,
Table 3. which integrates the
The classification existingconsidered
problems QuaDRiGaare channel
given simulation platform
in the first row, and
and a self-developed
the machine learning low-orbit satellite are
methods adopted simulation
given inplatform. According
the first column. to the
As can be process
seen fromof
the framework, the channel
table, the recognition data inof
accuracy various scenarios
the random arealgorithm
forest simulatedisfirst, and the
at a high channel
level under
characteristics are extracted
various classification by statistical
problems, and the methods
recognitionandstability
the importance
of KNNanalysis
algorithm on is
channel
weak,
characteristics is carried out. Then, based on different methods, the recognition
while that of BP algorithm is strong. In addition, the recognition accuracy of the Elman models are
constructed to classify link types and environmental
algorithm optimized by BAS is significantly improved. conditions such as weather condition
and noise interference, and the comparative analysis is carried out. The experimental
results
Table 3. verified the rationality
Overall accuracy of ourclassifiers
using different proposed andframework,
features. which can be used to assist
researchers in studying communication propagation channels.
We believe our proposal is a useful asset forClassifier SAGIN propagation channel research,
Classification
which is an interesting direction for future research as it compensates for difficulties in
KNN Random Forest BP Elman Bas_Elman
Mode
real-world testing. There are several directions for future work: one is to extend our simu-
lationLink
framework
type to manage
67.68% smart89.39%cities in areas such as network
91.60% performance
70.65% analysis
78.63%
and optimization;
Weather condition the 96.97%
second is the optimization
96.39% of simulation
94.08% fidelity,
78.03% such as the accurate
83.57%
modeling of time-varying
Noise condition 75.76% channels 92.77%
and communication 94.74%nodes under
74.16% environmental
79.05%inter-
ference;
Relativeand finally, the
mobility integration99.39%
99.79% and ease-of-use92.94%
of the simulation
80.01%framework 79.93%will be
further improved to provide simulation services for complex tasks.
6. Conclusions and Future Work
Author Contributions: Conceptualization and Methodology, Z.Z. and S.S.; Funding acquisition,
M.Z., This
W.M. paper proposes
and Y.R.; Software aand
simulation framework
Investigation, for Z.W.;
Z.Z., S.S. and SAGIN communication
Writing—original propaga-
draft, Z.Z. and
tion channel research, which integrates the existing QuaDRiGa channel simulation
J.X.; Writing—review and editing, W.M. and X.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published plat-
form and
version a self-developed
of the manuscript. low-orbit satellite simulation platform. According to the pro-
cess of the framework, the channel data in various scenarios are simulated first, and the
Funding: This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
channel
under characteristics
grant Nos. 62127801are
and extracted
61971257,bythe
statistical
National methods
Key R&D and the importance
Program analysis
of China under Grant
on channel characteristics is carried out. Then, based on different methods, the recognition
2020YFD0901000, the project ‘The Verification Platform of Multi-tier Coverage Communication
models are
Network constructed
for Oceans to classify
(LZC0020)’ link types
of Peng Cheng and environmental
Laboratory, and in part by theconditions
Young Elite such as
Scientist
weather condition
Sponsorship Programand noise under
by CAST interference, and the comparative analysis is carried out. The
Grant 2020QNRC001.
experimental results verified the rationality of our proposed framework, which can be
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
used to assist author,
corresponding researchers
[Men, in studying
W.], communication
upon reasonable request. propagation channels.
We believe our proposal is a useful asset for SAGIN propagation channel research,
Conflicts
which is of
anInterest: The authors
interesting declare
direction no conflict
for future of interest.
research as it compensates for difficulties in
real-world testing. There are several directions for future work: one is to extend our sim-
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