Darboux integrability for 3D lotka- volterra

system

Research Project
Submitted to the department of (Mathematic) in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of BSc. in (Mathematic)

By:
Elaf salih Abbas

Supervised by:
Dr. Niazy Hady Hussein
April– 2024
 Certification of The Supervisor
I certify that this work was prepared under my supervision at the

Department of Mathematics / College of Education / Salahaddin University-

Erbil in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of

philosophy of Science in Mathematics.

Signature:
supervisor: Dr. Niazy Hady Husein
Scientific grade: Assistant Professor

Date: 4 /4/ 2024

In view of available recommendations, I forward this word for debate by the

examining committee.

Signature:
Name: Dr. Rashad Rashid Haji

Scientific grade: Assistant Professor

Chairman of the Mathematics Department

Date: 4 /4/ 2024

i
 Acknowledgment

First and foremost, I'd like to thank God for allowing me to complete this job
successfully.

I'd like to thank my supervisor, Assist. prof.Dr. Niazy Hady Hussein, for his guidance
and support during my time as a student.

It gives me tremendous joy to undertake this project; I have made efforts, but it would
not have been possible without the support and assistance of many others.

I would especially like to thank our head of department, Dr. Rashad Rashid, for his
unwavering support throughout the years. The entire staff of the mathematics
department has my gratitude as well.

I would like to thank my parents and friends for their encouragement and support,
whose moral support and emotional support have been essential in this challenging
battle.

ii
 Abstract

Here, we are considering the three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra system

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥̇ = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥(𝜆 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝑧)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦̇ = 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑦(𝜇 + 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑧)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑧
= 𝑧̇ = 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧(𝛾 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑡

In this study, we focus on the existence of first integrals, limiting our

consideration to degrees up to two involving the Darboux polynomial and
exponential factors. The method employed here is of general interest and
can be applied to any polynomial differential systems in arbitrary
dimensions.

iii
Table Contents
Certification of The Supervisor ................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ iii
CHAPTER ONE...........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 introduction ........................................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER TWO .........................................................................................................................................2
2.1. Literature Review ..............................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER THREE .....................................................................................................................................3
3.1 Three-Dimensional Lotka-Volterra differential system .................................................................3
3.2 Darboux integrability theory.............................................................................................................4
3.3 First integrals and integrable systems ............................................................................................10
References ...................................................................................................................................................12
‫ الخالصة‬............................................................................................................................................................. a
‫ پوختە‬............................................................................................................................................................... b

iv
 CHAPTER ONE
1.1 introduction
Nonlinear ordinary differential equations are prevalent in various areas of applied
mathematics and physics. In dimensions beyond two, these systems typically exhibit
chaotic behavior, meaning they are highly sensitive to the initial conditions. More
precisely, the disparity between initial conditions tends to grow exponentially over
time.

Identifying conditions that prevent chaotic motion is crucial, and this involves
seeking parameter values that render systems partially or entirely integrable. In the
case of a three-dimensional system being integrable, its solutions exhibit favorable
qualities, providing a means to gain comprehensive insights into its long-term
evolution.

The idea of integrability hinges on the existence of first integrals, leading to an

inevitable question: In a system of ordinary differential equations dependent on
parameters, how does one identify the parameter values that result in the system
having first integrals? Various approaches have been employed to investigate the
presence of first integrals. Several methods have been devised for Hamiltonian
systems, such as the Ziglin analysis (Ziglin, 1983) (Ziglin, 1983) (Yoshida, 1987) or
the approach utilizing Noether symmetries (Cantrijn & Sarlet, 1981).

1
 CHAPTER TWO
2.1. Literature Review
In this chapter we give some definitions and results relative to the topic that using
through this study.

Definition 2.1.1: (viorel, 2016) a differential equation is an equation which

describes a relationship between an unknown function, depending on one or several
variables, and its derivatives up to a certain order.

Definition 2.1.2: (Phoolan & Renuka , 1985) A partial differential equation

for a function 𝑢(𝑥∝ ) of m independent variables to (𝛼 = 1, 2, . . . , m) is a relationship
between the function and its partial derivatives 𝑢𝑥𝛼 , 𝑢𝑥𝛼𝑥𝛽 . We represent this

relationship in the form 𝐹(𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑚 ; 𝑢𝑥1 , … , 𝑢𝑥𝑚 ; 𝑢𝑥1𝑥1 ; 𝑢𝑥1𝑥2 … ) = 0

Definition 2.1.3: (Cairo, 2014) In three-dimensional differential systems the

existence of one independent first integrals is called the system as the partially
integrable system.

Definition 2.1.4: (Cairo, 2014) the existence of two independent first integral of
the system, then the system is called completely integrable.

Definition 2.1.5: (Frank , 1983)A vector field is an assignment of a vector

to each point in a space most commonly Euclidean space

2
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Three-Dimensional Lotka-Volterra differential system

Here we investigate the integrability of the 3D Lotka-Volterra systems which is of

the following system
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥̇ = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥(𝜆 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝑧) (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦̇ = 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑦(𝜇 + 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑧)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑧
= 𝑧̇ = 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧(𝛾 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑡

We use the Darboux F.I in order to show the integrability through the invariant
algebraic surface and exponential surface. where we note the absence of the quadratic
self-interacting terms. We are concerned here with the existence of (time-
independent) first integrals of (1) when the six parameters λ, μ, γ, A, B, C, the three
dependendent variables x, y, z. and the independent variable t (the time) are real.

If λ = μ = γ ≠ 0 then the change of variables (x, y, z, t) → (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅, 𝑧̅, 𝑡̅) given by
1
𝑥̅ = 𝑥𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑦̅ = 𝑦𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑧̅ = 𝑧𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑡̅ = 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 (2)
𝜆

Transforms (1) into the form

𝑑𝑥̅ 𝑑𝑦̅ 𝑑𝑧̅
= 𝑥(𝐶𝑦 + 𝑧), = 𝑦(𝑥 + 𝐴𝑧), = 𝑧(𝐵𝑥 + 𝑦).
𝑑𝑡̅ 𝑑𝑡̅ 𝑑𝑡̅

This particular class of three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra systems are called the

ABC systems (see, for instance, Labrunie (Labrunie , 1996)) . Therefore, the
dynamics of the three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra systems with λ = μ = γ ≠ 0
is equivalent to the dynamics of the same systems with

λ = μ = γ = 0 i.e. the ABC systems.

3
3.2 Darboux integrability theory

In this paper a polynomial vector field X is a vector field in ℝ3 of the form

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜒 = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

where 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅 are polynomials in the variables x, y and z with real coefficients.
In all of this section m = max {deg P, deg Q, deg R} will denote the degree of the
polynomial vector field X.

Here we say that H: U→ ℝ3 is a first integral of the vector field X if the Lebesgue
measure of ℝ3 , U is zero and H is a non-constant analytic function which is constant
on all solution surfaces (x(t), y(t), z(t)) of the vector field X on U; i.e.

H (x(t), y(t), z(t)) = constant for all values of for which the solution

(x (t), y(t), z (t)) is defined on U. Clearly, H is a first integral of the polynomial vector
field X on U if and only if XH = 0 on all the points (x, y, z) of U. If H is a first
integral of X, then we can reduce the study of the trajectories of X on the invariant
sets H (x, y, z) = h when h varies in R. We note that if h∈ℝ is a regular

value of the function H, then H (x, y, z) = h is a surface of ℝ3 , and that by Sard's

theorem the regular values are dense in ℝ.

We say that the vector field X is integrable if X has two independent first integrals;
i.e. if X has two first integrals 𝐻𝑖 : 𝑈𝑖 → ℝ3 , for i= 1, 2 such that the two vectors

𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝐻2 𝜕𝐻2 𝜕𝐻2

( , , ) ( , , )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

are independent at all the points (x, y, z) ∈ 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 except perhaps into a subset of
zero Lebesgue measure. If X is integrable with the two independent first integrals
𝐻1 and 𝐻2 ,

4
then its trajectories are determined by intersecting the invariant sets

𝐻1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ) = ℎ1 and 𝐻2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ℎ2 when ℎ1 and ℎ2 vary in ℝ. Hence, the

dynamics (i.e. the trajectories) of an integrable system is very well understood.

Let𝑓 ∈ ℝ[𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧]. where as usual ℝ[𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] denotes the ring of the polynomials in
the variables x, y and z with real coefficients. The algebraic surface f = 0 is called an
invariant algebraic surface of the polynomial vector field X if for some polynomial
K ∈ ℝ[𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧].

We have

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑋𝑓 = 𝑃 +𝑄 +𝑅 = 𝐾𝑓 (3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The polynomial K is called the cofactor of the invariant algebraic surface f = 0. We

note that

since the polynomial vector field has degree m then any cofactor has at most degree
(𝑚 − 1)

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
Since on the points of an invariant algebraic surface f = 0 the gradient ( , , )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

is orthogonal to the polynomial vector field X = (P, Q, R) (see (3)), it follows that

at every point (x, y, z) of the surface f = 0 the vector field X is contained into the
tangent

plane to the surface f = 0 at that point. Hence, the surface f = 0 is formed by

trajectories of

the vector field X. This justifies the name invariant algebraic surface given to the
algebraic surface f = 0 satisfying (3) for some polynomial K, because it is invariant
under the flow defined by X

5
Let 𝑔, ℎ ∈ ℝ [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] be relatively prime polynomials in the ring ℝ[𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] Then the
function exp(g/h) is called an exponential factor of the polynomial vector field X if
the equality

𝑔 𝑔
𝑋 (𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )) = 𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) (4)
ℎ ℎ

is satisfied for some polynomial 𝐾 ∈ ℝ[𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] of degree at most (m – 1). As before

we say that K is the cofactor of the exponential factor exp(𝑔⁄ℎ) (see (christopher,
1994) (christopher, 1999)), where the exponential factors are introduced as a limit of
suitable invariant algebraic surfaces.

From the point of view of the integrability of polynomial vector fields the importance
of the exponential factors is twofold. On one hand, they verify equation (4), and on
the other hand, their cofactors are polynomials of degree at most

(m – 1) These two facts allow them to play the same role as the invariant algebraic
surfaces in the integrability of a three-dimensional polynomial vector field X. We
note that the exponential factors do not define invariant surfaces of the flow of the
vector field X.

The following proposition is due to Christopher (christopher, 1994) .

Proposition 1: If 𝐹 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑔⁄ℎ) is an exponential factor for the polynomial vector

field X, then h = 0 is an invariant algebraic surface, and g satisfies the equation

𝑋𝑔 = 𝑔𝐾ℎ + ℎ𝐾𝐹

where 𝐾ℎ and 𝐾𝐹 are the cofactors of h and F, respectively.

Before stating the main results of the Darboux theory we need some definitions. If
𝑆(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∑𝑚−1 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑖+𝑗+𝑘=0 𝑎𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

6
is a polynomial of degree 𝑚 − 1 with (𝑚 + 2)(𝑚 + 1)𝑚⁄6 coefficients in R, then
we write𝑆 ∈ ℝ𝑚−1 [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧]. We identify the linear vector spaceℝ𝑚−1 [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] with
ℝ(𝑚+2)(𝑚+1)𝑚⁄6 through the isomorphism

𝑆 → (𝑎000 , 𝑎100 , 𝑎010 , 𝑎001 , … , 𝑎𝑚−2,1,0 , … , 𝑎0,0,𝑚−1 )

We say that r points (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 , 𝑧𝑘 ) ∈ ℝ3 ,k=1…, r. are independent with respect to

ℝ𝑚−1 [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] if the intersection of the r hyperplanes

𝑚−1

∑ 𝑥𝑘𝑢 𝑦𝑘𝑣 𝑧𝑘𝑤 𝑎𝑢𝑣𝑤 = 0 𝑘 = 1, … 𝑟

𝑢+𝑣+𝑤=0

ℝ(𝑚+2)(𝑚+1)𝑚⁄6 is a linear subspace of dimension [(𝑚 + 2)(𝑚 + 1)𝑚⁄6] − 𝑟

Theorem 1: Suppose that the three-dimensional polynomial vector field X of degree

m admits p invariant algebraic surfaces 𝑓𝑖 = 0 with cofactors 𝐾𝑖

for i = 1, . . . , p,q exponential factors exp(𝑔𝑖 ⁄ℎ𝑖 ) with cofactors 𝐿𝑗 for j = 1, . . . ,q.
and r independent singular points 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 , 𝑧𝑘 ) ∈ ℝ such that 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 , 𝑧𝑘 ) ≠ 0 for
i = 1, . . . , p and for k = 1, . . . ,r.
𝑝 𝑞
1- If there exist 𝜆𝑖 , 𝜇𝑗 ∈ ℝ3 not all zero such that∑𝑖=1 𝜆𝑖 𝐾𝑖 + ∑𝑗=1 𝜇𝑗 𝐿𝑗 = 0 , then
the function
𝜇1 𝜇𝑞
𝜆1 𝜆𝑝 𝑔1 𝑔𝑞
|𝑓1 | . . . |𝑓𝑝 | (𝑒𝑥𝑝 (ℎ )) . . . (𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )) (5)
1 𝑞ℎ

is a first integral of the vector field X.

1
2- If 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 ≥ (𝑚 + 2)(𝑚 + 1)𝑚 + 1
6

𝑝 𝑞
then there exist 𝜆𝑖 , 𝜇𝑗 ∈ ℝ not all zero such that ∑𝑖=1 𝜆𝑖 𝐾𝑖 + ∑𝑗=1 𝜇𝑗 𝐿𝑗 = 0 .

7
3- X has [(m + 2) (m + 1) m /6] + 3 invariant algebraic surfaces if and only if X has
a rational first integral.

Invariant algebraic surface

In this section we study the invariant algebraic surfaces of the three-dimensional

Lotka-Volterra systems of degree at most two. Thus, in proposition 3, we present the
invariant planes (invariant algebraic surfaces of degree one) together with their
cofactors, and the conditions for their existence. However. before we associate to a
given three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra system (1) two if ABC = 0, or five if 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≠
0. equivalent three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra systems. The first two are obtained
by performing a circular permutation of the variables x,y,z and of the parameters λ,
μ, ν and A, B, C, and the remanding three systems are obtained by performing the
transformation

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝜆, 𝜇, 𝜈, 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) → (𝐵𝑥, 𝐴𝑧, 𝐶𝑦, 𝜆, 𝜇, 𝜈, 1⁄𝐶 , 1⁄𝐵 , 1⁄𝐴 )

and the two new transformations are obtained from the above circular permutations.
We say that all these Lotka-Volterra systems are E equivalent. All the results of this
paper are stated modulo these E equivalences.

Proposition 2: A three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra system has an invariant plane

f = 0 with cofactor K in the following cases, modulo the E equivalences.

1- Any three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra system has the invariant plane f = x = 0

with K=λ+Cy+z

2- If λ= μ, A = 1 and 𝐶 ≠ 0 , then f = x − Cy = 0 and K = z + λ.

8
3- For an ABC system if ABC + 1 = 0 then f = ABx + y − Az = 0 and K = 0;

consequently, f is a polynomial first integral.

Proposition 3: the following ABC system

𝑥̇ = 𝑥(𝐶𝑦 + 𝑧)

𝑦̇ = 𝑦(𝑥 + 𝐴𝑧)

𝑧̇ = 𝑧(𝐵𝑥 + 𝑦)

Have the following invariant algebraic surface. f = 0 of degree (2) with cofactor 𝑘 =
𝑘0 + 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑦 + 𝑘3 𝑧

1- if 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 1 = 0 then 𝑓 = 𝐵𝐶𝑦 − 𝐵𝑥 + 𝑧 + 1 and 𝑘 = 0 consequently f is a

polynomial first integral.

2- 𝑓 = 𝑧 and 𝑘 = 𝐵𝑋 + 𝑦 .

3- 𝑓 = 𝑦 and 𝑘 = 𝑧𝐴 + 𝑥

4- if 𝐴 = 1 then 𝑓 = 𝑥 − 𝐶𝑦 and 𝑘 = 𝑧 .

5- if A = 1 then 𝑓 = 𝑥𝑧 − 𝐶𝑦𝑧 and 𝑘 = 𝐵𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧

6- 𝑓 = 𝑥 and 𝑘 = 𝐶𝑦 + 𝑧

7- f=1 k=0 constant

Note: By theorem: if 𝑓 = 𝑧 is invariant then 𝑧 𝑛

9
Exponential factors

Proposition 4: A three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra system has the following

exponential factor modulo the E equivalence.

If A= -1, then 𝑓 = 𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 is exponential with cofactor

K =ABλx – Aλz +λy

3.3 First integrals and integrable systems

In this section we apply the Darboux theory of integrability described in section 2 to

the three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra systems. Theorem 6 exhibits for these systems
the first integrals obtained by using only invariant algebraic surfaces of degrees one
or two (given by propositions 3 and 4, respectively) and statement (1) of theorem 2.
More precisely, we look for first integrals of the form

|𝑓1 |𝜆1 |𝑓2 |𝜆2 |𝑓3 |𝜆3 |𝑓4 |𝜆4 (6)

Where 𝑓4 = 0 is an invariant algebraic surface of degree at most two, and the 𝜆𝑖 are
real numbers not all zero.

Theorem 2: A three-dimensional Lotka-Volterra system has the following first

integrals of the form (6) where 𝑓𝑖 = 0 are invariant algebraic surfaces of degree at
most two modulo the E equivalences.

(1) if 𝜆 + (𝜇𝐵 − 𝑣)𝑐 = 0 and ABC+1=0 then H=|𝑥|𝐴 𝑦 −1 |𝑧|−𝐴𝐶

(2) if λ=μ, ν=0, A=1 and C≠0, then H=𝑥|𝑦|𝐵𝐶 |𝑧|−𝐶 |𝑥 − 𝐶𝑦|−𝐵𝐶−1

The next four statements hold for ABC systems.

(3) If ABC + 1 = 0, then it is integrable with the first integrals

10
𝐻1 = 𝐴𝐵𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝐴𝑧 and𝐻2 = 𝑥𝑦 𝐵𝐶 𝑧 −𝐶

(4) If 𝐴𝐵𝐶 − 1 = 0 and 𝐵(𝐴 + 1) = 1 , then 𝐻 = 𝐴2 (𝐵𝑥 − 𝑧)2 − 2𝐴(𝐵𝑥 + 𝑧)𝑦 +

𝑦2

(5) If B=2 and𝐴(𝐶 + 1) + 1 = 0 , then

𝐻 = 𝑥 2 |𝑦|2(𝐶+1) |𝑧|−2𝐶 |2𝐴2 𝑥𝑧 − (𝑦 − 𝐴𝑧)2 |𝐶−1

(6) If A=1 and B=2 then it is integrable with the first integrals

𝐻1 = 𝑥|𝑦|−2(𝐶+1) |𝑧|−𝐶 |𝑥𝑧 + (𝐶 + 1)𝑦(𝑦 − 𝑧)|2𝐶+1 and

𝐻2 = (𝑥 − 𝐶𝑦) [𝑥𝑧 + (𝐶 + 1)𝑦(𝑦 − 𝑧)]⁄𝑦 2

11
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Ziglin, S. L., 1983. Branching of solutions and nonexistence of first integrals in Hameltonian mechanics I.
Func. Anal. Appl., Volume 16, p. 181.

Ziglin, S. L., 1983. Branching of solutions and nonexistence of first integrals in Hameltonian mechanics II.
Func. Anal. Appl., Volume 17, p. 6.

12
 ‫الخالصة‬

‫هنا‪ ،‬نحن ننظر في نظام لوتكا‪-‬فولترا الثالثي األبعاد‬

‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫)𝑧 ‪= 𝑥̇ = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥(𝜆 + 𝐶𝑦 +‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑‬

‫𝑦𝑑‬
‫)𝑧𝐴 ‪= 𝑦̇ = 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑦(𝜇 + 𝑥 +‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑‬

‫𝑧𝑑‬
‫)𝑦 ‪= 𝑧̇ = 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧(𝛾 + 𝐵𝑥 +‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑‬

‫و في هذه الدراسة‪ ،‬نركز على وجود المقومات األولى‪ ،‬ونقصر النظر في الموضوع على درجات تصل إلى‬
‫درجتين تشمالن عوامل الدربو المتعددة الحدود والعوامل األسية‪ .‬والطريقة المستخدمة هنا ذات أهمية عامة‬
‫ويمكن تطبيقها على أي نظم تفاضلية متعددة الحدود في األبعاد التعسفية‪.‬‬

‫‪a‬‬
 ‫پوختە‬

‫لێرەدا‪ ،‬سەيری سيستەمی ‪ lotka-volterra system‬دەکەين‬

‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫)𝑧 ‪= 𝑥̇ = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥(𝜆 + 𝐶𝑦 +‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑‬

‫𝑦𝑑‬
‫)𝑧𝐴 ‪= 𝑦̇ = 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑦(𝜇 + 𝑥 +‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑‬

‫𝑧𝑑‬
‫)𝑦 ‪= 𝑧̇ = 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧(𝛾 + 𝐵𝑥 +‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑‬

‫لەم لێکۆڵينەوەيەدا‪ ،‬ئێمە سەرنج دەخەينە سەر بوونی پێکهاتە يەکەمەکان‪ ،‬و سنووردارکردنی ڕەچاوکردنی‬
‫پرسەکە بە پلە تا دوو پلە کە فاکتەری فرەژماری و ڕيزبەندی لەخۆدەگرێت‪ .‬ئەو شێوازەی لێرەدا‬
‫بەکارهاتووە جێگەی سەرنجی گشتی و دەتوانرێت بۆ هەر سيستەمێکی جياوازی فرەژمارە لە ڕەهەندە‬
‫ئارەزوومەندەکاندا بەکاربهێنرێت‪.‬‬

‫‪b‬‬