Soil &

Foundation
CIV 213
L6
Dr. Randa Fouad
 Soil Consolidation
When saturated soil undergoes a steady pressure due to
the weight of an embankment or overlying soil, its volume
is known to decrease with time. Since the soil particles, as
well as the water in the void, is compact and firm when the
pressure is added, the change in the volume will occur only
when the water is forced out of the voids.
Foundation Stability
A structure’s stability relies on its
foundation’s stability. Soil consolidation is
critical to establishing a stable foundation,
ensuring the soil is compacted and settled
uniformly.

Settlement Minimization
Allowing the soil to merge before
construction minimizes the potential for
future settlement. When soil merges before
construction, much of the settlement occurs
before the structure is built.

Improved Soil Strength

Soil consolidation improves the strength and load-bearing capacity of the soil. As the soil particles settle
and rearrange during consolidation, they become more compact and densely packed.
Soil Consolidation
● The compression of saturated soil under steady static pressure is termed as
consolidation which is completely due to expulsion of water from the voids.
Consolidation is generally related to fine-grained soils such as silts and clays.
● Coarse-grained soils, such as sands and gravels, also undergo consolidation
but at a much faster rate due to their high permeability. Saturated clays
consolidate at a much slower rate due to their low permeability.
Soil Consolidation
Consolidation of soil is composed of three components which include initial consolidation,
primary consolidation, and secondary consolidation:
● Initial consolidation refers to the immediate settlement that occurs in a soil sample when a
load is applied. This settlement happens due to the compression of air and water in the void
spaces within the soil.
● Primary consolidation is a gradual process of settlement that occurs over time as excess
pore water gradually dissipates from the soil under a constant load. During primary
consolidation, the soil particles rearrange themselves to accommodate the load, causing
further settlement. Primary consolidation tends to occur often within a few days to several
months, depending on the specific characteristics of the soil and the applied load.
● Secondary consolidation, also known as creep consolidation or time-dependent settlement,
occurs after primary consolidation and involves additional settlement due to the continued
adjustment of the soil structure over time. This settlement is typically slower than primary
consolidation and can continue for an extended period, often due to the viscous flow of soil
particles and the consolidation of organic materials within the soil.
 Consolidation parameters
Coefficient of Consolidation (cv):
• The coefficient of consolidation represents
the rate at which a soil undergoes
consolidation under a unit increase in
effective stress.
• used to predict the time required for a
given amount of compression on to take
place
Compression Index (Cc):
The compression index describes the relationship
between the logarithm of void ratio and the logarithm of
effective stress during the consolidation process.
Coefficient of Volume Change (mv):
• The coefficient of volume change
characterizes the compressibility or
change in volume of soil due to the
application of effective stress.
• The coefficient of volume change is
expressed as mv and is unitless.
Coefficient of Permeability (k):
The coefficient of permeability represents the
ease with which water can flow through a soil
mass.
Compaction vs Consolidation
Compaction vs Consolidation
Compaction
Expulsion of air voids
The Compaction process can be
completed immediately.
The foundation settlement will be
reduced
The soil should be at Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC).
The bearing capacity of soil will
increase.
The compaction work will be
complete before the construction
work.
Shear strength of soil will increase.
Consolidation
Expulsion of water voids
It is a slow and steady process
which takes time.
Consolidation is the responsibility
for the foundation settlement.
The soil is saturated to settle down
the particles.
The bearing capacity of soil will
increase.
The consolidation work will be
completed during and after the
construction period.
Shear strength of soil will increase.
 Drainage vs consolidation
● Drainage primarily involves the movement of water
within the soil, whereas consolidation involves the
settlement of the soil itself.
● Drainage aims to remove excess pore water to
improve soil conditions, while consolidation deals
with the physical response of the soil to applied
loads.
● Drainage can occur independently of applied
loads, while consolidation typically occurs in
response to external loads such as building
foundations or embankments.
● Drainage can be both natural (e.g., rainfall
infiltration) and artificial (e.g., drainage systems),
while consolidation is primarily influenced by the
applied load and soil properties.
 Shear strength of soil
● Following are the shear test performed on the soil to measure its shear strength:
○ Direct shear test (DST)
○ Unconfined compression test (UCT)
○ Triaxial compression test (TCT)
○ Vane shear test (VST)

➢ Each of these tests has its advantages and

limitations, and the choice of test method
depends on factors such as soil type, project
requirements, and available resources. It's
essential to carefully select the appropriate test
method and interpret the results accurately to
ensure the stability and safety of geotechnical
structures.
Direct shear test (DST) 𝜏 Clay soil
● Generally, the Direct Shear Test is considered one of the most
common and simple tests to derive the strength of a soil and can
be performed on undisturbed or distributed samples. ∅
● It's particularly useful for cohesionless soils like sands and gravels,
although it can also be applied to cohesive soils with appropriate
modifications. C

● Shear strength is defined as the maximum resistance that a 𝜎

Sand soil
material can withstand when subjected to shearing. 𝜏
● In soil mechanics, the shear strength is evaluated using the Mohr-
Circle (M-C) Failure Criterion. The M-C Criterion assumes that the
shear strength depends on three factors: ∅
○ The normal effective stress (σn)
○ The friction angle of the material (φ)
○ The cohesion of the material (c)
C
𝜏 = 𝐶 + 𝜎𝑛 tan 𝜑
𝜎
Direct shear test (DST)
A schematic diagram of shear box shows that soil sample is placed in a square box which is split into upper
and lower halves. Lower section is fixed, and upper section is pushed or pulled horizontally relative to other
section; thus, forcing the soil sample to shear/fail along the horizontal plane separating two halves. Under a
specific Normal force, the Shear force is increased from zero until the sample is fully sheared (failed). The
relationship of Normal stress and Shear stress at failure gives the failure envelope of the soil and provide
the shear strength parameters (cohesion and internal friction angle).
 Direct shear test (DST)
• The soil specimen is placed in an apparatus known
as shear box which consists of:
o Two metallic plates,
o Two porous stones,
o Two screws,
o A gripper disk
o A loading cap where the normal stress is
applied.
• The shear box, that may be circular or square-
shaped, restricts the specimen’s horizontal strain
but enables shearing on a horizontal plane where
the two metallic plates meet.
Direct shear test (DST)
1. The sample is of size 6x6x2 cm and has the
same dimensions as shear box
2. Shear box consists of two separate halves,
which are connected together using a set of
screws during sample preparation and then
disconnected during experimentation.
3. The porous plates aims to facilitate the
drainage of water from the soil and prevent soil
particles from escaping with the water.
4. The settlement in the sample is measured using
a settlement gauge.
5. The horizontal force acting on the sample is
measured using a proving ring.
 Direct shear test (DST)
The procedure in a direct shear test consists of;
● Placing a soil specimen in the direct shear device
(shear box apparatus)
● Applying a predetermined normal stress,
● Providing the necessary conditions for wetting
and/or draining of the specimen,
● Consolidating the specimen under the normal stress,
● Removing the pins that lock the shear box halves
holding the test specimen and shearing the specimen
by displacing one shear box half laterally with
respect to the other at a constant rate of shearing
deformation while measuring the shearing force,
relative lateral displacement, and normal
displacement. The shearing rate must be slow
enough to allow nearly complete dissipation of
excess pore pressure
Direct shear test (DST)
The test is usually conducted in two stages;
● The first stage involves the consolidation of the specimen under the same vertical stress
as that which will be applied during shearing.
○ When this stage finishes, the consolidation parameters can be obtained, and the
time needed for the end of the primary consolidation is determined. More
information on the procedures followed at the consolidation stage can be found in
the support document ‘Consolidation Testing – An introduction’ which can be
obtained from VJ Tech.
● In the second stage (i.e. shearing stage), the specimen is sheared at a constant speed
which depends on the consolidation parameters determined from the Consolidation stage.
The speed must be such that sufficient time is allowed for the soil to expel the excess
pore water and therefore provide drained conditions.
Data Analysis and Results
● Firstly, the density of the soil specimen is derived by dividing its mass with its volume
(which corresponds to the volume of the specimen measured inside the shear box):
𝑚 (𝑔)
𝜌=
𝑉 (𝑐𝑚3 )

● The specimen area for a circular specimen at any given point during the test can be
calculated using the following formula (Bareither et al., 2008):
○ where Ac is the corrected area, Ai the initial area, δh is the horizontal displacement
and D is the diameter of the shear box.

1 𝛿ℎ 2 𝛿 𝛿ℎ
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑥 cos −1 − 𝑥 𝑥 1 − ( )2
90 𝐷 𝜋 𝐷 𝐷

● The normal and shear stresses applied are calculated as following:

𝐹𝐻 𝐹𝑉
𝜏= 𝜎𝑛 =
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
What is the Triaxial Shear Test?
● Triaxial testing is a type of shear
test for solid materials performed
while the specimen is under
confining pressures on all sides.
● The confining pressures are
generated in a fluid chamber to
simulate stresses from surrounding
soil materials.
● It then can give a clearer picture of
the behavior of materials in place.
● This testing principle applies to
rocks, powders, and construction
materials, but this blog post will
focus on the triaxial shear testing
of soils.
 What is the Purpose of the Triaxial Test?
● The purpose of the various procedures is to
measure the triaxial shear strengths of soil
specimens subjected to different drainage
conditions in the field.
● The results provide valuable information for the
engineered design and construction of soil
embankments, pavements, and structure
foundations.
● Determining the mechanical behavior of soil
materials through triaxial testing helps ensure
that the soils supporting the structures are
adequate for the proposed use – and its
continued performance.
● Triaxial shear testing for soils is not just one test.
● Three different test methods, each one with
variable requirements based on soil types and
properties of individual specimens.
Triaxial Test Types
Field problem Test Type
There are three fundamental triaxial
UU – Quick triaxial
tests that can be conducted in the Tunnelling
CU – CD Effective stress
laboratory, each allowing the soil
response for differing engineering UU – Quick triaxial
applications to be observed: Landfill liners CU – CD Effective stress
● Unconsolidated Undrained test Triaxial permeability
(UU), also called quick triaxial
● Consolidated Undrained test UU – Quick triaxial
Foundation design
(CU) CU -CD Effective stress
● Consolidated Drained test (CD)
UU – Quick triaxial
Earth dams CU Effective stress
Triaxial permeability

UU – Quick triaxial
Slope stability
CU -CD Effective stress

Cut slope failure CU Effective stress

Instruments
● Triaxial Cells are chambers in a variety
of sizes where the prepared specimens
are mounted. A pressurized fluid,
usually water, in the cell creates
confining pressure around the sample.
Brass or stainless-steel fittings on the
cell control filling and draining while a
low-friction piston applies compressive
force to the specimen during testing.
● Pore Pressure Transducer is available
to measure the pressure of fluids within
the specimen during testing. This unit is
available as a stand-alone instrument
with an included digital readout.
 Typical Test Stages
Stage 1 – Saturation
The saturation process ensures that all voids within a test specimen are filled with water,
and that the pore pressure transducer and drainage lines are properly de-aired.

Stage 2 – Consolidation Stage 3 – Shear

After saturation, the specimen is normally
consolidated to a stress condition
representative of its in-situ condition.
The consolidation is normally isotropic –
stresses applied vertically and horizontally to
the sample are the same (σ3 = σ1). Once
the consolidation process has started, the
excess pore pressure in the specimen will start
to dissipate as the consolidation process drains
the water from the specimen, decreasing its
volume. This process is continued until the
volume change ΔV of the specimen is no longer
significant, and at least 95% of the excess pore
pressure has dissipated
Also called failure or compression stage, shear
test involves the specimen being sheared by
gradually increasing the axial force (σ1) (with a
constant axial strain rate), maintaining the
confining pressure (σ3), until the sample fails
(failure usually occurs within 20% of the axial
strain). In an undrained test, the specimen is not
allowed to drain – its volume will not change during
this stage but will change in shape, leading to a
pore pressure development that will be measured. If
drainage is allowed, water will drain from the
specimen during the shear stage, enabling the
volume and the shape of the sample to change
while preventing the pore pressure from changing.
 Procedures
1. The cylindrical soil sample is prepared in the lab using
a proper mould. The specimen is generally saturated
and has a depth ranging from 38 mm to 100 mm. The
height to diameter ratio of the sample is generally 2:1.
2. The cylindrical soil/rock specimen is vertically sealed
within a thin rubber membrane and placed between
two porous discs at the top and bottom end.
3. The cylindrical soil sample is then positioned between
loading plates and placed on a pedestal inside a
triaxial pressure chamber.
4. The pressure chamber is filled with water/fluid which
applies fluid pressure to the sides of the cylindrical soil
sample.
5. Vertical or axial stress is applied to the cylindrical
sample by applying force to the moveable top-loading
plate.
 With this method, the shear strength is measured in terms of total stress.
The soil specimen is not allowed to consolidate and must maintain its
original structure and water content, so that its compressive strength
UU test: depends on the level of geostatic stress in the field.

● This is the Unconsolidated Undrained test.

● This is a quick test, which takes around 15 mins.
● Minimum 3 samples with identical void ratio and water content are taken.
● Apply cell pressure and deviator stress with the undrained condition and no volume
change, no consolidation.
● Shear stress will be the same for all the samples as the void ratio and water content
would be the same.
● If we conduct the test for different cell pressures, the same increase in pore pressure
would be there. Hence the effective stress in the soil remains the same.
● In the field to know the immediate strength of the soil or to know the immediate stress
during construction we use this test.
 CU Test
This is the Consolidated Undrained test. It takes 24 hrs. for consolidation
and 2 hrs. for stage- II.
● After the consolidation, no excess pore pressure, but after this when
we apply the deviator stress again the pore water pressure will
develop.
● It can either be positive or negative depending upon the stress
history of soil.
● For Normally Consolidated soils, the pore water pressure would be
positive and tends to decrease in volume and pore water tries to
move out. (C=0 for NC clays)
● For over - consolidated soils, the pore water pressure would be
negative, and volume tries to increase and pore water tries to enter.
Effective stress would be more than total stress.
Here, the shear strength is measured in terms of effective stress. The specimen is saturated
and allowed to consolidate (soil consolidation is the process that changes its structure and
water content) at the required confining pressure. Once consolidated, the specimen is
subjected to a controlled application of load, during which no drainage is allowed so that
pore pressure can be measured.
 CD test
● When the loading is so gradual, then
no pore water pressure exists. This
field condition would be simulated to
find long term stability.

With this method, the shear strength is

measured in terms of effective stress. The
specimen is saturated and allowed to
consolidate at the required confining
pressure. Once consolidated, the specimen
is subjected to a controlled application of
load, during which moisture is allowed to
drain without the possibility of pore
pressure building up. Effective stress: It is calculated by subtracting the pore
water pressure (or pore pressure) from the total stress.
Mathematically, effective stress (σ′) can be expressed as:
σ′=σ−u