Soil &

Foundation
CIV 213
L4
Dr. Randa Fouad
 INTRODUCTION
o Proper design and construction of many structures such as:
• Retaining walls (basements walls, highways and railroads, platforms,
landscaping, and erosion controls)
• Braced excavations
• Anchored bulkheads
• Grain pressure on silo walls and bins
• Proper design requires a thorough knowledge of the lateral forces that act between
the retaining structures and the soil masses being retained.

Tie rod
Anchor

Sheet
pile

Cantilever retaining wall Braced excavation Anchored sheet pile

 INTRODUCTION
• These lateral forces are caused by lateral earth pressure.
• We have to estimate the lateral soil pressures acting on these structures, to be
able to design them.
• The magnitude and distribution of lateral earth pressure.

The lateral forces depends on many factors, such as:

❑ The shear strength parameters of the soil being retained,
❑ The inclination of the surface of the backfill,
❑ The height and inclination of the retaining wall at the wall– backfill interface,
❑ The nature of wall movement under lateral pressure,
❑ The adhesion and friction angle at the wall–backfill interface.
Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure
In a homogeneous natural soil deposit,
GL
s’v
s’h
X

• The ratio s h’/sv’ is a constant known as coefficient of lateral earth pressure.

• In other words, it is the ratio of the effective horizontal stress (sh’) to the effective
vertical stress (sv’); then

• Or in terms of total stresses

 Cases of Lateral Earth Pressure
• Three possible cases may arise concerning the retaining wall; they are described as follows:
o Case 1 If the wall AB is static—that is, if it does not move either to the right or to the left
of its initial position—the soil mass will be in a state of static equilibrium. In that case, sh is
referred to as the at-rest earth pressure.

➢ This is also the case before construction. A

The soil in the field by itself with no Unit weight of soil = g
external loads.
➢ Ratio of horizontal stress to vertical
σv z
stress is called coefficient of earth
pressure at- rest, Ko, or
σh = Ko σv
𝜎ℎ
𝐾𝑜 = 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑜 𝑥𝜎𝑣 = 𝐾𝑜 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝑍
𝜎𝑉
B AB is a frictionless wall that
extends to an infinite depth
where Ko at-rest earth pressure coefficient. Earth pressure at-rest
Cases of Lateral Earth Pressure
• Case 2: If the frictionless wall rotates sufficiently about its bottom to a position of A’B, then a
triangular soil mass ABC ’ adjacent to the wall will reach a state of plastic equilibrium and will fail
sliding down the plane BC ’

• Equally if wall AB is allowed to move away from the soil mass gradually, horizontal stress will
decrease, and the shearing resistance of the soil is mobilized.

In this case the soil is the ACTUATING ELEMENT Plastic equilibrium in soil refers to the
condition where every point in a soil mass is on
A
the verge of failure. ′
Unit weight of soil = g ′ ∆𝐿 𝑎𝐴
𝐶
𝐴

σv z 𝑍

σh = Ka σv
𝐾𝑎 𝜎𝑉′ = 𝜎ℎ′

Active earth pressure

B 𝐵
Cases of Lateral Earth Pressure
• Case 3: If the frictionless wall rotates sufficiently about its bottom to a position of A’B, then a
triangular soil mass ABC ’ adjacent to the wall will reach a state of plastic equilibrium and will fail
sliding upward the plane BC ’
• If the wall is pushed into the soil mass, σh will increase and the shearing resistance of the soil is
mobilized. The lateral earth pressure, σh, is
In this case the retaining wall is the ACTUATING called passive earth pressure
ELEMENT and the soil provided the resistance for
maintaining stability
𝐴
∆𝐿𝑃 ′
𝐴 𝐶′
A
Unit weight of soil = g
𝑍

σv z
𝐾𝑃 𝜎𝑉′ = 𝜎ℎ′
σh = KP σv

𝐵
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure
B
Note on Active and Passive

Active
Wedge

Passive
Wedge

o Typically passive earth pressure is developed by anchor plates or blocks, embedded in the soil and
where the anchor rod or cable tension pulls the anchor into/against the soil to develop passive
resistance. Walls are seldom designed for passive pressure.

o In most retaining walls of limited height, movement may occur by simple translation or, more
frequently, by rotation about the bottom.
Variation of the Magnitude of Lateral Earth
Pressure with Wall Tilt 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑃

H
For the active and passive
(Rankine cases), a sufficient
yielding of the wall is
necessary for a state of
Earth Pressure, 𝝈𝒉
plastic equilibrium to exist. Passive earth pressure, sp

Movement could be either Passive state

rotation or also occur by simple
translation.

K0 state
Active state active earth pressure, sa
Wall Tilt
𝑳𝒂ൗ 𝑳𝑷ൗ
𝑯 𝑯
Active vs. Passive Earth Pressures
Active earth pressure:
When the wall moves away from the backfill, there is a decrease in the
pressure on the wall and this decrease continues until a minimum value has
reached after which there is no reduction in the pressure and the value will
become constant. This kind of pressure is known as active earth pressure
Wall moves away
from soil
Passive earth pressure:
When the wall moves towards the
back fill, there is an increase in the
pressure on the wall and this increase
A
Wall moves
continues until a maximum value has
reached after which there is no
towards soil
increase in the pressure and the value
will become constant. This kind of P
pressure is known as passive earth
pressure.
smooth wall
NOTES
Active or passive condition will only
be reached if the wall is allowed to
yield sufficiently. The amount of wall
necessary depends on:-
• Soil type (sand vs. clay)
• Soil density (Loose vs. dense)
• Pressure (Active vs. passive)
Lateral Earth Pressure
● Many theoretical theories are developed to estimate the acting
lateral earth pressure, each theory has its own assumptions. So,
during application, it should be considered the compatibility
between the theory and the retaining structure conditions.

● Rankine (1857)
○ Presented a solution for lateral earth pressures in retaining
walls based on the theory of plastic equilibrium.

○ Assumed that:
■ Vertical wall
■ Smooth retaining wall
■ Horizontal ground surface
■ Homogeneous soil
Lateral Earth Pressure
Active case:
○ 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜎𝑉′ 𝑥𝐾𝑎 − 2𝐶 ′ 𝑥 𝐾𝑎
○ 𝜎𝑉′ = 𝑞 + σ 𝛾𝑥ℎ

• For smooth vertical wall and horizontal ground surface

1−sin ∅
○ 𝐾𝑎 =
1+sin ∅

• For smooth vertical wall and Inclined surface

cos 𝛽− cos 𝛽 2 −cos ∅
o 𝐾𝑎 = cos 𝛽
cos 𝛽+ cos 𝛽 2 −cos ∅
Lateral Earth Pressure
Passive case:
○ 𝑃𝑃 = 𝜎𝑉′ 𝑥𝐾𝑃 − 2𝐶 ′ 𝑥 𝐾𝑃

• For smooth vertical wall and horizontal ground surface

1+sin ∅
○ 𝐾𝑃 =
1−sin ∅

• For smooth vertical wall and Inclined surface

cos 𝛽+ cos 𝛽 2 −cos ∅
o 𝐾𝑃 = cos 𝛽
cos 𝛽− cos 𝛽 2 −cos ∅
 Lateral Earth Pressure
● Where
○ 𝑃𝑎 ∶ Effective active earth pressure.
○ 𝑃𝑃 ∶ Effective passive earth pressure.
○ 𝜎𝑉′ : Effective vertical pressure.
○ 𝐾𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝑃 : Rankine’s coefficient of active and passive earth pressure.
○ 𝐶 ′ and ∅ : Effective cohesion and angle of friction.
○ β: Inclination angle of ground surface.
Earth Pressure Distribution
I. Cohesionless soils (C=0)
1. Horizontal Ground Surface
1
Active Case:
𝐻 • The total Lateral Earth Active for per unit
sv length of the wall (Pa )
• Area of Earth pressure diagram
sh 1
Pa Pa = 𝑥𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻2
2
H/3
Point of application of Pa
2
𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻
H/3 from the base
Earth Pressure Distribution
1
Passive Case:
sv
➢ The total Lateral Earth Passive force per unit
length of the wall (Pp )
sh ➢ Area of Earth pressure diagram
𝐻 1 2
Pp= 𝑥𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻
PP 2

H/3

2 Point of application of Pp
𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻
H/3 from the base

The total lateral passive force per unit length of the wall is the area of the diagram
Earth Pressure Distribution
2. Effect of Surcharge Active Case:
𝑞 𝑘𝑁ൗ 2
𝑚 1
1 • 𝑃𝑎1 = 2 𝑥𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻2

• 𝑃𝑎2 = 𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝑞
sv
The resultant Force acting on the wall
Pa2
𝐻 sh 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑃𝑎1 + 𝑃𝑎2
Pa1
H/2
H/3 o Point of application of Resultant
𝑍

2 𝐻 𝐻
𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝑞 𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻 𝑃𝑎1 𝑥 + (𝑃𝑎2 𝑥 )
𝑍= 3 2
𝑅𝑎
𝑃𝑎2 = 𝐾𝑎 𝑥(𝑞 + 𝛾𝐻)
 Earth Pressure Distribution
2. Effect of Surcharge Passive Case:
𝑞 𝑘𝑁ൗ 2
𝑚 1
1 • 𝑃𝑃1 = 2 𝑥𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻2

• 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝑞
sv

PP2 The resultant Force acting on the wall

𝐻 sh 𝑅𝑃
PP1 𝑅𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2
H/2
H/3 𝑍
o Point of application of Resultant
2 𝐻 𝐻
𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝑞 𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻 𝑃𝑃1 𝑥 + (𝑃𝑃2 𝑥 )
𝑍= 3 2
𝑅𝑃
𝑃𝑃2 = 𝐾𝑃 𝑥(𝑞 + 𝛾𝐻)
Earth Pressure Distribution
3. Effect of G.W.T

➢ The presence of water will have two effects:

• The use of effective unit weight when calculating the lateral pressure for the
given submerged soil.

• In addition to the lateral force for the soil we add Pw.

➢ The effect of water is the same for at-rest, active, or passive.

 Earth Pressure Distribution
3. Effect of G.W.T Active Case:
1
𝑃𝑎1 = 𝑥𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻12
2
𝐻1 𝛾1 &𝜑1 𝑃𝑎2 = 𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻1 𝑥𝐻2
Pa1
1
𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻1 H1/3 GWT 𝑃𝑎3 = 𝑥𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑥𝐻22
2
Ra 1
𝑃𝑤 = 𝑥𝛾𝑤 𝑥𝐻22
2
Pa2
𝐻2 Z
Pw
Pa3 𝛾1 &𝜑1 The resultant Force acting on the wall
H2/3
𝛾𝑤 𝑥𝐻2 Ra = Pa1 + Pa2 + Pa3 + Pw
𝐾𝑎 𝑥 𝛾1 𝑥𝐻1 + 𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑥𝐻2
𝐻1 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
𝑃𝑎1 𝐻2 + + 𝑃𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑃𝑎3 𝑥 2 + 𝑃𝑤 𝑥 2
3 2 3 3
Point of application of Resultant 𝑍=
𝑅𝑎
 Earth Pressure Distribution
3. Effect of G.W.T Passive Case:
1
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑥𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻12
2
𝐻1 𝛾1 &𝜑1 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻1 𝑥𝐻2
Pp1
1
𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻1 H1/3 𝑃𝑃3 = 𝑥𝐾𝑃 𝑥𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑥𝐻22
GWT 2
Rp 1
𝑃𝑤 = 𝑥𝛾𝑤 𝑥𝐻22
2
Pp2
𝐻2 Z
Pw
Pp3 The resultant Force acting on the wall
H2/3
𝛾1 &𝜑1 𝛾𝑤 𝑥𝐻2
Rp = PP1 + PP2 + PP3 + Pw
𝐾𝑃 𝑥 𝛾1 𝑥𝐻1 + 𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑥𝐻2
Point of application of Resultant 𝐻1 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
𝑃𝑃1 𝐻2 + + 𝑃𝑃2 𝑥 2 + 𝑃𝑃3 𝑥 2 + 𝑃𝑤 𝑥 2
𝑍= 3 2 3 3
𝑅𝑃
 Earth Pressure Distribution
4. Layered Profile Active Case:
Because of different F, the upper and
lower layer will have different lateral
𝛾1 &𝜑1
earth coefficients.
𝐻1 Pa1 1
𝑃𝑎1 = 𝑥𝐾𝑎1 𝑥𝛾1 𝑥𝐻12
1 2
Ka2 H1 𝑃𝑎2 = 𝐾𝑎2 𝑥𝛾1 𝑥𝐻1 𝑥𝐻2
𝛾2 &𝜑2 1
Pa2 𝑃𝑎3 = 𝑥𝐾𝑎2 𝑥𝛾2 𝑥𝐻22
𝐻2 2
Pa3
The Resultant Force acting on the wall
Ra = Pa1 + Pa2 + Pa3
𝐾𝑎 𝑥 𝛾1 𝑥𝐻1 + 𝛾2 𝑥𝐻2
 Earth Pressure Distribution
4. Layered Profile Passive Case:
Because of different F, the upper and
lower layer will have different lateral
𝛾1 &𝜑1
earth coefficients.
𝐻1 𝑃𝑃1 1
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑥𝐾𝑃1 𝑥𝛾1 𝑥𝐻12
1 2
Ka2 H1 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝐾𝑃2 𝑥𝛾1 𝑥𝐻1 𝑥𝐻2
𝑃𝑃2 𝛾2 &𝜑2 1
𝑃𝑃3 = 𝑥𝐾𝑃2 𝑥𝛾2 𝑥𝐻22
𝐻2 2
𝑃𝑃3
The Resultant Force acting on the wall
Ra = PP1 + PP2 + PP3
𝐾𝑎 𝑥 𝛾1 𝑥𝐻1 + 𝛾2 𝑥𝐻2
Example (1):
A retaining wall 6.00 m high has a smooth vertical back. The backfill is sand
with a horizontal surface at the top of the wall. The density of the backfill is 1.80
t/m3, its angle of shearing resistance (angle of internal friction) is 300. Draw
active pressure distribution diagram and find its magnitude and point of
application per unit length of the wall.
1
Solution Sand
1 − sin ∅ 1 − sin 30 ∅ = 30
𝐾𝑎 = = = 0.33 𝛾 = 1.8 𝑡ൗ 3
1 + sin ∅ 1 + sin 30 𝑚

6.00 m
𝑃𝑎 = 𝜎𝑉′ 𝑥𝐾𝑎 − 2𝐶 ′ 𝑥 𝐾𝑎 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑅𝑎
1
𝑃𝑎1 = 2 𝑥𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻2 = 0.5𝑥0.33𝑥1.8𝑥62 = 10.8 𝑡Τ𝑚′ 𝐻
3
2
Example (2):
A retaining wall 8.00 m high has a smooth vertical back. The backfill is sand
with a horizontal surface at the top of the wall. The density of the backfill is 1.85
t/m3, its angle of shearing resistance (angle of internal friction) is 30o. There is
a uniform distributed surcharge load of 2.00 t/m2. Draw active pressure
diagram, and find its magnitude and point of application. 𝑞 = 2 𝑡ൗ 2
𝑚
1 − sin ∅ 1 − sin 30 1
Solution 𝐾 𝑎 = = = 0.33
1 + sin ∅ 1 + sin 30 Sand
1 ∅ = 30
2 2
𝑃𝑎1 = 𝑥𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝛾𝑥𝐻 = 0.5𝑥0.33𝑥1.8𝑥8 = 19 𝛾 = 1.8 𝑡ൗ 3
2 𝑚
𝑃𝑎1

8.00 m
𝑃𝑎2 = 𝐾𝑎 𝑥𝑞𝑥𝐻 = 0.33𝑥2𝑥8 = 5.28 𝑅𝑎
𝑃𝑎2
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑃𝑎1 + 𝑃𝑎2 = 19 + 5.28 = 24.288 𝑍
𝐻 𝐻
𝐻 𝐻 8 8 2 3
𝑃𝑃1 𝑥 + (𝑃𝑃2 𝑥 ) 19𝑥 + (5.28𝑥 )
𝑍= 3 2 = 3 4 = 2.95 𝑚
𝑃 24.288
 Example (3):
A vertical wall 8.00 m high supports a cohesive backfill with a horizontal surface. The back
fill has a density of 1.90 t/m3, angle of internal friction 200 and cohesion of 0.10 kg/cm2.
Calculate the depth of tension cracks and draw the active pressure diagram and its
magnitude and point of application.
1 − sin ∅ 1 − sin 20
𝐾𝑎 = = = 0.49 𝑃𝑎1
1 + sin ∅ 1 + sin 20 1
𝑃𝑎1 = 𝛾𝑥𝐻𝑥𝐾𝑎 − 2𝐶 ′ 𝑥 𝐾𝑎 = 1.9𝑥0𝑥0.49 − (2𝑥1𝑥 0.49 = −1.4 𝑡ൗ 2 𝛾 = 1.9 𝑡ൗ 3
𝑚 𝑚
∅ = 20
𝑃𝑎2 = 𝛾𝑥𝐻𝑥𝐾𝑎 − 2𝐶 ′ 𝑥 𝐾𝑎 = 1.9𝑥8𝑥0.49 − (2𝑥1𝑥 0.49 = 6.05 𝑡ൗ 2 𝑐 = 1 𝑡ൗ 2

8.00 m
𝑚 𝑚

Depth of tension cracks (at Pa = 0) → 0 = 𝛾𝑥𝐻𝑐𝑟 𝑥𝐾𝑎 − 2𝐶 ′ 𝑥 𝐾𝑎 𝑃𝑎

1.9𝑥𝐻𝑐𝑟 𝑥0.49 − (2𝑥1𝑥 0.49 = 1.5 𝑚
𝐻 − 𝐻𝑐𝑟
𝑃𝑎 = 0.5𝑥6.05𝑥 8 − 1.50 = 19.64 𝑡ൗ𝑚′ 3
2 𝑃𝑎2
 Retaining wall
● Retaining wall are structures used to support earth or other materials, the
most common types may be classified into five main types.
Types of retaining walls
Types of retaining walls
● Gravity wall: It depends upon its own weight to resist the earth
pressure.
● Semi gravity wall: A small amount of reinforcing steel is used to
reduce the mass.
● Cantilever wall: It is a reinforced concrete wall in the form of an
inverted T. It is economical for walls of heights up to 8.0 m.
● Counterfort wall: The vertical slab and the base slab tied together by
counterforts placed at suitable intervals along the wall to reduce the
bending moments and shears.
● Buttressed wall: It is similar to counterfort wall except that
counterforts called buttresses are provided in front of the wall and in
compression instead of tension.
Stability of retaining wall

𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑂.𝑇.𝑀)

Check for overturning about its toe. 𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆 = > 1.5
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑆.𝑀)
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑅.𝐹)
Check for sliding failure along its base. 𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆 = > 1.5
𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑆.𝐹)

Check for bearing capacity failure of the base.

Check for settlement.
Check for overall stability.