Soil &

Foundation
CIV 213
L5
Dr. Randa Fouad
 Shear strength of soil
● If we place an object on a rough surface and apply both
𝐹𝑣
vertical 𝐹𝑣 and horizontal forces 𝐹𝐻 on it, we find that
there is a horizontal force generated between the
surfaces as resistance. This force resulting from the
friction between the surfaces is called 𝐹𝑓𝑟.
𝐹𝐻
Rough surface
𝐹𝑓𝑟 = 𝐹𝐻
𝐹𝑓𝑟.
● By increasing 𝐹𝐻 the frictional resistance 𝐹𝑓𝑟 increases ∅
until it reaches its maximum value. At this point, the 𝑅 𝐹𝑣
object is on the verge of motion (at the collapse stage),
where the value of the frictional resistance 𝐹𝑓𝑟 ceases at At failure
the moment of collapse is determined by the vertical
force and the roughness of the surfaces.
𝐹𝑓𝑟 = 𝜇 . 𝐹𝑣

𝐹𝑓𝑟 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑛𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝜇 = Coefficient of friction between the two surfacws
 Shear strength of soil
● 𝐹𝑉 = 𝑅 cos ∅ To increase resistance of the objective to
movement, we can use epoxy between to
𝐹𝑉 surface
● 𝑅=
cos ∅
● 𝐹𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑥 𝐴
● 𝐹𝑓𝑟 = 𝑅 sin ∅ ○ C = Cohesion between the two surface
○ A = Area of contact between the two
surfaces
𝐹𝑉
● 𝐹𝑓𝑟 = . sin ∅
cos ∅
● → 𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹𝑓𝑟 + 𝐹𝐶
● → 𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹𝑉 tan ∅ + 𝐶𝑥𝐴 divided by A
● 𝐹𝑓𝑟 = 𝐹𝑉 tan ∅ 𝐹𝐻 𝐹
● → = 𝑉 tan ∅ + 𝐶
𝐴 𝐴
Shear strength of soil
• Coulomb (1776) observed that there was a stress-dependent component of shear strength
and a stress-independent component.
• The stress-dependent component is similar to sliding friction in solids described above. The
other component is related to the intrinsic COHESION of the material. Coulomb proposed the
following equation for shear strength of soil:

𝜏 = 𝐶 + 𝜎𝑛 tan 𝜑
𝜏
cohesion Friction

𝜏𝑓 =shear strength of soil (Shear stress between the two surfaces at failure)
∅
𝜎𝑛 =Applied normal stress acting on the plane of failure
C = Cohesion between the two surface
∅ = Angle of friction between two surface (or angle of C
shearing resistance) 𝜎
Shear strength of soil
● Shear Stress: Shear stress in soil refers to the force per unit area that acts parallel to the
surface of the soil. It is induced by external loads or displacements and causes adjacent soil
particles to move relative to each other. Shear stress is a critical parameter in analyzing the
stability of soil slopes, retaining walls, and foundations

● Shear Strength: Shear strength in soil refers to the maximum shear stress that the soil can
sustain without failure. It is a fundamental property of soil that governs its stability and
behavior under various loading conditions. Shear strength is typically expressed as a
combination of cohesion and frictional resistance between soil particles and is essential in
geotechnical engineering for designing safe and reliable structures.

● Shear Resistance: Shear resistance in soil is the ability of the soil to withstand shear stress
without failure or excessive deformation. It represents the internal resistance of the soil
against shearing forces and is influenced by factors such as soil type, density, moisture
content, and particle size distribution. Shear resistance is crucial in determining the stability
and bearing capacity of soil structures.
 Shear strength of soil
There are three main types of shear strength in soil:

𝜏 𝜏 𝜏

∅ ∅

C C C
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝐶 − 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 ∅ − 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐶 − ∅ 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙
 Shear strength of soil
● Definition:
○ Shear strength of soil refers to the soil's The strength of the soil resists
ability to resist the forces acting on it and the shear due is to applied load
causing the sliding of its different layers called shear strength. The soil
relative to each other. has shear strength due to
• The interlocking of particles
● Factors: Shear strength of soil depends on provide resistance
several factors, including: • Friction between the soil
particles
○ Physical properties of the soil such as grain
• Adhesion between the soil
composition, moisture content, void ratio particles.
and consistency limits.
○ Vertical pressure applied to the soil.
○ Environmental effects such as moisture and
temperature variations.
Shear strength of soil

• Shear strength determination is a very important

aspect in geotechnical engineering. Understanding
shear strength is the basis to analyze soil stability
problems like:
• Bearing capacity.
• Lateral pressure on earth retaining structures
• Slope stability
 Bearing Capacity Failure

In most foundations and

earthwork engineering, failure
results from excessive applied
shear stresses.
Slope failure

The soil grains slide over each other

along the failure surface.

At failure, shear
stress along the
failure surface (t)
reaches the shear
strength (tf).
Slope failure
Failure of Retaining Walls
Retaining
wall

Retaining Mobilized shear

wall resistance

Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface (mobilized shear

resistance) reaches the shear strength.
 Combined stresses in soil
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 )
𝜎𝑦
When studying the stresses acting on any inclined plane at an
angle of 𝜃 in a soil sample due to exposure to vertical stresses
of 𝜎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑦 as depicted in the figure, we find that this plane is
subjected to two types of stresses.

𝜎𝑥 Normal stresses (𝜎𝑛 )

𝜎𝑦 𝜎 sin 𝜃
𝜃 𝜎𝑥 𝜃 𝑦
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 sin 𝜃
𝜎3
𝜃
𝜎𝑦 𝜃 𝜎𝑥
Shear stresses (𝜎𝑛 )
𝜎𝑥 cos 𝜃
𝑆 = 𝜎𝑥 sin 𝜃 − 𝜎𝑦 cos 𝜃
𝜎𝑦
 Combined stresses in soil
• The values of vertical stresses and
shear stresses acting on any plane in
the sample can be determined in two
ways:
o Using principles of equilibrium
and relationships between
stresses, such as the general
equilibrium equation for the third
axis.

o Using the Mohr circle for stresses,

where the Mohr circle can be
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝜃 = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
plotted using known stresses on 2
two different planes and utilizing
the properties of the Mohr circle 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
to determine the stresses on the 𝜎𝜃 = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
desired plane.
Combined stresses in soil
● Major Principal Plane “𝜎1 ”:
○ The major principal plane is the plane within the soil mass along which the
maximum normal stress acts. In other words, it's the plane where the soil
experiences the greatest compressive stress and shear stress equals zero.
○ In terms of Mohr's Circle, the major principal plane corresponds to the larger of
the two principal stresses.
• Minor Principal Plane “𝜎3 ”:
o The minor principal plane is the plane within the soil mass along which the
minimum normal stress acts. It's the plane experiencing the least compressive
stress and shear stress equals zero.
o In Mohr's Circle, the minor principal plane corresponds to the smaller of the two
principal stresses.

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 2 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 2
𝜎1 = + ( ) +𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜎3 = − ( ) +𝜏𝑧𝑥
2 2 2 2
Mohr circle “Graphical method”
● The Mohr Circle is a graphical method used in engineering and geology to represent
the state of stress at a point in a material subjected to external loads. It was developed
by the German engineer Otto Mohr in 1882.

● In the Mohr Circle, the horizontal axis represents normal stresses, and the vertical axis
represents shear stresses. Given the normal stress and shear stress acting on two
mutually perpendicular planes at a point, the Mohr Circle allows engineers to determine
the principal stresses, maximum shear stress, and orientation of the principal stress
planes.

● Mohr’s circle represents stress and strain at different planes for a stressed body in a
two-dimensional space. The concept of Mohr’s circle is used in Soil Mechanics and the
Strength of Materials to find the stress and strains at different planes.

● In the Mohr circle, point A on the circumference represents the value of the normal
stress and the shear stress acting on one of the inclined planes within the sample. The
Mohr circle is drawn using two points, A and B, where:
 Sign Convention
• The sign convention for normal stress (σ) is that tension is positive, and compression
is negative.

• Shear stress (τ) is illustrated below. Geotechnical engineers may use the opposite sign
conventions, because they mostly deal with compressive stress
Using the Mohr circle “Graphical method”
● From the previous equations, we find that the relationship between the
vertical stresses and the shear stresses acting on any plane in the sample is
represented by a circle equation centered at the origin (m) and with a radius
of (r). This circle is called the Mohr circle.
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎1 + 𝜎3
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝑚= −− −𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑆 2
2 2

𝜎1 + 𝜎3
𝑚= −− −𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡
2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 2
𝑟= ( ) +𝜏 𝜎𝑛
2 𝜎3 𝜎1
𝑀
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝑟=( )
2
Mohr circle “Graphical method”
The plane of maximum
shear strength
● The plane of maximum shear
strength corresponds to the
point on Mohr's circle where
the circle intersects the
horizontal axis. This point
represents the normal stress
value where the shear stress
is maximum.

𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
 Pole Method
● Most mechanics of materials textbooks prefer using the Double Angle Method to draw
Mohr’s circles. The general idea of this approach is that angles between radial lines in the
Mohr’s circle are twice the actual angles between the real planes. In other words, a 40°
rotation on the plane corresponds to an 80° rotation on the circle in the same direction

➢ Pole Method is based on a unique point

on the Mohr’s circle known as the pole.
➢ This pole is unique, because any straight
line drawn through the pole intersects the
Mohr’s circle at a point representing the
state of stress on a plane with the same
orientation as the line.
➢ As shown in the figure above, a line
drawn through the pole and some stress
point (σ,𝜏) on the circle is exactly
parallel to the plane with corresponding σ
and 𝜏, making this approach very intuitive
Pole Method for Finding Stresses on a Plane
How to determine the location of the Pole? sy
tyx
F
txy y x
Shear stress, t

sx sx

(sx, txy) (sn, tn) on plane EF

q txy
E
tyx
sy

2q Normal stress,
s
q
(sy, -txy)
P

1. From a point of known stress coordinates and plane orientation, draw a line parallel to
the plane where the stress is acting on.

2. The line intersecting the Mohr circle is the pole, P.

Normal and Shear Stress along a Plane
Using the Pole to Determine Principal Planes

sy
Shear stress, t

tyx
F
txy
sx sx
(sx, txy) s1
txy
E
tyx
sy
s3
Normal stress, s

qp
Direction of Major
P (sy, -txy)
Principal Plane
Direction of Minor
Principal Plane
Example
Immediately, we know the two points that form the diameter of the circle, (σx,𝜏xy) =
(80,40) and (σy,𝜏yx) = (20,-40). (If you are asking why 𝜏yx is -40, remember the sign
convention for shear stress!) The center of the circle is the halfway point between
σx and σy, or σavg.

𝝉 (+)
 Locate the Pole
Draw a straight line from one of the
known stress points on the circle (σ,τ) in
the direction of the plane on which (σ,τ)
acts. Starting at point (80,40), a line is
drawn parallel to the plane on which
(80,40) acts. This is represented by the
vertical dotted green line in the figure
below. Starting at point (20,-40), a
second line is drawn parallel to the plane
on which (20,-40) acts. This is represented
by the horizontal dotted pink line in the
same figure below. The pole is at the
intersection of these dotted lines on the
circle. Note that there is only ONE pole! 𝝉 (+)
Find Transformed Stresses (e.g. 30°
CCW Rotation)
Let us assume a 30° counterclockwise (CCW)
rotation of the element. Starting at the pole, to
find the transformed counterpart of (20,-40), we
draw a new line that is 30° CCW from the
existing dotted pink line. The transformed
stresses on this plane is where the new pink line
intersects the circle. Similarly, to find the
transformed counterpart of (80,40), we draw a
new line from the pole that is 30° CCW from the
existing dotted green line. The transformed
stresses on this plane is where the new green
line intersects the circle. Staying consistent with
the rules, the new lines are parallel to their 𝝉 (+)
corresponding planes. The transformed stresses
are (0.4,99.9)
Check with Analytical Method
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝜃 = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

80 + 20 80 − 20
𝜎𝜃 = + cos 2𝑥30 + 40 sin 2𝑥30 = 99.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝜃 = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

80 + 20
𝜏𝜃 = −( sin 2𝑥30) + (40 cos 2𝑥30) = −5.98 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
Check with Analytical Method
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝜃 = + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

20 + 80 20 − 80
𝜎𝜃 = + cos 2𝑥30 − 40 sin 2𝑥30 = 0.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝜃 = − sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

20 + 80
𝜏𝜃 = −( sin 2𝑥30) − (40 cos 2𝑥30) = 5.98 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
 Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Similar to finding transformed stresses, we draw
lines from the pole to where τ = 0, or the two
“x-intercepts” on the circle. The major and
minor principal stresses are 100MPa and 0MPa,
respectively. The angle, or the rotation required
to reach zero shear stress on the plane, is
measured between either pair of the original
(dotted) line and the new line connecting the 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝟏
pole to the “x-intercept”.

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 2
𝜎1 = + ( ) +𝜏𝑧𝑥
2 2

80 + 20 80 − 20 2
𝜎1 = + ( ) +402 = 100
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2 2 80 + 20 80 − 20 2
𝜎3 = − ( ) +𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜎3 = − ( ) +402 = 0
2 2 2 2
Example: Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Example: Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Example: Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Example: Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Example: Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Example: Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Example: Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Example: Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Example: Mohr circle “Graphical method”
Mohr circle “Pole method”
Example
● A sample pf soil (0.1 m x 0.1 m) is subjected to the forces shown in the
following Figure, determine :
○ 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜓
○ The maximum shear stress
○ The stresses on a plane oriented at
30𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.1𝑥0.1 = 0.01𝑚2

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 3
𝜎𝑥 = = = 300 𝐾𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 0.01
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 5
𝜎𝑧 = = = 500 𝐾𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 0.01
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 1
𝜏𝑍𝑋 = = = 100 𝐾𝑝𝑎
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 0.01
Using principles of equilibrium

𝜎𝑍 + 𝜎𝑋 𝜎𝑍 − 𝜎𝑋 2 2 500 + 300 500 − 300 2

𝜎1 = + ( ) +𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜎1 = + ( ) +1002 = 541.4
2 2 2 2

2
𝜎𝑍 + 𝜎𝑋 𝜎𝑍 − 𝜎𝑋 2 2 500 + 300 500 − 300
𝜎3 = − ( ) +𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜎3 = − + 1002 = 258.6
2 2 2 2

𝜎1 − 𝜎3 541.4 − 258.8
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 141.4
2 2
Mohr circle “Graphical method”
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION