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Social Work Review Notes
Human Behavior and Social Environment
The Knowledge Foundation of Social Work
Like all other professions, social work derives
knowledge from a variety of sources, i.e. borrowed
knowledge generated and tested in the basic disciplines
(psychology, anthropology, sociology, etc.).
Human Behavior and Social Environment is
one of the core topics in social work. It is concerned
with the materials necessary for understanding the
client in his problem situation, the dynamics of
individual and group behavior and of group and
community processes which affect or influence the
individual, the group and the community. It is also
concerned with content about normal and deviant
behaviors.
Human Behavior and Social Environment
focus on knowledge about individual as a bio- psycho-
social being, the interaction between him/her and the
physical, social, cultural, political and economic forces
in the environment which affects of influence behavior.
They interact in a dynamic way. Throughout his life,
man, in his continuous desire and attempt to live a life
that is acceptable, satisfying, productive and
evolutionary, must establish a condition of equilibrium
between his needs and the demands imposed upon him
by his social environment. In other words, if an
individual is not able to satisfy his needs because of
Personality
personal inadequacies, a harsh and difficult social
environment where opportunities for his growth and
development are not adequate to enable him to cope
with the problems of living, then as a result of inability
to establish equilibrium, his social functioning is
impaired.
The phrase “the individual is a biopsychosocial
being” means that there are inseparable, interacting
forces- biological, psychological and social that
influence human behavior and personality.
 Biological Component – would include the
individual’s state of health and nutrition,
genetics and natural physical endowments at
birth, normal biological growth and
development as well as deviation from normal
functioning including illnesses and physical
disabilities,
 The psychological component is concerned
with individual’s personality, comprising what
is commonly termed “inner states” which
include perceptual or intellectual, emotional
 and striving tendency to do actively or
purposely.
 The social component includes hereunder
elements
o Societal- aggregate data and social
climate in which we live, regardless of
whether or not people are aware or
accept them, such as poverty and
unemployment.
o Institutional- organizational
arrangements in society, such as
family, government, education and
social services.
o Status- characteristics of persons and
their position in society as seen in the
way persons are described, i.e age,
sex, race and religion.
o normative – the forms in which social
behavior are expressed and the social
rules that shape these forms.
o interactive – the type of interaction
and perception of interaction made of
self and others that are a basis of
behavior.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
– comes from the Latin word “per” and sonare”
which means to sound through.
- dynamic organization within an individual of
psychological system that determines his or
her characteristics, behavior and thoughts,
(Allport’s definition)
- is sometimes defined as person’s public self,
what he or she selects to display to the world.
(Jung’s concept of persona)
- is generally defined as the individual’s unique
and relatively stable patterns of behavior,
thoughts and emotion. (Burger, 1990).
- most personality theories agree that
personality can be described in terms of
consistent behavior patterns. The tendency to
respond consistently to various situations is
what gives a person identity.
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Erroneous Methods of Assessing Personality b.) Primary Process – attempts to

1.) First Impression – it gives some people a clue discharge tension by forming an image
to the pattern of the observed individual. They of an object that will remove the
then brand that person as a certain “personality tension.
type” and ascribe to him or her supposed
characteristics of that type. 2.) Ego – operates on a reality principle
- A first impression may be used on physical - comes into existence because the needs of the
appearance, facial features or expressions, organism require appropriate transactions with
mannerisms, style of dressing, name, the objective world of reality. The hungry
nationality, race, what a person says and how it person has to seek, find and eat food before the
is said, what one does and how it is done, or tension of hunger can be eliminated.
some other physical or physiological - This means that the person has to learn to
characteristic which is identified in the mind of differentiate between a memory image of food
the observer with a certain kind of personality and actual perception of food as it exists in the
type or stereotype. outer world which is accomplished by locating
food in the environment.
2.) Pseudo-scientific Methods
a.) Physiognomy - this is a method of 3.) Super ego – moral arm of the personality
judging personality through the measurement and - the human organism is not born with a super
study of person’s physical features, most especially ego, rather children must acquire it through
facial features. interaction with parents, teachers and other
- the underlying assumption is that physical formative agents.
features are closely related with personality - 2 subsystems
traits.  Conscience
- The physiognomist uses physical features,  Ego – ideal
such as the distance between the eyes, the size
and shape of the chin and the color of the hair, Psychosexual Stages of Development
as clues to assess personality characteristics.  Oral Stage- 0-2 years
 Anal – from age 2-3
b.) Phrenology - in this method,  Phallic - from age 3-5 or 6
personality is judged by the size and shape of  Latency- from 6-12
the skull.
 Genitals- 12 and above
c.) Graphology - this method uses a
ORAL – PASSIVE CHARACTER – describes as
person’s handwriting to know his or her
dependent to others. They often retain even to
personality. General penmanship and the way a
excessive eating, drinking and smoking. They are
letter is formed have a corresponding
seeking the pleasure they missed in infancy.
personality characteristic.
ORAL- AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY – when we
SIGMUND FREUD
begin teething, one satisfying thing to do when you are
(Psychoanalytic Theory)
teething is to bite on something like mommy’s nipple.
Structure of Personality
- If this precipitates an early weaning, one may
1.) ID – present at birth which includes instincts
develop this verbally aggressive, argumentative,
- operates on a pleasure principle.
sarcastic personality.
2 Command Process in accomplishing its aim of
ANAL- EXPULSIVE PERSONALITY – some parents
avoiding pain and obtaining pleasure:
put themselves at the child’s mercy in the process of
a.) Reflex Action – inborn and automatic
toilet training. They beg, they cajole, they show great
reactions like sneezing and blinking
joy when one does it right, they act as though their
thus usually reduce tension
hearts were broken when the child does it right. The
immediately.
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child is the king of the house. These people maybe
cruel, destructive and given to vandalism.
ANAL RETENTIVE PERSONALITY – when parents
are strict. They maybe competing with their neighbors
and relatives as to whom can potty train their child first
(early potty training being associated with great
minds).
- These people are turned out to be clean,
perfectionist, dictatorial and stubborn.
Alfred Adler
(INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY)
- One of the two most prominent figures who
broke with Freud and went on to establish their
own original system of thought is Alfred
Adler.
- The cornerstone of Adler’s system is the view
that the person cannot be separated from the
social community.
- Adler described his childhood as a difficult and
unhappy time. He enjoyed a warm relationship
with his mother during his first 2 years of life,
but he lost that pampered position when his
younger brother was born.
Central Concepts of Individual Psychology
1.) Inferiority Feelings and Compensation
- People with physical disabilities often strive to
compensate for their weakness or defects.
i.e.
Demosthenes (a child stutterer, became one of
the world’s greatest orator.)
Wilma Rudolph (physically handicapped as a
child, went on to win 3 Olympic gold medals in track.
Theodore Roosevelt (a weak and sickly child,
became a specimen of physical fitness as an adult as
well as President of the United States.
- Thus, organ inferiority that is congenitally
weak or poor functioning organs can lead to
striking accomplishment in a person’s life. But
it can also lead to excessive feelings of
inferiority, if the person’s attempts at
compensation are unsuccessful.
- Feeling of inferiority begins in infancy and this
early inferiority feelings mark the beginning of
a lifelong struggle to achieve superiority over
the environment as well as perfection and
completion.
3 Childhood Handicaps as Contribution to
Inferiority feelings:
A. Inferior Organs – children are born with
inferior physical organ.
B. Overindulged Children grow up lacking
confidence in their abilities because others
have always done things for them.
C. Parental Neglect - feels unwanted, they go
through life lacking confidence in their ability
to be useful and to gain affection and esteem
from others.
The abovementioned circumstances give rise to
inferiority feelings; however one may react by
overcompensating and thus develop what Adler
called SUPERIORITY COMPLEX. This involves
a tendency to exaggerate one’s physical,
intellectual or social skills.
In any event, the technique of
overcompensation is an exaggeration of a healthy
striving to overcome persistent feelings of
inferiority. Accordingly, the person possessing a
superiority complex tends to be boastful, arrogant,
egocentric and sarcastic.
2.) Striving for Superiority
Adler held that inferiority feelings are the
source of all striving toward self-expansion,
growth and competence.
He concluded that the striving for superiority is
the fundamental law of human life. Adler
believed that the striving for superiority is
innate and that we are never free of it because
it is life itself
Additional Ideas about the Nature and
Operation for Striving for Superiority:
 He saw it as one fundamental motive with its
roots in the infant’s awareness that it is
impotent and inferior to those in the
surroundings.
 This upward drive is universal in nature; it is
common to all.
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 Superiority can take either a negative
(destructive) or a positive (constructive
direction.
Negative direction – is evident in the case of
poorly adjusted people who strive for superiority
through selfishness and concern for personal glory
at the expense of others.
Positive Direction – the efforts for a superior way
of life are intimately bound up with the concern for
the welfare of others.
3.) Style of Life
- originally called the “life plan” or guiding
image”, represents the most distinctive feature
of Adler’s theory of personality.
- A set of behaviors designed to compensate
superiority.
4.) Social Interest
- The concept of social interest reflects Adler ’s
strong belief that we humans are social
creatures- that we must consider our
relationship to others.
- He theorized that people are driven by an
insatiable lust for personal power and need to
dominate. In particular, he held that people are
pushed by the need to overcome their deep-
seated feelings of inferiority and pushed by
their desire to be superior.
- Later on as his system matured, he theorized
that persons are strongly motivated by positive
social urges. Specifically, he saw human
beings as motivated by an innate social instinct
which causes them to relinquish selfish gains
for community gain. The essence of this view,
captured in the social interest concept, is that
people subordinate their own needs in favor of
the greater social good.
- He added that the parental care and guidance
also affect the child’s development of social
interest. The father, for instance, must avoid
dual errors of emotional detachment and
paternal authoritarianism towards his children.
Children who experience paternal detachment
tend to pursue a goal of personal superiority
rather than based on social interest. Similarly,
paternal authoritarianism leads to a faulty style
of life. Children whose father is tyrannical
learn to strive for power and personal, rather
than social, superiority.
Social Interest as a Barometer of Psychological
Health
- The degree of social interest represents a
useful yardstick for measuring the person’s
psychological health.
- In Adler’s view, our own lives have value only
to the extent that we add value to the lives of
others. Our own lives have no ultimate value
unless we contribute to the lives of our fellow
human beings and even to the lives of those yet
unborn.
- Maladjusted people, by contrast, are those who
lack social interest. They are self-centered and
strive for superiority over others, they lack
social goals.
6.) CREATIVE SELF
The style of life is shaped by the person’s
creative power. In other words, each person is
empowered with the freedom to create his or her own
life-style. Ultimately, people are solely responsible for
who they are and how they behave.
The creative power is responsible for the person’s
life goal. It determines the method of striving for good
and contributes to the development of social interest. It
makes a person a FREE SELF-DETERMINED
INDIVIDUAL.
7.) ORDER OF BIRTH
Adler focused attention on birth order as major
determinant of life-style attitudes. Children born in any
position may create for themselves any life-style.
a.)First –Born (Oldest) Child – often referred as
“Dethroned Monarch”.
- the first born child trains himself for isolation and
masters the strategy of surviving alone and
independently of the need for anyone’s affection or
approval.
- He further suggested that the oldest child is likely to
be conservative, power oriented and pre-disposed
toward leadership. Therefore, he or she often becomes
the upholder of family attitudes and moral standards.
b.) The Only Born Child – this is a unique
position of not having other siblings with whom to
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compete. This fact, coupled with a vulnerability to
being pampered by the parents.
- considered as “tied to the mother’s apron
string” and expects pampering and protection from all
others too.
- dependency and self-centeredness are the
leading qualities of this life-style. Such child continues
to be the focus of family attention throughout
childhood.
- The only child, in Adler’s view, has difficulty
interacting with peers.
c.) The Second –Born (Middle) Child
- Characterized as highly competitive and
highly ambitious. Her style of life of constantly trying
to prove that she is better than her older siblings.
- Characterized also by being achievement
–oriented, using both direct and devious means to
surpass the older sibling.
d.) Last Born (Youngest) Child
- this position never experiences the shock of
dethronement by other siblings and is the “baby” or
“pet” of the family, maybe pampered not only by the
parents but particularly in large families, by older
siblings as well.
- this child may be relegated to the role of “
tag-along kid” .
-with older role models that set pace, all of
whom are bigger and more privileged than he is, he is
likely to experience strong feelings of inferiority along
with a lack of independence.
- Nevertheless, the last-born possesses one
advantage; a high motivation to surpass older siblings.
As a result, this child often becomes the fastest
swimmer, the best musician, the most talented artist, or
the most ambitious student in the family.
8.) FICTIONAL FINALISM
- the idea that human behavior is directed
toward a future goal of its own making.
- People are more affected by their expectations
of the future than by their actual past
experiences. He further argued that many
people proceed through life acting “as if”
certain ideas were objectively true.
- Adler theorized that our ultimate goals (those
goals which give our lives direction and
purpose) are fictional goals they can neither be
tested nor confirmed against reality.
- Some persons may, for instance, conduct their
lives in the belief that with hard work and little
luck, they can accomplish almost anything. To
Adler, this belief constitutes fiction simply
because there are many people who work hard
and yet never accomplish anything of real
merit.
- Another example of fiction that exerts a
powerful influence on the lives of countless
people is the belief that God will reward them
in heaven for living a virtuous life on earth.
This belief could be considered fictional in
nature because there is no empirical or logical
way of proving their existence.
- This goal does not exist in the future but in our
present perception of the future. Personality is
influenced more by the subjective expectation
about what might happen in the future than by
experiences of the past.
Learning Theories
Since social exchange theory is composed of
different theories and approaches toward learning,
it is essential that the reader have a rudimentary
understanding of three basic approaches:
(a) classical conditioning,
(b) operant learning, and
(c) social learning theory.
A. The classical conditioning or respondent
paradigm suggested by Glaser (1971)
postulated that two events, which occur
close together in time, could have similar
effects on the response of the organism.
This was highlighted in Pavlov's
experiments in the early 1900s and lead to
the recognition and foundation of the
classical conditioning paradigm. In his
work, meat powder-the unconditioned
stimulus, and a bell- a neutral stimulus,
were paired closely in time to stimulate
salivation. After repeated trials, the bell
became a sufficient conditioned stimulus
that alone could cause salivation. This was
te1med the conditioned response. In this
way respondent conditioning can explain
the relationship between seemingly
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nonrelated events. Conditioning or
modifying an individual, group, or
co1n1nunity's behavior is clearly important
in the therapeutic process and is a critical
part of exchange theory.
B. Operant or instrumental learning is
based on B. F. Skinner's classic animal
experiments (1938), and focuses on
those discriminative stimuli receding an
event and the consequences that follow.
His learning paradigm (also called trial
and error) asserts that learners behave in
their environment t receive consequences
for
Their actions. The basic types of
consequences are positive and negative
reinforcement and punishments.
Reinforcements increase the probability
of behavior occurring,. while
nonrewarding and punishing
consequences decrease the probability
of the behavior occurring .The
frequency and regularity of punishmen ts
and reinforcements are known as
"schedules of reinforcement.
- Burhuss Frederick Skinner was reared in a
warm and stable home where learning was
esteemed, discipline was apparent and rewards
were given when deserved.
- Skinner believed that abstract theories were
unnecessary and should be abandoned in favor
of an approach based solely on how the
environment affects the individual behavior.
Functional Analysis – the relationship between the
organism’s overt behavior (responses) and the
environmental conditions (stimulus) that control it.
- It is the cause and effect relationship,
emerging from functional analyses that become the
universal laws of behavioral science.
2 Kinds of Behavior
1.) RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR – refers to a specific
response that is elicited by a known stimulus, the latter
always preceding the former in time.
- respondent behavior is skinner’s version of Pavlovian
or Classical Conditioning. Also called it S
CONDITIONING to stress the significance of the
stimulus that comes before and elicits the response.
Unconditioned Response – an unlearned response that
is automatically elicited by an unconditional stimulus.
Conditioned Response – a learned response similar to
an unconditioned response which is elicited by a
previously presented stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus – a previously neutral stimulus
that acquires the capacity to elicit responses through
repeated pairing with another stimulus capable of
eliciting such responses.
The Use of Reinforcement Schedules and
Punishment
Since social exchange theory is predicated on
basic behavioral theories, the importance of
reinforcement schedules must be emphasized and
delineated. Schedules of reinforcement determine
how, and with what frequency, various behaviors
will be reinforced. When appropriately designed,
schedules of reinforcement elicit desired behaviors
and help to maintain those behaviors at desired
rates.
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Is the rule stating the contingency under which
reinforcement will be presented.
1. Fixed Ratio- the organism is reinforced
following a predetermined or fixed # of
appropriate responses.
2. Fixed Interval – the organism is reinforced
after a set or “fixed time interval has elapsed
since the previous reinforcement.
3. Variable Ratio- the organism is reinforces on
the basis of some predetermined # of
responses. Extinction of behavior acquired in
this type of schedule does not know when the
next reinforcement will be forthcoming.
4. Variable Interval – the organism is reinforced
on this schedule after a variable time interval
has elapsed. Variable interval tends to establish
steady response rates and is slow to extinguish.
After all the organism cannot precisely
anticipate when the next reinforcement.
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These reinforcement schedules may be
used singly or in differer1t combinations to
reinforce or discourage behaviors. Multiple
schedules of reinforcement are probably at
work, even when behavior appears simple.
Acknowledging these complexly interacting
schedules can bring new insigh t into social
exchanges .
2 Types of Conditioned Reinforcement
 Primary Reinforcement – is any object
or event that possess inherent
reinforcing properties.
 Secondary or Conditioned
Reinforcement – is any object or event
that acquires its reinforcing qualities
through close association with a
primary reinforcement.
C. Leaming through Modeling
The basic postulate of the modeling
paradigm, common ly known as social
learning theory, is that individuals learn to
mimic or replicate someone’s behaviors
within their social environment (Bandura,
1977, 986). Social learning theory
emphasizes the influence of cognitive
processes in controlling, acquiring, and
maintaining behavior. The leadinng social
learning theorist, Albert Bandura, contends
that traditional theories of learning generally
depict behavior as a product of directly
experienced behavioral consequences
(Bandura, 1977). However, he states that
much of learning can occur through
observations of other people’s b e h a v i o r
and its consequ ences.
ALBERT BANDURA
(Observational Learning)
- Albert Bandura places primary emphasis on
the role of Observational Learning in
behavioral acquisition.
- The most distinctive feature of Bandura’s
Social Cognitive Theory is the belief that most
human behavior is learned through observation
or by example. We simply attend to what
others do and then repeat their actions.
- Skinner for instance, maintained that external
reinforcement is necessary for learning to
occur. While Bandura accepts the importance
of external reinforcement, he does not regard it
as the ONLY way in which our behavior is
acquired, maintained or altered. People can
also learn by observing or reading or hearing
about other people’s behavior.
- Bandura states, children learn by
watching/observation to be aggressive,
altruistic, cooperative or even obnoxious.
4 Components or Process of Observational Learning
1.) Attentional Processes: Perceiving the Model
- a person cannot learn much by observation
features/observation unless she/he attends to it.
In other words, it is not sufficient for a person
merely to see the model and what it is doing;
rather, the individual must attend to the model
with enough perceptual accuracy to extract the
relevant information, to use in initiating the
model.
2.) Retention Process: Remembering the Model
- This concerns the long term mental
representation of what was observed at one
time or another.
- Simply put, a person cannot be affected much
by observation of a model’s behavior if he/she
has no memory of it. Indeed, without the
capacity to recall what the model did, the
observer is unlikely to demonstrate any
enduring behavioral change.
3.) Motor Reproduction Processes
- Translating the symbolically coded memories
into appropriate action.
4.) Motivational Processes: From Observation to
action
- No matter how well people attend to and retain
the modeled behavior or how much ability they
posses to perform the behavior, they will not
perform it without sufficient incentive to do so.
- In other words, a person can acquire, retain
and posses the capabilities for skillful
execution of modeled behavior, but the
learning may seldom be converted into overt
performance if it is negatively sanctioned.
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We rarely pay attention to something or somebody
if no incentive impels us to-and when little attention
has been paid, there is virtually nothing to retain!
2 Forms of Reinforcement
1.) Vicarious Reinforcement
- taken from the observed success and failures of
others, as well as from their own direct experiences.
Indeed, as a social being, we repeatedly attend to the
action of others and the situation in which they are
rewarded, ignored or punished.
Vicarious Positive Reinforcement – is said to occur
when observers increase behavior for which they have
seen others reinforced.
Vicarious Punishment – occurs when observed
aversive reduce people’s tendency to behave in similar
or related ways.
Thus, if you see someone else rewarded for doing
something, you are likely to conclude that you will
receive the same kind of reinforcement for acting that
way. Alternatively, if you see someone else punished
after doing something, you are likely to conclude that
the same thing would happen to you if you acted that
way.
2.) Self-reinforcement
This is evident whenever people set reward or punish
themselves for attaining, exceeding or falling out to
their own expectation.
VIOLENCE: on Television
- Violence as portrayed in the mass media,
especially on television has long been
suspected of having such a negative impact on
those who consume it.
- One of the effects of it is increasing the
aggressive styles of conduct.
- Research shows that children who preferred
violent television programs of age 8 were
among the most aggressive in school. Ten
years later, at age 18, 3 times more likely to
have generated a police record after 10 years.
- Heavy viewers of violence on television are
more likely to feel vulnerable to aggression of
others and see the world as dangerous place.
- Given these results, we may safely infer that
observing violence on TV does promote, at
least indirectly, aggression as an appropriate
way to deal with interpersonal problems.
Bandura’s recommendation to eliminate, if not lessen
the problem of aggression.
 Parents model non aggressive forms of
behavior for their children and reward
nonviolent behavior.
 Parents try to curtail their children ’s exposure
to violence in the media by monitoring the
content of such programs in advance.
 Parents can watch television alongside their
children and comment on it, thereby
explaining to the children the harm and
suffering that violent act can occur.
He does not assume that his recommendations would
automatically eliminate the problem. “Like so many
other problems confronting man, there is no single
grand design for lowering the level of destructiveness
within a society. It requires both individual’s corrective
effort and group action aimed at changing the practices
of social system.”
Social learning theory places greater emphasis
on cognitive variables than do the respondent
and operant models, in that the individual learns
overt behavior as well as overt thoughts,
attitudes, and ideas from others (Parke, 1972). In
summary , the three paradigms are learning
theories that are often used in social exchange
theory: {a) the respondent paradigm focuses in
the association between events, (b) the operant
emphasizes the antecedents and (c) consequences
and their relationships in controlling behavior, and
modeling delineates cognitive processes and
their role in learning new behaviors .
Attachment Theory:
John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth
Attachment theory is the joint work of John
Bowlby andMary Ainsworth (Ainsworth &
Bowlby, 1991.The ideas now guiding attachment
theory have a long developmental history.
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Although Bowlby and Ainsworth worked
independently of each other during their early
careers, both were influenced by Freud and other
psychoanalytic thinkers—directly in Bowlby's
case, indirectly in Ainsworth's
Attachment theory is a psychological,
evolutionary, and ethological theory concerning
relationships between humans. The most
important tenet of attachment theory is that a
young child needs to develop a relationship with at
least one primary caregiver for social and
emotional development to occur normally. The
theory was formulated by psychiatrist and
psychoanalyst John Bowlby.[1]
Attachment
Although it is usual for the mother to be the
Primary attachment figure, infants will form
attachments to any caregiver who is sensitive and
responsive in social interactions with them. Within
attachment theory, attachment means an
affectional bond or tie between an individual and
an attachment figure (usually a caregiver).
Such bonds may be reciprocal between two adults,
but between a child and a caregiver these bonds
are based on the child's need for safety, security
and protection, paramount in infancy and
childhood. The theory proposes that children
attach to carers instinctively for the purpose of
survival and, ultimately, genetic replication. The
biological aim is survival and the psychological
aim is security.
Attachment theory is not an exhaustive description
of human relationships, nor is it synonymous with
love and affection, although these may indicate
that bonds exist. In child-to-adult relationships, the
child's tie is called the "attachment" and the
caregiver's reciprocal equivalent is referred to as
the "care-giving bond".[11]Infants form
attachments to any consistent caregiver who is
sensitive and responsive in social interactions with
them. The quality of the social engagement is
more influential than the amount of time spent.
The biological mother is the usual principal
attachment figure, but the role can be taken by
anyone who consistently behaves in a "mothering"
way over a period of time. In attachment theory,
this means a set of
behaviours that involves engaging in lively social
interaction with the infant and responding readily
to signals and approaches.[12] Nothing in the
theory suggests that fathers are not equally likely
to become principal attachment figures if they
provide most of the child care and related social
interaction.[13]Some infants direct attachment
behaviour (proximity seeking) towards more than
one attachment figure almost as soon as they start
to show discrimination between caregivers; most
come to do so during their second year. These
figures are arranged hierarchically, with the
principal attachment figure at the top.[14] The set-
goal of the attachment behavioural system is to
maintain a bond with an accessible and available
attachment figure.[15]. "Anxiety" is the
anticipation or fear of being cut off from the
attachment figure. If the figure is unavailable or
unresponsive, separation distress occurs.[16] In
infants, physical separation can cause anxiety and
anger, followed by sadness and despair. By age
three or four, physical separation is no longer such
a threat to the child's bond with the attachment
figure. Threats to security in older children and
adults arise from prolonged absence, breakdowns
in communication, emotional unavailability or
signs of rejection or abandonment.
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Child and caregiver behavior patterns before the age of 18

Attachm Child Caregiver

ent
pattern
Secure Uses caregiver as a secure base for exploration. Protests Responds appropriately,
caregiver's departure and seeks proximity and is comforted promptly and consistently to
on return, returning to exploration. May be comforted by needs.
the stranger but shows clear preference for the caregiver.
Avoidant Little affective sharing in play. Little or no distress on Little or no response to
departure, little or no visible response to return, distressed child. Discourages
ignoring or turning away with no effort to maintain crying and encourages
contact if picked up. Treats the stranger similarly to the independence.
caregiver.
Ambivalent/ Unable to use caregiver as a secure base, seeking proximity Inconsistent between
Resistant before separation occurs. Distressed on separation with appropriate and neglectful
ambivalence, anger, reluctance to warm to caregiver and responses.
return to play on return. Preoccupied with Physical
caregiver's loss
availability, seeking contact but resisting angrily when it is
achieved. Not easily calmed by stranger.
A physical ambiguous loss means that the body of
Disorganized a lovedLack
Stereotypies on return such as freezing or rocking. oneofis no Frightened
longer around,
or such as a missing
person or unrecovered
coherent attachment strategy shown by contradictory, body
frightening from war, but is still
behavior,
disoriented behaviours such as approaching but with the psychologically
remembered intrusiveness, due to the chance of
back turned.
coming back, for withdrawal,
example innegativity,
missing person cases.
The type of attachment developed by infants depends [6]

on the quality of care they have received. Each of the

attachment patterns is associated with certain
characteristic patterns of behavior, as described in the
following table:
Ambiguous loss
Is a loss that occurs without closure or
understanding. This kind of loss leaves a person
searching for answers, and thus complicates and
delays the process of grieving, and often results in
unresolved grief.
An ambiguous loss can be categorized[6] into two
types of loss, physical or psychological. Physical
loss and psychological loss differ in terms of what
is being grieved for, the loss of the physical body,
or the psychological mind. Experiencing an
ambiguous loss can lead to personal questions,
such as, "Am I still married to my missing
spouse?," or "Am I still a child to a parent who no
longer remembers me?
Psychological loss
The second type of ambiguous loss is where a
person is still physically there, but is
psychologically absent.[6] This happens in cases
where the brain is affected, therefore affecting the
behavior or well being of the individual.
Psychological ambiguous loss does not just occur
to family and friends of the person affected.
Psychological loss can happen personally in terms
of one losing sense of who they are. This can stem
from having a traumatic brain injury and not
knowing who they are causing a lost feeling and
uncertain identity issues.[10]
Ecological systems theory
11 | P a g e
by Urie Bronfenbrenner.
Ecological theorists assume unpredictability in the
life course. The reject the assumptions of
developmental theorist Freud, Erickson and Piaget
that all people experience familiar, fixed and
predetermined.
All human development must be understood
ecologically as “development –in context defines
as a progressive accommodation between
organism and its immediate environment and the
way in which relation is mediated between forces
emanating from more remote regions in the larger
and social milieu. Because there are many
different environmental context there must be
many ways to develop as a person.
Ecological systems theory, also called
development in context or human ecology theory,
identifies five environmental systems with which
an individual interacts. This theory provides the
framework from which community psychologists
study the relationships with individuals' contexts
within communities and the wider society.
Ecological systems theory was developed by Urie
Bronfenbrenner.
 Microsystem: Refers to the institutions and
groups that most immediately and directly
impact the person development including:
family, school, religious institutions,
neighborhood, and peers.
 Mesosystem: Interconnections between the
microsystems, Interactions between the
family and teachers, Relationship between
the child’s peers and the family
 Exosystem: Involves links between a social
setting in which the individual does not
have an active role and the individual's
immediate context. For example, a parent's
or child's experience at home may be
influenced by the other parent's
experiences at work. The parent might
receive a promotion that requires more
travel, which might increase conflict with
the other parent and change patterns of
interaction with the child.
 Macrosystem: Describes the culture in
which individuals live. Cultural contexts
include developing and industrialized
countries, socioeconomic status, poverty,
and ethnicity. A child, his or her parent, his
or her school, and his or her parent's
workplace are all part of a large cultural
context. Members of a cultural group share
a common identity, heritage, and values.
The macrosystem evolves over time,
because each successive generation may
change the macrosystem, leading to their
development in a unique macrosystem.[1]
 Chronosystem: The patterning of
environmental events and transitions over
the life course, as well as sociohistorical
circumstances. For example, divorces are
one transition. Researchers have found that
the negative effects of divorce on children
often peak in the first year after the
12 | P a g e
divorce. By two years after the divorce,
family interaction is less chaotic and more
stable. An example of sociohistorical
circumstances is the increase in
opportunities for women to pursue a career
during the last thirty years.[2]
The person's own biology may be considered part
of the microsystem; thus the theory has recently
sometimes been called "Bio-Ecological Systems
Theory."
Per this theoretical construction, each system
contains roles, norms and rules which may shape
psychological development. For example, an
inner-city family faces many challenges which an
affluent family in a gated community does not,
and vice versa. The inner-city family is more
likely to experience environmental hardships, like
crime and squalor. On the other hand, the
sheltered family is more likely to lack the
nurturing support of extended family.[3]
Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's
major statement of this theory, The Ecology of
Human Development [4] has had widespread
influence on the way psychologists and others
approach the study of human beings and their
environments.[5] As a result of his groundbreaking
work in "human ecology", these environments —
from the family to economic and political
structures — have come to be viewed as part of
the life course from childhood through adulthood.
Organizational Theory
The 21st century can be called the century of
organizations. Organizations not only provide
the framework for the way things work, but
formal organizations-governmental, conunercial,
and nonprofit (e.g., nongovern1nental
organizations)-are a vital element of world
society. Organizations are fan1iliar to us as
agencies, companies, corporations, and
governn1ental bodies of all kinds. In social
work, we are especially inter ested in
organizations called social agencies, human
service organizations, people-processing
organizations, and people-changing
organizations. But social helping does not occur
only in social agencies. It occurs in corpora tions
(day care and employee assistance programs,
for exa1nple), as well as in governn1ental
bodies (departments of social services). Indeed,
social work is interested in any organized
process tl1at is established and run to assist
individuals and families to achieve their
potential or that help com munities,
organizations, and states function more
efficiently, effectively, and humanely.
Social Organization
The concept of social organization, for
soci ologists at least, refers to the minded
interaction that characterizes soci al
structures and the process of developing a
structure and culture for that minded
interaction over tin1e. It is the movement from
tu1organized rando1n interactions to patterned
ones, guided by rules and nonns. The
process of social organization produces
social organizations.
Social Organizations
Social organizations are groups, commun1ues,
organizations, societies, world regions, and the
world itself. Social organizations have both
structure and culture. Some social
organizations have fonnal properties as well
as informal ones.
Max Weber
The German sociologist Max Weber \.Vas
perhaps the earliest contemporar iliinker on
organizations, in this case, bureaucratic
organizations. Durin his time, Weber
explored the topic of authority. His
research resulted i ilie develop1nent of
three different ideas of authority: traditional
13 | P a g e
authority charismatic autl1ority, and legal
authority. His work with legal authority
further inspired hi1n to think about
bureaucratic organizations. Fron1 hi
perspective, a bureaucracy is made up of a
division of labor and attendance functional
interdependence, ai1 administrative
apparatus, a hierarchy or authority , and
in1personal rules; it is characterized by full-
tin1e paying job and careers . Bureaucratic
work also is based on written documents,
an iliere is a clear separation of home and
office (Geartl1 & Mills, 1947/1958 Chapter
8).
The Principles of Scientific Management
Frederick W. Taylor wrote the first book
on i ndustri al human resources in 1911.
Taylor looked at workers as interchai1geable
parts that 1nade tl1e assen1bly lines work.
The scientific component of his work was
the way he investigated the optional output
efficiency of a line worker. Specifically,
Taylor set out to determine the most
efficient set of tasks that a worker could
accon1plish in so 1nany 1ninutes. Ideas
such as specialization ai1d differentiation,
span of control authoritative coordination, and
authoritative delegation ca1ne out of this
work (Boln1an & Deal, 2003, p. 45). Taylor
is reme1nbered as the "Father of Scientific
Management".
Hawthorne Studies
Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted
the Hawthorne studies in the early 1930s.
They studied a group of \vomen working on
specific tasks at the Western Elec tric Plant in
Illinois. He and his colleagues nlanipulated
The Strengths Perspective
The Strengths Perspective as an approach to social
work practice began in the early 1980s at the
University of Kansas’ School of Social Welfare.
(Saleeby, 2008)
In 1989, Weick, Rapp, Sullivan, and Kishardt
coined the term Strengths Perspective to address a
system in which practitioners recognize the
authority and the strengths of people. It is an
attempt in response to the demand to end the
longstanding conflict between social work values
and practice caused by the traditional deficit-
focused approach.
Saleebey (2006, pp. 16-20) has described several
principles in strengths perspective, which are:
1) Every individual, group, family and community
has its strength.
2) Trauma and abuse, illness and struggle may be
injurious but they may also be sources of challenge
and opportunity.
3) Assume that you do not know the upper limits of
the capacity to grow and change and take individual,
group, and community aspirations seriously.
4) We best serve clients by collaborating with them.
5) Every environment is full of resources.
6) Caring, caretaking and context.
Saleebey (2006, p.10) defines client’s strengths
through three interlinked aspects, called “CPR”. C
represents competence, capacities and courage; P
stands for promise, possibility, and positive
expectations; and R means resilience, reserves, and
resources.
The Strengths model embodies a holistic respect for
the dignity and uniqueness of individuals
recognizing their way to experience and construct
their social realities. It enables a social worker to
approach clients with a positive attitude, which
enhances clients’ motivation and gives clients hope.
The role of language is extremely important in the
Strengths-approach. Language and words have
power. Words can lift and inspire or frighten and
constrain. Therefore, social workers are obligated to
improve their vocabulary of helping. Any approach
to practise speaks a language that at the end, will
certainly effect the way the clients think of
themselves and how they will act.
This perspective is composed of some key words:
 Strengths: what people have learned about
themselves and others. People learn from their
success but also from trials and tribulations. We
learn from the world around us, through formal
14 | P a g e
education or through the day-to-day experience.
Playing an instrument, cooking, telling stories,
carpentry, etc., may become tools for helping to
build a better life. Extremely important sources of
strengths are cultural and personal stories, narratives
and traditions. Finally, people who have overcome
abuse and trauma often experience the “survivor’s-
pride”.
 Empowerment means assisting individuals,
families, communities in discovering and using the
resources and tools within and around them.
 Resilience means the skills, abilities and insights
that accumulate over time as people struggle to
surmount adversity and meet challenges. It is not a
static dimension. On the contrary, it is understood as
the continuing articulation of capacities and
knowledge, which will be used in order to overcome
difficult like experiences and pains.
 Membership means that people need to be citizens
or members of a group or a community. Being
without membership means being alienated, and to
face the risk of marginalization and oppression.
 The community is considered a physical,
interpersonal and institutional terrain full of
resources. The work of community development is
also dedicated to making strengths flourish.
 Health and Wellness: in a sense, the strengths
perspective itself begins with appreciating the body
and its incredible restorative capacities as well as its
powers to resist diseases. Supported by positive
beliefs and a supportive environment, the brain
works as “health maintenance organization”. When
people believe that they can recover, their bodies
often respond optimally (Ornstein & Sobel, 1987).
Baker (2003, p. 420)2 considers the meaning of the
Strengths Perspective as:
“An orientation in social work and other professional
practices that emphasizes the client’s resources,
capabilities, support systems, and motivation to meet
challenges and overcome adversity”. Contrary to the
traditional deficit approaches, the strengths
perspective comes in with a different orientation by
emphasizing the resources, capacities, energies and
survival skills of people instead of stressing
pathologies and problems (Saleebey, 2006; Payne,
2014). Therefore, the Strengths Perspective is
premised on the belief that all people, even the most
humble and abused, have inherent capacities and
wisdom to transform their lives. The Strengths
Perspective is also embedded in key social work and
human rights principles, such as participation;
equality and non-discrimination; respect for
diversity, inclusion, and social justice (Berg &
Kelly, 2000).
The main difference to the traditional Problem-
solving approach is that the social worker spends
little time trying to understand what caused the
problem or trying to name it. The strengths-based
approach shifts the emphasis of the intervention
from what went wrong to what can be done to
enhance functionality, and what builds on the child ’s
strengths and resources that enable mastering life ’s
challenges and the healthy development of the child.
The practitioner would focus on identifying or
uncovering strengths, recognizing that a problem-
and deficit-focus may create a mind-set that is an
obstacle when looking at positive factors of the child
development.
Cognitive Development
By Jean Piagett
- Jean Piaget was influential and contributed
greatly to the understanding of advances in
intellectual capacities from childhood to
adulthood.
The four development stages are described in
Piaget's theory as:
1. Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age two. The
children experience the world through movement
and their five senses. During the sensorimotor
stage children are extremely egocentric, meaning
they cannot perceive the world from others'
viewpoints
2. Preoperational stage: Piaget's second stage, the
pre-operational stage, starts when the child begins
to learn to speak at age two and lasts up until the
age of seven. During the Pre-operational Stage of
15 | P a g e

cognitive development, Piaget noted that children

do not yet understand concrete logic and cannot
mentally manipulate information. Children’s
increase in playing and pretending takes place in
this stage.

The pre-operational stage is sparse and logically

inadequate in regard to mental operations. The
child is able to form stable concepts as well as
magical beliefs. The child, however, is still not
able to perform operations, which are tasks that
the child can do mentally, rather than physically.
Thinking in this stage is still egocentric, meaning
the child has difficulty seeing the viewpoint of
others.

3. Concrete operational stage: from ages seven to

eleven. Children can now conserve and think
logically (they understand reversibility) but are
limited to what they can physically manipulate.
They are no longer egocentric. During this stage,
children become more aware of logic and
conservation, topics previously foreign to them.
Children also improve drastically with their
classification skills

4. Formal operational stage: from age 12 to

onwards (development of abstract reasoning).
Children develop abstract thought and can easily
conserve and think logically in their mind.
Abstract thought is newly present during this stage
of development. Children are now able to think
abstractly and utilize metacognition. Along with
this, the children in the formal operational stage
display more skills oriented towards problem
solving, often in multiple steps
16 | P a g e
Children’s Right to Participation
1.Manipulation is the title of the lowest rung of
the ladder of participation. Sometimes adults feel
that the end justifies the means. One example is
that of pre-school children carrying political
placards concerning the impact of social policies
on children. If children have no understanding of
the issues and hence do not understand their
actions, then this is manipulation. Such
manipulation under the guise of participation is
hardly an appropriate way to introduce children
into democratic political processes. Sometimes
such actions stem from adults’ unawareness of
children’s abilities. It might be more accurate to
call them misguided rather than manipulative, but
either way there is certainly a need for improved
awareness on the part of adults. Another example
of manipulation is a situation where children are
consulted but given no feedback at all. The most
common method is for children to make drawings
of something, such as their ideal playground.
Adults collect the drawings and in some hidden
manner synthesize the ideas to come up with ‘the
children’s design’ for a playground. The process of
analysis is not shared with the children and is
usually not even made transparent to other adults.
The children
have no idea how their ideas were used. A simple
improvement on this idea would be to do a content
or thematic analysis of the drawings with the
children and thereby arrive at some principles for
a play ground design, or whatever the subject
may be. Such an improvement would move the
project up three rungs of the ladder, to become
participatory.
2.Decoration,
the second rung on the ladder, refers, for example,
to those frequent occasions when children are
given T-shirts related to some cause, and may sing
or dance at an event in such dress, but have little
idea of what it is all about and no say in the
organizing of the occasion. The young people are
there because of the refreshments, or some
interesting performance, rather than the cause. The
reason this is described as one rung up from
‘manipulation’ is that adults do not pretend that the
cause is inspired by children. They simply use the
children to bolster their cause in a relatively
indirect way.
3.Tokenism
is used here to describe those instances in which
children are apparently given a voice, but in fact
have little or no choice about the subject or the
style of communicating it, and little or no
opportunity to formulate their own opinions. Such
contradictions seem to be particularly common in
the western world because of progressive ideas
about child-rearing which are often recognized,
but not truly understood. There are many more
instances of tokenism than there
are genuine forms of children’s participation in
projects.
4. ASSIGNED BUT INFORMED
I have labelled the fourth rung of the ladder of
participation ‘Assigned but informed’. There are a
number of important requirements for a project to
be truly labelled as participatory:
17 | P a g e

USA. Two ten year old boys had enviously

1. The children understand the intentions of the
project;
2. They know who made the decisions concerning
their involvement and why;
3. They have a meaningful (rather than
‘decorative’) role;
4. They volunteer for the project after the project
was made clear to them
5. Consulted and informed
Young people sometimes work as consultants for
adults in a manner which has great integrity. The
project is designed and run by adults, but children
understand the process and their opinions are
treated seriously. An interesting example is
available from the corporate world, a useful
reminder that genuine participation experiences
are important for all children in all settings.
observed me taking small groups of children from
another class into the woods to observe animal
behaviour from behind a specially built blind or
hideout. They built a blind beneath a table in their
classroom and began too bserve other children’s
behaviour, using one of the forms I had designed
for studying animal behaviour. Their teacher
observed this and supported the children by
suggesting ways they might improve their blind
and the design of the form. The activity became a
valuable means for the class of children to learn
about themselves by observing their own
behaviour, and it was extremely useful at the end
of the school day in aiding conflict resolution and
suggesting new strategies for classroom
organization and management. This example
obviously relied heavily upon the impressive
insight and creativity
of a caring schoolteacher.

6. ADULT INITIATED, SHARED

DECISIONS WITH CHILDREN

The sixth rung of the ladder is true participation

because, though the projects at this level are
initiated by adults, the decision making is shared
with the young people. Many community projects
are not meant for use by any particular age group,
but are to be shared by all. Invariably, of course, it
is the most politically powerful age groups (from
25 years to 60 years in many industrialized
nations) which dominate the plan fling process
even when it is participatory.

7. CHILD INITIATED AND DIRECTED

We can all think of dozens of examples where

children in their play conceive of and carry out
complex projects. When the conditions are
supportive for them, even very young children can
work cooperatively in large groups.

8. CHILD INITIATED, SHARED

DECISIONS WITH ADULTS

One of my best examples of this category of

participation comes from a public school in the
18 | P a g e
CULTURE
Culture – as a complex whole which involves
knowledge, beliefs , art , morals, customs and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by people as
member of society.
- it is transmitted from one generation to another
through language. It tells one what to do, what
not to do and how to do things. Form our
culture, we learn to determine what behavior is
appropriate and what is in appropriate, what is
good and what wrong behavior is, what are
allowed and what are prohibited, and even
which smells are pleasant and which are not.
2 Different Concept of Culture
 As a real phenomenon
 As an abstraction
Language and Culture-
Aside from humans were created in God’s own
image and likeness as Christian’s faith speaks, what
distinguishes human beings from lower animals is the
possession of culture, while animals like dogs and cats
can learn tricks or imitate certain activities, they cannot
transmit what they have learned to their young and so
they cannot accumulate things that have learned.
Language – a factor responsible for the existence and
development of culture.
- refers to the systematized usage of speeches
and hearing to convey, communicate or
express feelings and ideas.
- Language enables people to transcend time and
space. Through the use of language, we can
talk about what happened in the past and what
one possibly forthcoming.
Culture and Society
Culture and society are used interchangeably.
While these 2 concepts are interdependent and
interrelated no society can exist without a culture and
no culture can develop without a society, they are not
the same.
Society – is a group of people bound together in a
more or less permanent association organized for the
collective activity. It is made up of individuals who are
interacting with each other in a shared pattern of
custom, belief and values.
Culture – is the system of behavior shared by members
of society.
Characteristics of Culture
 Culture is learned
 Culture is shared
 Culture is dynamic
 Culture is diverse
 Culture is a whole
- negative sanctions.
- The rules governing human relations within
social group.
Folkways – are commonly known as the custom,
tradition and conventions of the society.
Mores- Must/Should of the group/society.
- Based on ethical and moral values which are
strongly held and emphasized. Observance of
mores is compulsive.
Laws – are formulated norms, enacted by people who
are vested with government power and enforced by
political and legal authorities designated by the
government.
Sanctions – system of rewards and punishment .
Belief – embodies people’s perception of reality and
includes the primitive ideas of the universe as well as
the scientist’s empirical view of the world.
Values – are the bases of our judgment of what we
consider good, desirable and correct as well as what is
considered bad, undesirable, ugly and wrong.
- are abstract concepts of what is important and
worthwhile.
The need to have some views about man is
indeed essential for social workers. The social worker
should have an awareness and understanding of the
different value systems which exist in our society. She
should understand the dominant values of Filipinos,
her own personal values and the values of certain
religious groups. Values are important in people as
they often dictate their behavior and their actions.
Some of the Filipino dominant values.
1.) Smooth interpersonal Relationship (SIR) –
the ability to get along with others in such a
19 | P a g e
way that any signs of conflicts are avoided.
SIR is acquired by:
a.) Pakikisama - derived from the
filipino word “sama”, meaning to go
along.
o It refers to the yielding of a person to
the will of the leader or majority so as
to make the group’s decision
unanimous.
o It is the “we” identification of the
group
o It is a positive Filipino value. It
encourages mutual assistance in times
of need or sympathy in times of
sorrow.
b.) Go-between - the need for a mediator or
facilitator. A third party is used to avoid the
feeling of inadequacy in a face-to-face
encounter, or to act as an intermediary when
asking for a favor.
c.) Euphemism - stating an unpleasant truth,
opinion or request with beautiful language and
fine manner.
2.) Hiya – as painful emotion arising from a
relationship with an authority figure or with
a society which inhibits self assertion when
one is in a situation which is perceived as a
dangerous to one’s ego. This trait is
associated with the unpleasant experience of
embarrassment that prevents one form
wrongdoing.
3.) Bahala Na – an expression derived from a
Filipino word “Bathala”.
- it is the “come what may” or que sera sera”
attitude and at time rests on the line of least
resistance that one need not exert any effort
because God will take care of everything.
4.) Ningas Kugon – “ningas” literally means to
catch fire and “kugon “ is a fast burning kind
of grass.
- It is defined as the enthusiasm that is intense
only at the start but gradually fades away.
5.) Utang na Loob – reciprocity or debt of
gratitude.
6.) Hospitality – welcoming others to one’s
home and offering the best to visitors while
denying the same to members of the family.
7.) Amoral Familism – the tendency to become
individualistic and in ward directed; hence,
the inability to look beyond the family circle.
While many Filipinos are captive of these
values there are those who are not, so that the
social worker should be sensitive to this and not
automatically presume that all her clients adhere
to these. An awareness of these values will be of
great help in understanding and dealing with the
behavior of the people one works with. Many of
these values are good and no one will argue
against the value of preserving them . However
some of them have negative aspects or are given
distorted interpretation, thereby creating
problems.
The Family
- is the basic social institution and the primary
group in society.
- Defined as a social group characterized by
common residence, economic cooperation and
reproduction.
- A group of persons united by ties of marriage,
blood or adoption, constituting a single
household, interacting and communicating
with each other in their respective social roles
of husband and wife, mother and father, son
and daughter, brother and sister, and creating
and maintaining a common culture.
Family Structures
A. Based on Internal Organization or
Membership
 Nuclear (primary or
elementary family) – is
composed of husband and
wife and their children in
union recognized by the
other members of society.
 Extended Family – is
composed of two or more
nuclear families,
economically or socially
related to each other. The
extensions maybe through
the parent-child
relationships when the
unmarried children and
20 | P a g e
the married children with
their families live with the
parents.
2 Types of family Structures
Corresponding to the nuclear and
extended Families
1.) Conjugal Family – which
considers the spouses and their
offspring as of prime importance
and which has a fringe of
comparatively unimportant
relatives.
o marriage bond
is emphasized.
2.) Consanguineal Family – which
considers the nucleus of blood
relatives as more important than the
spouses.
o Blood
relationship
formed during
childhood is
emphasized.
B. Based on Descent – implies cultural
norms, which affiliates a person with
a particular group of kinsfolk for
certain social purposes and services
such as mutual assistance.
 Patrilineal descent – affiliates a
person with a group of relatives
through his or her father. The
child has also well-defined
relationships with the mother’s kin,
but when the child finds it is
necessary to seek aid, the child
turns to his or her father’s kin.
 Matrilineal Descent – which
affiliates a person with a group of
relatives related through his or her
mother.
 Bilateral descent – which affiliates
a person with a group of relatives
related through both his and her
parents.
C. Based on Residence
 Patrilocal residence – requires that
the newly married couple live with
or near the domicile of the parents
of the bridegroom.
 Matrilocal residence – requires
that the newly married couple live
with or near the domicile of the
parents of the bride.
 Bilocal residence – gives couple a
choice of staying with either the
groom’s parents or the bride’s
parents, depending on the factors
like the relative wealth of the
families or their status, the wishes
of the parents or certain personal
preferences of the bride and the
groom.
 Neolocal residence – permits the
newly married couple to reside
independently of the parents of
either groom or bride.
 Avunculocal residence- prescribes
that the newly married couple
reside with or near the maternal
uncle of the groom. This type of
residence is very rare.
D. Based on Authority
 Patriarchal Family – is one in which
the authority is vested in the oldest
male in the family, often the father.
This type of family is further
characterized by family solidarity and
ancestor worship.
 Matriarchal Family – is one in which
the authority is vested in the mother or
the mother’s kin.
 Egalitarian Family – is one in which
the husband and the wife exercise a
more or less equal amount of
authority.
 Matricentric Family – usually found in
the suburbs of the United States. It
attributes to the emergence to the fact
that in suburban families, the father
commutes and is absent for the greater
part of the day. His prolonged absence
gives the mother a dominant position
in the family, although the father may
also share with the mother in decision-
making.
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Functions of the Family

 The family regulates sexual behavior and is Types of Norms Regarding Selection of
the unit for reproduction. Marriage
 The family performs the function of biological  Endogamy – refers to
maintenance. the norm that dictates
 The family is the chief agency for socializing that one should marry
the child. within one’s clan or
 The family gives its members status. ethnic group.
 The family is an important mechanism for  Exogamy – prescribes
social control. that one marry outside
 one’s clan or ethnic
Structural Characteristics of the Filipino Family group.
 The basic units of Philippine society are the  Levirate – prescribes
nuclear family and the bilaterally extended that a widow marry
kinship group the brother or nearest
 The Filipino family is considered also as kin of the deceased
consaguineal for the fact that dominant to its husband.
characteristics it plays important role on blood  Sororate – prescribes
kinship. that a widower marry
 Filipino families usually build alliance as a the sister or nearest
manifestation to further extended relationship. kin of the deceased
This is shown by the “ compadre” or wife.
“compadrazgo” which is formed to the rituals
of baptism, confirmation and marriage. Studies have shown that most marriage conflicts
 Filipino families mostly practice endogamy. are due to the following factors:
 The Filipino family is frequently said to be  Personality adjustment and incompatibility
patriarchal in authority. And egalitarian as  Domestic grievances
revealed by many scholars as attributed to the  Temperamental traits
division of labor.  Immaturity to the role
 The Filipino family is bilateral in terms of  Authority and responsibility
descent.  Relative and in-laws issue
 In terms of residence, the Filipino family  Irrational jealousy
maybe said to be bilocal and neolocal.  Sexual relations
 In marriage, monogamy is the norm, although
polygyny is allowed among the Muslims and Family Disorganization as a family crisis
other cultural communities. 2 Forms of crisis in the family leading to
disorganization:

Forms of Marriage Those experienced by all.

 Monogamy – permits a man to take
only one spouse at a time.  Mobility
 Polygamy - is a plural marriage  Sudden loss of economic support
 Death
Forms of Polygamy  Prolonged illness
o Polygyny - is the  Separation
marriage of one man to two or
more women at the same Those which carry a social stigma
time.  Disgrace (loss of virginity and extramarital
o Polyandry - is the relationship)
marriage of a woman to two or  Crime
more men at the same time.
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 Alcoholism and drug addiction