Human Factors (09!66!009 a B1 B2)

Basic Maintenance
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course) Module 9 Human Factors

Training Manual Contents
9.1 General Claustrophobia and physical access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Space available. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Controllability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Inspector's perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The need to consider the human factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The error iceberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Incidents caused by human factor / human error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 9.3 Social Psychology
Maintenance error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 The responsibilities of leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Cost factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Effective leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Top seven causes of inflight shutdowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Types of leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Further maintenance-related causes of inflight shutdowns. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Training/learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Top eight common maintenance errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Murphy's law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Motivation and de-motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Active and latent errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Peer pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Culture issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Defining teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
9.2 Human performance and limitations Teams and aircraft maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Ten characteristics of an effective team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Management, supervision and leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The leadership personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Information awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Present definitions of leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Detection and awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Managers and leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Visual inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Types of leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Easy reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Leadership and communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Information content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Explain your message. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Obtain information from your team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Hearing damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Provide feedback to your team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Information processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Information that is hard to see or hear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Information present but missed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Attention and awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 9.4 Factors affecting performance
Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Fitness and health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
AMT's response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Domestic and work-related stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Effects on AMT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Introduction to stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Other factors that impair situation awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Definition of stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Cost of stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sept10/Technical Training
Copyright by SR Technics
09#66#009%Date:%March%2016
Corresponding with EASA Part-66
For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 9.Contents - I
Composed%By:%Mr.%Chatchai%Prasertsuk
Basic Maintenance
Stress and performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Comprehending (begreifen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Stress factors for AMTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Projecting (planen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Time pressures and deadlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Complex systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Poor working conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Introduction to models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Shift work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The SHELL model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Responsibility for people's lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Alcohol, medication and drug abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 9.7 Communication
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Communication within and between teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Definition of communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
9.5 Physical environment Importance of communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Results of poor communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Hearing protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Results of good communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Forms of communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Inhalation of fumes or gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Communication model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Problems during transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Classification of light sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Potential problems in the communication process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Workplace lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Transactional Analysis model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Climate and temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Dupont model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Environmental controls (heating, ventilation, air-conditioning) . . . . . . . . . . 4 Work logging and recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Motion and vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Difficulties with written communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Working environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . Be correct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Information hard to see or hear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . Be complete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Information present but missed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . Be clear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Examples of written communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Keeping up to date. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9.6 Tasks Flow of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Downward communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Physical work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Upward communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Anthropometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Horizontal communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The impact of information technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Physical tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
MRM Maintenance Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Repetitive tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Varying the task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Crew Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Visual inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Workload Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Components of situation awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Technical Proficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Perceiving (wahrnehmen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
09#66#009%Date:%March%2016
For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 9.Contents - II
Basic Maintenance
Work Load Management and Situation Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Dealing with emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Communication Process and Decision Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Catastrophes and emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Team Building and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Lockout / Tagout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Risk of infection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Communication Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 No-smoking policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Confined spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
9.8 Human Error Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Error models and theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
General model of human error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Study Questions
General human performance model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Types of error in maintenance tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9.2 Human performance and limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Definition of error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9.3 Social psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Dirty Dozen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 9.4 Factors affecting performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 9.5 Physical environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 9.6 Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Assertiveness (Bestimmtheit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 9.7 Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Complacency (Selbstzufriedenheit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9.8 Human error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Distraction (Ablenkung). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9.9 Hazards in the workplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 9.Info Sources of Further Information
Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Awareness (Bewusstsein). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Glossary
Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Alphabetic Index
Fatigue (Ermüdung) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Possible results of errors (i.e. accidents) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Latent and active failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Avoiding and managing errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Types of prevention designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9.9 Hazards in the workplace

Recognising and avoiding hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Definition of safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
On-the-job injuries (OJIs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Summary of OJI hazard patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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Training Manual 9.1 General
9.1 General
Sept10 / Technical Training

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Foreword
This manual has been written for you. It is about you and your activities as part of
the aircraft maintenance procedure.
Its purpose is to pass on ideas and knowledge that could benefit you both profes-
sionally and personally. What this manual contains is not science or theory but
practical ideas and tips to help you.
Goal
• To create an awareness of personal behaviour which may affect aircraft main-
tenance.
• To minimise errors and so reduce the number of incidents. This will improve
the safety of personnel and aircraft.
Figure 1:
Before beginning, here is a little quiz for you: Yes No
Do humans make mistakes?
Are you human?
Would you like to reduce the possibility of mistakes?

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Introduction Figure 2: Chain of events
Air transport is considered to be one of the safest forms of travelling in the world
today, but every now and then an accident happens which shakes our feeling of
security. Often, when we know the cause of the accident, we think: AWARENESS
"How could a combination of such simple mistakes have caused such a dis- OF RISK IS
aster?" THE KEY TO
An in-depth review of everything that happened (the chain of events) will often re-
veal that a series of human errors was made before the accident. In about 10 per
FLIGHT SAFETY!
cent of all accidents maintenance errors are part of this chain of events.
Management
Therefore if we break the chain of events at the maintenance level, the acci-
dent will not happen.
How much you will benefit from this workshop depends on how much you are pre-
pared to put into it. Be open minded - but if you do not agree with anything that
somebody says, please say so.
We recommend that you read through this book occasionally in the future. It may
help you to avoid mistakes and save you from facing the consequences.
Maintenance
FLIGHT SAFETY
INCIDENT
Crew

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The need to consider the human factor Table 1: Human error estimates
The most important human factor used in maintenance and flight operations is our System % Due to human error
ability to learn from experience and mistakes.
The basic rule is if it has gone wrong once, it will probably go wrong again. Airlines 70–80%
Over the years mistakes have been made in aircraft maintenance that have had a Air Traffic Control 90%
negative effect on the safety and/or economics of operations. After such events,
engineers, mechanics and managers try to develop procedures to ensure that the Ships 80%
mistake does not occur again. If this is impossible or unrealistic then they try to find
ways to make sure the effects of any maintenance error are minimized. Heavy Industry 80%
Error in aircraft maintenance Nuclear Power (US) 70%

Valujet Flight 597. Five passengers and two flight attendants were injured, one se- Road Transportation 85%
riously, when the 7th stage high compressor disc failed. Shrapnel from the right
engine went through the fuselage and the right engine main fuel line, resulting in
a cabin fire. An inspection, in which a fatigue crack in the compressor disc could As shown in this table, it is estimated that human error now accounts for a
have been found and was missed, was considered to be a major cause of this ac- majority of accidents in industry.
cident. Other factors included poor record-keeping at the aircraft's original repair
station and a failure to use process sheets to document inspection procedures.
This section describes how human error affects the aviation community, aviation
maintenance and more specifically the AMT (Aviation Maintenance Technician).
Mechanical or human causes for accidents

Airline safety has improved over the past 40 years because of:
• better aircraft
• better air traffic control
• better weather forecasts.
However as planes become more reliable they also become more complex. The
result is that the human element, or factor, begins to contribute more and more to
accidents. (see “Figure 1” on page 4). As you know, it is much easier to fix a faulty
component than to fix a faulty person. And because of the increasing complexity
of aircraft, human error in aviation has received a great deal of attention in recent
years.

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The error iceberg Figure 4: Error iceberg
An air traffic accident often results in a disaster. The background and reasons are
therefore investigated very carefully. Often it turns out that a chain of minor events
caused the accident.
This can be compared to an iceberg - only the tip is visible while the bigger part 1
remains hidden below the surface. Serious events
The top section or tip, which is clearly visible, represents the serious and fatal ac-
cidents that result in official investigations by national authorities, FAAJAA, NTSB
etc.
The middle section of the iceberg represents the incidents which occur during op-
erations, such as inflight shutdowns, delays, aircraft accidents and personal inju-
ries. These will possibly result in official investigations. Operationally significant
In the lowest section are the low-level incidents. These events occur only within events
the work area and possibly do not even require an internal report. (inflight shut-downs, air turn-backs,
Airlines already investigate serious mistakes in maintenance caused by human er- delays, cancellations)
ror. But many minor incidents remain hidden below the surface.
In order to break the chain of events that can cause a serious accident, it is often
necessary to look below the surface for minor mistakes in the middle and lowest
sections of the iceberg.
Figure 3:
Unreported errors and near
AN ACCIDENT HAPPENS AS THE RESULT OF MANY INCIDENTS. misses that are unreported
and handled locally

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Incidents caused by human factor / human error Table 2: Causes and costs of air accidentsa
An example of this is the loss of all three engines on an aircraft en route to Miami Causal Factors No. of Accidents Onboard Fatalities
from Nassau. In this case, the engines lost oil pressure because magnetic chip de- (1982–1991)
tectors had been installed without O-ring seals.
To deal with this problem, the FAA, manufacturers and airlines developed new Controlled flight into terrain 36 2169
procedures; some airlines introduced better mechanic training and communica- (CFIT)
tions while other airlines reduced the impact to the aircraft by staggering the main- Maintenance and Inspection 47 1481
tenance checks of the chip detectors.
One example that directly affected aircraft design was the staggering of hydraulic Loss of control/uncontrollable 9 1387
fittings on adjacent hydraulic lines to prevent mismatched assembly. Another ex-
ample is hydraulic and electrical connectors which are designed to prevent cross- Air traffic control 39 1000
tubing and crossed wires. A third was changing the location of access panels and
Approach and landing (no CFIT) 133 910
equipment to allow easier inspection and servicing.
Normally to learn from a mistake we have to suffer the painful consequences of Postcrash smoke & fire 41 739
that mistake. The commercial aviation industry has taken a pro-active approach;
we do not have to make our own mistakes. Instead we can learn from mistakes Inflight smoke & fire 6 610
that other people have already made.
Ground deicing/anti-icing 9 384
Windshear 10 381
Uncontained engine fire 11 199
Out-of-configuration takeoff 11 188
Airport ground operations control 23 138
Rejected takeoff 19 53
Totals 394 9639

a. Table of Aviation Accident Causal Factors, ex: Boeing

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Maintenance error One airline estimated that errors cost between CHF 180 - 250 million/year.
An example:
Top seven causes of inflight shutdowns
The following example shows how a simple mistake made by an aircraft mainte-
nance technician (AMT) affects an entire organisation. A B767 was brought into Boeing analyzed the most common errors behind B767 inflight shutdowns; almost
70% were caused by to installation problems.
the hangar for heavy maintenance. It was backed too far and collided with the aft
workstands, which fell through the rear wall of the hangar. Fortunately, no one was • Incomplete installation (33%)
hurt but consider the cost of this accident. • Damage on installation (14.5%)
Resulting damage: • Improper installation (11%)
The following equipment was damaged: • Equipment not installed or missing (11%)
• Left-hand horizontal stabilizer • Foreign object damage (6.5%)
• Improper troubleshooting, inspection, test (6%)
• Rudder
• Equipment not activated or deactivated (4%)
• Rear dock stands
• Hangar wall Further maintenance-related causes of inflight shutdowns
Cost factors:
A study by Pratt & Whitney of 120 inflight shutdowns also showed that most were
The following cost factors resulted from this one mistake: caused by errors in installation.*
• Material • Missing parts
• Regular and overtime labour • Incorrect parts
• Repairs to dock stands and hangar wall • Worn out parts
• Loss of bay facility during additional repair • Careless installation of O-rings
• Delayed or third party maintenance for other aircraft • B-nuts not safety wired
• Operational complications due to aircraft unavailability • B-nuts wired backwards
• Investigation and corrective action • Nuts not torqued
• Over-torquing
Cost factors • Not loosening both ends of connection
As you may know, maintenance and inspection errors are involved in 12% of major • Replacing tube assembly without breaking connections
air accidents. But maintenance errors do not just cost lives, they also cost money.
* 120 IFSDs on B747s in 1991. Causes ranked by frequency - Pratt Whitney.
Here is a short list of some of the major costs of maintenance error.
Maintenance costs: Top eight common maintenance errors
• The average cost of an inflight engine shutdown is CHF 1.2 million.
In a three year study of aircraft weighing more than 5700kg, the British Civil Avia-
• The average cost of a flight cancellation is CHF 125'000. tion Authority (CAA) identified the eight most common maintenance errors.
• The average cost of a return to gate is CHF 37'000.
1. Incorrect installation of components
• The Airline Transport Association estimates that ground damage costs the in-
dustry CHF 2.1 billions/year 2. Fitting of wrong parts
• The average ground damage incident costs CHF 175’000. 3. Wrong electrical wiring of parts (including cross connections)

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4. Loose objects left in the aircraft An example:

5. Not enough lubrication In Hawaii in 1988 a B737 with 95 people on board flying at 24'000 feet had 18 feet
6. Cowling and/or access panels not secured (5.5m) of fuselage skin ripped off.
7. Fuel/oil caps and/or refuel panel not secured Figure 6: Fuselage damage
8. Landing gear ground lock pins not removed before departure
The result of this study was the same as an investigation done by Boeing in 1995
when they were introducing their MEDA programme (Maintenance Error Decision
Aid).
Figure 5: Who is right?
6 9
• An AD called for close inspection of 1300 rivets.

• The inspector had 22 years of experience.
• The chief inspector had 33 years of experience.
• In the inspection prior to the incident no cracks were found.
• A post incident inspection revealed that there were at least 240 cracks present
at the last inspection prior to the incident.

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Figure 7: Aviation accidents
Caused by human
Accidents
Caused by machine
1903 time Today

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Murphy's law delay between the mistake and the consequence, latent errors and why they hap-
pen are much more difficult to trace than active errors.
"Anything that can go wrong will go wrong."
According to legend, Murphy was a mechanic in the US navy’s 1950s training films Conclusions
who did everything wrong. Therefore Murphy’s law probably represented the first What conclusions can be drawn from this brief introduction to human error?
human factor principle. • Errors affect both lives and profit.
For many years, aircraft manufacturers and operators have been trying to find out • Many errors are made, but it usually requires a chain of events for a serious
ways that equipment could be used wrongly or how procedures could be misun- incident to occur.
derstood. Aircraft designers spend many hours discussing all the possible ways a • Although only a few errors will be the cause of an accident, it is impossible to
line replaceable unit (LRU) can be incorrectly installed. Maintenance manual writ- predict which one this will be.
ers try to picture how someone might have difficulty understanding a procedure
• AMTs must be aware of the different kinds of mistake they make and the pos-
and how they can simplify the text to make the maintenance easier. sible consequences.
One of the most important results of Murphy's law in the airline industry is the • AMTs must know the company’s procedures for avoiding errors and the ben-
FAA's requirement for separate maintenance and inspection procedures. This re- efit of following those procedures.
quires an independent inspector to confirm that the mechanic has correctly carried
out all tasks which, if not done properly, or if the wrong parts were used, could pose
a risk to the safe operation of the aircraft. These are the Required Inspection Items
(RII).
Active and latent errors

There are two basic kinds of human error: active and latent.*
• Active error - a mistake that has an immediate effect
• Latent error - a mistake that has a delayed effect
*Reason, J. (1990). Human Error, Cambridge Press, Cambridge, UK.
Active error - immediate effect

People are most familiar with active errors because the effects are felt immediate-
ly. An example is a pilot who believes his aircraft to be much higher than it really
is and fails to adjust his altitude accordingly. This error can lead directly to the
plane crashing into a mountainside - an action that has an immediate effect.
Latent error - delayed effect

Latent errors are mistakes whose effects are delayed and not felt immediately. An
example would be an AMT not checking a key bolt holding an engine to a wing. If
this bolt has corroded over time the engine support can weaken and fail. If the AMT
had not made this latent error, the corroded bolt would have been found and re-
placed and the support would not have been compromised. Because of the time

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Summary Incidents attributable to Human Factor / Error.

Maintenance and Inspection ranks second after CFIT.
Human Factors is the scientific study of the interaction between Aviation Industry has implemented a proactive approach to agree with the appli-
people and machines. cation of lessons learned.
Goal: Maintenance & Inspection Errors account for 12% of the Accidents.
Create Awareness - Minimize Errors - Improve Safety According to Boeing almost 70% of IFSD were traced to installation Problems.
The Chain of Events Top eight common Maintenance Errors

Management - Maintenance - Crew
1. Incorrect Installation of Components 2. Fitting of wrong Parts.
Your Profit is related to your Investment 3. Electrical Wiring of wrong Parts 4. Loose Objects left in the Aircraft.
5. Inadequate Lubrication 6. Cowlings / Panels not secured.

The Need to take Human Factors into Account
7. Fuel / Oil caps not secured 8. LDG ground lock Pins not removed.
What has gone wrong once is likely to go wrong again.
Better Aircraft, ATC, Weather Prediction
Human Error accounts for 70-80% of Aircraft Incidents.
Aviation Accidents MEDA
Human Causes increasing 80% Maint. Error

The Error Iceberg
Machine Causes decreasing 20% Decision Aid
1 Serious Event,
Murphy’s Law
30 Operationally significant Events, Active Errors = Immediate Effect.
600 Unreported errors that are handled locally. Latent Errors = Delayed Effect.

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Training Manual 9.2 Human performance and limitations
9.2 Human performance and limitations

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Sight Strategies
There can be situations in which your emotions take over and you are not in a po-
Brain sition to control them completely. You should develop ways to help yourself in
these situations.
Left and right sides of the brain
If you are annoyed by something:
The rational side of our brain
is on the left side and emo- STOP, and Take a deep breath.
tions come from the right check the What has happened?
side. It is obviously better if situation. Why did I react like this?
you use the left half of your Will my emotional reaction improve the situation?
brain when working on an What has to be done to make me feel better?
aircraft, but it is important to
understand that both parts of Make a But only when the problems is clear to you
the brain have to work to- decision. Consciously use your adult ego (your rational mind)
gether in order to solve every
problem. Creativity and clev-
er ideas from the right side
are often needed in order to
deal with certain problems.
Left half of the brain Right half of the brain

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Information awareness
Rectus medialis
To receive information we have five senses: smell, taste,
sight, hearing and touch. Ciliary muscle
Smells are closely related to memories from early child- Ciliary body
hood and can strongly influence the way we feel, although Posterior chamber Vitreous pody
we often do not realise it. Smells can warn us of dangers Anterior chamber
or they can create nice feelings. Nodal point Ligaments Fovea
Taste is a sense that uses the mouth and nose together. Anterior pole
Blind Posterior pole
Touch is the sensation transmitted to the brain by nerves in our skin. The extreme Pupil Spot
Visual axis
of touch is pain, which makes us aware of injury to the body. Optic nerve
Cornea
The two most important sources of information in our work are through sight and Ora Serrata
Iris
hearing. Limbus
Retina
Our eyes receive pictures consisting of colour, form, light etc. Images are project-
ed on to the retina via the pupil and are transformed into electro-chemical signals Choroid
Sclera
to be sent to the brain. Here the signals are decoded and become information.
As we have two eyes, the brain is fed with two pictures to evaluate. In this process,
the pictures are merged to enable the brain to produce a three-dimensional image. Detection and awareness
The brain does this by using information it has already memorised. Interpretation As humans, we interact with our environment by gathering information, processing
of the pictures must be based on previous experience, so the brain relies on earlier it and then taking certain actions. We use five basic senses to gather the informa-
evaluations that were successful. tion we need. These are sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. Together they are
called sensory awareness. Sometimes we can have a “feeling,” an intuition, about
It is easy to trick the brain by using visual illusions but - once the brain has discov- something, but usually if we can't detect something with one or more of our sens-
ered and recognised the illusion - it will memorise this new information and it will es, we are not aware of its presence.
be much harder to trick it again.
Research into sensory awareness has discovered many facts. We know the min-
imum level of stimulation needed for one of our senses to detect that stimulation.
This level is known as the threshold value. We also know how many levels of this
stimulation the human senses can identify.
There is a difference between detection and awareness. Detection is the physical
reaction of our senses, or detectors, to an event or stimulus. Awareness is when
we know that we've detected something, and is the result of a combination of psy-
chological and physical processes.
It is quite possible, under certain conditions, for someone not to be aware of some-
thing that is happening, even if it is well above the threshold level for detection.
This will be familiar to anyone who is married and is accused of never hearing an-
ything that the wife has said.

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We know that the environment influences our awareness. Physical and psycholog- Paper-based information is designed for easy reading, content, organisation and
ical stress, demands on our attention, heavy workload and other conditions that physical handling. One factor that should be considered is the use of simple Eng-
are frequent in aviation maintenance can cause a reduction of awareness. lish.
Visual inspection Easy reading

Over the last 20 years, there have been many studies of human reliability in aircraft This is made up of two factors: Legibility and understanding..
structural inspection. All of these have examined the reliability of Non-Destructive Legibility covers font size, use of capitals and the spacing of letters, words and
Inspection (NDI) techniques, such as eddy-current or ultrasonic technology. But sentences. It also involves typography: page layout, bold type, colour coding, un-
over 80% of civil aircraft inspections are classified as visual inspections and do not derlining and spacing etc.
use NDI.
Understanding comes from a good writing style. The basic rule is to use simple,
Flight safety depends on airframe integrity. For civil aircraft this includes the detec- clear sentences and to match the order of sentences to the actions to be taken.
tion and repair of structural defects as soon as they appear. There are set standards of readability and most word processors (Microsoft Word,
We need to find a way to accurately measure the reliability of in-service visual in- WordPerfect, AmiPro etc) have helpful tools that are simple to use.
spections and we also need to understand how visual inspections of aircraft are
carried out, in order to improve them. Information content
So far there have been no on-aircraft studies to discover how much a visual in- This covers the accuracy and completeness of information as well as the forms of
spection is affected by all the things which can influence the technician. presentation (graphic/visual or verbal/text). For the information to be useful it must
Measuring the results of a visual inspection is much more complicated than the re- be:
sults of NDI. Visual inspection uses many senses (see below) and is expected to • Accurate: With regular up-dates and revisions.
discover many indications - not just cracks. It can also be used to check many dif- • Complete: State exactly what is to be done and where and how to do it.
ferent structures and surfaces. • Unmistakable: Clear with logical and straightforward statements.
The following definition is based on the FAA’s latest Advisory Circular on visual in- • Specific and relevant: Indicate clearly what it refers to and in what context to
spection for aircraft: In a visual inspection, the eye - used alone or possibly sup- the reader.
ported by various aids - is the sense mechanism for making a judgement about the
condition of the unit to be inspected.
A visual inspection involves using the eye - either alone or with various aids - and
also shaking, listening, feeling, and sometimes smelling the aircraft and its com-
ponents.
An inspection is a combination of various actions, but the two most important are
search and decision-making. A visual inspection uses most of the body’s senses
(sight, smell, touch and hearing) to find and locate an indication. And then knowl-
edge, experience and logic are applied to find out if the indication represents a
flaw.
The inspector then has to decide if the flaw is serious enough to pose a risk to the
continued safe operation of the aircraft or component.
In inspection and maintenance there is a lot of paper-work: job cards, non-routine
cards, maintenance manuals and regulatory documents (FARs, ACs etc.)

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Hearing the vibrations that you are exposed to; the difference between hearing and listen-
ing is primarily a matter of selective attention.
The ear is an extremely sensitive organ that can identify sound
on a scale from 20 up to 20 000 Hertz. The volume is measured
in decibels and the awareness threshold is 0 decibels (0dB).
There is no official level of loudness; we describe sound as
"noise", whenever it becomes unpleasant.
The process of hearing works like this:
Sound enters the ear canal and hits the eardrum, which passes
on the vibration to the hammer and the stirrup. Behind the stirrup
is the cochlea, which contains fluid and many hair cells, and
these cells transform the vibrations into electro-chemical signals
which are passed on to the brain.
The ability to hear decreases with age and hearing can also be damaged if the
ears are exposed to high levels of noise for long periods of time.
Ear protection should always be used at volumes over 90dB, and even at 85dB if
exposed to this level longer than 4 hours. This is comparable to the noise exposure
driving a car (80dB) or using a low noise drilling machine (90dB).
Noise can affect people in different ways. It can do non-reversible permanent dam-
age and it also reduces the ability to hear and understand words and warning sig-
nals.
Ultrasound (even above the limit of awareness of 20 000 Hertz) and intrasound
(even below the limit of awareness of 20 Hertz) is received by the ears and trans-
mitted to the brain. You cannot hear these vibrations but you can feel them and the
results can be serious: sickness, damage to nerve cells in the brain and in the
spine (caused by ultrasound) or loss of balance, exhaustion, sickness or even in-
ner bleeding (caused by intrasound).
Interest in the topic
Studies into the listening patterns of manual and office workers, salespeople, Good listeners are interested in the topic being discussed. Consider all the ways
housewives, college students and others, indicate that 50% to 80% of our waking you might benefit from listening to the other person with whom you are communi-
time is spent listening. More time is spent listening than in any other form of com- cating. By doing this, you will give yourself the opportunity to have an open mind
munication. Therefore, it would seem to be the most important communication on the subject.
skill, whether they are written or spoken, verbal or non-verbal, alone or in small
groups. Distraction tolerance
Hearing and listening are not the same. Hearing is a biological function which is Noise can interfere with our efforts to listen to someone. Office equipment, low-fly-
not selective: when you hear, you are just taking in sounds. In listening, you are ing aircraft, radio, television and other people can divert our attention away from
interpreting those sounds. You select the sounds that you wish to interpret from the person we are listening to. Even our mood or physical circumstances can be

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distracting. The key is to ignore the distractions and to focus on the other person silent feedback from the other person; factors such as their body position or pos-
and the message they are transmitting. ture, tone of voice and physical state can tell you a lot.
Appropriate time and place Hearing damage

The time and location for a discussion should be chosen with care. For some peo- Hearing damage is a serious concern to airline workers, and for obvious reasons:
ple, the best time of day is first thing in the morning, for others it is later in the day. AMTs and other ground crew work very close to loud aircraft engines and other
Sometimes it is most appropriate to meet someone in their office or at a neutral heavy machinery. An FAA audit found that, overall, the noise levels at mainte-
location. nance sites were maintained at an acceptable, but still noisy, 50-70 decibels. For
reference, the next table shows the average decibel levels for various sounds.
Listening instead of talking
In sub module 9.5 "Physical Environment" title "Noise".
If you know you talk too much, talk less. The more time that is spent talking, the
less time is available to actually listen to what the other person is saying.
Table 1: Decibel Levels
Preparation Decibels dB Noise Source
To listen effectively, you must prepare yourself to be able to listen. Understand
your own emotions and feelings. Try to see other people as they see themselves. 135 50 hp Siren
Be sure that other things on your mind do not distract you. In particular, be sure
125 Jet Takeoff (200ft) (Pain Threshold)
you are physically and mentally ready to listen.
110 Riveting gun (Operator Position)
Eye contact
Maintaining eye contact with the speaker confirms their existence; it lets them 70 Vacuum Cleaner (10ft)
know that you are actually interested in what they are saying. If looking at their
65 Speech (1ft)
eyes is difficult, look at their hairline, mouth, forehead or cheek area. Eye contact
is a silent message that says, "You have my full attention." 55 Private Business Office
What is said and what is not said 10 Breathing
Words can tell us what other people are thinking, but often we can get more mean-
ing from what is not said. If something is repeated, this might indicate that that top-
ic or issue is important.
Prejudices
If you enter into a discussion with your decision already made, then you will prob-
ably miss most of what is said to you. Maintain an open mind at all times by listen-
ing rather than judging. Make your decision at the end of the conversation.
Active listening
Listening is not necessarily a passive activity. Repeat or feed back what the other
person is saying. This not only makes it clearer, but also makes sure that you have
correctly understood what you have heard. Focus on the words and also on the

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Information processing • Noisy environment

Makes it hard to hear what people say.
An efficient information system is necessary to carry out tasks well in the work-
• Poor lighting
place. The information can be transferred in many ways: from person to person
(via communication), from equipment to person (via displays), from product to per- Can't see cracks, loose tools or parts.
son (via inspection) or from person to equipment (via controls). • Poor communication
For example, during a shift-change meeting in the maintenance hangar, the infor- Not speaking clearly
mation transfer between the team leaders is through direct person-to-person com- Bad handwriting
munication. Another example is in the engine repair shop, where a machine
operator sets up and uses his machine to re-size an engine component. Here, the
information transfer is from the machine to the person via dials, gauges or compu-
Information present but missed
ter screens (displays) and from the operator to the machine via knobs, buttons and The largest single reason for awareness problems is where all the information
levers (controls). needed is clearly available but is missed. This mostly happens because you are
completely task-focussed or because something distracts you from your work.
When an AMT looks for information on a microfiche or looks for the next step of a
task on a job-card, the information transfer is from the microfiche or the job-card When you are completely focussed on one task, you can miss other things: For
(display) to the person. When the AMT visually inspects an aircraft fuselage, the instance, you may be concentrating on the walk-around and miss seeing a hole in
information transfer is from the aircraft (product) to the person. the ground. Or you may be distracted by the hole in the ground and miss some-
Finally, when a mechanic uses an eddy current oscilloscope to look for cracks, the thing important on the aircraft on your walk-around. You may also be focusing on
one gauge and not notice a reading on another gauge nearby. This full concentra-
information transfer is from the instrument (display) to the person.
tion on the job you are doing is known as `task focus'.
You can see that in each of these examples there is an information interface for
Distraction can be when you are dealing with a problem and get involved in solving
the information transfer or access. During person-to-person communication the in-
a second problem; you then forget to return to the first problem.
terface is conceptual (speech), the other examples involve machines and are
physical interfaces. Other things can also distract you and lead to important information being missed.
In the case of the operator-machine system, the interface consists of the control You may be distracted by conversations around you, by other personnel, or by
non-related events such as a vehicle going past. Any of these factors can reduce
knobs and dials. When the inspector uses a work-card, the interface is the job-
your awareness of the actual status of the work and the maintenance environment.
card. Finally, in the case of the inspector using eddy-current equipment, the inter-
face is the oscilloscope screen and the buttons and knobs on that instrument. Other tasks reducing your task focus.
Information systems are designed so provide information interfaces which enable • Concentrating on a hole in the ground and not seeing something on the walk-
the information needed for a specific task to be efficiently and effectively trans- around.
ferred or accessed by both humans and machines. • Watching one gauge and not another.
• Beginning to trouble-shoot a new problem and forgetting the original problem.
Information that is hard to see or hear Distractions
Information may be present but hard to see or hear correctly. This may be due to • Events (passing vehicle)
a very noisy environment, so that we do not understand the words. It can also be • Conversations
due to bad lighting on the tarmac or in the hangar, so that we can miss seeing
small cracks, loose parts or tools. Bad handwriting and not speaking clearly can • Other personnel
also lead to poor situation awareness and poor communication. • Interruptions

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Attention and awareness ited awareness, decreased motivation, feelings of fatigue and ‘don’t want to work’
and decreased performance in timing, speed, and accuracy.
Information is available in many forms, and we can access it by paying attention -
but in many different ways: AMT's response
Selective attention The way that AMTs react to stress and fatigue can vary. One individual can per-
haps cope with the stressful situation and so reduce the stress, where another per-
Monitoring several sources of information to decide whether a particular event has son’s response can be a combination of physical and psychological reactions.
occurred. An example would be a pilot checking several cockpit instruments for a
deviant reading. Many solutions can also lead to fresh problems: For example, while carrying out
maintenance or inspection in a small area of an aircraft, the body may be in a po-
Focused attention sition that causes a reduction of blood to the leg muscles. The reaction is to
change position to improve the feeling in the legs, but this can cause some other
Checking out one source of information and not paying attention to anything else. part of the body to be uncomfortable. So, while a change in position may make the
An example would be a mechanic reading a maintenance manual in a noisy repair
legs feel better, the new position may make the task more difficult to perform, lead-
shop. ing to frustration.
Divided attention
Effects on AMT
Performing two or more separate tasks simultaneously. An example would be driv-
ing a vehicle while carrying out a conversation with a co-worker. In order to describe, or predict, the effects of AMT response on performance and
workload, we have to understand the various effects of stress and fatigue on the
Sustained attention AMT. If performance is affected, it may be possible to specify what part exactly is
being affected and what the cause is; take the following example: when the AMT
Maintaining attention over prolonged periods of time, without breaks, in order to
can not get a good view of something: his awareness is affected because he can-
detect infrequent signals. Examples include air defence radar operators, security
not see properly, his attention is distracted because he is uncomfortable and his
guards viewing a TV monitor or technicians inspecting many rows of rivets without
finding corrosion. decision-making is done more quickly so that he can get out of this stressful situ-
ation.
Awareness Other factors that impair situation awareness
There is a difference between detection and awareness. Detection is the physical
Fatigue and stress, boredom, ‘pressing on’, and thinking as a group - not individ-
reaction of our senses, or detectors, to an event or stimulus. Awareness is when
we know that we've detected something, and is the result of a combination of psy- ually - are all factors that contribute to a loss of situation awareness.
chological and physical processes. • Fatigue/stress - fatigue and stress reduce your situation awareness.
Performing tasks under extreme conditions can result in both physical and cogni- • Boredom - lack of interest in the job affects your awareness of what is hap-
pening, as well as your understanding and ability to project your actions.
tive (awareness) stress, and this can lead to physical or cognitive fatigue.
• Pressing on - doing the job while ignoring all other considerations leads to
Physical fatigue is when physical capacity is reduced; you can not do the work any task focus. Pressing on also reduces your ability to think things through and
longer because the body is not capable of performing the necessary functions. For project the consequences.
example, a position can no longer be held because the muscles are too tired.
• ’Group-think’ mentality - is where a group of people agrees on a course of
Cognitive fatigue is normally a result of exposure to stress for long periods - the action without thinking it all the way through and projecting it. Most often it is
brain gets tired. Symptoms of cognitive fatigue include less attention, slow or lim- the result of a strong leader surrounded by people who agree with him or her.

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Memory Mental limits: re-assembly

Many of your own tasks can be viewed the same way. There may be only one way
The chance of human error is directly related to how much we have to know in or- to dismantle an assembly, but many ways to make mistakes putting it back togeth-
der to perform a task. If a task needs a complex series of actions that must be done er. Knowledge and experience will help to prevent mistakes, but remember that
in a specific order, then we must somehow either remember them or be given this nobody can know everything. All humans have limits and people compensate for
information at the correct time. Any information that we must remember is called this by using other sources, like written instructions or the experience of col-
knowledge in the head, or KIH. Tasks that require a lot of KIH have a high rate of leagues.
error.
The opposite to KIH is knowledge that is somehow in the task components; this is
called knowledge in the world, or KIW. In this, the elements of the task have all the
information we need to perform the task correctly.
For KIW we can use the example of a bolt with several nuts and washers attached.
There is only one sequence in which these components can be disassembled, so
all knowledge required for the disassembly sequence is contained in the task ele-
ments.
Mental limits: disassembly

Human beings have mental or cognitive limits and many tasks can push those lim-
its. As an example, your task here is to remove the nuts from the bolt below and
then reassemble them in alphabetical order. There is only one way to disassemble
the nuts, but over 40,000 wrong ways to reassemble them!
A B C D E F G H

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Claustrophobia and physical access Controllability

For most tasks, the system used is the inspector's own body, the most naturally
Access is often needed to reach the area to be inspected. Access may be un-aided
controllable system. But equipment (torches, tools, work cards, NDI equipment)
(for example, area inspection of lower fuselage skin), aided by devices (steps,
and clothing can have a negative effect on this controllability..
scaffolding, cherry-pickers), or through structures (interiors of wing fuel tanks
through access holes). Clothes and shoes should offer minimal restrictions and shoes should provide a
Many of these activities involve controlling the movement of the inspector's body, good grip on a variety of surfaces under both wet and dry conditions.
or body parts, within a restricted space. Moving along the walkway of a scaffold Controllability will be reduced by sickness, alcohol or drugs. Checks of these con-
without hitting (and possibly damaging) the aircraft structure on one side or the ditions must be made in the workplace.
scaffold rail on the other is such a task. Moving the hand (or head) through an ac- Inside the maintenance hangar, there are limits on the design (or choice) of access
cess hole or moving a cherry-picker along the fuselage upper skin, are other ex- equipment. In order to avoid delays, a good supply of equipment must be available
amples. and it must be well-scheduled. The difficulty with maintaining the supply is that this
Models of the human operator in these situations show that, as more speed is re- equipment is expensive and space-consuming. The typical management re-
quired, accuracy of movement decreases. On the other hand, models from a sponse is to have a mixture of special-purpose equipment, such as access scaf-
number of studies have shown that the speed of an inspector, or a vehicle control- folding, as well as flexible equipment, such as stepladders, cherry-pickers, and
led by an inspector, increases with the space available until a limiting speed is moveable platforms.
reached. When only a single aircraft type is serviced, as in most large airlines and specialist
The three access factors affecting performance are space available, the ease of repair centres, there is more purpose-built equipment. In more general purpose or-
control of the body or vehicle (controllability), and the inspector's awareness of the ganisations, there is more standardised, flexible equipment.
relationship between speed and accuracy. However, there are times when schedules require more access equipment than is
immediately available and so whatever equipment is available is substituted for
Space available correct equipment in order to avoid delays. The result is reduced system control-
The available space can be controlled relatively easily around the aircraft, but ac- lability, with the potential for errors affecting both job performance and personnel
cess within the airframe is largely determined at the design stage. Older aircraft safety.
provided many unpleasant surprises for maintenance personnel when they need-
ed servicing, but manufacturers are now using computer-generated human mod- Inspector's perception
els to ensure access for maintenance before aircraft structures are finalised. If there are access problems for a task which is considered non-critical, then it may
The models show that more space improves performance, and that the minimum not be done, with the time being spent on a task that is seen as more important.
necessary for physical access will not provide optimum performance. But the mod- Access can also be a cause of pressure from other team members as colleagues
els can only calculate the statistical requirements for a person to achieve the nec- require access points or equipment already in use. This can lead to unnecessary
essary position. time pressure where none exists.
For the body movement essential for maintenance and inspection more access Inspection errors regarding access are defined as when the available space was
room is required than this minimum. The same applies to access around the air- too small for the required access. They include damage to aircraft and injury to the
craft; steps and walkways should be made wide enough to allow free movement, inspector.
not just wide enough for a large static human.
Because these events are rare, the consequences and probability of them hap-
The calculated human minimum for a door is 20 inches and for free movement it pening are usually underestimated.
is 36 inches; speed and accuracy of movement improve with the increased size.
Similar findings are used to determine the size of emergency doors on aircraft.

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Summary Hearing is passive.

Sound can be identified between 20 - 20‘000 Hertz.
Vision Ear protection should be used at volumes >90dB. (Drilling machine)
The Brain. LH (rational) & RH (emotional) Halves.
Both Sides should be in Harmony.
Listening is active = Hearing with selective Attention.
Important: Interest in the Topic Minimum Distraction
Strategies
To cope with Situations in which Emotions take over. Appropriate Time and Place Preparation
Stop then make a Decision. Eye Contact Unwritten Words
Prejudices & Biases Restate or Paraphrase
Information Perception
The five Senses: See, Hear, Smell, Taste, Feel.
Information Processing
Information Transfer: Conceptual (speech) or physical (Displays, Controls, Prod-
Detection uct).
Physical Response of our Senses. Information hard to see or hear due to Noise, poor Lighting or Communication.
& Perception
Combination of a psychological and physical process that allow us to know that we Information Present but Missed
have detected Something. Task Focus (concentration on a task)
Distractions due to Events, Conversations, other personnel, Interruptions.
Visual Inspection (in aviation 80%)
The Process of using the Eye, alone or in conjunction with various aids, as the
sensing mechanism from which judgements may be made about the condition of
a unit to be inspected. Shaking, Listening, Smelling, Feeling.
Information Readability & Content

Legible, Accurate, Complete, Unambiguous, Specific and Contextual.

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Attention Memory
Selective, Focused, Divided, Sustained (prolonged). The probability of human error is directly related to what we have to know to per-
form a task.
Perception KIH (knowledge in the head)
Physical Stress = Physical fatigue = reduced physical capacity Mental Limits are compensated by other sources like written instruction or knowl-
Cognitive Stress = Cognitive Fatigue = restricted field of attention edge of Coworkers.
Slow or impaired perception

Claustrophobia & physical Access
Decreased Motivation
Space available improves Performance. (Antropometric minimum 20 Inch)
Task Aversion
Controllability can be adversely affected by quality of clothing or equipment.
Decreased Performance
Inspectors Perception
AMT,s Response Inspectors errors in access are defined as reaching or exceeding the boundary of
A Function of the perceived Space and associated Stress and fatigue Effects. available space. They include both damage to aircraft and injury to the inspector.
Effects on AMT
Perception may be affected by the inability to obtain an adequate visual angle,
Attention may be distracted by discomfort due to postural stress.
Decision-making may be speed up in an effort to finish the task and eliminate the
stressor.
Other Factors that impair Situation Awareness

Fatigue/Stress, Boredom/Complacency, Press-on Mentality, “Group-think” Men-
tality.

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Training Manual 9.3 Social Psychology
9.3 Social Psychology

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The responsibilities of leaders A designated leader holds the position through:

• Authority
A leader must carry out certain responsibilities to make sure their team operates • Crew position
smoothly. Here is a list of nine of those responsibilities. As you read them, think of
times when a team leader you have worked with has carried out these activities. • Seniority
• Title
• Direct and co-ordinate team activity
• Delegate tasks to appropriate team members A functional leader is:
• Make sure team members know what is expected of them • The person with the most knowledge or expertise.
• Focus attention on important aspects of the situation • The person best qualified to take charge of the situation, possibly temporarily.
• Adapt to internal and external changes to the environment
Training/learning
• Keep team members up to date on work-related information
• Ask team members for work-relevant information Training is a very important part of leading a team. It usually done by the training
department, which provides the technical training, testing, certification and record
• Provide feedback to team on performance
keeping to make sure all employees’ qualifications are up-to-date. How can a team
• Create and maintain a professional atmosphere leader make sure the team is properly trained? Follow these guidelines:
• Encourage on-going development: Think of the team in the long term. What
Effective leadership training for individual members would benefit the team in the future?
This is a short list of certain behaviours a leader can use to be effective. As you • Be pro-active: Anticipate what training would be most appropriate and ar-
read the list, try to think of others. range it.
An effective leader is able to: • On-the-job training: The team leader is the person closest to what is actually
• Make suggestions happening in the workplace and therefore should provide on-the-job training.
The leader’s input is typically the most valuable and relevant but their influ-
• Encourage the team to perform ence can be either positive or negative. For example, if the leader teaches an
• Lead by inspiration unsafe procedure as a shortcut this could result in an injury to one of the team.
• Provide feedback A good team leader should lead by example.
• Mentoring: New people who join the team should be mentored and informed
Types of leaders of good work habits. Recognise your influence and use it wisely.
There are typically two types of leader. The first type is the designated leader, the
type most people are familiar with. This leader’s position is determined mostly
through their authority, position, seniority or title. An example would be your crew
chief or department head.
The second type of leader may lead the group because they have the most knowl-
edge in a particular situation. This is the functional leader, and because the lead-
ership happens in a particular situation, it might be temporary. The AMT who leads
a group assigned to repair an avionics system because she knows it best is an ex-
ample of this type of leader.
A leader can be both designated and functional.

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Learning Figure 1: Chart of what we remember (in %)

There are different ways to learn.
We remember about 25% of what we hear. We remember 30-35 % of what we
hear
see. But we can remember more than 50% of what we hear and see.
If we have to explain something to someone, we will remember about 75% of what
we explain. If we carry out what we have just learned, there is a good chance we
will remember exactly what we have done. see
see & hear
say and repeat

BEHAVIOR AND
ASSOCIATION
do
0 20 40 60 80 100
INTELLECT AND
KNOWLEDGE DOING

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Motivation and de-motivation Figure 2: Maslow’s hierarchie of needs
A motivated person is willing to put effort into achieving a goal or expectation.

Alfred Adler is the founding father of social psychology which is at the heart of
modern management and organisational theory. There are five basic assump-
tions:
1. All human behaviour is goal-directed. Everyone’s primary goal is to belong M
o Self- Do something for myself, taking care of myself,
and to feel significant, and this is the basis for motivation. People feel signifi- practicing talents not connected to my job.
t fulfilment
cant if they can contribute. When employees are not given the chance to con- i
Hobbies: model- airplanes / biking / skiing / climbing
tribute, they can become counter-productive, rebellious, avoiding tasks and needs
v
trying to sabotage the system, etc. When given the chance to contribute, they a
become productive, task-oriented employees. Self-esteem My actions are noticed and appreciated, my
t
i
needs work is valued by colleagues and supervisors.
2. People are creative decision-makers. Having an active role in solving prob-
lems is the core of job satisfaction. People who are encouraged to be creative o
n Belonging & affection Identify myself in a social group.
and active feel they have an impact on the work environment and that they
(Family, company, society)
can make a difference. needs
3. Humanity is socially embedded. People do not operate in isolation; every-
thing we do, as individuals or in groups, relates in some way to other people. Today,s world will look the same
Safety & security needs when I get up next morning.
Problems cannot be solved by one person in isolation. They are solved by co-
operation and contribution.
4. Use is more important than possession. A person’s knowledge and skills Eating, drinking, sleeping,
Physiological needs sexual needs.
are of no value if they are not used and in order to use their abilities an em-
ployee must value work. Without an attitude that values work and recognises
personal fulfilment as the end result, it is unlikely that employees can ever be-
come skilled and knowledgeable workers.
5. People (and organisations) function holistically. The whole is greater than
the sum of the individual parts. The quality and quantity of a group effort is
greater than that of the same individuals working independently.
Motivation is determined by:

The desire to succeed, and the belief that effort will result in success.

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Peer pressure
Peer pressure can be defined as unwritten guidelines in which the whole group
dictates how the individuals behave. This is one of the 12 human factors (see sub
module 9.8 "Human Error" title "The Dirty Dozen") that limit people's ability to per-
form effectively and safely. The others are:
1. Lack of communication
2. Lack of teamwork
3. Lack of assertiveness
4. Complacency - feeling of security
5. Distraction
6. Pressure
7. Lack of resources
8. Lack of knowledge
9. Lack of awareness
10. Stress
11. Fatigue
Safety net
Remember that standard operating procedures have been developed after a lot of
effort and research and therefore should be followed. Also be aware that if some-
thing is done as a result of peer pressure it does not mean that it is right.
Examples of standard operating procedures in SR-Technics are: tank entry, chem-
ical handling procedures, working at heights, use of overhead cranes, forklifts,
scissor lifts (see "Sicherheits-Weisungen-Swissair Group").
Other important policies and procedures are: no-smoking, environmental proce-
dures, maintenance manual.

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Culture issues Special feeling or climate

A special feeling or climate exists. This is conveyed through communication
A corporate or organisation culture is a set of beliefs and values, customs, rituals channels as well as physical layouts. The physical arrangement of an office can
and ceremonies which are unique to the organisation and supported by its mem- improve or limit interaction.
bers.
Concern for people
Corporate culture
Truly successful organisations display a genuine, heartfelt concern for em-
Every company has some kind of corporate culture. A working culture will develop ployees. This might be demonstrated by a simple "thank you" for a job well done,
irrespective of the desires of the managers. This is natural in the working environ- a system of employee recognition or additional benefits.
ment, especially in the area of aircraft maintenance. Managers must develop a de-
sirable corporate culture, one that promotes the values and attitudes to work that Open communication
contribute to a pleasant workplace and effective maintenance.
Communication is the most important element of any organisation. Every-
A manager’s actions directly affect the working climate and one action is worth a thing depends on good communication. In vibrant organisations communication
thousand words. For example, if managers show they do not care about worker tends to be open, free, spontaneous, adequate and feedback-oriented.
safety, then workers quickly adopt careless work habits. If managers show that
they place a high value on certain aspects of work, then workers will reflect these
values.
The most important components of a good corporate culture are described below.
When evaluating an existing corporate culture or establishing a new one, these el-
ements should be taken as guidelines.
Philosophy
There is a clear overall philosophy. This should reflect the organisation's vision
for itself, its products and its services and be clearly worded and communicated.
This vision is then transformed into a mission statement, which includes goals and
objectives. Strong organisations can reach agreement regarding their philosophy.
Acceptable performance
The components of the organisation's philosophy are understood and
shared. This includes guidelines stating what is and is not acceptable or appropri-
ate for workers in the organisation. Standards of performance are a critical com-
ponent as everyone can then see how quality is achieved and maintained.
Shared ceremonies and rituals

Rituals reinforce an organisation's values and standards. For example, when
an employee is promoted, completes a training program or retires they should re-
ceive appropriate recognition.

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Teamwork Ten characteristics of an effective team

Teams have certain characteristics that make them effective. The following is a list
Most maintenance tasks are done by teams of aviation maintenance technicians
of 10 such characteristics. As we go through them, think of a team that you have
(AMTs). Therefore team planning, co-ordination and communication are vital to
been involved with and try to remember if your team had any of these character-
ensure all maintenance functions are carried out safely and efficiently.
istics. If not, what was the result?
Defining teamwork 1. A clear purpose: The team has a clear purpose or mission that is accepted
by all members.
A team is a group of inter-dependent individuals working together to complete a
specific task. Inter-dependence means members depend on each other to com- 2. Relaxed: The team is relaxed and informal, with no obvious tensions among
plete the job. An activity that can be completed by a single person, without having the members.
to rely on others, is not inter-dependent. For example, a group of painters can dec- 3. Participation: There are lots of discussions between members and everyone
orate a room more quickly than one painter alone but, if all the others stopped, one participates in decisions and/or activities.
person could still finish the task.
4. Listening: Each team member actively listens to the others.
However, the inter-dependence of team members may vary while completing their
5. Disagreement: Team members feel comfortable enough to disagree with
own individual tasks. In some sports (e.g. biathlon) each player acts independently
each other if the situation calls for it.
and the scores are added for the team’s total. But a football team requires great
inter-dependence among the team members to score their goals - imagine trying 6. Openness: There is full and open communication.
to get the ball down the field and score a goal by yourself. 7. Clear expectations: There are clear expectations about the roles each mem-
ber plays in the team, and work assignments are fairly distributed among the
Teams and aircraft maintenance team members.
Why is good teamwork relevant to aircraft maintenance? We know that effective 8. Shared leadership: Although there may be a formal team leader, each team
aircraft inspections and maintenance require high levels of co-ordination and member may share leadership responsibilities, depending on the situation.
teamwork and recent studies in Canada and the US show that teaching teamwork
9. Relations with others: The team maintains good relations with others who
to AMTs improves productivity and reduces injury and equipment damage.
may be outside the formal team but who can still affect its performance.
10. Team maintenance: Team members focus on their primary goal but also
spend time recognising and maintaining the functions of the team.

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Management, supervision and leadership Managers and leaders

What is the difference between a manager and a leader?
The leadership personality Some people see the terms manager (or supervisor) and leader as interchangea-
In the past, most people thought that the ability to lead was simply part of a person, ble. However, there are some differences between what a manager does and what
like their height or hair colour. Leadership was seen as a logical part of someone’s a leader does.
personality. But consider these well known leaders:
A manager organises team resources, and keeps track of team functions. A lead-
er, on the other hand, inspires the team and motivates members by creating a vi-
Ghandi Margaret Thatcher sion for them to follow.
• A manager takes care of the team processes, gathers and distributes re-
Adolph Hitler Bill Clinton sources and makes sure the team is functioning.
Richard Nixon Napoleon • A leader inspires and motivates the members to perform by creating a vision,
communicating a sense of enthusiasm for completing the team's goal and
Bill Gates Pope John Paul II leading by example.
Types of leadership
What personality characteristics do these people have in common? On the sur-
face, not many. To add to the confusion the types of groups that can be led are as Are there different types of leadership?
different as those who lead them. So scientists began to redefine leadership. There are many different types of leadership, but we will discuss only two types
here. These are authoritative and participatory.
Present definitions of leadership An authoritative leader runs the show. In other words, the team leader makes all
We now have a more complex view of what it means to lead than we had thirty the decisions and controls all the resources because the team is structured as a
years ago. hierarchy. A hierarchical structure is one in which there are several levels of man-
Scientists realised that leadership is more than having a leader to lead a group; agement and there is a clearly defined boss.
there has to be a group involved. So they began to view the concept of leadership Or a leader can have a participatory style. In this case, even though the leader
as a system and they included additional components and studied their interaction makes the final decision, each team member contributes and participates in the
in order to get a better understanding of leadership. team process and the team is egalitarian or equal.
Now scientists have redefined leadership to include all its aspects. In its simplest • An authoritative leader dictates action with little input from team members.
form, leadership is the ability to direct and co-ordinate the activities of group mem- • A participatory leader encourages participation and input from the team
bers and stimulate them to work together as a team. In this definition, the ability of members.
the leader also includes being in a position to control and manipulate the group’s
resources. Is one form of leadership better than another?
Imagine how hard it would be to be the CEO of a company if you had no influence The answer depends on certain factors. For example, imagine a participatory team
on salaries, budgets or setting the price of the company's products. where every team member is consulted on every detail of the work. It would be
hard to get anything done on time.
Leadership: the ability to direct and co-ordinate the activities of group members
and stimulate them to work together as a team. Now imagine working for a very authoritative boss who never lets anyone give an
opinion about a task. That is also not an ideal situation. The secret is to find a good
balance between the two.

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Below are some guidelines for when to choose which style of leadership. This list • Use simple examples: If you are discussing complex ideas, use examples
is not complete and you may be able to add your own criteria, based on your own your team will understand to clarify points.
experiences. • Use visual aids when possible: Some people understand better with images
than words, so using visual aids can help communication.
When do you use an authoritative leadership style? • Check understanding: Take responsibility for making sure that your mes-
• If a task needs to be done quickly. sage is understood. Ask for feedback from your team about what you have
• If a task is structured and a clear answer exists. said with questions like "Have I made myself clear?" or ask a team member
• If conflict and a lack of communication exists between team members. to summarise what you have said.
• If you are certain all team members will accept the final decision if it is made
by a single person.
When do you use a participatory style?

• If there is time to get input from all team members.
• If a task is unstructured and may require extensive group decision-making.
• If team members work well together and communicate well.
• If you are not certain that team members will accept the final decision if it is
made by a single person.
Leadership and communication

How well you lead depends on how well you communicate.
For that reason we will briefly look at some of the communication skills covered in
Module 9.7: Communication
Communication is the skill of passing information from one person to another.
When operating in the role of leader your communication will be adapted to the sit-
uation you are in. Therefore, we will look at how to:
• Explain your message
• Obtain information from your team
• Provide feedback to your team
Explain your message

When you lead others, it is important to explain your message clearly. To do this,
remember these guidelines:
• State your purpose: Stating your purpose at the start helps to shape your
message by mentally preparing your team for what you have to say.
• Use simple language: Don’t use words or terms that confuse others.
• Keep explanations short: People get bored with long explanations.

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Obtain information from your team Provide feedback to your team

Each team member might have some of the information that is required to com- Teams require feedback in order to function well. It is impossible for them to judge
plete a task. It can be like a jigsaw puzzle and the secret is to collect all the infor- their performance if no one tells them how they are doing. So you must learn to
mation and put it together in the correct order. To get the right information follow provide appropriate feedback to your team.
these guidelines: Always aim to stay positive when giving feedback. Encourage the behaviour that
• Focus your decision: Do not let the discussion go in many directions. has resulted in things going well. Giving feedback is most difficult when things are
Use open and closed questions. Open questions usually start with who, what, going wrong.
how and why and require more than one word to answer. Closed questions,
on the other hand, have short direct answers such as yes and no. Here is an How to give feedback to your team
example of each type of question: • State the purpose of your feedback: This helps to prepare the other person
– Open question: What do you think about Ben's plan? for what you are going to say.
– Closed question: Do you think Ben's plan will work? • Don't be aggressive: When things are not going right you should be con-
structive, not negative. Direct the focus of the discussion to the problem. If you
Use open questions to draw information out of people. Use closed questions to attack the person this will only result in them becoming defensive.
confirm your understanding of a situation.
• Stay focused: Stay focused on the goal of your feedback and don't get dis-
• Use appropriate body language: Body language is important in communi- tracted with other things.
cation. If you are demonstrating active listening by making eye contact, nod-
• Describe your reaction: Tell the other person what you feel about what was
ding your head and looking ‘open’, it encourages people to give you
done and why.
information.
• Give opportunities to respond: Allow explanations so the other person
• Confirm your understanding: summarise what is said to you so that both
knows you have a full understanding of the situation.
you and the person who has spoken can be sure the message was received
and understood. • Offer suggestions: Criticism without solutions is more or less useless. Now
that the other person knows that he has done something wrong, he needs to
be directed along the correct path.
• Summarise: Review what was discussed and make sure that everything was
understood by both parties. This is also a good chance to make sure that
there are no bad feelings.
If these guidelines are followed, people will be more receptive to feedback and
more ready to learn from their mistakes.

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Summary
Responsibilities of Leaders Motivation & Demotivation
• All human behavior is goal- di- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Direct and coordinate - Delegate - Focus Attention - Adapt to Changes.
rected.
Info to and from - Provide Feedback - Create and maintain professional atmos- Self-fulfillment Needs
• People are creative decision- Motivation
phere. makers. Self-esteem Needs
• Humanity is socially imbedded. Belonging & Affection
• Use is more important than pos-
Effective Leadership session.
Safety & Security Needs
Make suggestions - Make the team want to perform activities. • People (and Organizations) Physiological Needs
Lead by inspiration - Provide feedback to the team. function holistically.
Types of Leaders Peer Pressure (Norms) (see also Sub Module 9.08)
Designated through Authority, Position, Seniority, Title. Unwritten guidelines in which the group dictates how you behave.
Functional by knowledge or expertise. (can be temporary) Degrades people's ability to perform effectively and safely.
Safety Net: standard operating procedures, Maintenance Manual.
Training
Encourage Constant Upgrading - Be Proactive (what training would be best). Culture Issues
On- the- job Training - Mentor new people joining the team. Corporate Culture, Philosophy, Acceptable Performance, Shared Rites and Ritu-
Discuss good work habits - Recognize your influence and use it wisely. als, Special Feeling or Climate, Concern for People, Open Communication
Learning Team Working

A team is a group of interdependent individuals working together to complete a
Cognitive We remember 25% of what we Hear. specific task.
Affective We remember 35% of what we See.
Psycho-Motorical We remember 50% of what we See & Hear. Ten Characteristics of an Effective Team
We remember 75% of what we Say & Repeat. A clear purpose, Relaxed, Participation, Listening, Disagreement, Openness,
We remember 95% of what we Do. Clear expectations, Shared leadership, Relations with others, Team Maintenance.

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Management, Supervision and Leadership When do you use a participatory style?

The Leadership Personality If there is time to get input from all members.
If a task is unstructured and may require extensive group decision making.
If team members get along and communicate well.
Present Definitions of Leadership
If you are certain that team members will not accept the final decision if made by
The ability to direct and co- ordinate the activities of group members and stimulate
them to work together as a team. a single person.
Managers and Leaders Leadership and Communication

How well you can lead depends on how well you can communicate.
A manager takes care of the team processes, gathers and distributes resources
to team members and makes sure the team is functioning.
A leader inspires the team and motivates the members to perform by creating a Getting your Message Across
vision for team members, communicating a sense of enthusiasm for completing
the team’s goal and leads others by example. • State your purpose • Use simple language
• Keep explanations short • Use visual aids when possible
• Check understanding
Types of Leadership
An authoritarian leader dictates action and the course of the team with little input
from team members. Getting Information from your Team
A participatory leader encourages member participation and input to help the Focus your decision • Use open and close ended questions.
team’s course of action.
Use the Appropriate Body Language • State your Understanding
When do you use an authoritative leadership style?

Providing Feedback to your Team
If a task - needs to be done quickly, - is structured and a clear answer exists.
Teams and team members require feedback in order to function.
If conflict and a lack of communication exists between it’s members.
If you are certain all team members will accept the final decision if made by a single
person.
Providing Feedback to your Team
State the Purpose of your Feedback • Don’t Attack
Stay Focused • Describe your Reaction
Give Opportunities to Respond • Offer Suggestions
Summarize

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Training Manual 9.4 Factors affecting performance
9.4 Factors affecting performance

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Fitness and health

Some employers think workers should keep their personal problems separate
from their work but it is increasingly difficult to agree with this point of view. In avi-
ation maintenance, public safety can depend on a maintenance technician’s phys-
ical and emotional health. So, as well as the issue of public safety, it makes
economic sense for employers to ensure workers are safe and happy.
Being fit for duty means employees are expected to be able to perform their job
effectively and safely.
Aviation personnel are possibly seen as fitter than the general population, be-
cause of the strong military influence in the aviation industry. Even ground person-
nel in the military must pass regular fitness tests.
Some companies have clear policies like no alcohol during lunch or no smoking
during working hours. In aviation, there are specific legal rules covering fitness for
duty. For example, flight crews must have a blood alcohol level of .04 per cent or
less to be fit for duty and pilots are tested periodically for fitness. But in commercial
aviation, as the keynote speaker at a recent conference said, "There really are no
medical standards for maintenance people."
The Aviation Maintenance Technician (AMT) workforce is becoming more diverse
and it is essential that all AMTs, including those with disabilities, have equal ac-
cess to:
• Employment
• Government operations and facilities
• Public and commercial facilities
• Telecommunications services

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Domestic and work-related stress Figure 1: Yerk Dobson Law
Introduction to stress
`Life is just one damn thing after another.' - Mark Twain. Optimal level
Our private life can have a direct, negative effect on the quality of our work. Per-
sonal problems such as illness or difficulties with relationships or children can
make it hard to concentrate on the job. Drug and alcohol use can also affect the Increasing
quality of work. Such problems can be personally difficult to cope with but they can
Efficiency of memory
Increasing emotional
also affect other people. In aviation maintenance, anything that affects the quality alertness stress
of work can also affect public safety.
Definition of stress
Before you can deal with stress, it is important to understand what it is. Stress is
the physical and/or psychological tension caused by dealing with a difficult situa-
tion. It is not always the result of a negative event; getting married or the birth of a
child can also cause stress.
Cost of stress
Wake-up
The US National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health suggested that in the
1990s stress-related conditions were among the 10 most serious occupational
health problems, costing an estimated $ 150 billion a year in the US alone. Stress
is linked to such conditions as heart disease and sleeping problems.
Level of stress
Stress and performance Low High
Stress in itself is not necessarily bad. Psychological studies have shown that a
positive level of stress leads to the best performance but too little or too much
stress can have a negative affect on performance.
The Yerk Dobson Law shows this phenomenon. As stress increases, so does per- Private Family Company Situation
formance. But this happens only up to a point. After the optimal point, stress starts
to harm performance.
Home made
Stress factors for AMTs
For problems which are unique to AMTs because of their work environment, see Total stress
the Yerk Dobson Law diagram:

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Time pressures and deadlines

Time pressure sets the pace of work. The less time that is available for an aircraft
turnaround, the faster the work must be done and that, combined with a low toler-
ance for errors, puts great mental stress on staff.
Overload
Time pressure refers to a limited amount of time available for a task. Workload re-
fers to the overall number of tasks to be done. If the workload is heavy and com-
bined with time pressure, the result can be a feeling of stress. You can also be
overloaded if you do not have the necessary knowledge or skills to do the task.
Under-load
Too little work, or under-load, is as stressful as overload. (see “Figure 1” on
page 3). It can also lead to complacency. Being alternately overloaded and under-
loaded in the same job is especially stressful. Fire fighters, for example, sit and
wait for fires to occur (under-load). When they are called to a fire, the work is dan-
gerous and stressful (overload).

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Poor working conditions Shift work, shortage of sleep, etc. affect human performance through at least two
mechanisms. First, as we noted above, disrupting the normal wake-sleep cycle
Working conditions are especially important to outdoor ground crew. The jobs are causes various physical and psychological problems.
difficult and they also have to be performed in rain, snow, wind and a wide range Secondly, working long shifts during odd hours can also take a toll on a worker’s
of temperatures. Levels of noise and light also greatly affect a person's ability to personal life. The emotional stress caused by family tensions can harm job per-
function. formance every bit as much as the physical effects of shift work.
Shift work
Employees who work on rotating shifts are at risk from stress, especially if they are
not given sufficient time between shifts to adjust. Because daylight is a powerful
influence on the body's cycles of activity and rest, night shift workers are particu-
larly at risk from stress.
Two studies of thousands of industrial workers in the US examined patterns of
sleep for workers on different schedules. The key finding was that there were two
very different attitudes to sleep:
Day workers sleep first and then go to work. Workers on evening and night shifts
work first and then go to sleep. This means that not only does the time of day that
you sleep depend on your work-schedule, but also your daily routine. Your life is
definitely affected by the shift you work and when you sleep.
Work schedules also affect length of sleep. In a study of workers conducted over
a 6 year period, researchers found that people who are on the day shift and people
on the afternoon/evening shift sleep considerably longer than those on the night
shift. Generally speaking, workers on the afternoon/evening shift sleep the most,
those on the night shift sleep the least, and workers on the day shift are some-
where in between.
It is interesting that over 6 years of study these differences did not change. There
is no evidence that the average worker adapts, in terms of length of sleep, to dif-
ferent work schedules.
Physical and psychological problems associated with shift work happen when the
worker’s exposure to natural cycles of daylight and darkness is interrupted. The
wake-sleep cycle is the rhythm most affected and this also affects other body func-
tions.
This cycle can be disrupted in different ways. For example, when a person chang-
es work periods by more than about three hours these body functions are no long-
er synchronised. A traveller flying across multiple time zones experiences the
same sort of internal disorganisation; this is called jet lag.

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Figure 2: Shift Work
Night-shift Middle-shift Late-shift N-
• Shift workers are more vulnerable Maximum

to stress.
• Degraded performance
= increase in Errors.
• Over the age of 50 coping with
shift work is more difficult.
• Young people experience social
disruption. Normal work hours
• Quality and quantity of sleep is

Minimum
less.
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 0
Discipline
Discipline in
in daily
daily activities
activities Time of the day
like
like eating
eating or
or sleeping
sleeping isis
required. Circadian Rhythm (our biological clock)
Physiological Efficiency

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Responsibility for people's lives and people testing positive were not hired for safety-sensitive positions. By the be-
ginning of 1991 approximately 340,000 aviation employees had been tested.
Because of the potentially catastrophic consequences of latent errors in the avia- These included pilots, mechanics, flight attendants, airport security personnel,
tion industry, there is an extremely low tolerance for errors. The need for such
flight engineers and aircraft dispatchers. This is a major program and will continue
highly reliable performance is an additional pressure on aircraft personnel. to grow.
Fatigue
Working under extreme conditions can produce both physical and mental exhaus-
tion.
Physical fatigue can be defined as a state of reduced physical capacity. Work can
no longer be continued because parts of the body are not capable of performing
the necessary functions. For example, a position can no longer be maintained be-
cause it is beyond the endurance limit of the muscles.
Mental fatigue is a general response to stress over a period of time. The effects of
mental fatigue may just be in the mind of the individual or may extend to affect per-
formance.
Symptoms of fatigue include less attention, slowed or reduced awareness, less
motivation and decreased performance by irregularities in timing, speed, and ac-
curacy.
Alcohol, medication and drug abuse

Work being done by the Office of Aviation Medicine highlights an issue of obvious
importance to all work groups: misuse of alcohol, medicine or other drugs.
A study currently being conducted at the Civil Aeromedical Institute is examining
the influence of four alcohol-related conditions on pilot performance. The condi-
tions include three low-level blood-alcohol concentrations (.04 per cent, .027 per
cent, and .013 per cent) and the phenomenon known as a "hangover".
If the results indicate that performance is impaired at low blood alcohol levels and/
or during a hangover, stricter guidelines may be set for pilots, air traffic controllers
and systems maintenance personnel. If impairment in performance is not found,
then current rules concerning alcohol use will have been confirmed as being ade-
quate.
Whatever the result, this research will be used to develop educational programs
for pilots, air traffic controllers and other safety personnel.
In 1990 the FAA studied the use of illegal drugs. The aviation industry now has an
industry-wide anti-drug program. Of over 20,000 tests carried out, 966 were posi-
tive. About half of these positive results were detected in pre-employment tests

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Summary
Fitness / Health
Fitness for duty policies.
Stress: Domestic and Work Related

Definition: Stress is the result of a physical and psychological
reaction to life changing circumstances.
Cost of Stress: among the 10 most important occupational health
problems of the ‘90s.
Stress and Performance: Too little stress or too much stress may degrade
performance.
AMT Stressors: Time Pressures and Deadlines. Overload & Under-
load.
Poor Working Conditions

• Shift Work. (Night shift workers are highly vulnerable to stress)
• Responsibility for People’s Life. • Fatigue. (Physical and Cognitive)
• Alcohol, Medication and Drug abuse.
• Weather.

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Training Manual 9.5 Physical Environment
9.5 Physical Environment

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Noise Figure 1: View of a Silencer
The maintenance environment can be very noisy and mechanics are often re-
quired to work with noisy power tools. Excessive noise can cause hearing dam-
age, especially if the mechanic is exposed to high levels over a long period of time.
Hearing damage is not usually caused by a single event, but is the result of accu-
mulated exposure over the mechanic's career. Any damage is generally identified
during routine medical examinations, and is detected when hearing falls below a
predetermined level. Only .25 percent of injures are due to excessive noise.
Hearing protection
Excessive noise is a major concern for most airlines. In regional airlines geared
engines with propellers make up most of the fleet. These aircraft tend to operate
at a much higher decibel level, increasing the possibility of damage to hearing.
This is increased by other aircraft operating near the maintenance hangar.
There are various approaches to protecting employees from hearing loss:
One is to reduce the noise level by replacing the source of the noise with some-
thing quieter; another is to use some type of material that absorbs some of the
sound.
It is not always practical to replace equipment to reduce noise. Installing material
to suppress the noise is also not practical, unless you are building a new facility or
expanding an existing one.
Hearing protection, on the other hand, is acceptable in the airline industry. To en-
sure the correct type of protection you need to survey the work area where such
protection is to be used, ensure that it fits comfortably and is easy to clean and en-
sure that it is compatible with any other headgear that might need to be used. This Figure 2: Hearing Protection
is especially important where extreme temperatures may be experienced.
Workers generally prefer to wear earplugs in areas where noise is an occasional
problem, and earmuffs in ramp or gate operations where noise is constant. Both
should be available for use in the workplace.
Noise testing should be carried out to establish a threshold value the length of time
at which this noise is acceptable.

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Fumes Lighting
Inhalation of fumes or gases Classification of light sources
Mechanics can inhale fumes or gases while they work. This usually causes breath- The lighting used in an aircraft inspection include ambient lighting (daylight), area
ing difficulties. Such incidents account for 1.4 percent of all injuries, and for .38 and specialised lighting (built into the aircraft) and task lighting which is any port-
percent of the total expenditures for injury. able lighting set up at the inspection site as well as any personal lighting (for ex-
Substances that might cause this problem include cleaning compounds, fuel, hy- ample, a torch).
draulic fluids and paint. The problem can be made worse in the confined spaces Ambient light represents the minimum level of light available, while task lighting
where mechanics often have to work. represents the maximum level.
Working in a space with limited access that is not designed to be continuously oc- To provide adequate lighting for any task, it should be possible to reduce glare
cupied means following written procedures, having prior training and using safety from ambient lighting and focus the task lighting to illuminate the task without caus-
equipment. ing unnecessary glare.
Other hazards might be present in confined spaces, such as toxic gases or fumes,
electricity, machinery etc. Confined spaces themselves are considered danger- Workplace lighting
ous, even without any other hazard being present. Studies in aircraft inspection show that poor illumination can cause eye strain (vis-
The written Confined-Space Entry Plan states that anyone entering such a space: ual fatigue) and during prolonged work this can reduce efficiency. So adequate
• Has had appropriate training in entering such spaces and in using any safety lighting in aircraft inspection is essential.
equipment. Poor lighting can also lead to bad posture, such as awkward head, neck or back
• Has a written entry permit before entering a space that contains any hazards angles that cause stress and fatigue.
that could cause death or serious physical harm. Inadequate lighting means an inspector may have to hold a torch in one hand, re-
• Tests the space for sufficient oxygen and for dangerous gases or vapours. ducing his ability to perform the task, while badly positioned portable lighting might
• Ventilates the space before and during the work. mean he struggles to reposition the lighting.
• Locks out any connecting lines.
• Has the appropriate safety equipment and trained assistance present.

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Climate and temperature Motion and vibration

The temperature of the human body normally varies by about one degree Celsius. Vibration can interfere with our vision. If the whole body is vibrating this increases
For those who are normally awake during the day and who sleep at night, body both the time it takes to interpret what we see and the chance of making an error
temperature is lowest in the hours before the sun comes up and highest in the af- in that interpretation.
ternoon. In people with this routine the body temperature cycle and the wake-sleep It is interesting to note that our interpretation is worse if the ‘picture’ is vibrating,
cycle are synchronised. less severe if only the observer is vibrating and least disrupted if both the observer
Alertness is related to body temperature and is poorest when the body tempera- and what they are looking at are vibrating.
ture is at its lowest point. At such times people are most likely to have accidents. If someone has been exposed to vibration for an hour or longer, his ability to inter-
Lorry accidents involving no other vehicle are five times more likely in the early pret what he is looking at is affected for a minimum of several hours afterwards.
hours, when the driver's body temperature and alertness are at their lowest, than One form of vibration with relatively high magnitude but a very low frequency pro-
twelve hours later when the body temperature is highest. A number of serious ac- duces an unpleasant response in most of us – we call this motion sickness.
cidents, including Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Bhopal either occurred or
started in the pre-dawn hours. We tend to be most susceptible at frequencies below 0.3 Hz and, given sufficient
exposure, for example hours, more than half of us may be totally incapacitated by
Environmental controls (heating, ventilation, air-conditioning) motion sickness.
Establishing a safe, comfortable work environment might seem simple. The secret
is to maintain a worker's internal body temperature, the core temperature, within a
certain narrow range. We now know a lot about how various environmental and
work factors affect body temperature.
For example, we know that both the core temperature and the feeling of comfort
are affected by air temperature, radiant heat, humidity, air velocity, clothing and
type of work. So for specific jobs and specific workers we can analyse these fac-
tors and determine the appropriate range for each factor.

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Working environment Other distractions

• Events (passing vehicle)
Information hard to see or hear • Conversations
Information may be present but hard to see or hear correctly. This may be due to • Other personnel
a very noisy environment which can mean we misunderstand verbal communica- • Interruptions
tions. It can also be due to poor lighting, on the tarmac or in the hangar, that may Sub Module 9.8 "Human Error"
cause you to miss seeing small cracks, loose parts or tools. Poor handwriting and
not speaking clearly can also lead to misunderstanding.
Noisy environment
• Hard to hear others
Poor lighting
• Can't see cracks, loose tools or parts
Not speaking clearly/poor handwriting
• Mis-communication
Information present but missed

The largest single factor leading to mistakes is where all the information needed is
clearly present in the environment but is missed. This happens most often when
other tasks take your attention away from the task you are doing – in other words
you are distracted from your task focus.
For instance, you may be concentrating on the walk around the aircraft and miss
seeing a hole in the ground. Or you may get distracted by a hole in the ground and
miss something important on your walk around. You may also be focusing on one
gauge and not notice a reading on another gauge nearby.
Mistakes can also occur when you are dealing with one problem and you get in-
volved in solving a second one, then you fail to return to the first problem.
Non-task related distractions can also lead to important information being missed.
You may get distracted by conversations around you, other personnel or non-re-
lated events such as a vehicle passing. All of these factors can lead you to not be-
ing aware of the real state of the system and the maintenance environment.
Other tasks taking attention away from the task at hand, also known as `task
focus'.
• Concentrating on a walk-around inspection and missing a hole in the ground.
• Watching one gauge and not another.
• Beginning to deal with a new problem and forgetting the original problem.

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Summary Motion and Vibration

Interpretation of a display in a vibration field is worse if only the display vibrates,
Noise less severe if only the observer vibrates,
Excessive Noise can cause hearing damage.
least disruptive if both the observer and the display are in the vibration Field.
Motion sickness: Frequencies below 0.3 Hz for a duration of about eight hours.
Hearing Protection
Earplugs, earmuffs, acoustical absorption material.
Working Environment
Information Hard to See or Hear due to noisy environment - poor lighting - poor
Fumes communication.
Inhalation of fumes or gases may be reduced by limited entry spaces. Information Present but Missed due to ‘task focus’ or other distractions.
They require entry permits, training, ventilation, safety equipment.
Illumination
Classification of light sources: Ambient lighting & task lighting.
Workplace lighting: Adequate visual environment is crucial for ensuring accept-
able performance in aircraft inspection.
Climate and Temperature

Daily human body temperature normally varies by about one degree celsius.
Lowest in the predawn hours and highest in the afternoon.
Alertness is related to body temperature; Poorest when body temperature is low.
Environmental Controls (HVAC)

Heating - Ventilation - Airconditioning.
Maintaining a worker's internal body temperature, the so- called "core" tempera-
ture, within a certain narrow range.

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Training Manual 9.6 Tasks
9.6 Tasks

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Physical work Third, people are not the same percentile for multiple body dimensions. People
with small hands do not necessarily also have short legs. This fact has been found
Most human work is done over time rather than grouped together into distinct ac- to be true over thousands of measurements.
tions. The scientific definition of work is the application of force over some dis- If we design for the 5th to 95th percentiles, we would expect to include 90% of the
tance. The physiology of work examines the type, amount, rate and duration of the population. But by if the design is based on 13 body dimensions, 52% of the pop-
energy expended by workers and practitioners use principles from work physiolo- ulation would be excluded. The idea that an individual will fall into the same per-
gy to assess the physical work environment and the design of jobs and tasks. centile for all body dimensions is often called the "myth of the average person."
People vary in the strength they can use to complete a task. They also differ in their
ability to perform different types of work over time. Many studies have attempted Biomechanics
to describe the acceptable range of energy use over different periods of time and
Biomechanics is the study of the movement and structure of bodies. Maintenance
in different environments. As with other basic physical variables, one's ability to do
tasks typically involve action, and human workers use various body parts to move
work is affected by a number of different factors.
things in the work environment. The science of biomechanics studies issues of
People have a variety of shapes, sizes and physical conditions. Human factors movement, leverage and strength.
professionals have recognised and studied this. In the design of hardware and
From a biomechanical perspective, the human body is a series of physical links
workplaces an apparently simple idea isn't simple at all when we have to consider
(bones) connected at certain points (joints) to allow various movements.
this range of human variation. The three elements most important for designing a
good working environment are anthropometry, biomechanics and physical tasks. Muscles and tendons provide the power for all movements. The force that can be
applied in any given position depends on the strength available from muscles and
Anthropometry the mechanical advantage provided by the relative positions of the load, muscle
connections and joints.
Anthropometry is the study of human body dimensions. Many anthropometric
studies, generally conducted by the military, have produced statistics of various Although biomechanics is an independent field of study, human factors practition-
body dimensions. These studies typically measured certain body dimensions of ers often use its principles to analyse work tasks.
many individuals and then reported results in terms of gender and "percentiles" There is a lot of information on the strength available in various positions, on the
within each gender. (A percentile is calculated by dividing the population into range of motion for each major joint in the body and on the strength and motion
equal groups in order to be able to identify each individual group.) differences between males and females.
For example, seated eye height for a 75th percentile male means that 75% of Biomechanics greatly determine our ability to perform certain tasks and the risk of
all males in the population have a seated eye height lower than this figure. There incurring specific types of injuries.
are some important findings:
First, women are usually smaller than men. This is probably not a surprise, but it
is important in designing for the workplace. In general, we try to design for the 5th
through the 95th percentiles for human workers. So, if we're interested in standing
height, we design to cover a range from the 5th percentile female to the 95th per-
centile male.
Second, percentiles are often, incorrectly interpreted as averages. If a product is
designed for the 50th percentile of a particular dimension, half the potential user
population would probably have difficulty using it.

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Physical tasks
These include all the physical activities related to inspection, repair, replacement
and overhaul of aircraft.
Whatever job is being done, these tasks require exact body control, precision and
strength.
It is important that maintenance tasks are within the physical ability of the AMT.
Boeing uses a computer program (based on human body sizes, strength, leverag-
es, etc.) to ensure modern aircraft are designed for easy maintenance.
Everyone is different in size and strength so physical limits vary. Using tools
makes the job easier and, in some circumstances, allows us to do a job that would
be impossible without tools (e.g. lifting an aircraft panel with a hoist).

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Repetitive tasks Varying the task

One study showed that productivity improved dramatically when workers were al-
We all know that workers performing heavy physical tasks need to rest periodical-
lowed to alternate among different types of tasks during their shift.
ly. Most aviation maintenance tasks do not involve heavy physical exertion over
long periods of time but there is plenty of research to show that work that is repeat- Switching between tasks that require different types of resources, such as physical
ed over and over, or doing boring and mentally demanding tasks, also reduce per- versus mental, allows workers to recover from the fatigue caused by one or the
formance over the course of a normal shift. other. The following guidelines should be considered when designing mainte-
nance jobs:
This drop in performance can be the result of the senses getting tired (such as
from demanding visual inspections), boredom, tasks being too easy or too hard, • Alternate tasks that are physically demanding with tasks that are mentally de-
lack of motivation or other causes. As part of the work design process, we need to manding.
determine whether doing the tasks in a certain way is likely to result in such prob- • Alternate tasks that have high awareness demand with tasks that have lower
lems. awareness demands.
In these circumstances there are two ways to reduce or eliminate this drop in per- • Alternate long-duration tasks with short-duration tasks.
formance: vary the task and/or provide periodic rest breaks. • Design jobs and workspaces to encourage frequent changes in position. Re-
quire workers to change their position, for example, move from a sitting to a
standing position, at least once every hour.
• Provide frequent breaks for workers performing continuous monitoring tasks,
especially for tasks that are machine-paced. Performance in monitoring drops
significantly after about half an hour.
We should note here that a rest break does not necessarily mean a period of no
work. Breaks can simply be a change from one type of work to another, as de-
scribed above. Jjust being on the job does not guarantee that workers are being
productive. For certain types of jobs, providing frequent rest breaks will actually im-
prove performance.

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Visual inspection
Flight safety depends on the integrity of the aircraft. For the civil airline fleet, this
includes the detection and repair of structural defects as soon as they appear.
Data on airframe structural forces, material characteristics and models of crack
growth define safe inspection schedules. These are calculated on the basis that
there are several opportunities for inspection between the time a crack becomes
detectable and the time it becomes a risk to safety.
So this process is very sensitive regarding the ability to detect cracks. For exam-
ple, over-estimating how reliable the inspections are would lead to longer intervals
between inspections, which could be a safety risk. On the other hand, under-esti-
mating inspection reliability would lead to shorter intervals between inspections,
increasing costs because of unnecessary inspections.
Visual inspection uses many senses and is expected to detect many indications
beyond cracks. It may be applied to many different structures and surface treat-
ments.

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Components of situation awareness When you decide on a course of action, make sure you communicate to others
what you are going to do. If someone else does not agree or does not see what
Perceiving (wahrnehmen) you see, you may have to be assertive about your devcision.
An example of this is several AMTs lifting a large engine component with an over-
This is the first and most important step towards good situation awareness. It re-
head hoist. However, no helmets are being worn and no tether lines are attached
quires you to get the correct information about a task, be aware of your surround-
ings, and see as much as possible that is happening around you. But don't just use to prevent swaying. If something unplanned happens, would the AMTs be pre-
pared for it? Do you think they have projected ALL possible courses of events?
your eyes; make sure you use all five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste and
touch. If you use all of these, you will take in as much information as possible.
However, you can be attentive and still not receive all the information you need be-
cause someone did not communicate information to you. For example, if a pass
down log is incomplete, you will miss critical information about an aircraft. So make
sure you get the right information from your colleagues before you perform a task,
let your team-mates know what is happening during the task and finally, let them
know if things could have been done better after your task has been completed.
This communication helps to make sure everyone has all the information they
need.
Comprehending (begreifen)
Make sure that you are trained in the task you are doing, so you can correctly un-
derstand and do the task. You cannot plan your next move if you do not under-
stand what is happening. Even if you are trained on a procedure, remember that
everyone can make mistakes, so make sure you use all available sources of infor-
mation (technical manuals, job-cards etc.).
Finally, make sure that you are all on the same wave length so that they also know
what you are doing or can check your work. Again, this requires communication
with your team-mates before, during, and after a task.
An example of this is an AMT driving a bus who had seen or "perceived" an air-
craft's wing. Unfortunately, his understanding of the height of the bus relative to
the wing wasn't nearly as good as his eyesight.
Projecting (planen)
Projecting, or planning, is the final step. This requires you to project or plan a sit-
uation to a possible conclusion and, when this is done correctly, you can make the
right decisions on what to do next. Because of the need to anticipate the result of
your actions, experience plays the greatest role in projecting.

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Complex systems Both Ls in SHELL stand for Liveware: this refers to the people in a system.
Aircraft systems are becoming much more complex and maintenance has to keep Liveware (Individual)
up with them. Liveware (individual) describes an individual’s physical strength, knowledge, men-
Today we talk about mechanical, electromechanical, and hydro-mechanical com- tal and emotional well-being as well as cultural tendencies.
ponents and we also have fly-by-wire systems. Perhaps we will soon have fly-by-
light, with all the computers and complex interfaces associated with such equip- Liveware (Group)
ment. Liveware (group) describes the interaction between and within groups of people.
This includes teamwork, amount and quality of communication, leadership and
Introduction to models group norms.
Why should we bother to make models of a system? First, models help to simplify
things by identifying the components that make up a system. Second, models help
to develop strategies to improve that system. Finally, most systems are difficult to
imagine.
Models help in two ways: they create a picture in people's heads and they also cre-
ate a language that allows a non-technical person to discuss a system with other
people who are more familiar with it.
Environment
Imagine trying to explain a plane's braking system to a non-technical person. First
you might try to name the system's components and explain how they work. You
might also try to use an example which may be more familiar to that person, like a
bicycle or car braking system. By doing these things, you are creating a "model" Liveware
of a plane's braking system.
The SHELL model

The first model we will introduce is known as the SHELL model. We will review
each component of the model individually.
Software
The S in SHELL stands for Software: this represents the policies, procedures, and
rules under which an individual operates.
Hardware
The H in SHELL stands for Hardware: this represents the tools, equipment, air-
craft, workspace etc. that an individual uses to complete a task. Software Hardware
Environment
The E in SHELL stands for the Environment: this includes elements of the physical
environment and also organisational, political and economic elements.

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Summary Visual Inspection

Visual inspection uses many senses and is expected to detect many indications
beyond cracks. It may be applied to many different structures and surface treat-
ments.
Physical Work
Very sensitive to assumptions (overestimation or underestimation).
The ability to perform work is affected by a number of different factors.
Anthropometry Components of Situation Awareness

The study of human body dimensions. Perceiving get the correct information about a task.
Comprehending understanding the task.
Projecting a perceived & comprehended situation to a possible
Biomechanics conclusion.
Adresses issues of movement, leverage, and strength.
Biomechanical effects largely determine our ability to perform certain tasks and
our risk of specific types of Injuries. Complex Systems
Introduction to Models
• Models help to simplify things by identifying the components that make up a
Repetitive Tasks system.
Repetitive, boring, and mentally- demanding tasks reduce performance over the • Models help in developing strategies to improve that system.
course of a normal work shift.
Improve by varying the task and providing periodic rest breaks.
The SHELL Model
Software Policies, procedures and rules.
Varying the Task Hardware Tools, equipment, aircraft, workspace.
Alternate tasks that are physically demanding with tasks that are perceptually de- Software Hardware Environment, (organizational, political and economic
manding, as well).
• High perceptual demand with lower perceptual demands. Liveware (Individual) An individual Person’s internal state.
• Long- duration tasks with short- duration tasks. Liveware (Group) The interaction between and within groups.
• Design jobs and workspaces to promote frequent changes in posture.
• Provide frequent breaks.

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Training Manual 9.7 Communication
9.7 Communication
The human mind

is so complex,
that the human
mind can never
fully understand
it.
(Unknown)

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Communication within and between teams Results of good communication

Through good communication team members can:
Communication can be formal or informal. Efficient verbal communication be-
tween cockpit crew members has received a lot of attention over the last 20 years, • Reach an understanding with one another.
as airlines, regulators and airframers have developed and improved crew resource • Co-ordinate their efforts.
management (CRM) programs. • Agree who does what.
Good verbal communication between crews and air and ground controllers is im- • Decide on actions and make decisions effectively.
portant for safety. Because of this a formal structure with restricted vocabulary is • Take correct action to reach their goals.
used to be sure that messages are clearly understood. Several recent aviation ac-
cidents have been attributed to not using this form of verbal communciation. Forms of communication
We can communicate in many different ways, but here we will consider three
Definition of communication broad forms of communication:
Communication is defined as the dynamic and irreversible process by which we 1. Verbal communication is the spoken word, whether face-to-face or through
make contact and interpret messages within a given situation or context. an electronic medium such as a telephone, radio, loud speaker etc.
In group or team situations, communication is the basis of all co-operation and co- 2. Non-verbal communication is commonly referred to as body language.
ordination between the members as they send, receive and interpret information.
Whether you wave, smile or frown, you are communicating a message.
Importance of communication 3. Written communication includes everything that is written down, such as let-
ters, magazines, books, forms, e-mail etc.
Communication skills are particularly important in the aircraft maintenance envi-
ronment. Mechanics, team leaders and inspectors must all have the knowledge
and skills to communicate effectively. Poor communication can have any or all of
the following consequences:
• The quality of work and performance might be reduced.
• Time and money may be lost as errors occur because important information
is not communicated or messages are not understood correctly.
• Poor communication may cause frustration and high levels of stress.
Results of poor communication

AMTs were asked to list what they thought were the negative effects of poor com-
munication. The resulting top six replies were:
• Errors
• Inefficiencies
• Duplication of effort
• Conflict
• Reduced quality
• Cost increases

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Communication model Potential problems in the communication process

Communication in its simplest form involves two people: Be aware of potential problems in the communication process. Just knowing about
• The Sender - the speaker or writer who is transmitting a message. the encoding and decoding filter processes and the various problems that can oc-
• The Receiver - the person who sees, hears or reads the message. cur in the communication channel will help you to become a more effective com-
municator.
These two people send and receive messages and provide feedback to one an-
other. But there is much more going on in the communication process. Everyone Take responsibility for your message
has their own mental filters which encode messages going out and decode mes-
Take responsibility for your message. Use the first person singular, such as "I think
sages coming in.
..." or "I feel ..." as opposed to disowning your thoughts and feelings by saying "We
When a sender encodes an outgoing message, it is filtered through their feelings, believe ..." or "Our group thinks that ..."
opinions and intentions. The message includes body language and the use of When the receiver hears your message, should he understand that you are speak-
words with special meaning
ing on behalf of the group or are you speaking about your own thoughts and feel-
Receivers decode a message by interpreting the words and body language. In ad- ings?
dition, the incoming message is once again filtered through the receiver's own feel-
ings and expectations. Problems may occur when a message is not interpreted Figure 1: The sender-receiver model of communication
correctly.
For example, we often put our own past experiences into what we hear. This is
SENDER RECEIVER
known as "hearing what you want to hear". As a result, the communication process
breaks down, resulting in frustration and errors.
Finally, there is the channel or method of transmission, whether through the spo- Idea Idea
ken or written word or body language. The channel is a critical part of the commu-
nication process because a message can be distorted by external environmental
factors as it passes through the channel.
Translation Translation
Problems during transmission
All sorts of external factors, many of which are not obvious at first, can interfere Feedback
with good communication. Here are some things to think about when you commu-
nicate:
Words Words
• What if there is so much background noise that you don’t hear what is said?
• What if there is not enough light to read a bulletin?
• What about the language that is used? Is it too technical? Is there an accent Oral communication
that makes it difficult to understand? Are you so focused on how the person Oral communication consists of three elements:
is speaking that you fail to get the message?
• There can be mental and physical impairments that result from things like 1. Speaking
sleep deprivation or boredom. 2. Listening
3. Giving and receiving feedback

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Think of a normal conversation. How much information is communicated by words Rules for feedback
and how much by non-verbal signals? • Feedback is valuable if used correctly, but if you use it against someone that
person will probably refuse to communicate with you any further.
Your answer Fact
• Try to give or respond to feedback at the time. It is not appropriate to be upset
four weeks after an incident; you might have become very angry during those
Words four weeks but others might not remember the incident. That can make it very
difficult to have a useful discussion about it now.
Tone of voice • Give feedback only to the relevant person or group at an appropriate time. Do
not do it during the lunch break in the canteen when you are surrounded by
Body language other people.
Giving feedback
100% 100%
• Be clear. If you are vague you will not be understood.
• You can only give your opinion, not that of others. Use the terms ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘my’.
Normally communication goes from a sender (speaker, author, artist) to a receiver • Be specific and do not generalise.
(listener, reader, spectator). The sender has to translate his message into easily • Show respect and challenge only the action, not the individual.
recognised signals; he has to ‘encode’ it.
• Be constructive and try to make positive suggestions.
The receiver has to decode the signals, but his interpretation of the message will
• Check your motivation. Do you intend to help or to hurt?
depend on his past experience, his expectations and his feelings. So messages
may be partly or completely misunderstood. Receiving feedback
It is vital for the sender to make sure his message is correctly understood. • Clarify the facts. If anything remains unclear, ask additional questions.
• Listen attentively until the speaker has finished. Do not start preparing your
We can often tell from somebody’s reaction to what we say whether or not they
response before the other person has finished.
have correctly understood the message we tried to communicate. But if we are
communicating very important information we have to both provide and request • Check if there is anything in the feedback you can learn from.
feedback, to ensure we have been understood. • Thank the person for their feedback. It shows they care about you and your
problems.
Rules for speaking
• Always take personal responsibility for what you say by using the terms “I”,
“me”, “my”.
• Express your thoughts and feelings clearly and with confidence.
• Make sure everybody understands the purpose of your speech.
• Adjust your language to your listeners’ level of knowledge and experience.
• Also communicate with your listeners through positive body language.
Rules for listening
• Face the speaker.
• Concentrate on what he has to say.
• Do not interrupt.
• Listen actively and then ask questions if you do not understand.

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The Transactional Analysis model The adult

The adult ego comes from a perspective of reason and common sense. It is devel-
Transactional Analysis is an attempt to explain human behaviour, especially com- oped during adolescence through conflict with actual facts. Our personal and con-
munication, with all its aspects, differences and characteristics, developed by Eric scious experiences are stored in the adult ego.
Berne in the 1960s. You can use it to analyse your own behaviour and that of oth-
ers. It is factual, informative, states facts, tries to find out about backgrounds and asks
for reasons.
The model works on the principle that everyone has three minds or ego states. All
three are important to enable you to live and act as an independent person; how- "What is your opinion?", "Have you considered the data?" "What is the reason for
ever, usually one of the three states is dominant. that?" "Obviously we don’t agree here. Could we discuss our differences and then
arrive at a decision?"
These three ego states are called the parent, adult and child.
The child
The parent
Whenever we act, think or feel the way we did as a child, the child ego is dominant.
Whenever we think, feel or act the way our parents (or parent figure) did when we The child ego stores the emotions we had as children. So it may obey, retreat, be
were young, the parent ego is dominant. The parent ego is critical and not objec- polite and sometimes not be sure of itself ( "It won't happen again", "What could I
tive and constantly judges. It gives orders, scolds, claims to know everything and possibly have done?").
has very definite ideas about how everything should be. All prejudice comes from
the parent ego. ("lf you were better organised you could find the document.") The child ego can also be stubborn and rebellious. ("lf you know better, why don't
you do it yourself?").
On the other hand, the parent ego can also be caring, encouraging, supportive,
protective and understanding. Concern can be exaggerated at times ("Let me help But the child ego is also free and natural. It plays, takes it easy, is happy or upset
you with that. I'm sure we can manage." "Leave it to me. You've got enough to deal and tends to be spontaneous (“I don’t like you”, "Come on, let’s have a party”).
with.” Typical of the parent ego are expressions like "you've got to", "you must not",
"you really should" and "never".

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There are no good nor bad ego states. A healthy personality includes all three. As a rule, communication works as long as the people involved use the same ego
What is essential is to be able to choose the appropriate ego state (ideally the state. But if not, they will get stuck and then a new common basis will have to be
adult) in a difficult situation. Unfortunately, in such a situation we often react with found.
one of the other states, which usually doesn't solve the problem.
• Information
• Voice Pa Pa
• Gesture
Example:
Figure 2:
What time is it?"
Ad Ad "It’s noon."
Ad Ch Ch
Pa
Parallel transaction
Three ego states Pa Pa

Ch
Example:
"Have you seen my note-pad?"
Ad Ad "If you learned how to be organised you
would not have to look for your stuff all the
time."
Ch Ch
Crossed transaction

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The Dupont model When we are born, we are controlled by our emotions. As we grow up we become
adult and learn not only how to read, write and calculate etc., but also how to arrive
A more simplified model is the Dupont model which distinguishes between two at a rational decision. But our childhood emotions are still stored in our subcon-
minds only. One is responsible for rational acts, the other for emotional ones. The scious. Our emotional reactions are based on our experiences in early life. In an
rational mind is the one that tries to consider and understand. It is consciously emotional situation it is always the child in us who reacts first. The rational mind
aware, thoughtful and reflective. The emotional mind relies on intuition and is im- takes more time to react. Remarks like: "Hurry up", "Forget it", "You can't do this
pulsive, passionate and sometimes illogical. anyway", come from the emotional, not the rational mind.
Figure 3:
EMOTIONAL
IMPULSIVE
QUICK
WITHOUT SELF-DOUBT
RATIONAL
COMPREHENSIVE
AWARE
THOUGHTFUL
Most of the time, these two minds are in harmony with each other. The emotions
provide the balance to the rational ego. The rational mind evaluates, refines and
sometimes overrules the emotional input. However, when there is too much emo-
tion, the balance is lost and the emotional ego gains control.
Emotions add up to an impulse to act. They represent our instant impulse to deal
with a situation. Therefore the emotional ego responds much faster than the ra-
tional mind.
As long as the rational ego is not involved, decisions are made without an analysis
of the situation. This is important to know, as a lot of basic decisions have to be
made quickly: fight or run away, attack or retreat.

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Work logging and recording Difficulties with written communication

Written communication is a necessary and important part of the safety and airwor-
Written communication thiness of an aircraft.
The written word is as important as the spoken word. Job cards, work plans, work There can be difficulties with written communication. If messages are not trnasmit-
procedures and log book entries are some examples of written communication in ted correctly, there is the possibility of errors.
your work area.
Many people find written communication more difficult than verbal communication.
When writing a message the text should: It is often easier to explain a complex situation face-to-face than it is to write down
• be readable a detailed explanation.
• be clearly thought out In addition, with written communication:
• include all relevant information • There is no immediate feedback. Was your message understood? Did you an-
• be easily understandable swer all possible questions?
• be free of emotion (at least in business matters) • There is no body language and no verbal clues to confirm you are making
You should include the following considerations: yourself clear.
• What is the reader's level of knowledge? • The receiver cannot ask questions about the meaning of the message.
• Is the reader familiar with the subject?
In communication remember the Three Cs:
• Does the reader understand the language?
• What is the reader's attitude? . Be correct
It is very important that work is accurately documented. The captain will rely on the Your writing must be technically accurate. Sometimes, abbreviations and parts
documentation to assess the condition of the aircraft. Maintenance needs it to de- names are not correct, but because they are used so often they have become the
termine whether the aircraft can be released into service. words normally used.
What do you feel about the following statements? This can become a problem if new people arrive or new equipment is introduced.
"The less I write down, the less trouble I can get into afterwards." Try to be correct and accurate with your writing.
"They cannot make me take responsibility for something I did not put down in
writing."
. Be complete
Provide enough information so that the person reading your message will be able
"No aircraft has flown more safely because of paperwork."
to understand what you are trying to communicate. If you are listing the steps in a
"I haven't got time for that stupid business with paperwork right now." procedure, make sure they are in the correct sequence and don't leave anything
out. It is far better to be too detailed than to miss important steps.
. Be clear
Say what you mean to say. Use short simple sentences. Be careful with the use
of abbreviations and acronyms (CRM, NOTAM, are acronyms). Remember the
KISS principle: Keep It Simple Stupid.

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Examples of written communication Figure 4: Flight crew logbook entry

Written communication occurs throughout the aircraft maintenance environment. FLIGHT NO. DEP STA A/C REG D D M M Y Y SEQ. No. JAA FORM ONE No. ATA POS COMP IDENT No. SERIAL No IN SERIAL OUT DEL
0 0 1 VCE I ST 0 5 0 4 0 1 96
Consider these examples of written communication: Subject
• Job cards
The damn APU bleed air pressure is low MEL ITEM A B C D FINAL DATE MHRS EXTENSION
• Warning signs
• Manuals Thisi is! the fifth time this has been entered!
Complaint
Action
• Advisory circulars
Other requirements
In addition to the Three Cs: DE / ANTI – ICING JAR 145.50 release to service AUTH.No:
Action ID :
Release ID :
• Always write clearly. If your handwriting is bad, print your message clearly. Sign.
XY
RFOB:
E1 E2
OIL REFILL
E3 E4 APU
Action STA D D M M Time Sign.
• Re-read what you have written. It's best to do this out loud. It doesn't take long COMPLAINT (ITEM CODE) FLIGHT TIME RP FAIL CLASS Release STA Time Sign.
and you will be surprised at the errors you find.

How should the logbook entry be written?
Reminder
You have two types of tools: Figure 5: Maintenance logbook entry
• Those in your tool box. FLIGHT NO. DEP STA A/C REG D D M M Y Y SEQ. No. JAA FORM ONE No. ATA POS COMP IDENT No. SERIAL No IN SERIAL OUT DEL
0 0 1 VCE I S T 0 7 0 4 0 1 9 7
• The pen in your pocket. Subject
It is important to use BOTH correctly. BOTH help make an aircraft safe!! APU u/s! MEL ITEM A B C D FINAL DATE MHRS EXTENSION
APU fire extinguishing system u/s! Aircraft released per MEL 91.06!
Complaint
Action
Action ID :
DE / ANTI – ICING JAR 145.50 release to service AUTH.No: Release ID :

Sign. RFOB: OIL REFILL Action STA Time Sign.
D D M M
E1 E2 E3 E4 APU
COM PLAINT (ITEM CODE) FLIGHT TIM E RP FAIL CLASS Time Sign.
Release STA
What improvement should be made to this entry?

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Keeping up to date
The majority of FAA maintenance rules and regulations are to do with keeping Responsibility for maintaining currency lies with both the individual
manuals, procedures and repair records up to date. engineer and the maintenance organisation for which he works.
Many deal with information that must be transmitted from the FAA or manufactur-
ers to technicians in the field. These include airworthiness directives (ADs), notic-
es to airmen (NOTAM's) etc. The engineer should make it his business to keep up-to-date with changes in his
profession. (remembering that making assumptions can be dangerous).
There are no regulations concerning verbal communication among maintenance
The organisation should provide the appropriate training and allow their staff
technicians and inspectors. In fact there are no regulations governing non-written
exchanges among any of the typical aviation maintenance groups. time to undertake the training before working on a new aircraft type. It should also
make written information easily accessible to engineers and encourage them to
There is an unspoken requirement that important information, such as anything re- read it.
lated to safety, will be passed between shifts and that verbal instructions will be
From a human factors point of view, small changes to the technology or proce-
clearly understood.
dures concerning existing aircraft carry potentially the greatest risk. These do not
MRM is Maintenance Resource Management. Where CRM (Crew Resource Man- usually warrant formal training and may merely be minor changes to the mainte-
agement) is concerned with managing all human resources in and out of the cock- nance manual.
pit to promote safe flying operations, MRM looks at all the human factor elements
of engineers, managers and other people working together to promote safety in
aircraft maintenance.

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Flow of information is very important if the organisation wants the loyalty and complete support of its
people.
Communication flows in three directions: downwards, upwards and horizontally.
The nature and form of the specific communication depends on the individuals and Horizontal communication
their roles in the organisation. You can probably think of examples of each type of
Communication in a lateral or diagonal direction is referred to as horizontal com-
communication within your own organisation. These same categories apply to
munication. This is the most used flow of communication as individuals at the
communication between regulators, vendors and aviation maintenance organisa-
same level talk to each other constantly about work-related events, management
tions.
and personal matters.
Downward communication Work-related communication revolves around formal tasks and goals that are vital
to the organisation. Personal, informal communication serves the social and emo-
The downward flow consists of messages and information sent from top manage- tional needs of people who work closely together for long periods of time. Employ-
ment to subordinates. The flow usually follows the formal lines of authority down- ees at the bottom of an organisation's structure have a greater need for information
ward from position to position. The downward flow is the strongest of the three than those at the top.
directions. Management has the power to create messages and start them on their
downward journey. It is through horizontal communication that subordinates evaluate their superiors
in areas such as skills, attitudes, values, personality, problem solving, planning
Unfortunately messages are sometimes not received, arrive distorted or too late and organising.
or are not sent at all. Downward communication in an organisation usually consists
of the following: Messages transmitted on this level are important to a supervisor because they
serve as feedback on how well that individual is managing a unit. However, such
• Job descriptions and instructions regarding specific employee tasks.
information is seldom provided directly. Instead, it is usually transmitted through
• Policy rationale that explains why and how the tasks fit the company's overall the grapevine.
objectives.
• Straightforward information on the company's past, present and future, along
with explanations about policies, practices, and procedures.
• Company ideology designed to make employees respect, support and work
for continued company and product success.
Upward communication
Upward communication flows from subordinates to superiors. In a hierarchical or-
ganisation communication works according to the principle that governs the flow
of solid waste - it doesn't flow uphill easily.
Downward communication is usually better than most people recognise. People
lower down often know more than those above want them to. Conversely, upward
communication has to be pumped and primed, with a minimum of filters, in order
to be effective.
An effective communication process is one that not only speaks but also listens. It
has a two-way flow. Employee publications and effective day-to-day work direction
can deal with the speak portion of the communication loop. The listen dimension

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The impact of information technology

Communication in organisations has improved significantly in recent years, in
terms of the ability to send and receive messages. Particularly important has been
the advances in computer technology, including e-mail, voice mail, fax machines,
mobile phones and pagers. Staying in touch has never been so easy.
Information technology (IT) improves communication in organisations in the fol-
lowing ways:
• It cuts across time boundaries; employees decide for themselves when they
will use IT. So the frustration of trying to reach someone by telephone or hav-
ing to return calls is eliminated.
• It cuts across geographical boundaries; a message can be transmitted to a
co-worker down the corridor or in another country. The speed at which infor-
mation travels makes the process viable. People can send and receive infor-
mation from a variety of places such as their home, their office, their car or a
hotel room.
• It allows multiple, simultaneous reception; IT can be used to transmit messag-
es automatically within a few seconds to one person or hundreds. Each per-
son will receive an individual copy of the message and can reply to the sender.
• Bottlenecks can be avoided as electronic information channels are typically
direct between sender and receiver.
• It helps reduce paperwork; unless a hard copy is needed, the entire transac-
tion can occur electronically. Most messages are never printed out.
• It leads to the creation of special relationships; IT helps create communities
of workers who have the resources to exchange reports, ideas, programs and
plans.

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MRM Maintenance Resource Management Work Load Management and Situation Awareness
• Planning/Preparation/Vigilance.
Communication • Workload Distribution.
• Active Participation in short turnover briefing. • Distractions and other Avoidance.
• Clear communication of decisions regarding maint. and repair done on the air-
craft. Communication Process and Decision Behaviour
• Asserts with the appropriate level of persistence to maintain safety and air- • Briefings, Debriefings • Inquiry, Assertion
craft airworthiness
• Self critique and critique of coworkers when appropriate. Seeking of informa- • Crew Self/Critique • Conflict Resolution
tion and direction from others when necessary. • Decisions • Communication
Crew Development Team Building and Maintenance

• Involvement of crew members in decision making process. • Leadership/Followership • Focus on Tasks/Operations
• Maintaining of confident authority.
• Automation • Interpersonal and Group climate
• Use of appropriate technique to manage interpersonal and operational con-
flicts.
• Effectiv coping with operational stress.
• Adapting to co-workers interpersonal differences.
Workload Management
• Prioritizing of tasks to accomplish.
• In a timely and effective manner.
• Monitors all relevant operational factors to maintain safety.
• Utilizing of tools and resources to maximize efficiency and minimize errors.
• Manages time to accomplish tasks.
• Distributes tasks to maximize efficiency.
Technical Proficiency
• Demonstrating of technical skills.
• Demonstrating knowledge of computer systems and manuals.
• Knowledge of aircraft systems.
• Adhering to company policies and JAR regulation.

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Summary Communication Model

The Sender “encodes”
Communication Within and Between Teams The Receiver “decodes”
Formal = written Channel or mode of transmission. (verbally, non-verbally or body language) May
Informal = verbal (restricted vocabulary, protocol) be critical.
Definition of Communication Communication Rules

The dynamic and irreversible process by which we engage and interpret messag- Take Responsibility and Ownership of your Message
es within a given situation or context. Use first person singular words like "I think "
Importance of Communication Problems During Transmission

Mechanics, teamleaders, and inspectors all must have the knowledge and skills to External factors like background noise, light, language, mental and physical im-
communicate effectively. pairments.
Results of Improper Communication Potential Problems in the Communication Process

Errors, Inefficiencies, Duplication of effort, Conflict, Degraded quality, Cost in- Encoding and decoding and problems in the communication channel.
creases.
The Model of Transactional Analysis

Results of Proper Communication is an attempt to explain human behavior, especially human communication, our
Understanding, Coordination, Agreement, Determination of actions, effective de- own and that of others.
cision Making, appropriate activities to reach the goals. Principle Everyone of us incorporates three minds (ego states).
“Child” Free and natural, spontaneous, adjusted to authorities, stub-
Forms of Communication born, upset.
Verbal Face to face or through electronic mediums such as a phones “Parent” Caring, consoling, encouraging, supporting, protecting and
or radio. understanding.
Prejudices, critical, is biased, judges in a subjective manner,
Non- verbal “Body language”. gives orders, scolds, claims to know from experience. “you’ve
got to”!
Written Publications, letters, forms, signs, e- mail.

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“Adult” Reason and common sense. factual, offers information, states Small changes to the technology carry potentially the greatest risk.
facts, tries to find out about backgrounds and asks for rea-
sons. “What is your opinion”?
Dissemination of Information
Rule Communication can go on as long as the people involved use
the same ego state. Parallel or crossed transaction. Downward Communication
Upward Communication
Horizontal Communication
The Dupont Model
Distinguishes between two minds only. The Impact of Information Technology
Emotional Impulsive, quick, without self For most of the time, Cuts Across Time Boundaries
doubt. these two minds are in Cuts Across Geographical Boundaries
Rational Comprehensive, aware, thoughtful. harmony with each Allows Multiple, Simultaneous Receivers
other. Bottlenecks can be Avoided
Emotions create the input for the rational ego. Helps Avoid Paperwork Collections
Work Logging and Recording

Written Communication
Job cards, work plans, procedures, log book.
Difficulties of Written Communication
Written communication is more difficult than verbal or non- verbal communication.
No immediate feedback,
No body language,
Sender cannot ask questions.
Be Correct, Be Complete, Be Clear (or Keep It Simple Stupid, KISS)
Write legibly, proof- read, watch-out for statements like:
"I don't have time for all the paperwork".
Keeping up to Date: Currency

The responsibility lies with the engineer himself and with the organisation.

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Training Manual 9.8 Human Error
9.8 Human Error

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Error models and theories Errors can happen in any of the three processes in this figure. The reason for mak-
ing errors and the methods for effectively reducing errors is different, depending
Human error played a big role in most of the well-known disasters in the world, on where they occur in the information processing model.
such as Bhopal, the Exxon Valdez, and Chernobyl. As in any complex technical For example, errors in sensing and perception of information might be caused by
activity, human error is also involved in the majority of aviation maintenance-relat- poor design of workspace lighting, too much noise, low quality of printed materials,
ed poor quality control, incidents and accidents. etc. Errors in decision making might be due to tiredness, lack of training or time
Estimates of this human error rate have increased over the years, from a low of pressure. Errors in the action could be caused by poor tool or equipment design,
around 20% in the 1960s to over 80% in the 1990s. Does this mean that people no proper procedures, distractions, and workplace temperatures that are too hot
now do not care, forget, do not pay attention and do not consider the consequenc- or too cold.
es? Not really, but it does reflect two important and wide spread trends:
Figure 1: The origin of errors
Aircraft components, along with most other items of equipment, have become both
more sophisticated and more reliable over the past thirty years. e.g. poor e.g. fatigue e.g. poor
There is a growing realisation that designers, manufacturers, executives, and lighting, noise time stress procedures,
maintenance managers can make mistakes which result in conditions which cause etc. etc. distractions, etc.
more errors on the hangar floor.
These two trends have resulted in fewer and fewer component-related failures but
in more reports of human errors.
Human errors were recognised as a major hazard to safe flight operations at least
as early as World War II. Most of the work in aviation research has been focused SENSING PROCESSING
TAKING
on operational errors made by flight crews and air traffic controllers. This is right, & &
ACTION
as the majority of serious aviation accidents are the result of operational errors. PERCEPTION DECISION
However, as everyone working in aviation maintenance knows, there have been a MAKING
number of serious, even fatal, accidents over the years that were mainly caused
by maintenance errors. Public and official awareness of maintenance errors in-
creased dramatically after the Aloha Airlines B737 accident in 1988 (see
Sub Module 9.1 "Fuselage damage").
General model of human error

To understand how errors are made, we first have to look at a basic model of hu-
man performance. There are many such models but we will use a simplified view
of human information processing.
The figure opposite is a block diagram showing the three usual processes an AMT
(or anyone else) goes through to perform an action. In general, these processes
are sensing and perception (detecting and awareness) of information, processing
that information and making a decision about which action to take, and then taking
the action.

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General human performance model

Heinrich ratio
Not all errors, or unsafe acts, lead to accidents. After reviewing several accident
databases, a safety researcher named Heinrich discovered a relationship between
unsafe acts, incidents, non-fatal accidents and fatal accidents.
This ratio shows that accidents do not just happen for no reason; they happen as
a result of unsafe behaviour. So we can conclude that reducing the number of un-
safe acts will automatically lead to a reduction of incidents and fatal accidents.
Table 1: The Heinrich Ratio
Fatal Accident 1
Non-Fatal Accidents 10
Reportable Incidents 30
Unsafe Acts 600

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Types of error in maintenance tasks • Seals over-torqued

• Not loosening both ends of connecting tube during replacement
Definition of error • Replacing tube assembly without first breaking connections between match-
ing parts
Human error can be defined in a number of ways and categorising the type of error
can help to create solutions to prevent that error from happening again. Below is • Loose or missing oil-tank caps
a list of different types of errors a person can make. Each type of error can be • Dirty or loose cannon plugs
traced to particular causes. Follow this example for each type of error. • Foreign objects dropped into engines
Example: John drives into water and the car begins to hydroplane. • Water in fuel
Slip - having a good plan, but bad execution: John’s plan is to pump his brakes, • Skydrol in oil system
but he misses the brake pedal and steps on the accelerator instead. Analysis of 122 quality lapses found by a major airline over a period of three years
Mistake - a bad plan is selected: John thinks that speeding up will give him control revealed very similar errors:
over his car so he accelerates. • Omissions (leaving out parts or procedures)(56%)
Violation - the wrong procedure is performed intentionally: John learned from his • Incorrect installations (30%)
driving teacher that he should pump his brakes in this situation, but his brother said • Wrong parts (8%)
that acceleration is best, so John steps on the accelerator. • Other (6%)
Types of error in maintenance tasks contd. In the largest single category, omissions, closer examination identified:
• Fastenings left undone or incomplete (22%)
Traditionally, quality lapses, unsafe acts and less than adequate (LTA) mainte-
nance performance are graded according to their negative impact upon the air- • Items left locked or pins not removed (13%)
craft. These error types fall into two general classes: • Filter/breather caps loose or missing (11%)
• Causing damage (introducing an aircraft discrepancy) that was not there be- • Items left loose or disconnected (10%)
fore the maintenance activity began. • Spaces, washers, etc., missing (10%)
• Failing to detect damage or incorrect components during maintenance in- • Tools, spare fastening, etc., not removed (10%)
spections. • Lack of lubrication (7%)
Errors can be further broken down into specific categories, as was done in a Pratt • Panels left off (3%)
and Whitney study of the causes of 120 inflight engine shut downs (IFSDs) on • Miscellaneous (11%)
Boeing 747s in 1991. These errors were then ranked according to frequency:
Although this does not tell us why the individuals made these particular errors, it
• Missing parts reveals a great deal about which stages of aircraft maintenance task are at most
• Incorrect parts risk of error. In particular, they show that LTA performance is much more likely to
• Incorrect installation of parts occur during reassembly than during disassembly.
• Use of worn or deteriorated parts
• Careless installation of O-rings
• B-nuts not safety wired
• Nuts tightened but not torqued
• B-nuts over-torqued

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The Dirty Dozen Communication

Aviation safety specialist Gordon Dupont identified the twelve most common hu-
man-factor maintenance errors, known as the Dirty Dozen. This is by no means a
full list so, after you finish, try to think of your own human factors-related errors and
ways to stop them happening again.
• Lack of communication
• Lack of teamwork
• Lack of assertiveness (not enough confidence)
• Complacency (too relaxed)
• Distraction
• Pressure
• Lack of resources
• Lack of knowledge
• Lack of awareness
• Norms (standard work procedures)
• Stress
• Fatigue
Each error is described on the following pages.
I guess day shift can finish screwing on the panel.
Communication: Every kind of exchange of information between two or

more people.
Communication is passing any type of information from one person to another. It
can happen in a number of different ways, such as:
• the spoken word
• the written word
• gestures and facial expressions
• body language

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Teamwork
Figure 2:
With increasingly complex technologies it is not possible for one person to have all
the relevant knowledge. In maintenance you have to rely on co-operation with your
colleagues. If this policy of co-operation is not considered important, it may be dif-
ficult for you to begin to do it.

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Survival exercise: Lost on the moon Table 2: Survival Objects

Your space ship is stranded on the moon. The
original plan was to meet up with the mother A B
ship on the lighted side of the moon which is Your Team
located 400 km from your current position. priority list priority list
However, the hard landing has damaged your
space ship to such an extent that all the equip- box of matches
ment has been destroyed except for the 15 ob-
jects listed (see “Table 2: Survival Objects” on food concentrate
page 7) .
15 m of nylon rope
Your task
The survival of the crew now depends on reaching the mother ship. You have 10 parachute silk
minutes to classify the 15 objects according to their importance for the crew’s sur-
mobile cooker powered by solar energy
vival. Mark the object with the highest priority 1, the second most important 2 and
continue until priority number 15. two 7,65 mm pistols
First, on your own, list the items according to their importance. Put your results in
column A. a can of dry milk powder
Then work together with your group and put the group results in column B. two 50 kg oxygen tanks
astral map (moon constellations)
inflatable boat
magnet compass
20 l of water
signal flares
first-aid kit with injections
solar energy powered transmitter

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Assertiveness (Bestimmtheit) Which way would you react?

Specialists in the field have defined the following character-
istics as typical of technicians:
• dependability
• willingness to invest effort and time
• integrity
• modesty
• mistrust of words
• tendency to be a loner
• unwillingness to ask for help
• self-sufficiency
• tendency to work things out one's own way
• reluctance to share personal thoughts
Source: Richardson Management Associates
How would you assess yourself?
Improve your self confidence!
ASSERTIVENESS: The ability to express your opinion.
"An air traffic controller can unplug from the con-

The following criteria can be important to assertiveness: sole at the end of the day, knowing that the day's work is finished.
• self assessment When the fight crew leave the aircraft at the end of a flight, the chances
• how others assess you are that any mistakes they made affected that flight only. But when
• basic characteristics like: maintenance personnel head home at the end of their shift, they know
that the work they performed will be relied on by crew and passengers
– ability to receive criticism
for days, weeks and even years in the future."
– ability to discuss
– desire for harmony Alan Hobbs, Bureau of Air Safety Investigation
– etc.
Imagine the following situation: Colleague A has a splendid idea. Colleague B
agrees with the new idea and puts it to use. Colleague C thinks "Why didn't I think
of that myself?" Colleague D thinks "This guy wants to tell me what to do" and tries
everything to prove the new idea is a bad one.

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Complacency (Selbstzufriedenheit) Distraction (Ablenkung)
Distraction: Attention is diverted; mental or emotional confusion

Complacency: Self satisfaction leading to a loss of the awareness of danger
If your attention is diverted when performing a critical job it can cause a dangerous
Because of the large number of repetitive jobs in maintenance there is a high risk
situation.
of acting automatically. Once you do something frequently, you stop consciously
thinking about it and forget about any related dangers. Distracted attention is the main reason for a B-nut not being tightened or a control
cable not being secured. There is a good chance of a serious mistake, especially
Self-satisfaction is often linked to an too much self-confidence.
when you are tired or stressed.
You are so sure of finding what you expect to find, that you see what you expect • Whenever you are performing a critical job, finish it before you allow your at-
to see, even if it is not there. When you add such factors as missing tools, tiredness tention to turn to something else.
etc. there is a good chance of making a mistake.
• If somebody speaks to you, ask them to wait until you have finished whatever
• Paying attention is the best protection against acting automatically. you are doing.
• Be conscious of what you are doing. • Before you sign off a job, read again what you are about to sign.
• Check the conditions every time you start a job. • Don't say to yourself: “I guess I did it right. I've always done it right so far.”
• Use the work instructions no matter how many times you have performed the • If you are not totally certain that you have performed all the steps, check.
job.

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Pressure Whenever you realise that you are putting pressure on yourself and starting to
make mistakes:
Stop and check the situation. Can you finish the job safely in the time given?
If not:
• Ask yourself what is the best way to proceed? What is the worst that can hap-
pen?
• Has a similar situation occurred before? Is it possible to learn from that?
• Ask for more time or assistance.
Pressure: An atmosphere of urgency and haste

A job usually has to be done within a certain period of time. So being subject to a
certain amount of pressures is part of your daily work.
You might have two weeks to do a job that takes only two hours, but you do not do
it until the very last day. You need a degree of pressure to get started.
But when you are under pressure of time, you are more likely to make mistakes
because you tend to ignore things that do not seem to be very important. You
might even completely lose control of the situation.
In your opinion, who generates most pressure at your place of work?
• your boss or the customer
• your colleagues
• you

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Resources • You are responsible for your work. Accept that responsibility and act accord-
ingly.
• Use all the resources that are available to you.
• Use the prescribed tools for the job you are doing.
• Defend your position - be assertive.
• Don't try to do a job yourself if you need help. Often the problem is not getting
help, but asking for it.
Resources: All equipment and aids (tools, information, work procedures

etc.) that are available to help you do your work
Many accidents are caused by poor equipment (missing items, wrong or faulty
tools) or equipment that is available but not used. Technical workers are well
known for trying to do jobs with poor equipment.
There are no limits to improvisation and genius. It has been said that a mechanic
is a person who learns to do more and more with less and less until they are fully
qualified to do absolutely everything with absolutely nothing.
If special tools are prescribed for a job you must use them. Every time! If these
special tools are not available, ask for them – and don't be afraid to ask for them
more than once. A mechanic can say: "I asked for it two years ago and nothing
happened!" while the head of maintenance didn’t even know about the request.
It is up to you to use the proper equipment and not to compromise with something
else. How often does someone use a torch even though a movable lamp is only a
few yards away?

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Knowledge Awareness (Bewusstsein)
This is the third one to bend!

What’s going on?
Knowledge: Using your training and experience in the performance of your Awareness: Understanding situation
work The instructions were followed, the work procedure was correct, but the result is
Aircraft systems are becoming more and more complicated and maintenance doc- still not perfect.
uments are designed to ensure that maintenance is carried out correctly. Unwelcome results can come from a lack of knowledge but also sometimes from
If you do not understand the terms there is the danger of carelessness: you may poor judgment about the consequences of your actions.
not even try to read and understand maintenance documents. It is especially important to think about the possible result when we are confronted
• Be sure you understand what you are doing. with changes to standard procedures:
• Make sure your knowledge is up to date. • Imagine what consequences a failure could have.
• Ask for an explanation of the technical terms. • Could there be any interference with a modification or repair that has already
been carried out?
• Ask your colleagues if they can detect any problems.

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Norms Make a list of unwritten rules that apply to your department:
Are these rules good or bad for you? Do you and others benefit from them?
•
Never mind the Maintenance Manual.
•
It’s quicker the way we do it here.
Norms: Unwritten and often unspoken rules concerning work procedures; A

code of behaviour
In every company and every department there are rules and regulations that have
never been put into words. Everybody knows about them, but almost nobody
would be able to define them clearly.
These rules tend to remain nameless ("You aren't supposed to do that"; "We've
always done it this way"). If you bother to ask questions you will find out that you
and we could be anybody and nobody at the same time.
Such rules might prove either advantageous or disadvantageous.
If it has become the norm to work in the plane without safety nets when the doors
are open it could be extremely disadvantageous. When installing carpets you
could fall through the door even if a safety barrier has been installed.
On the other hand, if it has become the norm for everyone to try and improve the
work procedures and if these attempts are supported by colleagues and manage-
ment, it will certainly be advantageous.

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Stress The response to stress

When a person is subjected to a stimu-
lus that creates stress (a stressor) the
brain makes a quick decision: is this
stressor good or bad? Then the brain
orders the body to react accordingly.
This procedure is always the same but
can vary in strength and duration, de-
pending on the stressor and the mental
and physical conditions.
The body’s response to stress is:
• increased production of adrenaline
• increased heart rate
• increased blood pressure
• decreased blood flow to the hands
and feet
• increased blood flow to the mus-
cles
• faster breathing
• more awareness
• tense muscles
Stress: Physical or psychological tension These changes have an influence on the brain and - if they are very strong - the
brain will respond with an increased mental readiness. This means:
These days everybody has quite a good understanding of the word “stress". When
you say that you are stressed you probably mean you are tired, irritated, exhaust- • acceleration in the activities of the brain
ed, depressed or tense. • improvement in the quality of immediate decisions
Stress is understood to be something negative but we need a certain amount of • faster decision making
stress in order to get going. But problems result if there is too much (or too little) • improvement in memory
stress. Most people think that stress is something psychological - a mental prob- • improvement in alertness
lem - but it is really a physical problem.

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Positive effects of stress 3. Lack of flexibility

Stress is helpful in many situations, for exam-
ple in sports, during examinations or when
Tips for solving problems
giving a lecture. Stress can help us to mobi- • Deal with the problem now. Don't hope it will go away.
lise our resources, giving us increased visual • Describe the problem to check whether you really know what it is.
awareness, stronger muscles and better pow- • What caused the problem?
ers of reaction. • Try to distinguish between the problem and the person. Attack the problem,
The important thing in using stress positively not the person.
is to react to the situation. This burns up the • Try to distinguish between the problem and your emotions. Do not be emo-
stress chemicals in the body. tional when you observe the situation.
• Decide the result you are aiming for.
Negative results of stress
• Make a list of possible solutions. Complete the list before making a decision.
We experience the negative results of stress if there is no opportunity to react and
• Consider new solutions. The procedure that has always been used may not
the stress chemicals remains in the body. This happens if we reject the natural re- be the best one.
action because it would take too much time or be too violent.
There are three basic long-term consequences to holding onto stress:
1. Deterioration in health
– diseases of the heart and blood circulation
– ulcers
– skin diseases
– infectious diseases
– allergies
2. Reduced performance
– reduced ability to concentrate
– forget things
– quickly exhausted
3. Bad behaviour
– irritated
– unhealthy eating, drinking and smoking habits
– increased mistakes
– lack of flexibility
Here are some situations that can cause stress:
1. Not enough resources to solve problems
2. Communication problems

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Tips for improving communication in stress situations

Listening
• Listen closely. Don't judge.
• Concentrate. Pay attention to the words, tone of voice and body language.
• Listen actively. Repeat the information to the speaker.
• Appreciate the input.
Speaking
• Use “I” statements. This way you take responsibility for what you say.
• Be self confident. Express your thoughts and feelings clearly.
• Be clear about the purpose of your words.
• Ask for feedback. Make sure you have been clearly understood.
Consider this: We hear only half of what we are told, understand only half of what
we hear, believe only half of what we understand, and remember only half of what
we believe. (McLaughlin)
Flexibility
Be open to new thoughts and ideas. This will make it easier for you to understand
the people you are talking to.
Remember that usually there is more than one way to solve a problem. Ask others
to suggest new ideas.
Try to see things through the eyes of your colleagues from time to time. Try to un-
derstand their point of view.

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Fatigue (Ermüdung) Symptoms

Most people experience similar symptoms:
• Reduced alertness:
– basic work procedures are overlooked
– feeling that too much is expected of you
I’m glad this
– reduced awareness (only see big cracks)
double shift – taking less care
is over! • Impaired memory:
– forget job-related activities
– you can not call-up knowledge you normally have
– you fall into patterns of habit
• You don’t feel as good:
– less interest in communication
– low priority jobs are not done
– can not concentrate because you feel a little bit ill
– irritated
– do not care
Reasons for fatigue

The causes of fatigue can vary:
• long work hours
• stress
• changes in temperature
• noise
Fatigue: Exhaustion due to work or other physical actions. Nervous tired- • vibrations, shock
ness. Temporary inability to be active • certain types of lighting
Here we distinguish between two kinds of exhaustion; temporary exhaustion as a • shift work
result of intense physical or mental strain and chronic exhaustion that has built up • lack of sleep
over a longer period of time.
• lack of healthy food

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Shift work Figure 4: Physiological efficiency in %

Shift work means working variable hours and a lot of aircraft maintenance is per- 140
formed between midnight and 06:00 in order to have aircraft ready in the morning. %
Night Shift Early Shift Middle Shift
Humans have an inner clock which is set according to the degree of light and dark
and this clock controls procedures like eating, sleeping, activity, body temperature 120
etc. In other words our physical functions are controlled by the light and shift work
can lead to.
• tiredness 100
• depression
• personal problems 80
• high blood pressure
• less immunity
60
The body temperature gives us information about our inner clock.
Figure 3: Body temperature
40
37.00
°C
20
36.80
36.75 0 Time 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Average fitness in relation to the time of the day.

36.60 36.60
36.50 36.50
36.30
36.25
36.00
time of day
When the temperature rises (within the normal range) we wake up and when the
temperature drops we need sleep and relaxation. This is why sleep that starts at
06:00 is less effective than sleep starting at 22:00.

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Lack of sleep Nutrition

There are different phases - or stages - of sleep and each meets a certain require- What we eat and drink has an influence on our performance. Food can provide en-
ment. ergy, but it can also make you feel tired. Coffee is stimulating but it can also have
One is called the Delta phase when the body is regenerated. Another is the REM negative effects. Medication can have bad side effects. Drugs may make us feel
phase (rapid eye movement), when the brain organises itself. In times of increased strong but they can have a negative impact on our awareness.
physical strain, the Delta phase is prolonged. When we do intellectual exercises, The quantity of food you eat will affect your potential. The more food in your stom-
such as learning something new, the REM phase is extended. If you have difficulty ach, the more blood is needed to digest it. This blood cannot be used at the same
falling asleep or you are not able to sleep through the night there are things you time by other parts of the body.
can do to help yourself: Processed carbohydrates, for example pure sugar, have only a short term ener-
• Avoid caffeine (in tea, coffee, chocolate etc.) before going to bed. gising effect. To maintain a good standard of performance it would be better to eat
• Make your bedroom comfortable. non-processed carbohydrates.
• Select a good bed, mattress and bedclothes. In order to stay alert during the night shift, experts recommend the following foods:
• Do not take hard physical activity just before bed time • brown rice
• Avoid raising emotions before going to bed (angry discussions, news bulletins • wholemeal pasta
etc). • grain products
• Use your bedroom only for restful activities and sleeping. • fruits
• fruit juice
• vegetables
• peanuts
• ice cream
• milk
• yogurt
• low-fat foods
• plenty of water
Physical condition
Being in good physical condition will help you to cope with everyday pressures.
Approximately three times a week you should take some form of aerobic exercise
which produces sweat. Sport can be more fun when practiced with others.

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Possible results of errors (i.e. accidents) Latent and active failures

We can distinguish between active and latent failures. The difference is simply
Why is there a new focus on aviation maintenance? Some high-profile and fatal
the time that passes before human errors have a negative impact.
accidents in recent years have been caused by maintenance factors. Below is a
short list of serious accidents in which maintenance error played a part. In the case of active failures, the negative impact is almost immediate.
But with latent failures the consequences can take a long time to happen, some-
Aircraft Location Cause Year times years.
The difference between active and latent failures can be summarised as:
American Airlines DC-10 Chicago Engine separation 1979 • Active failures are the result of unsafe acts (errors and violations) committed
by those at the "sharp end" of the system (pilots, air traffic controllers, AMTs
Eastern Airlines L-1011 Bahamas O-rings 1983 etc.). They are the people whose actions can, and sometimes do, have imme-
diate serious consequences.
JAL B-747 Japan Bulkhead 1985
• Latent failures are the result of decisions made higher up in the organisation.
Aloha Airlines B-737 Hawaii Fuselage failure 1988 Their negative consequences may only happen much later when they com-
bine with local triggering factors (for example errors, violations and local con-
BM Air Tours B-737 Manchester Burner can 1989 ditions).
United Airlines DC-10 Iowa Fan blade failure 1989
Continental Express Texas De-icing boot 1991
Northwest Airlines B-747 Norita Engine separation 1994
Valujet Airlines DC-9 Miami Mislabelled oxygen can- 1995

isters
A ‘failure’ is the most serious result of human error.

Some human errors have serious consequences, but most do not. In a conversa-
tion with someone you might make several mistakes but the only consequence is
that you might have to repeat or clarify what you said.
But a small percentage of human errors can cause or contribute to reduced safety
or, in severe cases, accidents that destroy property or injure people.

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Avoiding and managing errors pens when the person is working under time pressure, or when the next job is
physically close.
Once an error is identified, we have to make sure it does not happen again. To do As with many problems connected to human factors, the best solutions are tech-
this we first have to determine why it occurred. nical and not psychological. The steps for dealing with tasks open to errors are set
The initial – wrong – reaction is to blame the person who made the error. But an out below:
error will almost always have more than one cause. We must identify as many of • Identify any part of the reassembly task (for example lock wires, wheel spac-
the causes as possible before we can develop an effective error management. ers, removing tools etc.) that might be forgotten. This can be done by exam-
One requirement of effective error management is to break free of the cycle of ining the quality lapse data, or by using the points above.
blame. To do this you need to recognise that: • Try various ways to remind the AMT to carry out the necessary steps by
• a person’s actions are normally limited by factors outside their immediate con- putting a clearly visible reminder close to the step that might be missed. Ide-
trol. ally, the components should be redesigned to ensure only one correct way of
• it is not easy for people to avoid doing something that they did not mean to do. reassembly, but in practice this is rarely possible.
• an error is usually made as a result of many connecting factors such as the • Do not expect total success from any one method of reminding. Think kaizen.
person, the task, the situation and the system. Kaizen is a Japanese word meaning "continuous improvement involving the
entire system and everyone in it". It is a process of deliberate, slow, continual
• within a skilled, experienced and well-motivated workforce it is easier to make refinements. It does not involve looking for dramatic solutions, but makes con-
changes to jobs, situations and procedures than to change the people.
stant effort to find better and more reliable ways of doing the job. In this con-
• quality lapses, incidents and accidents are often the result of situations and text, it means continuously trying to find better reminders.
tasks that include the possibility of error – and not of errors made by the work-
force. Recently, Boeing became concerned about lock wires not being replaced, partic-
ularly in leading edge flap assemblies. They set up a small project group to find
For efficient error management we can analyse the steps in a maintenance proce- ways of solving this problem. The group came up with various possible solutions,
dure and assess the possibilities of error. A number of inter-related principles de- but the one they liked best involved small cloth bags with a draw-string and a pic-
termine if a step should be removed: ture on the outside that clearly showed the need to insert lock wires.
• If there are many steps in a procedure, there is greater possibility that one or
The idea was that, on disassembly, the mechanic would remove the relevant fas-
more will be left out.
tenings and place them in the bag which he would hang on a nearby board until
• If a lot of prior knowledge is required, there is greater possibility that steps in re-assembly. Then the mechanic would pick up the bag and, in so doing, be re-
the procedure will be left out. minded about the need to insert a lock wire.
• Steps that are not clear from the previous action (as in the case of disassem-
Clearly this is not a perfect solution, but in the spirit of kaizen, it would remove
bly of bolt and nuts) or not in a direct sequence will possibly be left out.
some of the opportunities for forgetting. The important point is that the solution in-
• When written instructions are given, some steps at the end (e.g. replacing volved a technical understanding of the practicalities of the task and not a deep
caps or bushes, removing tools etc.) will quite possibly be left out. understanding of human nature.
• During an often-done or automatic task, interruptions can result in a step be-
ing left out. This is either because an action is ‘counted in’ as part of the se-
quence, or because you ‘lose your place’ on resuming the task; the AMT
mistakenly thinks more steps were completed before the task was interrupted.
• Routine tasks are often stopped too early – the AMT moves on to the next ac-
tivity before the task is completed, leaving out the final steps. This often hap-

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Types of prevention designs

Three basic designs in systems are there to prevent error or to minimise the con-
sequences of an error. These designs are:
• Exclusion - the design of the component makes it impossible to commit an er-
ror.
• Prevention - the design of the component makes it difficult, but not impossible
to commit an error.
• Fail-safe - the design of the component makes the consequence of an error
less serious without necessarily reducing the possibility of errors.
Examples of prevention designs

Imagine you are connecting jump cables from one car to another.
• An exclusion design would make the cable connectors in a way that would
make it impossible to mix the positive and negative ends.
• A prevention design would include detailed instructions on the correct proce-
dure and/or a warning system to signal an incorrect procedure.
• A fail-safe design would prevent a negative consequence from occurring no
matter how the two batteries were connected.
Try to think of examples of each strategy in your work.

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Summary Types of Error in Maintenance Tasks

Definition of Error: Slip, good plan, but bad execution.
Error Models and Theories
Mistake – a bad plan is performed, though not on pur-
Human error contribution has increased over the years, from a low of around 20% pose.
in the 1960s to values in excess of 80% in the 1990s.
Violation – the wrong procedure is performed inten-
– Aircraft components and equipment, have become more sophisticated
tionally.
and more reliable over the past three decades.
– There is a growing appreciation that designers, manufacturers, corporate
decision makers, maintenance managers can make mistakes which cre- Types of Error in Maintenance Tasks
ate the conditions to promote errors.
– The introduction of an aircraft discrepancy that was not there before the
These two trends resulted in less component related failures along with more hu- maintenance activity began.
man errors.
– The failure to detect damage or incorrect components during mainte-
nance inspections.
General Model of Human Error
Poor lighting, Fatigue Inadequate procedures, Specific Categories
noise, etc. time stress distractions – Omissions (56%) – Incorrect installations (30%)
– Wrong parts (8%) – Other (6%)
LTA (less than adequate) performance is much more likely to occur during reas-
Sensing Processing sembly than during disassembly.
Taking
& &
Action
Perception Decision Making
Heinrich Ratio
1 Fatal Accident
10 Non Fatal Accidents
30 Reportable Incidents
600 Unsafe Acts

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The Dirty Dozen

Communication: Every kind of exchange of information between two or more Physical reactions Positive effects of stress Negative results of
See 9.7 people. stress
Teamwork: In maintenance you have to rely on cooperation with your col- Higher Adrenaline production Acceleration of brain activities Deterioration of health
See 9.3 leagues. Increased pulse Improvement decision making Reduced performance
Assertiveness: The ability to be accepted. Increased blood pressure Speeding up decision making Inappropriate behavior
Important criteria: Ability to receive criticism Self assessment Sharpened senses Improvement of memory
Ability to exchange arguments How others assess you Tensed muscles Improved alertness
Your desire for harmony
Tips for solving problems: - Solve the problem now. - Describe the problem.
Complacency: Self satisfaction accompanied by a loss of awareness of dan-
- Make a list with possible solutions. - Consider new solutions.
gers.
- Try to distinguish between problem and persons and your emotions
Distraction: Attention is turned in another direction; mental or emotional and the problem.
confusion.
Pressure: Forcing a person to do something at a risk instead of offering Tips for improvement of communication in stress situations
alternatives; creating an atmosphere of urgency and haste. - Listen closely. Don’t judge. - Concentrate - Flexibility, be open minded.
Resources: All equipment and aid that are available to you to perform - Use I - statements. - Don’t allow any doubt about the purpose of your words.
your work. This includes tools, information and work proce- - Ask for feedback. - Pay attention to words and intonation.
dures.
Knowledge: Training and experience in the performance of your work.
Awareness: Bringing the situation to mind. Fatigue: Exhaustion because of work or other exertions. Nervous weariness.
Norms: Unwritten, and often unspoken rules concerning work proce- Temporary exhaustion and chronic exhaustion.
dures; Symptoms:
“Code of Behaviour”. -Reduced alertness -Impaired memory -Your spirits go to pieces
Stress: Physical or psychological tension. Reasons for Fatigue:
The response to stress: helpful or harmful? See.
- Long working hours - Stress - Noise
- Vibrations, shock - Shift work - Nutrition
- Physical condition
- Lack of sleep (“Delta Phase”, REM)
“The inner clock”. Our physical functions are controlled by the light.
Physiological efficiency is highest during the day.
Body temperature rises when we are awake and drops when we need
sleep and relaxation.

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Implications of Errors (i. e. Accidents) Types of Prevention Designs

Serious consequences of human errors are called "failures". Exclusion Designs Design makes it impossible to commit an error.
Active and Latent Failures. See 9.1 Prevention Designs Design makes it difficult, but not impossible to commit
an error.
Fail- Safe Designs Design reduces the consequences of errors.
Avoiding and Managing Errors
• Break free of the Blame Cycle.
• Human actions are constrained by factors beyond an individual's immediate
control.
• People cannot easily avoid actions that they did not intend to commit in the
first place.
• Errors are consequences rather than causes.
• Within a skilled, experienced and well- motivated workforce, jobs, situations,
and organisations are easier to change than people.
• Unsafe acts, quality lapses, incidents and accidents are more often the result
of error provoking situations and tasks than they are of error prone people.
Analyse the steps of a maint. procedure and estimate their probability of being
omitted.
• Due to a large number of steps.
• Big memory loading of a particular procedural step
• Large amount of necessary knowledge- in- the- head (KIH).
• Procedural steps that are not obviously cued by preceding actions.
• Isolated steps at the end of a sequence.
Practicable solutions are technical rather than psychological ones.
• Identify omission prone aspects of a reassembly task.
• Try various ways of reminders.
• Do not expect total success from one method of reminding.

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Training Manual 9.9 Hazards in the workplace

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Recognising and avoiding hazards Figure 1: Incidence of Latent Failures
Is a safe workplace one where no accidents happen? Not quite. You can have an Latent Description of Number of
unsafe workplace where an accident has not yet happened. failure ID latent failure incidents
A better definition of safety is the absence of hazards.
A Poor communication 29
But what is a hazard? A hazard is a danger that has the potential to cause or con-
tribute to injury or death. Objects or tasks can vary greatly in the number of possi- A1 Poor communication: between crew 24
ble hazards present in them.
Therefore it is better to define safety as the absence of hazards or hazardous sit- A2 Poor communication: between shifts 5
uations than as the absence of accidents. Although a job can never be totally haz-
ard-free, one can still reduce the chances of an accident happening by removing B Poor equipment 72
as many hazards as possible. Unfortunately, safety is more complicated when you
B1 Poor equipment: wrong for task 39
add the final component - the human being.
B2 Poor equipment: mechanical problem 33
Definition of safety
Safety can be defined in two ways: public safety and worker safety. C Wrong number of personnel 36
Public safety refers to the safety and general well-being of people outside the D Not enough space 30
work environment who are still affected by it. Examples include the passengers on
the aircraft you service, people living under the flight paths of those planes etc. D1 Not enough space: congested area 22
Worker safety refers to the safety and general well-being of people in the working D2 Not enough space: wrong for task 8
environment.
E Problems with painted guidelines 21
Summary of hazard patterns in GDI (Ground Damage Incidents)
Detailed GDI reports allow us to identify recurring hazard patterns and find the la- E1 Guide lines: do not exist 7
tent (delayed) failures, as well as the more usual active (immediate) failures. The
Incidence of Latent Failures list below summarises the frequency of latent failures E2 Guide lines: do not extend out of hangar 4
within the hazard patterns.
E3 Guide lines: not suitable for aircraft 10
This list shows that the most frequent latent failures are caused by problems with
the equipment, the wrong number of personnel and a lack of awareness of risks F Personnel unaware of work going on 8
and hazards.
G Pressure to achieve on-time departures 19
This last one is a big category, including such things as not enough training or not
checking if there is adequate clearance. The traditional systems of reprimands H Lack of awareness of risks/hazards 34
(Vorwürfe), motivation and training do not fully eliminate any of these causes of la-
tent failures. I Pushback policies not enforced 16
TOTAL 265

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To make sure these latent failures do not happen, it may be necessary to make Summary of OJI hazard patterns
changes in Maintenance. For example, the Plant Maintenance department may
need to be reorganised or extended so that ground equipment is better main- Data for OJIs is less detailed than for GDIs. OJIs happen more often and some
management personnel seem to find it hard to believe the statistics unless an ac-
tained, or more equipment may be needed.
tual injury can be seen.
Also, managers may need to re-design the pushback procedures so that the pro-
cedures relate to the real situations that mechanics face every day. The priority in personal injury is to treat the injured person. Data collection is seen
by some people as legally necessary but not important. Action has concentrated
Managers should not ignore the many active failures because preventing these on providing equipment for chemical hazards and personal protection (for exam-
will mean that many incidents do not happen. But finding latent failures and basic ple, hearing protection, masks). This equipment is effective for hazard patterns
causes can: which represent only a small percentage of the total injuries and costs.
• show up many problems which can be fixed with the same solution, for exam- Many of the latent factors can be the same as those found in GDIs. Why was the
ple, better maintenance of equipment can cut out many typical hazard pat- mechanic hurrying? Why did a mechanic attempt to manoeuvre a tow-bar alone?
terns and prevent future incidents, and Why was the mechanic wearing shoes that were not suitable for the surface con-
• suggestions for action will do more good than traditional personnel actions of ditions?
reprimand, motivate and train, which have not been effective.
Even though the data collection system is not detailed enough to identify the latent
failures, it can still be used to define patterns of active failures.
On-the-job injuries (OJIs)
On-the-job injuries (OJIs) in airline maintenance are frequent and lead to signifi-
cant losses to the airline each year.
One airline recently analysed total OJIs for one year in Technical Operations
(Maintenance). They checked 785 injury reports, including the insurance costs of
many of them.
The total direct cost to the airline was over $1,200,000 so the airline had a major
financial interest in reducing the number of injuries. And these direct costs do not
include loss of productivity and quality that might result from moving personnel be-
tween jobs to replace injured workers.

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Dealing with emergencies Lockout / Tagout

When a worker is servicing a piece of equipment or a system, it is important to
Catastrophes and emergencies guard against a release of power that could injure someone or damage equipment.
Many events can disrupt operations, put people in danger and threaten equipment The general safety procedure includes the following steps:
or facilities. These events include fires, explosions, floods, hurricanes and torna- • Train all workers so that they understand the equipment or system to be main-
does, earthquakes, serious work accidents, spills of dangerous substances and tained and the lockout / tagout process
terrorist acts or civilian unrest. • Notify everyone who may be affected
Advance planning is needed to be ready for these events and reduce their conse- • Shut off all power sources
quences. Such planning involves command and communication procedures, se- • Disconnect all primary power sources such as electrical, hydraulic, or pneu-
lection and training of response teams, emergency equipment, sheltered areas, matic lines
alarm systems, evacuation and transportation plans, on-site security and co-ordi- • Lockout these power sources, using multiple locks with unique keys if the
nation with groups outside the organisation, such as fire services, police and air- work is done by a team
port security.
• Control or release all power from secondary sources such as capacitors,
SR Technics has procedures for chemical spills, fire, first aid, accident reporting counterweights, or pressure tanks
etc., and has regular contact with local support groups such as the fire services, • Verify the lockouts
security and medical services (see "Sicherheits-Weisungen - SR Technics"). • Remove the tag(s) and lock(s) after completing the work
• Notify everyone affected when the work is completed.
Risk of infection
During an emergency there is little time to consider how to protect the first aid team
(or other employees) from blood-borne diseases such as Human Immunodeficien-
cy Virus (HIV) or hepatitis.
Our organisation has a plan to control exposure to these organisms and to mini-
mise any after-effects. The plan includes the following:
• Training for the emergency teams
• Work practice regulations
• Protective equipment for essential personnel
• Warning signs and labels
• A case-management program following exposure, including vaccines, record
keeping, and follow-up.

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No-smoking policy (see "Sicherheits-Weisungen - SR Technics")

Many organisations have no-smoking policies, but these are usually only to protect
workers from the effects of passive smoking. There are other important health and
safety issues.
A smoker’s hands become cooler after smoking a cigarette, as a result of de-
creased blood flow to the limbs. This could increase the risk of soft tissue injury
and damage.
Another potential problem with smoking in the workplace can be the concentration
of volatile toxins present in the air. The increased risk of fires and the general
health risks associated with smoking, influence companies to implement a no-
smoking policy.
Confined spaces
Mechanics can inhale fumes or gases while they work. This usually causes breath-
ing difficulties. Such incidents account for 1.4 percent of all injuries, and for .38
percent of the total expenditures for injury.
Substances that might cause this problem include cleaning compounds, fuel, hy-
draulic fluids and paint. The problem can be made worse in the confined spaces
where mechanics often have to work.
Working in a space with limited access that is not designed to be continuously oc-
cupied means following written procedures, having prior training and using safety
equipment.
Other hazards might be present in confined spaces, such as toxic gases or fumes,
electricity, machinery etc. Confined spaces themselves are considered danger-
ous, even without any other hazard being present.
The written Confined-Space Entry Plan states that anyone entering such a space:
• has had appropriate training in entering such spaces and in using any safety
equipment
• has a written entry permit before entering a space that contains any hazards
that could cause death or serious physical harm
• tests the space for sufficient oxygen and for dangerous gases or vapours
• ventilates the space before and during the work
• locks out any connecting lines
• has the appropriate safety equipment and trained assistance present
SR-Technics has safety procedures and safe working permits for the following:
fuel tank entry, welding on production line and fuelling and de-fuelling.

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Summary Dealing with Emergencies

Catastrophes and Emergencies
Recognising and Avoiding Hazards
Advance planning is necessary to address these events and to reduce their con-
Safety is the absence of hazards. sequences.
A hazard is a condition or set of circumstances that has the potential to cause or Command and communication pro- Selection and training of response teams,
contribute to injury or death. cedures,
Fail- Safe Designs Design reduces the consequences of errors.
Definition of Safety Emergency equipment, sheltered Alarm systems,
areas,
public safety and worker safety.
Evacuation and transportation, On-site security,
Lockout / Tagout
Summary of GDI (Ground Damage Incidents) Hazard Patterns Define lockout / tagout procedure, training.
• most frequently occurring latent failures are problems with the equipment,
• use of an improper number of personnel,
• lack of awareness of risks and hazards. First Aiders / Bloodborne Pathogens
to eliminate these latent failures in the system, it may be necessary to make many Protection of first aid team members or other employees.
changes in the maintenance system.
Smoking Policy
On-the-Job Injuries (OJI,s)
Hazard patterns were developed by sorting the injury reports according to the type
of situation that caused the injury. Confined Spaces
Confined spaces are considered inherently hazardous even without being associ-
ated with other hazards. They may require:
Summary of OJI Hazard Patterns • Written confined-space entry plan.
Many of the latent factors are the same as those found in GDIs. • Appropriate training in entering such spaces and in using any safety equip-
(Task overstrain or losing control of equipment) ment.
• Written entry permit, it contains any hazards that could cause serious physical
harm.
• Test of the space for sufficient oxygen and for dangerous gases or vapours.
• Ventilating of the space before and during entry.
• Appropriate safety equipment and trained assistance present during entry.

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Training Manual Study Questions
Study Questions
9.1 General 4. What are the most frequent causes for air accidents?
Answer:
1. What is the chain of events?
Answer:
5. During which maintenance process happen most of the errors?
Answer:
2. Why do we have to take Human factors into account?
Answer:
6. What are the two basic type of errors?
3. What is the "error iceberg"? Answer:
Answer:
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9.2 Human performance and limitations 11. What factors can impair situation awareness?
Answer:
7. What senses are used during visual inspections?
Answer:
9.3 Social psychology

8. What is the difference between hearing and listening?
12. What are the two types of leaders?
Answer:
Answer:
9. How much dB produces a riveting gun?

13. What is effective leadership?
Answer:
Answer:
10. What problems can occur during information processing?

14. What are the different ways of learning?
Answer:
Answer:
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15. What are the basic needs defined by the pyramid of "Maslow"? 19. What is the difference between a manager and a leader?
Answer: Answer:
20. What is the difference between authoritative and participatory leadership?
Answer:
16. What is "Peer pressure"?
Answer:
21. What is important in connection with feedback?
Answer:
17. What are the most important components of a corporate culture?
Answer:
9.4 Factors affecting performance

18. Name the characteristics of an effective team.
22. What are the components of stress?
Answer:
Answer:
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23. Is underload a stress factor? 27. Poor workplace lighting can cause ?
Answer:
24. What are the problems connected with shift work?
Answer: 28. What is information present but missed?
Answer:
25. What are the different forms of fatigue?
Answer:
9.6 Tasks
29. How can you reduce stress during repetitive tasks?
Answer:
9.5 Physical environment

26. When do you have to use ear protection?
Answer: 30. What are the components of situation awareness?
Answer:
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31. For what are models used? 35. What is important in written communication?
Answer: Answer:
9.7 Communication 9.8 Human error

32. What is the "transactional analysis" model? 36. What is the "Heinrich" ratio?
Answer: Answer:
33. What is the "Dupond" model? 37. What is a slip?

Answer: Answer:
34. What are the basic forms of communication? 38. What is a mistake?
Answer: Answer:
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39. What is a violation? 43. What is complacency?
Answer: Answer:
40. What is communication? 44. What is Distraction?
Answer: Answer:
41. What is teamwork? 45. What is pressure?
Answer: Answer:
42. What is assertiveness? 46. What are resources?
Answer: Answer:
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47. What is knowledge? 51. What is fatigue?
Answer: Answer:
48. What is awareness? 52. What is an exclusion design?
Answer: Answer:
49. What are norms? 53. What is a prevention design?
Answer: Answer:
50. What is stress? 54. What is a failsafe design?
Answer: Answer:
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55. What is a hazard?
Answer:
56. What is the most frequent cause for incidents on ground?
Answer:
57. What is a confined space?
Answer:
58. How do you deal with emergencies?
Answer:
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Training Manual 9.Info Sources of Further Information
9.Info Sources of Further Information

air-transport.org ATA flightsafety.org Flight safety foundation
raes-hfg.com/xmaintsg Engineering Maint.Standing Group gainweb.org Global aviation information network
gainweb.org Global Aviation Information Netw. iata.org IATA
casa.gov.au Civil aviation safety authority AU icao.org ICAO
hfskyway.faa.gov FAA ifairworthy.org International federation of airwort.
jaa.nl Joint aviation authorities marss.org maintenance and ramp safety soc.
Tc.gc.ca Transport Canada aerolearn.com Aerolearn Northrop rice av. inst.
srg.caa.co.uk U.K. civil aviation authority safety regulation group erau.edu Embry-Riddle Aeronatical University
ntsb.gov NTSB US honeywelltraing.com Honeywell Aerospace Training
bea-fr.org French bureau enquetes-accidents landings.com Hangar talk
tsb.gc.ca Transportation safety board of Can. nbaa.org National business Aviation Ass.
aaib.detr.gov.uk UK air accidents investig. branch pprune.org Prof. pilots rumor network Canada
camc.ca Canadian aviation maint. council
pama.org PAMA

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Training Manual 9.Info Sources of Further Information

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Glossary Training Manual Glossary
A AMT B complacency
-Technicien de Maintenance Avion -Satisfaction, Contentement
ability belongings
-Aircraft Maintenance Technician -Selbstzufriedenheit, Selbstgefällig-
-Capacité -Biens, Affaires, Effets
analysis keit
-Fähigkeit -Habseligkeiten
-Analyse (psych-) complete
abundance bias
-Zerlegung, gründliche Untersuchung -Terminer Achever
-Abondance -Biais, Parti pris, Préjugé
anthropology -komplett, vollständig, vervollständi-
-Ueberfluss, Fülle -voreingenomen, befangen
-Anthropologie gen
access blame
-Menschenkunde comprehend
-Accès -Schuld
approach -Comprendre, Inclure
-Zugang boredom
-Approche, Venue, Accès -umfassen, einschliessen, begreifen,
accurate -Ennui verstehen
-sich nähern, herangehen, anpacken,
-Exact, Juste, Précis -Langeweile
Annäherung, Anflug compromise
-genau
appropriate -Compromis, Compromettre
act -Adéquat, Approprié, Juste
C -Kompromiss, Kompromisslösung
-Action, acte, loi, Décret -passend, geeignet careless conceptual
-Handlung, Akt, handeln, tätig sein -nachlässig, unvorsichtig -Conceptuel
art
active -Art cause -begreifflich
-Actif, Alerte, Eveillé -Kunst -Cause conducive
-activ. tätig, lebhaft -Ursache -Favorable
assertive
adequate claustrophobia -dienlich, förderlich
-Autoritaire
-Adéquat, Approprié, Suffisant -Claustrophobie (phobie des lieux fer-
-ausdrücken, anmassen consciousness
-angemessen, ausreichend mé)
assumption -Conscience, Connaissance
adolescence -Hypothèse, saisie -Platzangst, krankhafte Angst vor -Bewusstsein
-adolescence -Annahme, Voraussetzung Aufenthalt in geschlossenen Räu- consider
-jugendliches Alter, Pubertät men -Considérer, Estimer, Envisager
audition
affect -Audition cognition -nachdenken über, betrachten, sich
-Affecter, Toucher -Gehör, hören -Connaissance, Conscience überlegen, erwägen
-beeinflussen -Erkenntnis constraint
awareness
affection cognitive -Contrainte, Gêne, Retenue
-Conscience
-Affection, Maladie, Malaise -Cognitif, Conscient -Zwang, gezwungen
-Bewusstsein, Kenntnis
-Zuneigung, Gemütsbewegung -erkennbar, betreffend content
alert communication -Contenu
-Alarme, Avertissement -Communication, Relation -Inhalt
-wachsam -Mitteilung, Uebertragung
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Training Manual Glossary
context design E eustachian tube

-Contexte -Intention, Dessin, Ebauche, Prémed- -Trompe d’Eustache (canal auditif)
ease
-Zusammenhang itation -Eustachische Röhre, Ohrtrompete
-Tranquillité, Repos, Aisance
control -ausdenken, ersinnen, konstruieren, event
-Behaglichkeit, erleichtern
-Contôle, Surveillance, Vérifier Entwürfe machen, gestalten -Evénement, Cas, Concours
-kontrollieren, überwachen, beauf- designation eddy
-Fall, Ereignis
sichtigen -Désignation, Nomination -Remous
-Wirbel exclusion
cornea -Bestimmung, bestimmt -Exclusion, Refus
-Cornée determine emphasis
-Ausschluss
-Hornhaut des Auges -Déterminer, Décider, Fixer -Accentuation
-Betonung, Schwerpunkt, Nachdruck exhaustive
corollary -feststellen, ermitteln, bestimmen, ve- -Exhaustif
ranlassen, sich entscheiden, sich encode
-Corollaire -erschöpfend
entschliessen -Encoder
-Folgerung, Folge expectation
-verschlüsseln, chiffrieren
correlation discrepancy -Attente, espérance
-Correlation -Désaccord, Ecart encompass
-Erwartung
-Wechselbeziehung, Uebereinstim- -Diskrepanz, Widerspruch -Entourrer, Contenir
-umgeben, umfassen
mung dissemination F
cue -Dissémination, Diffusion enhance
-Agrandir, Rehauuser, Accroitre fail
-Exemple -Ausstreuung, Verbreitung -Echouer, Mettre en échec
-Einsatz, Wink distinction -erhöhen, verbessern, steigern
-versagen
-Distinction environment
fatal
D -Unterschied -Environnement, Entourage
-Fatal, Mortel
-Umgebung, Umwelt
decode distinguish -tödlich, fatal, verhängnisvoll
-Discerner, Distinger error
-Décoder, Interpréter fatigue
-unterscheiden, auseinander halten -Fehler
-entschlüsseln -Fatigue
distraction essay
deliberate -Ermüdung, ermüden
-Distraction, Divertissement -Aufsatz
-Délibérer, Réfléchir, Discuter flaw
-Ablenkung, Zerstreuung -Epreuve, Essai
-überlegt, bewusst, absichtlich, -Défaut, Défectuosité
vorsätzlich dominant esteem
-Fehler, Defekt, schwache Stelle
-Dominant -Estime, Considération
depict fulfilment
-dominierend, (vor)herrschend, be- -achten, schätzen
-Décrire, Dépeindre -Réalisation, Accomplissement
-(bildlich) darstellen, schildern, be- herrschend, bestimmend, tonange- estimation
-Erfüllung
schreiben bend -Evaluation, Estimation
-Meinung, Ansicht, Achtung functional
-Fonctionnel
-funktionsbezogen
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G ingenuity L N
-Ingéniosité
gender latent need
-Genialität, Einfallsreichtum
-Genre -Latent, Caché, Camouflé -Besoin, Nécessité
-Geschlecht inherent -verborgen, versteckt -Bedürfnis, Erfordernis
-Inhérent
grain products legible
-innewohnend
-Getreide, Korn -Lisible, Reconnaissable O
insanity
-leserlich, lesbar obey
-Folie, Démence
H -Wahnsinn, Irrsinn
legibly -Obéir, Se conformer
habituate -leserlich -gehorchen, folgen
intend -Lisiblement, De façon claire
-Habitué -Avoir l’intention de, pévoir olfaction
-gewöhnen liable -Olfaction, Odorat
-beabsichtigen, vorhaben
hazard -Responsible, Redevable -Geruch
interaction -haftbar, haftpflichtig
-Hasard, Danger -Interaction, Action Mutuelle omission
-Gefahr, Risiko log -Omission, Négligence, Délaisse-
-Wechselwirkung
hazardous -Carnet de bord, Journal ment
intonation
-Dangereux, Risqué -Ereignisse aufzeichnen, festhalten -Auslassung, Unterlassung, Versä-
-Intonation, Ton de la voix
-gewagt, gefährlich, riskant umnis
-Satzmelodie, Tonfall
hear M omit
invariable
-Entendre marrow -Omettre
-invariable
-hören, anhören, vernehmen, er- -Moelle, Moelle des os, Moelle -weglassen
-unveränderlich, gleich bleibend
fahren épinière opportunity
iris
holistic -(Knochen)Mark -Occasion, Oportunité
-Iris, (membrane de l’oeil)
-holistisch mental -Gelegenheit, Möglichkeit, Chance
-Regenbogenhaut
-Mental
I J -geistig P
impair mentor peer
judgement
-Détériorer -Mentor, Maître, Maître à penser -Pair, Ami, Noble
-Jugement, Décision
-beeinträchtigen -ratgeben, lehren, instruieren -angestrengt schauen, spähen
-Urteil
implication motor perceive
-Moteur -Sentir, Percevoir
-Implication, Induction K -treibende Kraft
-Verwicklung, Folgerung -wahrnehmen, begreifen, erkennen
knowledge myriad
incident
-Connaissance, Savoir -Myriade
-Incident, Evénemet
-Kenntnis, Wissen -Unzahl, unzählige
-Ereignis, Zwischenfall
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percentile premature purpose S

-(statistischer Begriff) Ein bestimmter -Prématuré -But, Intention, Objectif
safe
Teil von einer in gleiche Teile auf- -vorzeitig, verfrüht, voreilig -Zweck, Ziel, Absicht
-Sûr, Sans danger
geteilten Bevölkerung pressure pursuit -sicher
perception -Pression -Poursuite
safety
-Perception, Sensibilité -Druck -Verfolgung
-Sécurité, Sûreté
-Wahrnehmen pressure on
-Sicherheit
perceptive -Druck ausüben auf R
science
-Perceptif, Perspicace, Sensible prevention record -Science
-scharfsinnig -Prévention, Précaution, Empêche- -Registre, Dossier, Rapport -Wissenschaft
performance ment -Aufzeichnung, schriftlich belegt
scold
-Exécution, accomplissement Per- -Verhinderung, Verhütung, Vorbeu- refinement -ausschimpfen
formance gen -Affinage, Raffinage
-Verrichtung, Erfüllung, Durchführung security
proactive -Verbesserung, Verfeinerung
-Sûreté, Sécurité, Garantie, Caution
pertinent -Sur-actif remedial -Effekten, Wertpapier, sachbezogen
-Pertinent, Significatif -überaus aktiv, lebhaft -Réparateur
-sachdienlich significant
probability -Heilung
-Significatif, Important
physical -Probabilité, Vraisemblance Remediation -bedeutend, bedeutsam, wichtig
-Corporel, Physique -Wahrscheinlichkeit, höchstwahr- -Réparation, Guérison
-körperlich scheinlich situation
-Behebung
-Situation, Position, Emplacement
Physical Work project repetition -Lage, Situation
-Travail physique -Projet, Plan -Répétition, Renouvellement
-körperliche Arbeit -Vorhaben smell (Olfaction)
-Wiederholung
-Odeur, Senteur, (Olfaction Odorat)
polite prominently resource -riechen, Geruch
-Poli, Aimable -Bien en évidence, Proéminent -Ressource, Moyen, Recours
-höflich, Höflichkeit -auffallend, hauptsächlich social
-Mittel, Findigkeit
-Social, Mondain
practice prone respiratory -gesellschaftlich
-Pratique, Exercice, Entraînement -Enclin, Porté à -Respiratoire
-in Praxis umsetzen -neigen zu, anfällig sein spinal
-Atem
-Vertébrale, Epinière
precede psychology retina -Rückgrat, Wirbelsäule
-Précéder, Avancer, Avoir le pas -Psycologique -Rétine
sur... -Wissenschaft der Psyche staggering
-Netzhaut
-vorausgehen, vorangehen -Boulversant, Ahurissant
pupil retreat -zutiefst beunruhigt
-Pupille de l’oeil -Retraite, Retrait, Recul
-Pupille -Rückzug, abhauen, zurückziehen
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Basic Maintenance
stirrup tendon
-Etrier -Tendon
-Steigbügel -Sehne
stress touch
-Tension, Contraintet, Pression men- -Toucher, Tâter, Palper
tale -Tastempfindung, Berührung,
-Stress, Spannung, Belastung berühren, anfassen
stubborn transaction
-Têtu -Négociation
-eigensinnig, stur -Abwicklung, Abschluss
suggestion
-Conseil, Suggestion U
-Vorschlag, Anregung, Vorschlag ulcer
machen -Ulcère
suspend -Geschwür
-Pendre Suspendre unambiguous
-aussetzen, einstellen -non ambigus, Significatif
sustained -unzweideutig
-Soutenir unconfirmed
-anhaltend -non confirmé, non décidé
system -unbestätigt
-System uncontain
-Système -Sans contenu
-ungehalten
T
task V
-Tâche vision
-Aufgabe -Vision, Vue, Visibilité, Imagination
taste (Gustation) -Sehkraft, Weitblick, Vision
-Goût, Dégustation
-Geschmack, kosten, probieren, W
schmecken
work
teamwork -Travail
-Travail d’équipe -Arbeit
-Zusammenarbeit
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Basic Maintenance
Alphabetic Index Training Manual Alphabetic Index
A Potential Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.7-3 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6-7 Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-6

Results of good Communication . . .9.7-2 Environmental Controls (HVAC) . . . . . 9.5-4 Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-2
Acceptable Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-6
Results of poor Communication . . . .9.7-2 Error Heinrich Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-3
Active and Latent Error . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-10
Upward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.7-11 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-7 Human Error
Active Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-6
Within and Between Teams . . . . . . .9.7-2 Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-2 General Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-2
Adult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-5
Written . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.7-8, 9.7-9 Error Iceberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-5 Human Error,Error in aircraft maintenance .
Alcohol, Medication and Drug abuse . . 9.4-7
Communication Model . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.7-3 Error in Maintenance Tasks 9.1-4
AMT
Complacency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-9 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-4 Human Performance Model . . . . . . . . . 9.8-3
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-8
Complex Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.6-7 Errors
Stress Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4-3
Anthropometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6-2
Components of Situation Awareness . .9.6-6 Avoiding and Managing . . . . . . . . 9.8-21 I
Comprehending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.6-6 Possible Results (i.e. Accidents) . 9.8-20 Impact of Information Technology . . . 9.7-12
Appropriate Time and Place . . . . . . . . 9.2-6
Concern for People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.3-6 Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-2 Improving Communication in Stress Situa-
Assertiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-8
Confined Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.9-5 Eye Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-6 tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-16
Attention and Awareness . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-8
Controllability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-10 Incidents Attributable to Human Factor / Hu-
Aviation Maintenance
Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-7
Corporate Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.3-6 F man Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-6
Cost Failures Inflight Shutdowns
Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-8, 9.8-12
Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.1-7 Active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-20 Related Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-7
of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.4-3
B Culture Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.3-6
Latent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-20 Top Seven Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-7
Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4-7, 9.8-17 Information
Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6-2
Reasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-17 Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-3
Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-2 D Feedback Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-4
Left and Right Sides . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-2
Dealing with Emergencies . . . . . . . . . .9.9-4 Providing to your Team . . . . . . . . 9.3-10 from your Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-10
Definition to your Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-10 Hard to See or Hear . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-5
C Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.7-2 Fitness/Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4-2 Present but Missed . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-7
Catastrophes and Emergencies . . . . . 9.9-4 Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-4 Flow of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-11 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-7
Causes for Accidents Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.9-2 Focused Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-8 Inhalation
Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-4 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.4-3 Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-2 Fumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-3
Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-4 Demotivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.3-4 Forms of Communication . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-2 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-3
Characteristics of an Effective Team . . 9.3-7 Detection and Awareness . . . . . . . . . .9.2-3 Fumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-3 Inspection
Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-5 Dirty Dozen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-5 Visual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-4, 9.6-5
Classification of Light Sources . . . . . . 9.5-3 Distraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-9 G Inspector's Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-10
Claustrophobia and Physical Access 9.2-10 Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-5 Interest in the Topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-5
GDI (Ground Damage Incidents) Hazard Pat-
Climate and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-4 Divided Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-8 terns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9-2
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-5 Downward Communication . . . . . . . .9.7-11 K
Difficulties of Written Communication 9.7-
8
Dupont Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.7-7 H Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-12
Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6-7
Horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-11 E Hawaii 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-8 L
Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-2
Easy Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-4 Hazards Lack of Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-19
Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-9
Easy reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-4 Recognising and Avoiding Hazards 9.9-2 Latent Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-10
Open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-6
Effective Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.3-2 Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-5 Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-2
Oral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-3
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Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-8 Perceiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.6-6 Domestic and Work-related Stress . 9.4-3

Leadership and Communication . . . . . 9.3-9 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.3-6 Negative Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-15
Leadership Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-8 Physical Positive Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-15
Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-3 Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-19 Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-14
Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-3 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.6-2 Stress and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4-3
Listening Instead of Talking . . . . . . . . . 9.2-6 Physical Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-19 Survival Exercise "Lost on the Moon" . 9.8-7
Liveware PhysicalTasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.6-3 Sustained Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-8
Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6-7 Poor Working Conditions . . . . . . . . . . .9.4-5 Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-17
Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6-7 Prejudices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-6
Lockout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9-4 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-6 T
Lockout/Tagout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9-4 Present Definitions of Leadership . . . .9.3-8 Tagout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9-4
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.3-5, 9.8-10 Teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-7, 9.8-6
M Prevention Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-22 Defining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-7
Maintenance Errors Problems During Transmission . . . . . .9.7-3 Time
Top Eight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-7 Projecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.6-6 Pressures and Deadlines . . . . . . . . 9.4-4
Management, Supervision and Leadership . Training/Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-2
9.3-8 R Transactional Analysis Model . . . . . . . 9.7-5
Managers and Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-8 Reminder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.7-9
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-9 Repetitive Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.6-4 U-Z
Mental Limits Requirements Work
Disassembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-9 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.7-9 Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-8
Reassembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-9 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-11 Overload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4-4
Message Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-8 Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-8
Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-3 Responsibilities of Leaders . . . . . . . . .9.3-2 Shift Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4-5
Motion and Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-4 Responsibility for People’s Lives . . . . .9.4-7 Under-load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4-4
Motivation and Demotivation . . . . . . . . 9.3-4 Risk of Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.9-4 Working Conditions
Murphy’s Law” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-10 Poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4-5
S Working Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-5
N Safety Net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.3-5 Workplace Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-3
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-2 Selective Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-8
Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-13 Shared Ceremonies and Rituals . . . . .9.3-6
Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-19 SHELL Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.6-7
Shift Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.4-5, 9.8-18
O Sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-2
OJI Hazard Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9-3 Smoking Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.9-5
On-the-Job Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9-3 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.6-7
Solving Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-15
P Space Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.2-10
Special Feeling or Climate . . . . . . . . . .9.3-6
Parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-5
Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.8-14
Peer Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-5
09#66#009%Date:%March%2016
For training purposes only Cat: A B1 B2 9.Index - II

Human Factors (09!66!009 a B1 B2)

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Basic Maintenance

THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course) Module 9 Human Factors

9.1 General Claustrophobia and physical access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Stress and performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Comprehending (begreifen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Work Load Management and Situation Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Dealing with emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

9.9 Hazards in the workplace

Sept10 / Technical Training

Before beginning, here is a little quiz for you: Yes No

Do humans make mistakes?

Are you human?

Would you like to reduce the possibility of mistakes?

Sept10 / Technical Training

Introduction Figure 2: Chain of events

Sept10 / Technical Training

Error in aircraft maintenance Nuclear Power (US) 70%

Mechanical or human causes for accidents

Sept10 / Technical Training

The error iceberg Figure 4: Error iceberg

Sept10 / Technical Training

Uncontained engine fire 11 199

Out-of-configuration takeoff 11 188

Airport ground operations control 23 138

Totals 394 9639

Sept10 / Technical Training

Sept10 / Technical Training

4. Loose objects left in the aircraft An example:

• An AD called for close inspection of 1300 rivets.

Sept10 / Technical Training

Figure 7: Aviation accidents

1903 time Today

Sept10 / Technical Training

Active and latent errors

Active error - immediate effect

Latent error - delayed effect

Sept10 / Technical Training

Summary Incidents attributable to Human Factor / Error.

The Chain of Events Top eight common Maintenance Errors

5. Inadequate Lubrication 6. Cowlings / Panels not secured.

Human Causes increasing 80% Maint. Error

Sept10 / Technical Training

Sept10 / Technical Training

9.2 Human performance and limitations

Sept10 / Technical Training

Left half of the brain Right half of the brain

Sept10 / Technical Training

Sept10 / Technical Training

Visual inspection Easy reading

Sept10 / Technical Training

Sept10 / Technical Training

Appropriate time and place Hearing damage

Sept10 / Technical Training

Information processing • Noisy environment

Sept10 / Technical Training

Sept10 / Technical Training

Memory Mental limits: re-assembly

Mental limits: disassembly

Sept10 / Technical Training

Claustrophobia and physical access Controllability

Sept10 / Technical Training

Summary Hearing is passive.

Information Readability & Content

Sept10 / Technical Training

Slow or impaired perception

Other Factors that impair Situation Awareness

THAI%AUSTRIANTECHNICAL(Aircra3MaintenanceTechnician*Course) Module 9 Human Factors