actuators

Article
Magnetically Actuated Transport Pipeline with Self-Perception
Quan Shu 1,2,† , Shaolin Ge 1,† , Yanfang Li 1, * and Shouhu Xuan 1,2, *

1 Research Center of Tobacco and Health, USTC Anhui Tobacco Joint Lab Tobacco Chemistry, CAS University
of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230052, China; shuq@mail.ustc.edu.cn (Q.S.);
slge@ahycgy.com.cn (S.G.)
2 CAS Key Laboratory of Mechanical Behavior and Design of Materials, Department of Modern Mechanics,
University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei 230027, China
* Correspondence: liyf@ahycgy.com.cn (Y.L.); xuansh@ustc.edu.cn (S.X.)
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: Soft transportation devices with high flexibility, good stability, and quick controllability have
attracted increasing attention. However, a smart soft transportation device with tactile perception and
a non-contact actuating mode remains a challenge. This work reports a magnetic soft pipeline (MSP)
composed of sensor film, a magnetorheological elastomer (MRE) cavity pipeline, and heater film,
which can not only respond well to tactile compression stimuli but also be transported by magnetic
actuation. Notably, the sensor film was integrated on the upper surface of an MRE pipeline, and the
relative resistance change (∆R/R0 ) of the MSP was maintained at 55.8% under 2.2 mm compression
displacement during 4000 loading cycles. Moreover, the heater film was integrated on the lower
surface of the MRE pipeline, which endows the MSP with an electrothermal heating characteristic.
The temperature of the MSP can be increased from 26.7 ◦ C to 38.1 ◦ C within 1 min under 0.6 V.
Furthermore, the MSP was attracted and deformed under the magnetic field, and the ∆R/R0 of
the MSP reached 69.1% under application of a 165 mT magnetic field density. Benefiting from the
excellent perception and magnetic deformation performances, the magnetic actuate transportation of
the MSP with self-sensing was successfully achieved. This multi-functional soft pipeline integrated
with in situ self-sensing, electrothermal heating, and non-contact magnetic actuating transportation
performance possess high potential in smart flexible electronic devices.

Keywords: self-sensing; electrothermal; magnetic; pipeline; transportation

Citation: Shu, Q.; Ge, S.; Li, Y.; Xuan,
S. Magnetically Actuated Transport
Pipeline with Self-Perception.
Actuators 2024, 13, 199.
1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/act13060199
Flexible wearable devices have attracted wide attention in many fields because of
Academic Editors: Miaolei Zhou
their real-time and continuous monitoring of human information. The development of
and Yewei Yu
tactile sensing and corresponding integration with flexible devices is of great significance in
Received: 28 April 2024 building smart soft devices [1]. During the past decade, flexible sensors and electrothermal
Revised: 17 May 2024 film based on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) matrix have gained extensive attention [2–8].
Accepted: 20 May 2024 Yim CJ et al. developed a high-tension and high-sensitivity sensor based on PDMS matrix
Published: 22 May 2024 with a gauge factor over 40 and tensile stress about 50% [5]. Generally, the PDMS-based
flexible sensors respond to a wide range of tactile external stimuli (such as bending and com-
pression) and exhibit good stability and ultra-high sensitivity (gauge factor > 100) [1,9–12].
Lei X et al. used glucose additive as a porogen and endothermic agent, and developed a sim-
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. ple, low-cost, and fast laser thermal printing one-step process for the preparation of porous
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
PDMS film with surface microstructure [11]. It was reported that the film sensor based
This article is an open access article
on PDMS matrix exhibited good electrical response (gauge factor (≈21 for 18∼20 strain),
distributed under the terms and
pressure sensitivity (≈0.58 kPa−1 in 300∼400 Pa)) to pressure and bending detection [13].
conditions of the Creative Commons
Similarly, the electrothermal film based on PDMS matrix also showed an excellent Joule
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
heating property (the temperature of heater film is 203 ◦ C under 2 V voltage) [14–17].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Inspired by the evolution-optimized bioelectricity stimulus and multilayer structure of

Actuators 2024, 13, 199. https://doi.org/10.3390/act13060199 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/actuators

Actuators 2024, 13, 199 2 of 12

natural reptile skins, electronically innervated fluorescence-color switchable hydrogel actu-

ating systems, with bio-inspired multilayer structure comprising a responsive fluorescent
hydrogel sheet and conductive Graphene/PDMS film with electrothermal effect, were
presented [17]. The PDMS-based flexible electrothermal actuator not only possessed good
electrical Joule thermal performance but also satisfied the low resistance and low loading
voltage requirements [18]. Clearly, the sensor and electrothermal electronics based on
PDMS matrix present great robustness, rapid response, and multi-field coupling charac-
teristics. However, the intelligent flexible materials with tactile sensing perception and
Joule heating performances are still scarce, though they are particularly important in smart
soft devices.
Magnetorheological elastomer (MRE) is one kind of intelligent material composed of
magnetic particles and polymer matrix. By controlling the external magnetic field, the me-
chanical properties of MRE can be continuously, rapidly, and reversibly changed, exhibiting
a unique magnetorheological effect. In the past two decades, through optimizing polymer
matrix, magnetic particles, additives, etc., the mechanical properties and magnetorheologi-
cal effects of MRE have been greatly improved. Due to the good mechanical properties and
magnetic deformation performances, magnetorheological elastomer (MRE) shows great
potential in soft robotics, aerospace engineering, and intelligent artificial muscles [19–23].
Choi DS et al. proposed a universal, shape-adaptive/-retaining and reversible, variable-
hardness gripper skin based on MRE that served as a flexible solution for grasping such
objects without damaging them [21]. Due to the low cost and simple fabrication advantages,
the MREs have been applied in magnetic actuators and have demonstrated capabilities for
pumping and mixing liquids in microfluidics [24]. Based on MRE, Cao et al. developed a
magnetically actuated soft robot which possessed high flexibility, excellent stability, and
great fatigue durability [25]. This MRE robot could be squeezed and deformed under the
external magnetic field and recovered to the initial state by removing the magnetic field.
Although magnetically actuated devices have gradually attracted attention, few of them
have considered the real-time monitoring and response to the actuate deformation of mag-
netic actuators. With the development of human–machine interaction (HMI) equipment,
the construction of intelligent soft actuated devices with non-contact magnetic controllable
and self-sensing behaviors become an urgent problem to meet the growing demand of
multi-field coupling applications.
Silver nanowires (AgNWs) show high application potential in both the sensing and
electrical Joule thermal areas due to their outstanding conductivity, ultra-high sensitivity,
and fast response characteristics [26–29]. By using the AgNWs as the conductive materials,
the flexible conductive film could be successfully constructed and applied as a good
candidate for smart sensors and soft robots [30]. Moreover, the electrothermal film based
on AgNWs could also realize egg heating through the thermal energy generated by Joule
heating [18]. Moreover, silver (Ag) flake is a high-purity and high-conductivity material,
which shows a stable two-dimensional laminar sheet structure and great electrothermal
effect [31]. By integrating the AgNWs and Ag flakes together, an electrothermal film
actuator with fast heating could be easily achieved [16]. The reported conductive MRE
not only exhibited wonderful magnetic actuation, but also the actuation could be detected
in situ by the hybrid film, which demonstrated the unique actuation-sensing coupling
behavior. Recently, several works reported that an MRE bionic pump could be designed by
using magnetically actuated pipeline transport [32]. However, the simultaneous sensing
and controlling of the MRE bionic pump remains a challenge which hardly satisfies the
increasing requirement.
Electrothermal heating can actively control the liquid temperature in the pipeline
cavity according to the environment; thus, it greatly extends the application of flexible
soft actuators. Herein, a soft pipeline (MSP) with magnetic actuation, self-sensing, and
electrothermal heating is fabricated. The tactile compression mechanical stimuli of the
MSP can be detected by sensing the change in resistance. Benefiting from the heater film,
the MSP shows good Joule heating characteristics under low loading voltage. The non-
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 3 of 12

contact magnetically actuated transportation of the MSP is originated from the MRE matrix.
Additionally, the MSP exhibits excellent magnetic–electric coupling response behavior and
the magnetically actuated deformation is fed back in real time by the relative resistance
change (∆R/R0 ) of the sensor film. As a result, the magnetically actuated transportation of
the MSP with in situ self-sensing is successfully achieved. Because of its good electrical and
excellent stimuli responsiveness, this MRE pipeline possesses high application potential in
smart actuation devices.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The raw materials for self-prepared silver nanowire (AgNWs) solution [33], polyvinyl-
pyrrolidone (PVP), AgNO3 , glycerol, ethanol, and NaCl, were from Sinopharm Chemical
Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China. Silver (Ag) flakes were purchased from Shanghai Sigma
High Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China. PDMS (type Sylgard 184) precursor and curing
agent were supplied from Dow Corning GmbH, Freeland, MI, USA. Carbonyl iron particles
(CIPs, type CN) with an average diameter of 3.85 µm from BASF SE (Ludwigshafen,
Germany) were used as ferromagnetic particles.

2.2. Fabrication Process

The conductive pattern designed and optimized by CAD (2016) software was used to
prepare the sensor and heater film. The conductive layer of the sensor and heater film were
designed as a strip-shaped and U-shaped pattern, respectively. The reusable masking films
were obtained by hollowing out the commercial polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film into
the designed pattern via laser cutting technology.
The curing ratio of PDMS precursor was 20:1, and MRE precursor (CIP mass fraction
of 50 wt %) was prepared by dispersing the CI particles into the precursor. After stirring the
mixture and vacuuming for 5 min, the MRE was obtained. The sensor and heater film were
both composed of sandwich structures (PDMS/conductive layer/PDMS). The preparation
process of the sensor, heater film, and MSP was showed in Figure 1. First, PDMS precursor
was poured onto a silicon (Si) wafer, spin-coated at 500 rpm for 15 s and 1500 rpm for 30 s,
and cured at 90 ◦ C for 3 min with the semi-cured state (Figure 1a). The conductive layer of
sensor and heater film was AgNWs and Ag mixture, respectively. Here, 10 mL AgNWs
(concentration: 8.7 mg/mL) and 0.4 g Ag flakes were sonicated for 30 min to obtain the
conductive Ag mixture.
Second, the masking film was attached to the semi-cured PDMS film. The conductive
layer (AgNWs, Ag mixture) was coated and dried on the masking pattern of PDMS. Third,
the PDMS/conductive layer was cured at 90 ◦ C for 10 min, and the masking film was
peeled off after the curing. The wires were adhered to the electrode zones of the conductive
layer with silver paste. At last, PDMS precursor was poured onto the PDMS/Ag layer, spin-
coated at 500 rpm for 15 s and 1500 rpm for 30 s, and the sensor (PDMS/AgNWs/PDMS)
and heater (PDMS/Ag mixture/PDMS) film were formed (Figure 1a,b).
Figure S1 shows the designation and specific size of the trapezoidal mold. Figure 1c–e
show the fabrication process of MRE soft pipeline. First, the MRE precursor was poured
into the inner cavity of the 3D-printed cavity pipeline mold and then vacuumed for 10 min
to remove the bubbles (Figure 1c). Then, the encapsulation of the MRE cavity pipeline
was completed by squeezing out the excess MRE precursor from the pipeline by using the
mold cover. Afterwards, the encapsulated pipeline was cured at 90 ◦ C for 15 min and then
immersed in acetone solution for ultrasonic treatment. Figure S3a–c show the images of the
3D printing mold, MRE precursor in the mold, and the mold after curing, respectively. The
acetone solution completely dissolved the external mold after 6 h ultrasonication, and then
the MRE cavity pipeline was obtained (top unsealed). Finally, the MRE film was used to
encapsulate the top of the cavity pipeline and complete the preparation of the MRE cavity
pipeline (Figure 1d). Finally, a thin layer of PDMS precursor was uniformly coated on the
top and bottom of the MRE pipeline. The sensor and heater film were pasted on the thin
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 4 of 12

Actuators 2024, 13, 199 4 of 12

cavity pipeline (Figure 1d). Finally, a thin layer of PDMS precursor was uniformly coated
on the top and bottom of the MRE pipeline. The sensor and heater film were pasted on the
layer of PDMS
thin layer precursor.
of PDMS AfterAfter
precursor. curing, a multi-functional
curing, smartsmart
a multi-functional soft pipeline (MSP)
soft pipeline was
(MSP)
formed
was formed(Figure 1e). Figure
(Figure 1f,g show
1e). Figure the heater
1f,g show film and
the heater filmMSP
andcan
MSPloaded on the leaves,
can loaded on the
which
leaves,demonstrates the lightthe
which demonstrates weight
light of the final
weight product.
of the Notably,Notably,
final product. the MSPthecanMSP
be bent at
can be
large angles
bent at large(Figure 1h) and1h)
angles (Figure theand
good flexibility
the endowsendows
good flexibility the MSPthewith
MSPhigh sensitivity
with to
high sensi-
deformation actuationactuation
tivity to deformation and tactile sensing.
and tactile sensing.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Preparation
Preparation process
process of
of (a)
(a) sensor
sensor and
and (b)
(b) heater
heater film
film of
of magnetic
magnetic soft
soft pipeline;
pipeline; Fabrication
Fabrication
process of soft pipeline: (c) MRE precursor in the trapezoidal mold, (d) MRE film package
process of soft pipeline: (c) MRE precursor in the trapezoidal mold, (d) MRE film package on on top
top of
of
the pipeline; (e) Integration of sensor and heater film into the top and bottom of pipeline, respec-
the pipeline; (e) Integration of sensor and heater film into the top and bottom of pipeline, respectively;
tively; The images of (f) heater film, (g) magnetic soft pipeline; (h) The pipeline under bending stim-
The images of (f) heater film, (g) magnetic soft pipeline; (h) The pipeline under bending stimulus.
ulus.
2.3. Characterization
2.3. Characterization
The compression test system consists of a dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA, Elec-
The 3200,
troForce compression test systemEden
TA Instruments, consists of a dynamic
Prairie, MN, USA) mechanical analyzer
and Modulab MTS (DMA, Elec-
(Solartron
troForce 3200, TA Instruments, Eden Prairie, MN, USA) and Modulab MTS
analytical, AMETEK advanced measurement technology, Inc., Chichester, UK). The micro- (Solartron an-
alytical, AMETEK advanced measurement technology, Inc., Chichester,
morphology and structures of AgNWs and Ag flakes were observed by scanning electron UK). The micro-
morphology(SEM,
microscope and structures
model XL30 of AgNWs
ESEM-TMP,and Ag flakes
Philips ofwere observed
Holland by scanning
Co., Ltd., electron
Eindhoven, The
microscope (SEM,
Netherlands) undermodel
3 kV.XL30
The ESEM-TMP,
electrothermalPhilips of Holland
heating Co., Ltd.,with
was performed Eindhoven,
DC power The
Netherlands)
of under 3 The
different voltages. kV. The electrothermal
infrared heating
thermal camera wasImage
(type performed withInfra.Tec.
IR 8300, DC power of
Co.,
different
Ltd., voltages.
Dresden, The infrared
Germany) thermal
was used camera
to obtain the(type Image IR 8300,
electrothermal Infra.Tec.
images. Co., Ltd.,
The magnetic
Dresden, tests
response Germany) was used
were finished bytoModulab
obtain the electrothermal
MTS images.
with a DC power The magnetic response
electromagnetic coil. The
tests were finished by Modulab MTS with a DC power electromagnetic
magnetically actuated transport experiment was completed by a permanent magnet. coil. The magneti-
cally actuated transport experiment was completed by a permanent magnet.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Mechanic–Electric
3. Results Coupling Property of the MSP
and Discussion
In order to systematically
3.1. Mechanic–Electric investigate
Coupling Property of thethe mechanic–electric coupling response per-
MSP
formance, thetoelectrical
In order perception
systematically of the the
investigate sensor film (PDMS/AgNWs/PDMS)
mechanic–electric under
coupling response per-
compression stimulus was studied here by using an Electroforce system and an electrical
formance, the electrical perception of the sensor film (PDMS/AgNWs/PDMS) under com-
property test system, Modulab MTS (Figure 2).
pression stimulus was studied here by using an Electroforce system and an electrical prop-
The influence of the compression displacement, loading signal waveforms and fre-
erty test system, Modulab MTS (Figure 2).
quencies, multi-cycle stability, and sensitivity was investigated. Figure 2a shows the image
of the MSP under compression excitation. The SEM image exhibits that obvious cracks
will be formed on the conductive layer (AgNWs) under compression excitation (Figure 2b).
However, the Ag nanowires are still interconnected; thus, the sensor film still possesses
good conductivity (Figure 2c). Keeping the loading frequency at 0.5 Hz as a constant, the
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 5 of 12

applied compression displacement varies from 1 mm to 4 mm, and the ∆R/R0 of the MSP
increases from 23.4% to 142.8% (Figure 2d). Obviously, ∆R/R0 increases with increasing of
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 the compression displacement. Therefore, the MSP shows good sensitivity throughout the12
5 of
compression deformation stage.

Figure2.2. (a)
Figure (a)Image
Image of
ofMSP
MSPunder
undercompression
compressionstimulus;
stimulus; (b,c)
(b,c) SEM
SEMimages
images of
ofAgNWs
AgNWs after
after com-
com-
pression test; (d) Compression sensing performance with different compression displacementfre-
pression test; (d) Compression sensing performance with different compression displacement at at
quency of 0.5 Hz; (e) Magnified curve of ∆R/R0 under the compression displacement of 2 mm; (f)
frequency of 0.5 Hz; (e) Magnified curve of ∆R/R0 under the compression displacement of 2 mm;
∆R/R0 of compression displacement loading and unloading; (g) Different waveforms of electrical
(f) ∆R/R0 of compression displacement loading and unloading; (g) Different waveforms of electrical
performance at displacement of 2 mm; (h) Real-time ∆R/R0 response with different frequencies; (i)
performance
The stability at displacement
under 4000 cyclesofcompression; (j) ∆R/R0∆R/R
2 mm; (h) Real-time 0 response with
vs. compression different Inset:
displacement. frequencies;
the en-
(i) The stability
larged under
area of ∆R/R 4000
0 vs. cycles compression;
compression (j) ∆R/R0 vs. compression displacement. Inset: the
displacement.
enlarged area of ∆R/R0 vs. compression displacement.
The influence of the compression displacement, loading signal waveforms and fre-
Keeping the compression
quencies, multi-cycle stability, displacement
and sensitivityatwas
2 mm, the cyclic loading
investigated. Figure 2awas performed
shows the im-
for
age10ofcycles,
the MSPand
under ∆R/R0 almost
the compression kept at aThe
excitation. constant valueexhibits
SEM image (Figure that
2e). obvious
As shown in
cracks
Figure 2f, the ∆R/R0 of the MSP varied from 31.3% to 77.3% under gradient loading from
will be formed on the conductive layer (AgNWs) under compression excitation (Figure
1.3 mm to 2.5 mm, and it could return to 30.8% during the gradient unloading process.
2b). However, the Ag nanowires are still interconnected; thus, the sensor film still pos-
With increasing of the compression displacement, the resistance of the sensor film gradually
sesses good conductivity (Figure 2c). Keeping the loading frequency at 0.5 Hz as a con-
increases. When the compression displacement gradually recovers, the resistance returns
stant, the applied compression displacement varies from 1 mm to 4 mm, and the ∆R/R0 of
to the original value, which indicates that the MSP has a good sensing stability. Moreover,
the MSP increases from 23.4% to 142.8% (Figure 2d). Obviously, ∆R/R0 increases with in-
its sensing performance under different loading waveforms of sine, triangular, and square
creasing of the compression displacement. Therefore, the MSP shows good sensitivity
waves was also investigated. As shown in Figure 2g, the ∆R/R0 of the MSP was consistent,
throughout the compression deformation stage.
and different loading waveforms of compression could be well responded to by the sensor
Keeping the compression displacement at 2 mm, the cyclic loading was performed
film. When the frequencies were varied from 0.01 Hz to 1 Hz, the resistance responses
for 10 cycles, and the ∆R/R0 almost kept at a constant value (Figure 2e). As shown in Figure
of the MSP were similar (Figure 2h). Therefore, the loading frequency hardly affects the
2f, the ∆R/R0 of the MSP varied from 31.3% to 77.3% under gradient loading from 1.3 mm
sensing perception behavior of the MSP. Moreover, by keeping 0.5 Hz frequency and 2.2 mm
to 2.5 mm, and
compression it could return
displacement to 30.8%
as constant, theduring the gradient
robustness of the MSPunloading process.
under 4000 With
loading in-
cycles
creasing of the compression displacement, the resistance of the sensor film gradually in-
creases. When the compression displacement gradually recovers, the resistance returns to
the original value, which indicates that the MSP has a good sensing stability. Moreover,
its sensing performance under different loading waveforms of sine, triangular, and square
waves was also investigated. As shown in Figure 2g, the ∆R/R0 of the MSP was consistent,
 film. When the frequencies were varied from 0.01 Hz to 1 Hz, the resistance responses of
the MSP were similar (Figure 2h). Therefore, the loading frequency hardly affects the sens-
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 ing perception behavior of the MSP. Moreover, by keeping 0.5 Hz frequency and 2.2 mm
6 of 12
compression displacement as constant, the robustness of the MSP under 4000 loading cy-
cles was tested (Figure 2i). After 900 cycles of compression excitation, the ∆R/R0 of the
MSP was 55.8%.
was tested (FigureMoreover, after
2i). After 900 2655ofcycles,
cycles the ∆R/R
compression 0 of the MSP
excitation, the ∆R/R
changed to MSP
0 of the 56.7%.
Therefore,
was 55.8%. the MSP shows
Moreover, goodcycles,
after 2655 the ∆R/R
durability and 0stability.
of the MSP changed to 56.7%. Therefore,
The shows
the MSP relationship of ∆R/R0 and
good durability and compression
stability. displacement (from 1 mm to 4 mm) was
The relationship
also studied to analyze ∆R/R
of the and
sensing
0 compression
property of displacement
the MSP (Figure (from 1 mmthe
2j). Here, to 4gauge
mm) was factor
also studied to analyze the sensing property of the MSP (Figure 2j). Here,
(GF) is defined as (∆R/R0)/∆l, where the ∆l represents relative compression displacement the gauge factor
(GF) is defined
change. as (∆R/R0coefficients
The sensitivity )/∆l, where are ∆l represents relative
the approximated to threecompression displacement
response ranges and the
change. The sensitivity
corresponding coefficients
compression are approximated
displacement was divided to three
into 1response
mm to 1.8 ranges
mmand (thethefirst
corresponding compression displacement was divided into 1 mm
range), 2 mm to 3.6 mm, and 3.8 mm to 4 mm (the third range), respectively. The insets ofto 1.8 mm (the first
range),2j
Figure 2 mm to 3.6
exhibit mm, and
enlarged 3.8 mm
views to 4first
of the mmrange (the third range),
and the thirdrespectively. The insetsInofthe
range, respectively.
Figure 2j exhibit enlarged views of
first range, the GF of PMAP is 30.325% mm the first range
−1 and the third range, respectively.
. As the compression displacement increased In the
first range, the GF of PMAP is 30.325% mm−1 . As the compression displacement increased
from 3.8 mm to 4 mm, the ∆R/R0 increased from 138.1% to 142.8%. In the third range, the
from 3.8 mm to 4 mm, the ∆R/R0 increased −1 from 138.1% to 142.8%. In the third range, the
GF of PMAP is calculated at 23.365% mm . Clearly, the sensitivity gradually decreases
GF of PMAP is calculated at 23.365% mm−1 . Clearly, the sensitivity gradually decreases
with increasing of the compression displacement. As a result, the MSP exhibits excellent
with increasing of the compression displacement. As a result, the MSP exhibits excellent
stability and good sensitivity during the compression process.
stability and good sensitivity during the compression process.

3.2.
3.2. Electrothermal Behaviorofofthe
Electrothermal Behavior theMSP
MSP
After investigating the mechanical–electrical
investigating the mechanical–electricalsensing
sensingresponse
responseproperties
propertiesofofthe
theMSP,
MSP,
the pipeline heating
the pipeline heatingbehavior
behaviorofofthe
the
thethe MSP
MSP waswas systematically
systematically investigated.
investigated. Here,Here, the
the U-
shaped heater film (PDMS/Ag mixture/PDMS) with a unique electrothermal characteristic
U-shaped heater film (PDMS/Ag mixture/PDMS) with a unique electrothermal character-
was studied
istic (Figure
was studied 3). 3).
(Figure

Figure
Figure 3.
3. SEM
SEMimages
imagesofof(a)
(a)Ag
Agmixture,
mixture,(b,c)
(b,c)the
theenlarged
enlargedarea
areaofofAgNWs
AgNWsandandAg Agflakes;
flakes;(d)
Time−temperature relationships of the heater film; (e) Temperature stability of the heater film at a
(d) Time−temperature relationships of the heater film; (e) Temperature stability of the heater film
constant voltage of 1.0 V for 15,000 s; (f) Cyclic electrothermal stability of MSP at 1.0 V; (g) Experi-
at a constant voltage of 1.0 V for 15,000 s; (f) Cyclic electrothermal stability of MSP at 1.0 V; (g) Ex-
mental results of saturation temperature as a function of electrical power; (h) Infrared thermal im-
perimental results of saturation temperature as a function of electrical power; (h) Infrared thermal
ages of MSP under different voltages.
images of MSP under different voltages.

Figure 3a shows the micromorphology and structures of the conductive layer (Ag
mixture). The dashed circles in Figure are showing the magnified observed areas. Here,
 Actuators 2024, 13, 199 7 of 12

Actuators 2024, 13, 199 7 of 12

Figure 3a shows the micromorphology and structures of the conductive layer (Ag
mixture). The dashed circles in Figure are showing the magnified observed areas. Here,
theconductive
the conductivelayer layerininthe theU-shaped
U-shapedheater heaterfilmfilmwaswascomposed
composedofofAgNWs AgNWsand andAg Agflakes
flakes
(Figure 3b). Clearly, the Ag nanowires and nanoflakes
(Figure 3b). Clearly, the Ag nanowires and nanoflakes assembled to form 3D staggered assembled to form 3D staggered
structure,which
structure, whichendows
endowsthe theheater
heaterfilm
filmwithwithexcellent
excellentelectrical
electricalconductivity
conductivity(Figure (Figure3c). 3c).
Figure3d
Figure 3dshows
showsthe thetemperature
temperaturevs. vs.time
timecurves
curvesof ofthe
theheater
heaterfilmfilmunder
undervarious
various voltages.
voltages.
Thetemperature
The temperatureofofthe theheater
heaterfilm filmincreased
increasedsharplysharplyafter
afterthethecircuit
circuitwaswasenergized
energizeduntil until
reachingthe
reaching thesteady
steadystate
statetemperature,
temperature,and andthe thetemperature
temperaturedecreased
decreasedrapidlyrapidlytotothe theroom
room
temperatureafter
temperature afterthe
thecircuit
circuit waswas powered
powered off.off.
To To further
further evaluate
evaluate the the electrothermal
electrothermal behav-be-
havior of the heater film, the voltage was kept at 1.0 V to investigate
ior of the heater film, the voltage was kept at 1.0 V to investigate the stability (Figure 3e). the stability (Figure
3e).temperature
The The temperature of theofheater
the heaterfilm film
was was continuously
continuously maintained
maintained at about
at about ◦ C under
55.855.8 °C un-
dervoltage
the the voltage
loadingloading
over over15,000 15,000 s, which
s, which presented
presented goodgood long-term
long-term stability.
stability.
Moreover,the
Moreover, the heater
heater film film remained
remained repeatable
repeatable and similar
and similar electrothermal
electrothermal perfor-
performance
mance
after after 30ofcycles
30 cycles voltage of loading–unloading.
voltage loading–unloading. Thedemonstrate
The results results demonstratethat the that the U-
U-shaped
shapedfilm
heater heater film possesses
possesses good cyclicalgood cyclical
stability stability
(Figure(Figure 3f). Figure
3f). Figure 3g shows3g shows the linear
the linear fit
fit relationship
relationship between
between thethe saturation
saturation temperature
temperature and
and thethe appliedpower.
applied power.Obviously,
Obviously,the the
saturation
saturationtemperature
temperatureincreasesincreaseswith withthetheincreasing
increasingofofapplied
appliedpower,
power,which whichendows
endowsthe the
programmable
programmableand andcontrollable
controllabledeformation
deformationcapability
capabilityofofthe theheater
heaterfilm.
film.As Asaaresult,
result,the the
heater
heaterfilm
filmpossesses
possessessuperb superbstability,
stability,good
goodreliability,
reliability,and
andrepeatability.
repeatability.Benefiting
Benefitingfrom from
the
thegood
goodelectrothermal
electrothermalbehavior behaviorofofthe theheater
heaterfilm,
film,the
theMSP
MSPwas wasableabletotoheat
heatthethepipeline
pipeline
inner
inner cavity. The infrared thermal images show the heating behavior of the MSPunder
cavity. The infrared thermal images show the heating behavior of the MSP under
1.0
1.0V,V,1.5
1.5V,V,and
and2.0 2.0VVvoltage
voltage(Figure(Figure3h).3h).Clearly,
Clearly,the thetemperature
temperatureofofthe theMSP
MSPincreased
increased
obviously
obviouslywhen whenthe thevoltage
voltagewas wasapplied
appliedtotothe theheater
heaterfilm.
film.TheThetemperature
temperatureofofthe theheater
heater
film ◦
filmcould
couldreach
reachtoto100100 C°Catat2.0 2.0V,V,which
whichprovided
provideda aheating
heatingfunction
functionfor forMSP
MSPtransport.
transport.
Here,
Here,in in order
order to deeply research
to deeply researchthe thepractical
practicalapplication
application ofof
MSP MSP electrothermal
electrothermal be-
behavior, the Joule heating property of heater film was
havior, the Joule heating property of heater film was investigated (Figure 4). investigated (Figure 4).

Figure4.4.Low
Figure Low−temperature
−temperature ink:ink:(a)
(a)Optical
Optical image,
image, (b)(b) infrared
infrared thermal
thermal image;
image; (c) MSP
(c) MSP transporta-
transportation
tion device
device and image
and image for transporting
for transporting low temperature
low temperature ink; Infrared
ink; Infrared thermal thermal images
images of of MSP tem-
MSP temperature
perature distribution (d) at the power−on moment, (e–h) with increasing energization time; (i) Op-
distribution (d) at the power−on moment, (e–h) with increasing energization time; (i) Optical image
tical image and (j) infrared thermal image of ink ice cube on the heater film without heating; Ink ice
and (j) infrared thermal image of ink ice cube on the heater film without heating; Ink ice cubes were
cubes were heated and melted on the heater film: (k–o) Infrared thermal image and (p) optical im-
heated
age. and melted on the heater film: (k–o) Infrared thermal image and (p) optical image.
 Actuators 2024, 13, 199 8 of 12
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 8 of 12

Notably, the ink was placed in a refrigerator and removed after 6 h. Figure 4a,b show
Notably,
the optical image the and
ink was placed
infrared in a image
thermal refrigerator
of lowand removedink,
temperature after 6 h. FigureFigure
respectively. 4a,b
show the optical image and infrared thermal image of low temperature
4b presents that the temperature of the ink is only 3.9 °C. One end of the MSP was con- ink, respectively.
Figure ◦ C. One end of the MSP
nected4b to apresents
syringe that the temperature
and sealed with sealant. of The
the ink is only
catheter was3.9 then introduced at the other
was
end connected
of the MSPtotoa complete
syringe and the sealed with sealant.
seal process throughThe the catheter
same step. was then introduced
Finally, one simple
at the other end of the MSP to complete the seal process
pipeline transportation device was completed and assembled (Figure 4c). The through the same step.low-tem-
Finally,
one
perature ink was transported into the MSP through a syringe, and the heating effect ofThe
simple pipeline transportation device was completed and assembled (Figure 4c). the
low-temperature ink was transported into the MSP through a syringe, and the heating
heater film on the low-temperature ink in the MSP cavity was investigated. As shown in
effect of the heater film on the low-temperature ink in the MSP cavity was investigated.
Figure 4d, the temperature of the MSP was 25.9 °C when the heater film was energized.
As shown in Figure 4d, the temperature of the MSP was 25.9 ◦ C when the heater film
With the continuous applied voltage of 0.6 V, the temperature of the MSP increased sig-
was energized. With the continuous applied voltage of 0.6 V, the temperature of the MSP
nificantly with the increase in the heating time, and the temperature of the MSP can be
increased significantly with the increase in the heating time, and the temperature of the
increased from 26.7 °C to 38.1 °C within 1 min (Figure 4e–h). Obviously, the heater film
MSP can be increased from 26.7 ◦ C to 38.1 ◦ C within 1 min (Figure 4e–h). Obviously, the
presents a good heating effect, and the MSP can reach the human body surface tempera-
heater film presents a good heating effect, and the MSP can reach the human body surface
ture range in a short time under the low loading voltage. Therefore, the MSP shows good
temperature range in a short time under the low loading voltage. Therefore, the MSP shows
potential in bionic biological transport.
good potential in bionic biological transport.
To further investigate the electrothermal heating effect of the heater film, the ink was
To further investigate the electrothermal heating effect of the heater film, the ink was
frozen in the refrigerator. The ink ice cube was removed after 24 h and placed on the heater
frozen in the refrigerator. The ink ice cube was removed after 24 h and placed on the
film surface
heater (Figure
film surface 4i). Figure
(Figure 4j shows
4i). Figure the temperature
4j shows the temperature distribution of theofink
distribution theice
inkcube
ice
on the heater film without applying the voltage. After applying
cube on the heater film without applying the voltage. After applying 2.0 V voltage to 2.0 V voltage to the heater
the
film, the
heater temperature
film, of theof
the temperature heater film and
the heater filmtheandink
theiceinkcube increased
ice cube significantly
increased with
significantly
the increase in the energization time. Due to the placement of
with the increase in the energization time. Due to the placement of the ink ice cube in the ink ice cube in the mid-
dlemiddle
the of the heater film, the
of the heater infrared
film, thermal
the infrared imagesimages
thermal show the show temperature
the temperaturepartition effect.
partition
The middle area represents the temperature distribution of
effect. The middle area represents the temperature distribution of the ink ice cube, whilethe ink ice cube, while the
upper and lower areas represent the temperature change of
the upper and lower areas represent the temperature change of the heater film, which the heater film, which visually
shows and
visually showsdistinguishes the temperature
and distinguishes comparison
the temperature of the heater
comparison of thefilm and ice
heater filmcube.
and The
ice
cube. The infrared images show that the temperature of the heater film increases to
infrared images show that the temperature of the heater film increases from 29 °C 109
from
°C (Figure
29 ◦ C to 1094k–o).
◦ The ink
C (Figure ice cube
4k–o). Thewas inkmelted
ice cube onwas
the heater
meltedfilm surface
on the heaterduring
film the tem-
surface
perature
during therise process (Figure
temperature 4p). Therefore,
rise process (Figure 4p).the Therefore,
heater filmthe possesses greatpossesses
heater film electrothermal
great
performance, which
electrothermal can realize
performance, different
which heatingdifferent
can realize effects of the MSP
heating by adjusting
effects of the MSP the ap-
by
plied voltage.
adjusting the applied voltage.

3.3.
3.3.Magnetic-Electric
Magnetic‐ElectricBehavior
Behaviorofofthe
theMSP
MSP
The
The MSP
MSP is aa cavity
cavitypipeline
pipelineconstructed
constructed of of
MREMRE matrix;
matrix; thus,thus, it shows
it shows superbsuperb
mag-
magnetic actuate performance. Since the sensor film (PDMS/AgNWs/PDMS)
netic actuate performance. Since the sensor film (PDMS/AgNWs/PDMS) was tightly ad- was tightly
adhered
hered totothe
thesurface
surfaceofofthe
thepipeline,
pipeline,the
thedeformation
deformation ofof the pipeline could
could be
be detected
detectedin in
situ.
situ.Here,
Here,thetheactuated
actuateddeformation
deformationandandself-sensing
self-sensingbehavior
behaviorofofthe
theMSP
MSPunder
underdifferent
different
magnetic
magneticfield
fielddensity
densitywere
weresystematically
systematicallyinvestigated
investigated(Figure
(Figure5).
5).

Figure5.
Figure 5. (a)
(a) Images
Images of
of MSP
MSPattracted
attractedby
bythe
theelectromagnet
electromagnetunder
under 125 mT
125 magnetic
mT field
magnetic density;
field (b)
density;
∆R/R 0 of the MSP under loading and unloading of magnetic field; (c) ∆R/R0 of MSP under different
(b) ∆R/R0 of the MSP under loading and unloading of magnetic field; (c) ∆R/R0 of MSP under
magnetic field density; (d) The magnetic−electric cyclical stability of MSP under 125 mT magnetic
different magnetic field density; (d) The magnetic−electric cyclical stability of MSP under 125 mT
field density.
magnetic field density.
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 9 of 12
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 9 of 12

When the MSP was placed on the electromagnetic surface, the MSP was significantly
When the MSP was placed on the electromagnetic surface, the MSP was significantly
extruded and deformed under the magnetic field attraction (Figure 5a, Movie S1). The
extruded and deformed under the magnetic field attraction (Figure 5a, Movie S1). The
MSP returned to the initial state after removing the external magnetic field. Notably, the
MSP returned to the initial state after removing the external magnetic field. Notably, the
sensor film of the MSP exhibited a good and stable resistance response under the gradient
sensor film of the MSP exhibited a good and stable resistance response under the gradient
loading–unloading magnetic field of 25–55 mT (Figure 5b). The ∆R/R0 of the MSP was
loading–unloading magnetic field of 25–55 mT (Figure 5b). The ∆R/R0 of the MSP was
10.2% and 40.8% under 25 mT and 55 mT magnetic field density, respectively. The ∆R/R0
10.2% and 40.8% under 25 mT and 55 mT magnetic field density, respectively. The ∆R/R0
of the MSP at 45 mT loading and unloading magnetic field density was 30.5% and 29.7%,
of the MSP at 45 mT loading and unloading magnetic field density was 30.5% and 29.7%,
respectively (Figure 5b). Clearly, the resistance changes of the MSP show good reversible
respectively (Figure 5b). Clearly, the resistance changes of the MSP show good reversible
properties during the magnetic gradient loading–unloading state.
properties during the magnetic gradient loading–unloading state.
To further verify the magnetic field-dependent electrical behavior of the MSP, the
To further verify the magnetic field-dependent electrical behavior of the MSP, the
resistance response of
resistance response of the
the MSP
MSP under
under applying
applying 45–165
45–165 mT mT magnetic
magnetic fieldfield density
density was
was
studied (Figure 5c). The resistance of the MSP increases with the increase
studied (Figure 5c). The resistance of the MSP increases with the increase in the magnetic in the magnetic
field density,
field density, andand the ∆R/R0 of
the ∆R/R the MSP can vary from 31.6% (45 mT) to 69.1% (165 mT).
0 of the MSP can vary from 31.6% (45 mT) to 69.1% (165 mT).
During the
During the actuation,
actuation, thethe magnetic
magnetic force
force induced
induced the
the deformation
deformation of of the
the MRE
MRE filmfilm in
in the
the
MSP. Then, the resistance changes were obtained in the Ag film due
MSP. Then, the resistance changes were obtained in the Ag film due to the extrusion and to the extrusion and
deformation of
deformation of the
the conductive
conductive filmfilm under
under the
the magnetic
magnetic field
field attraction.
attraction. As As aa result,
result, the
the
contact nodes between the AgNWs decreased under tensile traction,
contact nodes between the AgNWs decreased under tensile traction, thus leading to an thus leading to an
increase in MSP resistance. The contact nodes could be reconnected,
increase in MSP resistance. The contact nodes could be reconnected, and the resistance and the resistance
returned to
returned to the
the initial
initial value
value after
after the
the external
external magnetic
magnetic field
field was
was removed.
removed. Moreover,
Moreover, the the
cyclical stability
cyclical stabilityof ofthe
theMSP
MSPunder
under125 125mTmT magnetic
magnetic field
field density
density waswasalsoalso tested
tested (Figure
(Figure 5d).
5d). Obviously,
Obviously, the MSPthe MSP
shows shows
goodgood resistance
resistance response
response stability
stability and and robustness
robustness duringduring
the
the 200 loading–unloading cycles. In conclusion, the MSP exhibits
200 loading–unloading cycles. In conclusion, the MSP exhibits excellent magnetically excellent magnetically
actuated deformation–sensing
deformation–sensing response response performance.
performance.

3.4. Magnetic–Electric Behavior of the MSP

The purpose
purposeof ofthis
thiswork
workis is
to to realize
realize thethe magnetically
magnetically actuated
actuated transport
transport insens-
in situ situ
sensing monitoring function. Here, the transportation process of the MSP was investigated
ing monitoring function. Here, the transportation process of the MSP was investigated by
by facile
facile operation
operation of the
of the permanent
permanent magnet
magnet (Figure
(Figure 6). 6).

Figure 6.
Figure 6. (a)
(a) The
The schematic
schematic diagram
diagram of
of MSP
MSPmagnetically
magneticallyactuated
actuatedtransportation
transportation−sensing
−sensing device;
device;
(b–e) Images of MSP transportation process; (f) Resistance response time of one transportation cycle;
(b–e) Images of MSP transportation process; (f) Resistance response time of one transportation cycle;
(g,h) The actuated deformation and transportation of MSP under different positions of the magnet;
(g,h) The actuated deformation and transportation of MSP under different positions of the magnet;
(i) The in situ perception of MSP with seven transportation cycles.
(i) The in situ perception of MSP with seven transportation cycles.
One end of the MSP was connected to a syringe, which could mimic the infusion
One end of the MSP was connected to a syringe, which could mimic the infusion
source in the actual biological condition. The other end of the MSP was introduced into a
source in the actual biological condition. The other end of the MSP was introduced into
acatheter
cathetertotoobserve
observeofofdroplet
dropletflow.
flow.Figure
Figure6a
6a shows
shows the
the schematic
schematic diagram
diagram of the MSP
of the MSP
magnetically actuated transportation-sensing device. The MSP and the permanent
magnetically actuated transportation-sensing device. The MSP and the permanent magnet mag-
net were
were placed
placed aboveabove and below
and below the platform,
the platform, respectively.
respectively. Theresponse
The signal signal response was
was recorded
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 10 of 12

by the Modulab MTS test system and fed back to the resistance change of the MSP. Figure 6b
exhibits the image in the MSP transportation device without applying the magnetic field,
which indicates the pipeline is straight. As soon as the magnet is applied near the film,
the pipeline becomes deformed. Figure 6c–e show one cycle of the MSP magnetic actuate
transportation ink process (Movie S2). Notably, one cycle of the actuated transportation
process can be completed within about 0.8 s. During this process, the ink in the MSP
cavity is flows rapidly with loading of the magnetic field and continuously flows under
the real-time attraction of the magnetic field. Obviously, the MSP shows good actuated
transportation effect under the magnet traction.
Figure 6f presents the resistance change of MSP one-cycle transportation, and it is
found that the ∆R/R0 is about 22.6%. The transportation process can be monitored and fed
back in real time through the sensor film, which realized the in situ self-sensing. To further
investigate the magnetically actuated transportation effect, the magnet was placed near the
end of the MSP catheter. Figure 6g,h show the magnetically actuated transportation images
of the magnet under different locations. Clearly, the pipeline transport ink was affected
by the changes in the magnetic field loading location. Notably, the MSP was restricted by
the magnet size and magnetic field action range; thus, the MRE soft pipeline was locally
compressed and deformed under the magnetic field attraction. Figure S2a–d show the
mechanical analysis and finite element simulation results of the MRE pipeline. The ink in
the pipeline cavity was squeezed to realize the liquid flow. Figure 6i shows the ∆R/R0 of
the MSP for seven-cycle actuated transportation. Due to the influence of acting position and
area of the magnet, the ∆R/R0 of the MSP varied; thus, the actuated transportation process
can be monitored in situ. Therefore, this multifunctional soft pipeline with electrothermal
and magnetically actuated transportation in situ self-sensing characteristics show great
potential in bionic devices and HMI.

4. Conclusions
In summary, a smart soft pipeline with in situ self-sensing, electrothermal heating,
and magnetic actuating performances was fabricated by using mask-patterning and spin-
coating technology. Based on the presented research these conclusions were made:
• The sensor film shows good sensitivity, and the ∆R/R0 of the MSP is 142.8% at 4 mm
compression displacement.
• Moreover, the heater film can be continuously heated for 15,000 s to maintain the
temperature at 55.8 ◦ C, which demonstrates good electrothermal stability.
• Furthermore, the MSP shows great magnetic-electric response performance, and the
∆R/R0 of the MSP reaches to 66.5% under 125 mT magnetic field density.
• Notably, the excellent mechanical–magnetic–electric coupling response properties
endow the MSP with the magnetically actuated deformation capability and in situ
sensing behavior. The actuated transportation process can be completed within 0.8 s
and the ∆R/R0 of the MSP is about 22.6%.
• Clearly, the MSP possesses good magnetic actuate transportation-sensing coupling
performance. The ink in the MSP cavity can flow rapidly and continuously under the
real-time attraction of the magnetic field.
• Recently, magnetic soft robots are increasingly attractive in the biomedical field. Zang
JF et al. proposed magnetic soft microfiberbots with high steerability, reliable maneu-
verability, and multimodal shape reconfigurability to perform robotic embolization
in submillimeter regions via a remote, untethered, and magnetically controllable
manner [34]. However, the systematic methods to perceive the real-time motion of
magnetic soft-pipeline robots are still scarce. The as-prepared MSP shows great mag-
netically actuated transport-self-sensing perception coupling performance. As a result,
the research and applications of smart magnetic soft-pipeline robots in the biomedical
and drug transportation field will be a main focus in the future.
Actuators 2024, 13, 199 11 of 12

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.
mdpi.com/article/10.3390/act13060199/s1. Figure S1. Trapezoidal mold (a) top view and (b) cover
side view dimensions; (c) Trapezoidal pipeline inner cavity top view dimensions; Unit: mm. Figure
S2. Schematic diagram of (a) the position of the trapezoidal pipeline under magnetic field, (b) the
distribution of magnetic field; (c) Deformation-stress and (d) Deformation-displacement distribution
of the trapezoidal pipeline under 300 mT magnetic field density. Figure S3. Fabrication process of
magnetic actuate pipeline. Images of: (a) 3D printing mold, (b) MRE precursor in the mold, (c) the
trapezoidal pipeline mold after curing.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, software, formal analysis, investigation,
data curation, visualization, and writing—original draft preparation: Q.S.; resources and supervi-
sion: Y.L. and S.X.; writing—review and editing: S.G. and S.X.; project administration and funding
acquisition: S.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
Nos. 12072338) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (WK2480000007).
Data Availability Statement: The research data are not shared.
Acknowledgments: The authors Fei Liu, Cunyong Zhang, Shike She, Bingxia Xu, Lili Sun, Zhenfeng
Tian, Lan Huang are gratefully acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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