Introduction

In scientific use, the term empirical refers to the gathering of data using only evidence that is
observable by the senses or in some cases using calibrated scientific instruments. Empirical
research, therefore, is research that is based on observation and measurement of phenomena, as
directly experienced by the researcher as opposed to belief or theory.

In empirical research, hypotheses are tested using empirical evidence i.e. data gathered through
observable evidence. A research is empirical if it seeks to find a general explanation that applies
to various cases and across time. The empirical approach functions to create new knowledge
about the way the world actually works. A study is empirical when it uses real-world evidence in
investigating its assertions. This research type is founded on the view that direct observation of
phenomena is a proper way to measure reality and generate truth about the world (Bhattacharya,
2008).

An empirical methodology can be quantitative, qualitative or eclectic. It is quantitative when

numerical pieces of information are collected and analysed and it is qualitative when non-
numeric pieces of information are collected and analysed. Empirical method is said to be eclectic
when both quantitative and qualitative methods are combined in one study. This methods
provides a more robust study.

Empirical journal articles are quite structured in their format with fewer sections than a full
empirical research report. The basic sections in an empirical journal article include

i. Introduction/Background to the Study. For empirical journal article, literature review is

usually merged with this section as a journal article is usually an abridge version of a
full empirical research report mostly between 11 and 14 pages.
ii. Hypotheses and or Research Questions
iii. Methodology
iv. Results
v. Discussion of Findings
vi. Conclusion
vii. Recommendations
viii. References

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Background to the Study
This is the introduction to the study which usually contains a brief explanation of the concepts in
the title as they relate to the study. Concise information required to understand the problem is
presented here. Background, according to Ali (1996), provides at a glance a concise information
of the major theoretical, empirical and experimental considerations or substance upon which the
work is anchored.

The background information puts the research problem into perspective without an outburst of
personal bias. At this stage, the researcher highlights all the variables of interest in the study as
well as their interplay with the research problem. Some works already done in the area which
prompted the investigation in that area should be cited in the background. For journal article, a
review of few related empirical works found in literature should be featured here as it will later
be used as reference for discussion of findings. The section is better rounded off with a brief
statement of the research problem.

An example of Background to the Study

Title of Journal Article: Academic Hardiness as Determinant of Achievement in
Measurement and Evaluation among College of Education Students in Ogun State
The background may be couched thus:

Academic stress among higher education students has been a topic of interest for many years and
has been drawing the attention of researchers in view of its perceived links with students’
performance (Heikilla, Lanka, Niemine, & Niemivitra, 2012). Interest in stress among college
students is related to the recognition that excessive stress is harmful to academic performance
and may lead to dropping out. Strenuous academic pressure and limited social and personal time
can add to the normal stress of life and begin to have a negative effect on a person.

Academic hardiness refers to the resilience of students to academic failure. Hardy students
display a willingness to engage in challenging academic work, commitment to academic
activities and pursuits, and perceive they have control over their academic performance and
outcomes (Benishek & Lopez, 2001; Maddi, Harvey, Khoshaba, Fazel, & Resurreccion, 2009).
The study of hardiness in academic settings is particularly relevant as the academic environment
can be demanding and competitive for students. Practitioners and policy-makers have a vested

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interest in motivating and encouraging students to achieve to their potential, as students reaching
their potential have implications for later occupational success and satisfaction……..

And the background may be concluded thus:

In view of the suspected link between academic stress and students’ achievement, the study
seeks to establish whether hardy academic attitude of students could modulate the effects stress
posed by academic challenges and bring about success among College of Education students in
Ogun State. The study will also examine if academic hardiness differ among students in the three
types of College of Education in Ogun State.

Hypotheses/Research Questions
This requires the researcher to present clearly and concisely the logical aspects of the problem as
this sharpens focus on the problem. Hypothesis involves the conjecturing of the relationship
between the concepts and variables identified in the problem. It serves as a tentative answer to
the problem. Hypotheses could either be stated in alternative or null form. In empirical research,
they are better stated in null form.

Research questions are questions that researchers seek to answer through the study. When
hypotheses statements are put or expressed in question form, then they become research
questions. A research question seeks answer to one thought or idea. It should not be double
barreled. Both hypotheses and research questions may be used in one study if they serve different
but complementary purposes.

Using the above title of a journal article, the following hypotheses may be formulated:
1. There is no significant relationship between academic hardiness and achievement in
Measurement and Evaluation among College of Education students in Ogun State.
2. There is no significant difference in academic hardiness of students based on types of
College of Education in Ogun State.

Methodology
Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of a research study. More
specifically, it is about how a researcher logically and systematically designs a study to ensure
valid and reliable results that address the research aims, objectives and research questions.

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Research methodology comprises the following sub headings; Research Design, Population of
the Study, Sample and Sampling Technique, Instrument for Data Collection, Validation of
Research Instruments, Method of Data Collection and Technique for Data Analysis. In journal
article, these sub headings are often briefly discussed in one piece under methodology.

Using the title of the above journal article, the methodology may be presented thus:

The study is a descriptive survey of the ex-post facto type. This is because the researcher does
not have control over the variables as their manifestation had already occurred. The population
of the study comprised all third year students of Colleges of Education in Ogun State. Year three
students were used because they have completed the course content of Measurement and
Evaluation in their second year. Seventy students were randomly selected from each of the three
types of College of Education in Ogun State i.e., Federal, State and Private resulting in 210
participants.

Two instruments were used to collect data for the study. They were: a slightly modified form of
Lopez et al (2005) Revised Academic Hardiness Scale (RAHS) and a self-developed
Measurement and Evaluation Achievement Test (MEAT). The RAHS contained 24 items rated
on a four-response Likert scale designed to gather information on students’ disposition or
reaction to academic challenges and which measures four components of Commitment, Control
effort, Challenge and Control affect. The four response options range from 1 = Very much unlike
me to 4 = Very much like me. Hence, possible range of scores on the RAHS is between 24 and
96 such that higher scores indicate higher academic hardiness and vice versa. On the other hand,
the MEAT is a 40-item achievement test which covered the course content of Measurement and
Evaluation as prescribed for use in Colleges of Education in Nigeria by the National Commission
for Colleges of Education (NCCE). Each correctly answered question attracted 1 mark such that
possible range of scores on the test is between 0 and 40.

The RAHS was validated with the use of Cronbach’s alpha to obtain the internal consistency of
the items. The index obtained was 0.82. For the Measurement and Evaluation Achievement Test,
a 4-week test-re-test reliability technique when the instrument was applied on a similar group
yielded 0.78. The two instruments were administered concurrently by the researchers to the
participants and collated immediately after completion for scoring. Data were analysed using

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Pearson Product Moment Correlation and One-way Analysis of Variance with the significant
level set at 0.05.

Results
This section shows the outcome of data analysis which are usually summarised in tables. In
empirical research, data gathered are usually in numerical form and descriptive or inferential
statistics or both are applied to obtain some indices. These indices (obtained values) are
interpreted below the tables. Descriptive statistics that are usually applied to analyse data are
frequency counts, percentages, mean and standard deviation while inferential statistics that may
be used include Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC), Chi square, t-test, Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA), Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), Multiple Regression Analysis, etc.
depending on the type of data collected and hypotheses formulated.

With reference to the two hypotheses formulated above, PPMC was used to test hypothesis 1
while One-way ANOVA was applied to test hypothesis 2. The results are as shown below.

Hypothesis 1
The first hypothesis stated that there is no significant relationship between academic hardiness
and achievement in Measurement and Evaluation among College of Education students in Ogun
State.

Table 1: Relationship between Students’ Academic Hardiness and Achievement in

Measurement and Evaluation
Variables N Mean SD Df r
Sig(P)
Academic Hardiness 210 55.952 8.528
208 0.614 0.000
Achievement in Measurement
and Evaluation 210 20.291 6.241

Table 1 shows that there is a significant positive correlation between students’ academic
hardiness and achievement in Measurement and Evaluation. It is a fairly strong correlation (r =
0.614, N = 210, P < 0.05) and 37.7% of the variance is explained. The results led to the rejection
of the first null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant relationship between academic

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hardiness and achievement in Measurement and Evaluation among College of Education
students in Ogun State.

Hypothesis 2
The second hypothesis stated that there is no significant difference in academic hardiness of
students based on types of College of Education in Ogun State.

Table 2: One way Analysis of Variance on differences in students’ Academic Hardiness

based on College Types
College Type N Mean SD
Federal 70 52.957 8.697
State 70 56.500 7.927
Private 70 58.400 8.144
Source of Variation Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig(P)
Between Groups 1068.352 2 534.176 7.825 0.001
Within Groups 14131.171 207 68.267
Total 15199.524 209

Results of One way Analysis of Variance employed to test the hypothesis as shown in table 2
indicated that there is a significant difference in academic hardiness of students based on types of
College of Education {F(2, 207) = 7.825, P < 0.05}. A closer look at the table revealed that students
in Private College of Education had higher academic hardiness (Mean = 58.40, SD = 8.14) than
their counterpart in State (Mean = 56.50, SD = 7.93) and Federal (Mean = 52.96, SD = 8.70).

Table 3: Scheffe’s Post Hoc Analysis of Significant difference in Group Means based on
College Types
College Type Federal State Private
Federal
State 0.042
Private 0.001 0.398

Further analysis using Scheffe’s Post Hoc statistical technique, Table 3, shows that significant
differences in academic hardiness existed between students in Federal and State Colleges of
Education (P = 0.042) and between students in Federal and Private Colleges of Education (P =

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0.001). There was no significant difference in academic hardiness between students in State and
Private Colleges of Education (P = 0.398).

Discussion of Findings
Research findings from the analysis of data are discussed to justify, interpret, explain and further
the development of theories for knowledge. This discussion is done in the context and direction
of the information gathered in the process of literature review.

A good discussion of findings starts by citing studies earlier reviewed in the background that
either corroborate or contradict the present findings or both and thereafter proceed further to give
some plausible reasons for the present findings. This second part of discussion of findings is very
important as it shows a major contribution of the study to organised body of knowledge. A
finding that goes contrary to that of an earlier study is not an indication of failure on the part of
the researcher as several factors and conditions relating to differences in environmental settings
and research subjects could be responsible for differences in research findings.

In relation to the above study that is being followed, discussion of findings may be couched as
follows:

Regarding the results of analysis in hypothesis 1 that there was a significant positive relationship
between academic hardiness and students’ achievement in Measurement and Evaluation in
College of Education, the finding is in consonance with the study carried out by Karimi and
Venkatesan (2009). The researchers examined the relation of academic hardiness and
Mathematics performance in high school students and found a significant correlation between the
two variables. In addition, Sheard and Golby (2007) confirmed that high hardy undergraduates
have higher academic performance. A likely reason for this finding is that students high in
academic hardiness will be more willing to expend consistent effort and to engage in personal
sacrifices in other to achieve academic excellence, irrespective of the content or demands of
individual courses, instructors or personal interests. They are more likely to become deeply
involved in their studies, seeing this as the best way to turn whatever they are experiencing into
something that seems interesting, worthwhile and important. They are also likely to believe that
they possess the capacity to achieve desired educational outcomes from personal effort and
through effective emotional self-regulation in the face of academic stresses and disappointments.

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On the account of a significant difference in academic hardiness of students based on the type of
College of Education as revealed in the results of analysis of hypothesis 2, the finding is in
contrast to that of Sheard and Golby (2007). The authors reported no significant difference in
academic hardiness across different years of study among Greek undergraduates. A plausible
reason for this finding is that the sampled private and state Colleges of Education apparently lack
the resources, both human and material, necessary to deliver qualitative education compared to
federal College of Education. These less stimulating learning environment and conditions in
which students are exposed to in private and state Colleges of Education may spur them to
develop more hardy attitude to their studies than their counterparts in federal College of
Education where conditions in the campus are more favourable, thus leading to the development
of less hardy attitude by the students.

Conclusion
This is a statement of the key findings of the study i.e. the final outcome of the investigation.

From the above study, therefore, the conclusion may be written thus:

The study established that academic hardiness determines achievement in Measurement and
Evaluation among Colleges of Education students in Ogun State. There is a significant positive
correlation between academic hardiness and achievement in Measurement and Evaluation among
College of Education students in Ogun State. In addition, the study revealed that students’
academic hardiness differ significantly based on types of College of Education. Significant
differences in academic hardiness were found between students in Federal and State Colleges of
Education and between students in Federal and Private Colleges of Education. On the contrary,
no significant difference in academic achievement was found between students in State and
Private Colleges of Education.

Recommendations
Recommendations are usually made based on the findings of the study as appropriate.

References
A list of all authors cited in the body of the investigation are presented here in alphabetical order.
Refer to the current APA referencing style.

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Bibliography
Ali, A. (1996). Fundamentals of Research in Education. Awka: Meks Publishers Nig.
Anaekwe, M. C. (2002). Basic Research Methods and Statistics in Education and Social
Sciences. Enugu: Podiks Printing and Publishing Company.
Bhattacharya, H. (2008). Empirical Research in L. M. Given (ed.). The SAGE Encyclopedia of
Qualitative Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 254-255.
Kerlinger, F. N. & Lee, H. B. (2000). Foundations of Behavioural Research. London: Thomson
Learning.