Atlas of Retinal OCT: Optical

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 Atlas of
RETINAL OCT
This page intentionally left blank
Atlas of
RETINAL OCT
Darin R. Goldman MD
Partner, Retina Group of Florida
Affiliate Associate Professor
Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, FL, USA

Nadia K. Waheed MD, MPH

Assistant Professor of Ophthalmology
New England Eye Center
Tufts Medical Center
Tufts University School of Medicine
Boston, MA, USA

Jay S. Duker MD
Director, New England Eye Center
Professor and Chairman
Department of Ophthalmology
Tufts Medical Center
Tufts University School of Medicine
Boston, MA, USA

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© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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ISBN 978-0-323-46121-4
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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds or experiments described herein. Because of rapid
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Printed in China

PART 1: NORMAL OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY
Section 1: Normal Optic Nerve.............................................1
Chapter 1.1: Normal Optic Nerve..........................1
Section 2: Normal Retina......................................................4
Chapter: 2.1: Time-Domain OCT...........................4
Chapter: 2.2: Spectral Domain OCT......................5
Chapter: 2.3: Swept-Source OCT..........................6
Section 3: Normal Choroid....................................................7
Chapter 3.1: Normal Choroid.................................7
Section 4: Normal Vitreous ..................................................9
Chapter 4.1: Normal Vitreous...............................9
Section 5: OCT: Artifacts and Errors..................................10
Chapter 5.1: OCT: Artifacts and Errors................10
Chapter 5.2: OCT Angiography Artifacts..............13
PART 2: ISOLATED MACULAR DISORDERS
Section 6: Age-Related Macular Degeneration.................16
Chapter 6.1.1: Drusen.........................................16
Chapter 6.1.2: Geographic Atrophy.....................24
Chapter 6.1.3: Isolated Pigment Epithelial
Detachment......................................................28
Chapter 6.2.1: Type 1 Choroidal Neovascular
Membrane........................................................30
Chapter 6.2.2: Type 2 Choroidal Neovascular
Membrane........................................................32
Chapter 6.2.3: Type 3 Choroidal Neovascular
Membrane........................................................34
Chapter 6.2.4: Subretinal Hemorrhage................35
Chapter 6.2.5: Disciform Scar.............................36
Chapter 6.2.6: Retinal Pigment Epithelial Tear.....37
Chapter 6.2.7: Polypoidal Choroidal
Vasculopathy....................................................38
Section 7: Vitreomacular Interface Disorders....................40
Chapter 7.1: Vitreomacular Adhesion..................40
Chapter 7.2: Vitreomacular Traction....................42
Chapter 7.3: Full-Thickness Macular Hole...........47
Chapter 7.4: Lamellar Macular Hole....................50
Chapter 7.5: Epiretinal Membrane.......................52
Section 8: Central Serous Chorioretinopathy....................55
Chapter 8.1: Central Serous
Chorioretinopathy.............................................55
Section 9: Myopic Degenerative Maculopathies...............59
Chapter 9.1: Myopic Choroidal Neovascular
Membrane........................................................59
Chapter 9.2: Myopic Macular Schisis..................62
Chapter 9.3: Dome-Shaped Macula....................64
Chapter 9.4: Posterior Staphyloma......................66
Contents
Section 10: Hydroxychloroquine Toxicity............................68
Chapter 10.1: Hydroxychloroquine Toxicity..........68
Section 11: Vitelliform Macular Dystrophy...........................72
Chapter 11.1: Vitelliform Dystrophy......................72
Section 12: Macular Telangiectasia......................................73
Chapter 12.1: Macular Telangiectasia..................73
Section 13: Isolated Cystoid Macular Edema......................76
Chapter 13.1: Isolated Cystoid Macular
Edema..............................................................76
Section 14: Other Disorders Affecting the Macula..............78
Chapter 14.1: Angioid Streaks.............................78
Chapter 14.2: X-Linked Juvenile Retinoschisis.....79
Chapter 14.3: Oculocutaneous Albinism..............80
Chapter 14.4: Subretinal Perfluorocarbon............82
PART 3: VASOOCCLUSIVE DISORDERS
Section 15: Diabetic Retinopathy.........................................84
Chapter 15.1: Diabetic Macular Edema...............84
Chapter 15.2: Nonproliferative Diabetic
Retinopathy......................................................86
Chapter 15.3: Proliferative Diabetic
Retinopathy......................................................88
Section 16: Retinal Venous Occlusive Disease ..................90
Chapter 16.1: Branch Retinal Vein
Occlusion.........................................................90
Chapter 16.2: Central Retinal Vein Occlusion......92
Section 17: Retinal Arterial Occlusive Disease....................96
Chapter 17.1: Branch Retinal Artery
Occlusion.........................................................96
Chapter 17.2: Central Retinal Arterial
Occlusion.........................................................98
PART 4: UVEITIS AND INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS
Section 18: Noninfectious Uveitis.......................................100
Chapter 18.1.1: Birdshot
Retinochoroidopathy.......................................100
Chapter 18.1.2: Acute Posterior Multifocal
Placoid Pigment Epitheliopathy.......................103
Chapter 18.1.3: Multiple Evanescent White
Dot Syndrome ...............................................107
Chapter 18.1.4: Serpiginous Choroiditis............109
Chapter 18.1.5: Multifocal Choroiditis
and Panuveitis and Punctate Inner
Choroidopathy................................................111
Chapter 18.2: Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada
Disease...........................................................114
Chapter 18.3: Sympathetic Ophthalmia.............116
v
 Section 19: Infectious Uveitis.............................................119
Chapter 19.1: Toxoplasmic Chorioretinitis.........119
Chapter 19.2: Acute Syphilitic Posterior
Placoid Chorioretinitis.....................................121
Chapter 19.3: Tuberculosis................................124
Contents
Chapter 19.4: Posterior Scleritis........................127
Chapter 19.5: Candida Chorioretinitis................129
Chapter 19.6: Acute Retinal Necrosis
Syndrome.......................................................132
PART 5: RETINAL AND CHOROIDAL TUMORS
Section 20: Choroidal Tumors............................................134
Chapter 20.1: Choroidal Nevus.........................134
Chapter 20.2: Choroidal Melanoma...................135
Chapter 20.3: Solitary Choroidal
Hemangioma..................................................136
Section 21: Retinal Tumors.................................................137
Chapter 21.1: Retinal Capillary
Hemangioma..................................................137
Section 22: Retinal Pigment Epithelium Tumors...............138
Chapter 22.1: Simple Hamartoma of
the RPE..........................................................138
Chapter 22.2: Combined Hamartoma of
the Retina and RPE........................................139
Section 23: Metastatic Choroidal Tumors.........................140
Chapter 23.1: Choroidal Metastases.................140
PART 6: TRAUMA
Section 24: Mechanical Trauma.........................................142
Chapter 24.1: Valsalva Retinopathy...................142
Section 25: Photic Maculopathy.........................................145
Chapter 25.1: Laser Maculopathy......................145
Chapter 25.2: Solar Maculopathy......................146
vi
PART 7: INHERITED RETINAL DEGENERATIONS
Section 26: Retinal Dystrophies.........................................148
Chapter 26.1: Retinitis Pigmentosa....................148
Chapter 26.2: Stargardt Disease.......................149
Chapter 26.3: Best Disease...............................152
Chapter 26.4: Cone Dystrophy..........................154
Chapter 26.5: Malattia Leventinese
(Doyne’s Honeycomb Retinal
Dystrophy)......................................................155
Chapter 26.6: Central Areolar Choroidal
Dystrophy.......................................................157
PART 8: VITREOUS DISORDERS
Section 27: Posterior Vitreous Detachment.......................159
Chapter 27.1: Stages of Posterior Vitreous
Detachment....................................................159
Section 28: Asteroid Hyalosis.............................................162
Chapter 28.1: Asteroid Hyalosis........................162
Section 29: Vitreous Hemorrhage.......................................164
Chapter 29.1: Vitreous Hemorrhage..................164
Section 30: Vitreous Inflammation......................................166
Chapter 30.1: Vitreous Inflammation..................166
PART 9: MISCELLANEOUS RETINAL DISORDERS
Section 31: Peripheral Retinal Abnormalities....................170
Chapter 31.1: Tractional Retinal
Detachment....................................................170
Chapter 31.2: Rhegmatogenous Retinal
Detachment....................................................174
Chapter 31.3: Bullous Retinoschisis...................180
Chapter 31.4: Lattice Degeneration...................183
Chapter 31.5: Myelinated Nerve Fiber Layer......186

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) continues to occupy an
ever-expanding role in the ophthalmic community. OCT is widely
available and forms a requisite portion of the comprehensive
ophthalmic evaluation, particularly as it pertains to the retina.
Although still a relatively young technology that continues to
evolve, OCT has become widely accepted. This acceptance is
due to its non-invasive nature, ease of image acquisition, and
wealth of information that it affords. The quantity of information
conveyed within a typical OCT scan is immense, which can be
daunting to both the beginner and experienced clinician.
Atlas of Retinal OCT grew out of the success of Handbook of
Retinal OCT. The Atlas expands on the images and material in
the handbook, while maintaining a similar and consistent layout
that will be familiar to the reader. This atlas was created to serve
as a supplement to the original text, although the atlas certainly
Preface
can stand alone as an independent reference. We sought to
include a breadth of retinal conditions with a focus on those most
applicable to everyday clinical practice. However, a wide array
of pathology is included to also illustrate unique, less common
OCT findings. Each condition is illustrated with numerous, large,
high-quality OCT images to highlight disease pathology and aid
in disease identification. Additional imaging modalities, such as
fundus photographs and fluorescein angiograms, are included
to supplement OCT images where appropriate.
Atlas of Retinal OCT provides the reader with a high quality,
easy-to-follow visual aid to incorporating OCT scans into the
evaluation and care of your patients. The atlas is designed to
make OCT more comprehensible for both the novice and expert
clinician. We hope that the reader finds this to be a handy and
practical addition to your everyday reference armamentarium.
vii
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 Contributors

A YASIN ALIBHAI, MD NORA W. MUAKKASSA, MD

OCT Research fellow, Ophthalmology, New England Eye New England Eye Center, Tufts Medical Center, Hospital de
Center, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA Olhos do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil

CAROLINE R. BAUMAL, MD CARLOS A. MOREIRA NETO, MD, PhD

New England Eye Center, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, New England Eye Center, Tufts Medical Center, Hospital de
Massachusetts, USA Olhos do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil

SHILPA DESAI, MD, FRCP EDUARDO A. NOVAIS, MD

Assistant Professor, Ophthalmology, New England Eye Department of Ophthalmology, Federal University of São
Center/Tufts University Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA Paulo, School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil

IVANA N. DESPOTOVIC, MD CARL REBHUN, BA

New England Eye Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, New England Eye Center, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts
Boston, MA, USA University School of Medicine, Boston, USA

JAY S. DUKER, MD LUIZ ROISMAN, MD

Director, New England Eye Center, Professor and Chairman,
Department of Ophthalmology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts
University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
DANIELA FERRARA, MD, PhD
Assistant Professor of Ophthalmology, Tufts University School
of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
DARIN R. GOLDMAN, MD
Partner, Retina Group of Florida, Affiliate Associate Professor,
Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic
University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
Department of Ophthalmology, Federal University of São
Paulo, School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
EDUARDO UCHIYAMA, MD
Retina Group of Florida, Boca Raton, FL, USA
NADIA K. WAHEED, MD, MPH
Assistant Professor of Ophthalmology, New England Eye
Center, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of
Medicine, Boston, MA, USA

ix
This page intentionally left blank
 Acknowledgments

A project such as this requires contributions from many different
groups and individuals to be successful. First and foremost,
the images used in this atlas would not be possible without
our many patients. We are very grateful to these individuals
who trust their care in our hands on a daily basis. Additionally,
we rely on the talented photographers and technical staff at
both the New England Eye Center at Tufts Medical Center and
Retina Group of Florida to obtain the majority of the included
OCT images. Their expertise is reflected in the volume of high
quality images available for inclusion in this project. We would
also like to thank the many co-authors who have contributed
to various chapters throughout the atlas. Additionally, thanks
are due to our fellows whose archive of cases and interesting
images were invaluable to this project. Specifically, we would like
to thank Dr. Chris Or, who provided invaluable feedback on the
final chapters. Lastly, the professionalism and expertise of the
staff at Elsevier is unmatched. We want to thank the entire team
at Elsevier who were critical to the completion of this project,
in particular Russell Gabbedy, Humayra Rahman Khan, Joshua
Mearns, and Andrew Riley.

Dedications
To the memory of my dear sister Candice, whose love, strength
and determination live on in all that she touched. And to my
daughter, Rona, who has added immeasurable joy to our lives.
D.R.G.

To Jujie, Memsie and Ammi, without whom none of this would

have been possible.
N.K.W.

To my colleagues at the New England Eye Center who have

assisted me in bringing innovation to eye care for over 3 decades.
J.S.D.

xi
This page intentionally left blank

Spectral domain OCT (SD-OCT) devices have two scan patterns
to analyze the optic nerve head (ONH): volume scans and line
scans.
Volume Scans
Volume scans acquire a volumetric set of data, centered at
the ONH. It delineates the optic disc margin and optic disc
surface contour and is segmented to obtain the retinal nerve
fiber boundaries. Each device has its own scanning protocol.
The Cirrus HD-OCT identifies the center of the optic disc and
creates a 3.46-mm circle on this location and calculates the
thickness of the retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL). The Heidelberg
Spectralis creates a cylindrical volume with a diameter of 3.4 mm
through and around the ONH (Duker, Waheed & Goldman 2014).
The Optovue RTVue’s protocol for the ONH consists of a grid
pattern with circular and radial scans that acquires a 4- × 4-mm
volume around the optic nerve. Because different machines use
circles of different diameters around the center of the ONH, the
measurement of RNFL between machines is not comparable
(Duker et al. 2014).
Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Thickness (RNFL)
OCT devices calculate RNFL thickness as the distance between
the internal limiting membrane and the outer aspect of the RNFL
(Fig. 1).
Ganglion Cell Complex
The ganglion cell complex (GCC) consists of the thickness of
three inner retinal layers: the NFL, the ganglion cell layer, and the
inner plexiform layer. The scan is centered at the fovea, and the
software presents the results as a color-coded map, comparing
to a normative database (Fig. 2).
SECTION 1: NORMAL OPTIC NERVE
Normal Optic Nerve
Carlos A. Moreira Neto | Carl Rebhun 1.1
Optic Nerve Morphology
SD-OCT devices also calculate optic nerve diameter, area, cup,
and rim measurements (see Fig. 1). Each measurement varies
according to age (Cavallotti et al. 2002) and ethnicity (Girkin 2008).
According to Budenz et al. (2007), the mean RNFL thickness in
a normal population is 100.1 µm. Thinner RNFL measurements
were associated with older age. Caucasians had slightly thinner
RNFL thickness than Hispanics or Asians. Persons with smaller
optic disc areas also have thinner RNFL thickness.
Line Scans
Aiming to obtain a higher resolution visualization of structure and
anatomic anomalies at the ONH, line scans provide a single or a
series of high-resolution B-scans similar to the scans obtained
in the macula (Fig. 3).
OCT angiography (OCTA) (Fig. 4) allowed for a greater under-
standing of optic disc vasculature and peripapillary vessel density.
This information provides insight into the role of this vascular
bed in the functioning of the RNFL.
REFERENCES
Budenz DL, Anderson DR, Varma R, et al. Determinants of normal retinal
nerve fiber layer thickness measured by Stratus OCT. Ophthalmology.
2007;114(6):1046–1052.
Cavallotti C, Pacella E, Pescosolido N, et al. Age-related changes in the
human optic nerve. Can J Ophthalmol. 2002;37(7):389–394.
Duker JS, Waheed NK, Goldman DR. Scanning Principles. Handbook of Retinal
OCT. St Louis: Elsevier; 2014.
Girkin CA. Differences in optic nerve structure between individuals of predomi-
nantly African and European ancestry: Implications for disease detection
and pathogenesis. Clin Ophthalmol. 2008;2(1):65–69.
1
 ONH and RNFL OU Analysis: Optic Disc Cube 200¥200 OD OS
RNFL Thickness Map ! OD OS
350
Section 1: Normal Optic Nerve

Average RNFL Thickness 102 m X

RNFL Symmetry X

Rim Area 1.88 mm2 X

175
Disc Area 2.17 mm2 X

Average C/D Ratio 0.36 X

Vertical C/D Ratio 0.32 X

0 m
Cup Volume 0.009 mm3 X

RNFL Deviation Map

Neuroretinal Rim Thickness
m OD
800

400

0
TEMP SUP NAS INF TEMP

Disc Center (0.09,0.12) mm

RNFL Thickness
Extracted Horizontal Tomogram
m OD

200

100

TEMP SUP NAS INF TEMP

Extracted Vertical Tomogram
Diversified:
121 Distribution of Normals

S NA 95% 5% 1%

86 T N 72

I RNFL
Quadrants
RNFL Circular Tomogram 129
93
162 109
113 80

64 65 RNFL
Clock
80 70 Hours
174 74
137

FIG. 1. Normal peripapillary RNFL, neuroretinal rim thickness, and disc area measurements using SD-OCT.

2
 GCC Right / OD
1.1
Thickness Map Signal Strength Index 73 NDB Reference Map
250 6 mm × 6 mm

Average Thickness Thickness (m)

Total 89.28
Superior 88.52

Normal Optic Nerve

Inferior 90.03
200 Intra Eye Difference (S-I) –1.51
FLV (%) 1.058
GLV (%) 6.029

150

T N

Fovea
100

50

p > 5% Within Normal

0 m p > 5% Borderline
p < 1% Outside Normal

FIG. 2. Normal color-coded ganglion cell complex (GCC) thickness using SD-OCT.

FIG. 3. Line scan of the ONH. FIG. 4. OCT angiograph image (3 × 3 mm) of the ONH.

3
 SECTION 2: NORMAL RETINA

Time-Domain OCT
Carlos A. Moreira Neto | Carl Rebhun 2.1
The first OCT image, published by Huang et al. (1991), was REFERENCES
captured using a device that detected light echoes using time Huang D, Swanson EA, Lin CP, et al. Optical coherence tomography. Science.
1991;254(5035):1178–1181.
domain detection. In time domain OCT (TD-OCT) the reference Duker JS, Waheed NK, Goldman DR. Scanning principles. In: Handbook of
arm, with a physically moving mirror, and a sample arm undergo Retinal OCT. St Louis: Elsevier; 2014.
interference, which is used to generate an A-scan. Multiple
A-scans obtained linearly are combined to generate a cross-
sectional B-scan (Duker et al. 2014).

4

Summary
In spectral domain OCT (SD-OCT), a spectral interference
pattern between the reference beam and the sample beam is
obtained simultaneously by a spectrometer and an array detec-
tor. Unlike time domain (TD)-OCT, SD-OCT does not require
a physically moving reference mirror, instead using frequency
information to produce interference patterns. This allows for
much faster acquisition and higher quality images than those with
TD-OCT.
The high resolution provided by SD-OCT allows for visualization
of the microscopic anatomy of the retina (Fig. 1) with more detail
than with TD-OCT.
Spectral Domain OCT
Carlos A. Moreira Neto | Carl Rebhun 2.2
Because the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is highly hyper-
reflective with OCT imaging, there is limited penetration of light
beyond it, decreasing the resolution of the choroid (Schuman,
Fujimoto & Duker 2013). Normal mean central foveal thickness is
approximately 225 ± 17 µm as measured by SD-OCT, although
this varies with age and retinal status.
REFERENCE
Schuman J, Fujimoto J, Duker J. Optical Coherence Tomography of Ocular
Diseases. 3rd ed. Thorofare NJ: Slack Inc.; 2013.

Ganglion cell Outer

layer plexiform Outer
Inner plexiform layer nuclear
layer Inner layer Nerve
nuclear fiber
layer layer

Photoreceptors
Choriocapillaris outer segments
RPE/Bruch’s
complex
External
IS/OS/EZ Myoid limiting
zone membrane
S
3
T N

FIG. 1. Normal macula imaged using SD-OCT. IS/OS/EZ, Inner segment/outer segment/ellipsoid zone; RPE, retinal pigment epithelium.

5
 Swept-Source OCT
Carlos A. Moreira Neto | Carl Rebhun 2.3
Summary penetration of the choroid (Fig. 1). In SS-OCT, a narrow-band
light source is rapidly swept through a wide range of frequencies.
Swept source OCT (SS-OCT) is a modified Fourier-domain and The interference pattern is detected on a single or small number
depth-resolved technology that offers potential advantages over of receivers as a function of time.
SD-OCT, including reduced sensitivity roll-off with imaging depth,
higher detection efficiencies, improved imaging range, and better

Inner
Ganglion
plexiform Outer cell
layer plexiform layer
Inner layer
nuclear Outer Nerve
layer nuclear fiber
layer layer

Choriocapillaris
Choroidal larger
vessels
External Myoid
limiting zone
membrane
IS/OS/ RPE/
EZ Bruch’s Choroid/
complex sclera
Photoreceptors junction
outer
segments

FIG. 1. Normal retina imaged using SS-OCT. EZ, ellipsoid zone; IS, inner segments; OS, outer segments; RPE, retinal pigment epithelium.

6
Another random document with
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‫כל פת שהמלח בו צריך נטילת ידים באחרונה שמא יש בו מלח סדומית או מלח‬
‫ מפני זה חייבין ליטול ידים בסיף‬. ‫שטבעו כמלח סדומית ויעביר ידיו על עיניו ויסמא‬
‫ מפני שהם טרודים‬. ‫ ונמחנה פטוִר ם מנטילה ידים בתחלה‬. ‫כל סעודה מפני המלח‬
‫במלחמה וחייבין באחרונה מפני הסכנה ׃‬
“All bread that has salt in it requires washing of hands after it; lest
perhaps it might be the salt of Sodom, or salt of the same nature,
and a man might pass his hand over his eyes and become blind. On
this account all are bound to wash their hands at the end of every
meal, because of the salt. But in a camp they are exempt from
washing at the beginning, because they are oppressed with the
fatigues of war, and are bound to wash after meal on account of the
danger.” (Ibid., 3.) Suppose, then, that a poor ignorant man, with the
best intention in the world, set about this washing, and made a
mistake with regard to the water, or the vessel, or the pouring, or the
position of his hands; or suppose that a soldier, in the hurry of a
camp, were to make this mistake, or omit the washing altogether,
and then have the ill luck to put his hands to his eyes, according to
the oral law, blindness would be the consequence. Any neglect or
defect in the morning ablution would be more fatal still.
‫יידקדק לערות עליהן ג׳ פעמים מפני שרוח רעה שורה על הידים קודם נטילה‬
‫ ועל כן צריך למנוע מהגיע בידו קודם‬. ‫ואינה סרה אד שיערה עליהן שלש פעמים‬
‫ מפני שרוח רעה שורה עליהם ׃‬. ‫ ולעינים‬, ‫ ולאזִנ ם‬, ‫ ולחוטם‬, ‫הנטילה לפה‬
“A man must be very careful in pouring water on his hands three
times for an evil spirit rests upon the hands before washing, and
does not depart until water be poured on them three times.
Therefore it is necessary, before washing, to abstain from touching
the hand to the mouth, and the nose, and the ears, and the eyes,
because an evil spirit rests upon them.” (Orach Chaiim., § 4.)
Now, is this the religion of the God of love, and mercy, and justice? Is
it at all like Him to give laws so subtle and multifarious in their
distinctions, that it is next to impossible for the unlearned man to
obey them aright, and then to attach to this non-observance such
calamitous consequences? If it be replied that the punishment is
visited only on those who transgress wilfully, then there are
thousands of Jews, perhaps in this very city, who live in the habitual
and wilful omission of this precept, and who have the use of their
eyes, just as well as the strictest Rabbinist. This fact, which no one
will dispute, proves beyond doubt, that the oral law has spoken
falsehood, and therefore throws utter discredit upon its testimony
respecting the tradition of the commandment itself. It is confessedly
not a commandment from God, but from the scribes.
‫כבר ביארנו שנטילת ידים וטבילתן מדברי סופרים ׃‬
“We have explained long ago, that the washing and bathing of the
hands are derived from the words of the scribes.” (Hilchoth Mikvaoth,
xi. 1.) That they had no Divine authority for the command is evident
from the subtilty and superstition of its ordinances; for we presume
that few will question the superstition of the threat of blindness to the
disobedient, or of the fable of the evil spirit resting upon the hands.
One such command, then, will go far to discredit the whole story of
an oral law, and to invalidate the character of its witnesses. They
were evidently superstitious men, no way elevated above the vulgar
prejudices or the times, not at all scrupulous in adding to the law of
God, and evidently aiming at a complete domination over the
consciences of their followers. It is hardly possible to believe that
they were not aware of the necessary result of the system, the
complete subjugation of the consciences of the multitude. The mass
of mankind has no leisure for the study of juristic distinctions, they
must, therefore, if they believe such to be Divine, cast themselves
upon the mercy of the learned, and there can be no doubt that those
who have the keys of salvation, will also possess no small degree of
influence and power in this world. But, whatever was the motive,
there can be no doubt about the severity with which the Rabbies
enforced this command. They exacted even from the poor
unfortunate, whom circumstances left only enough water to slake his
thirst, that he should sacrifice a port of it to this Rabbinical
purification.
‫אפילו אין לו מים אלא כדי שתייה נוטל ידיו במקצתן ואח׳׳כ אוכל ושותה מקצתו ׳‬
“Though he should only have enough water to drink, he is to wash
his hands with a part of it, and then to eat, and to drink the
remainder.” (Hilchoth Berachoth, vi. 19.) And not content with this
harsh requirement, they sentence the despiser of their commands to
excommunication.
‫וצריך ליזהר בנטילת ידים שכל המזלזל בנטילתם חייב נדוי ׳‬
“It is necessary to be very careful in washing of hands, for every one
who despises the washing of hands is guilty of excommunication.”
(Orach Chaiim., § 158.) And this same book confirms this decision
by a case which actually occurred of a man thus excommunicated,
and who dying in his excommunication had the usual indignities
offered to his corpse.
‫את מי נדו את אלעזר בן חצר שפקפק בנטילת ידים וכשמת שלחו בית דין והניחו‬
‫אבן גדולה על ארונו ללמדך שכל המתנדה ומת בנדויו בית דיו סוקלין את ארונו ׃‬
“Whom did they excommunicate? Eleazar ben Chatzar, who
despised the washing of hands; and when he was dead, the tribunal
sent, and had a great stone laid on his coffin, to teach thee that of
every one who is excommunicated and dies in his excommunication,
the coffin is stoned by the tribunal.” (Talmud, Berachoth, fol. 19, col.
1.) When they had the power they employed it to the full, and now
that they have it not, the oral law still threatens poverty and
extirpation to every transgressor.
‫כל המזלזל בנטילת ידים בא לידי עניות ׃ ואמר ר׳ זריקא אמר ר׳ אלעזר כל‬
‫המזלזל בנטילת ידים נעקר מן העולם ׃‬
“Every one who despises washing of hands sinks into poverty. R.
Zerika says, in the name of R. Eliezer, Every one that despises the
washing of hands is rooted out of the world.” (Orach Chaiim., ibid.)
Such is the toleration of the oral law towards Jews, accused of no
breach of God’s commandment, convicted of no denial of God’s
Word, guilty of no crime. And yet these same men, who are strict
even to persecution about one of their own institutions, allow that
which they consider the Word of God to be transgressed with
impunity, if it be expedient. They assert their belief, that the law of
Moses forbids the Jews to have clothing, like that of the Gentiles, to
shave or to wear their hair like the other nations, and yet they say
the transgression of this Divine command is lawful under the
following circumstances:—
‫ישראל שהיה קרוב למלכות וצריך לישב לפני מלכיהם והיה לו גנאי לפי שלא ידמה‬
‫להם הרי זה מותר ללבוש במלבושיהן ולגלח בנגר פניו כדרך שהן עושין ׃‬
“An Israelite who is near to Royalty, and is obliged to sit before
Gentile kings, and for whom it would be disgraceful not to be like
them, is allowed to dress and to shave as they do.” (Hilchoth
Accum., xi. 3.) But it is not to be wondered at, that those should
lightly esteem the Word of God, who are capable of confounding the
guilt of transgressing a mere human ceremony with the guilt of
transgressing a Divine command. The Talmud makes the sin of
neglecting this command as great as that of gross immorality.
‫כל האוכל לחם בלא נטילת ידים כאלו בא על אשה זונה וכו׳ ׃‬
“Every one who eats bread without washing of hands, is as guilty as
if he had committed fornication.” (Sotah, fol. iv., col. 2.)
The sum of all that has been said is, that the scribes and Pharisees
added a commandment not given by Moses, that they so refined
upon the conditions of its fulfilment as to make it almost impossible
for the unlearned not to transgress it, and yet denounced such heavy
penalties upon the transgressor as to make it an intolerable burden
to the conscientious; that when they had the power, they persecuted
all that refused obedience, and did not scruple to pronounce the guilt
of transgression as great as that of breaking one of the moral
commandments. They have presented as the religion of Moses a
system which is voluminous, superstitious, and intolerant; difficult to
the comprehension of the unlearned, terrific to their consciences,
and cruel to their persons. But when the poor were ground down and
oppressed under this weight of superstition and tyranny, God sent
them a deliverer in Jesus of Nazareth, who asserted the revealed
truth of God, and protested against this mental bondage. “Then
come together unto him the Pharisees, and certain of the scribes
which came from Jerusalem. And when they saw some of his
disciples eat bread with defiled (that is to say, with unwashen) hands
they found fault.... He answered and said unto them, Well hath
Esaias prophesied of you hypocrites, as it is written, This people
honoureth me with their lips, but their heart is far from me. Howbeit
in vain do they worship me, teaching for doctrines the
commandments of men.... And when he had called all the people
unto him, he said unto them, Hearken unto me every one of you and
understand: there is nothing from without a man that, entering into
him, can defile him: but the things which come out of him, those are
they that defile him.... For from within, out of the heart of men,
proceed evil thoughts, adulteries, fornications, murders, thefts,
covetousness, wickedness, deceit, lasciviousness, an evil eye,
blasphemy, pride, foolishness: all these things come from within, and
defile the man.” (Mark vii. 1-23.) Here the Lord Jesus asserts what is
alike the truth of God, and agreeable to the dictates of sound sense.
So Samuel said in the Old Testament.
‫האדם יראה לעינים ויהוה יראה ללבב ׃‬
“Man looketh on the outward appearance, but God looketh on the
heart.” (1 Sam. xvi. 7.) But the scribes and Pharisees treated the
Lord Jesus in the spirit of the laws which we have adduced above.
They persecuted him unto death, and to the death He willingly went
a martyr for the truth, and a sacrifice for the sin of the world. The
authors of the oral law had but a short triumph. He rose from the
dead, and his doctrine spread through the world, and everywhere
announced freedom from the bondage of superstition as well as a
hope of everlasting life. And the Jewish nation is at this hour enjoying
the fruits of His death and doctrine in their liberty from Rabbinic
domination. Many of you now hold some of those principles, the
assertion of which was the cause of His death. You believe that
moral duties are far beyond ceremonial observances. You believe,
many of you, that to eat with unwashen hands is no sin, and have
given up the practice. You transgress this commandment of the
scribes, and yet you are not excommunicated nor persecuted. For all
this you are indebted to Jesus of Nazareth. If the oral law had
triumphed, and the doctrine of Jesus been silenced, you would still
be living the victims of superstition or persecution. You would have
been afraid of being struck with blindness, or haunted with an evil
spirit, or even of being rooted out of the world. If a ray of Divine light
had visited your understanding, and you had protested against these
traditions, you would have had to feel the weight of Rabbinical
persecution, like Jesus of Nazareth. You would have been
excommunicated like Eleazar, and if God had given you strength to
remain faithful, would have died excommunicated, and have had a
stone upon your coffin. How is it that now you are free, that you can
think and act without any such fear? Is it because the Talmud has
altered? No, it is just what it was. The conscientious believers in the
Talmud are just the same as their fathers, and as conscientious men,
if they had the power, they would think it their bounden duty to treat
you, as their predecessors treated Eleazar. But the doctrine of Jesus
of Nazareth delivers you; and the followers of Jesus of Nazareth are
your protectors against the rigour of the oral law, and the intolerance
of your brethren. Should not this fact, then, lead you to examine into
the claims of that same Nazarene? How is it that if the principles of
Jesus of Nazareth should ever become universal, the world will be
universally happy; whereas if the principles of those who rejected
him become universal, the whole world will groan under superstition
and cruelty? What stronger testimony can there be to the justice of
his claims, and the injustice of his condemnation? Examine, then,
into the other evidence, and in the meanwhile protest against the
principles of the Talmud, and endeavour to deliver your brethren.
There are multitudes of Jews who still groan under the superstitious
laws respecting the washing of hands. In the book of daily prayer
published here in London, the ordinance of washing of hands is
acknowledged as Divine. On the 151st leaf, col. 2, you will find the
following blessing:—
‫ברוך אתה ה׳ אלהינו מלך העולם אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו על נטילת ידים ׃‬
“Blessed art thou, O Lord our God! King of the universe! who hath
sanctified us with his commandments, and commanded us to
cleanse our hands.” Now this is a positive untruth; God has not given
the commandment respecting the washing of hands. And yet here
your prayer-book solemnly tells him that he has. And this prayer-
book has also put a rubric to this benediction, “When the children
wash their hands in the morning, they are taught to say the following
blessing.” From which it appears that the Jewish children in England
are still taught to acknowledge the Divine authority of the Talmud, for
the only way in which that benediction can be defended, is by saying
that the oral law is Divine, and that its commandments were given by
God. It is therefore a holy and imperative duty on all those Israelites
who reject Talmudic superstition and intolerance to have this
benediction erased from their prayer-book, and to preserve the
children from the infection of that law which persecutes the living and
insults the dead.
 No. XI.
RABBINIC ARTIFICES RESPECTING LEAVEN AT
THE PASSOVER.

One of the many bright features in the national character of Israel is

the devoted constancy, with which they have, in the most troublous
times and under the most disastrous circumstances, celebrated the
anniversary of their first great national deliverance. More than three
thousand years have now rolled away since Israel’s God heard the
cries of the first-born in Egypt, and by slaying the first-born of their
enemies, effected their salvation with a mighty hand and on
outstretched arm. And yet the memory of that great event is still fresh
in the hearts of the nation, and the children of Israel, wherever
scattered, in the wilds of Poland, the coasts of Africa, or the torrid
regions of India, as well as amongst ourselves, are now making
consentaneous preparation for the approaching festival. Such
constancy and such devotion bespeak minds of no ordinary mould,
and naturally lead us to ask, how is it that the Lord does not now
hear Israel’s cries and prayers, which ascend from every region
under heaven, and restore them to that place in His dispensations
and that rank amongst the sons of men, which his Word assigns to
them? A Christian would give the answer suggested by the New
Testament, but we waive that at present. The oral law gives a reply
the same in substance. It tells us that the mass of the nation has
obscured the light of Divine revelation by the admixture of human
inventions, that, therefore, a restoration would only be the
establishment of error, and is consequently impossible. We have
already given some proofs of this assertion, the Rabbinical laws
relating to the Passover furnish us with many more, and to these the
season of the year now naturally refers us.
Amongst the first directions relating to the Passover, the Word of
God gives this plain command, “Even the first day shall ye put away
leaven out of your houses.” (Exod. xii. 15.) This is intelligible to the
most illiterate, and easy to be obeyed, but the Rabbles have
superadded a mass of explanations and observances, which tend
only to perplex and to burden the conscience. In the first place they
are not satisfied with the honest endeavour of an Israelite to obey
the command of God, unless he does it according to the form and
manner which they prescribe.
‫ומה היא השבתה זו האמורה בתורה היא שיבטלו בלבו ויחשוב אותו כעפר וישים‬
‫ ושכל חמץ שברשותו הרי הוא כעפר וכדבר שאין בו‬, ‫בלבו שאין ברשותו חמץ‬
‫צורך כלל ׃‬
“What is meant by the putting away (of leaven) mentioned in the
law? It is this, that a man annul it in his heart, and count it as dust,
and intend in his heart to have no leaven whatever in his possession,
and that all the leaven in his possession shall be as dust, and of no
necessity whatever.” (Hilchoth Chometz Umatzah, c. ii. 2.) Here,
then, they require a formal intention, but they have also prepared a
form of words in which to clothe it.
‫כל חמירא וחמיעא דאיכא ברשותי דחמיתיה ודלא חמיתיה דבערתיה ודלא‬
‫בערתיה לבטל ולהוי כעפרא דארעא ׃‬
“All manner of leaven that is in my possession, which I have seen,
and which I have not seen; which I have removed, and which I have
not removed, shall be null, and accounted as the dust of the earth.”
(Levi’s Prayers for the Passover, fol. 2, col. 1.) And to this form a
rubric is added, “If the master is not at home, he annuls the leaven
wherever he is.” Now this may at first sight appear as a very
innocent ceremony, but God warns us against all additions to His
Word and commandments. It is in itself presumptuous, and as
connected with the Rabbinical doctrine of merit, must have an
injurious tendency upon the minds of the multitude. They will argue
that by observing this form, they have fulfilled a commandment, and
that consequently there is an additional sum of merit to be put to the
credit side of their account, as a set off against their transgressions.
And on the other hand, if they forget to go through this form at the
right hour, and afterwards any leaven be found in their houses, the
Rabbies bring them in guilty of transgressing two negative
commandments, which they say is a more heinous offence than
disobeying the affirmative precepts.
‫לפיכך אם לא בטל קודם שש ומשש שעות ולמעלה מצא חמץ שהיה דעתו עליו‬
‫והיה בלבו ושכחו בשעת הביעור ולא בערו הרי זה עבר על לא יראה ולא ימצא‬
‫שהרי לא בער ולא בטל ׃‬
“Therefore, if a man does not annul (the leaven) before the sixth
hour, and afterwards from the sixth hour and onwards should find
leaven, which was on his mind and in his heart, but he forgot it at the
hour of removal, and did not remove it; Behold, such an one has
transgressed the command, ‘It shall not be seen with thee’ (Exod.
xiii. 7), and also the command, ‘It shall not be found in your houses’
(Exod. xii. 19), for he neither removed it nor annulled it.” (Hilchoth
Chometz, c. iii. 8.) Now, can you believe that this decision is from
God who searcheth the heart? Can you believe that a man who had
it in his mind and heart to remove a piece of leaven according to
God’s commandment, but whilst removing the rest forgot this one
piece, is to be brought in guilty, simply because he did not observe a
mere form, which God has nowhere commanded? Or that he would
not have been guilty, if he had repeated some half dozen words
prescribed by men, sinners like himself? Very different is the
declaration of God himself, ‫ עם לבבך‬,‫“ יען אשר היה‬Because it was in
thine heart” (1 Kings viii. 18): he accepted the intention, and gave it
the blessing of obedience. The Rabbinic decision is, therefore, not of
God, and goes far towards overthrowing the claims of the whole oral
law. But the Rabbies were not satisfied with this invention of ‫בטול חמץ‬
annulling the leaven, they have imposed upon the consciences of
their followers another observance, utterly unknown to Moses, and
that is ‫בדיקת חמץ‬, the searching for leaven.
‫אור לארבעה עשר בנסן קודם צאת הכוכבים בודקין את החמץ לאור הנר של‬
‫ ומשהגיע זמנו אסור לעשות שום מלאכה ולא לאכול ולא ללמוד ׃‬, ‫שעוה היחידי‬
“On the evening before the 14th of Nisan, before the coming out of
the stars, they are to search for the leaven by the light of a single
wax taper: and when the time draws near, it is unlawful to do any
work, or to eat, or to study.” (Passover Prayers, fol. 1, col. 2.) For this
command there is evidently no foundation in the law of Moses. It is
confessedly ‫ מדברי סופרים‬of the words of the Scribes, and yet the
most minute directions are given, and the greatest attention required,
as if it had been from God himself, and various cases supposed
where a second search is necessary, as for instance:—
‫אם ראה עכבר שנכנס לבית וחמץ בפיו אחר בדיקה צריך לבדוק פעם שניה אף על‬
‫פי שמצא פירוִר ן באמצע הבית אין אומרין כבר אכל אותה הפת במקום זה והרי‬
‫הפירורין אלא חוששין שמא הניחה בחור או בחלון ואלו הפירורין שם היו ולפיכך‬
‫ אם לא מצא כלום הרי זה בודק כל הבית ואם מצא אותה הפת שנטל‬, ‫חוזר ובודק‬
‫העכבר ונכנס אין צריך בדיקה ׃‬
“If, after the search, he see a mouse come into the house with
leaven in his mouth, it is necessary to search a second time. And
although he should find the crumbs about the house, he is not to say,
the mouse has eaten the bread long since, and these are the
crumbs, but, on the contrary, he must fear lest it should have left the
leaven in a hole or a window, and these crumbs were there before;
he must therefore search again. If he find nothing, then he must
search the whole house; but if he find the bread with which the
mouse went off, then no further search is necessary.” Another case
of equal importance, and more ingenuity, is the following:—
‫נכנס עכבר לבית וככר בפיו ויצא עכבר משם וככר בפיו אומרים הוא הראשון‬
‫ היה הראשון שגכנס שחור וזה שיצא‬. ‫שנכנס הוא האחרון שיצא ואינו צריך לבדוק‬
‫ נכנס עכבר וככר בפיו ויצאה משם חולדה וככר בפיה צריך‬. ‫לבן צריך לבדוק‬
‫ יצאה משם חולדה ועכבר וככר בפיה אינו צריך לבדוק שזה הככר הוא‬. ‫לבדוק‬
‫שהיה בפי העכבר ׃‬
“If a mouse enter a house with bread in his mouth, and a mouse also
go out of the same house with bread in his mouth, one may conclude
that this is one and the self-same mouse, and it is not necessary to
search. But if the former that entered was black, and the latter that
went out white, a search is necessary. If a mouse went in with bread
in his mouth, and a weasel come out with bread in her mouth, it is
necessary to search. If a mouse and a weasel both go out, and
bread in the weasel’s mouth, there is no search required, for this is
the identical bread that had been before in the mouse’s mouth.”
(Hilchoth Chometz, c. ii.) We do not mean to say that this sort of
wisdom was never found in Christians. We are well aware that the
scholastic divines display much of the same perverse ingenuity, and
the achievements of mice have figured in Gentile theology too, but
we have renounced that whole system as contrary to the Word of
God. You still adhere to the theology of the Scribes, and are now
about to keep a solemn festival according to their ordinances. And
yet you see how poor their view of true piety, and how perverse the
application of their time and their ingenuity. The most unlearned
Israelite who has read the law of Moses in its simple dignity, will
know very well that when God commanded the Israelites to remove
leaven from their houses, he did not mean that they should go and
rummage out the mouse-holes, or spend their time looking after mice
and weasels. If, instead of the oral law, you had read this in the New
Testament, would you not have taken it as complete evidence
against the claims of that book? and if St. Paul or St. Peter had given
such commands to the Gentile converts, would you not have said,
these men were either fools or knaves? But in the New Testament
nothing like it is to be found. The precepts there given, and the
instruction there conveyed, is all of a noble and dignified character,
whilst the trifling and the folly still exist in the oral law handed down
by those who rejected Jesus of Nazareth. If the testimony of men at
all depends upon the wisdom of him who gives it, the testimony of
the Scribes is not worth much. But the trifling is exceeded by the
presumption. These men have said, as we have quoted above from
your prayer-book, “that when the time for the search draws near, it is
unlawful to do any work, or to eat, or to study;” so that the poor man
is to give up his lawful business, the hungry man to abstain from his
lawful food, and all to neglect even the reading of God’s holy Word,
in order to go and search into holes and corners, for that which they
know is not to be found, or to find that which was laid in their way
intentionally and for that very purpose. We ask you can this be from
God, or, are the men who make the reading of God’s Word give way
to this ceremony, to be depended upon as teachers of the true
religion?
But the oral law not only adds human inventions, but lays down
principles which involve considerable difficulties, the solution of
which requires no small share of ingenuity. For instance—
‫חמץ שעבר עליו הפסח אסיר בהנאה לעולם ׃‬
“It is for ever unlawful to have any profit from leaven, that has existed
during the season of the Passover.” This is understood of leaven
belonging to Israelites, and according to this all Israelites are obliged
to sell, or give away, or lose all the leaven which they may have at
the commencement of Passover, and of course, if they have much,
the loss would be very serious. But the Rabbies who have made the
difficulty, have also found various ways of evading it. One is by
pledging the leaven with a certain form of words—
‫ישראל שהרהין חמצו אצל הגוי אם אםר לו אם לא הבאתי לך מעות מכאן ועד יום‬
‫פלוני קנה חמץ זה מעכשיו הרי זה ברשות הגוי ואותו החמץ מותר לאחר הפסח ׃‬
“An Israelite who has pawned his leaven to a Gentile, if he says to
him, in case I do not bring thee the money from this time to a certain
day, you have purchased this leaven from the present time; then this
leaven is considered as in the possession of the Gentile, and it is
lawful after the Passover.” (Hilchoth Chometz, c. iv.) If, therefore, an
Israelite, who has a large quantity of leaven, wishes to keep the
commandment of removing all leaven from his possession, and at
the time to be able to resume the possession after the Passover; and
to have the worldly gain too, as well the spiritual profit, he has
nothing to do but to pawn it with this form of words. Now we ask
every Jew of common sense, whether this be not a mere trick, an
attempt to cheat one’s own conscience, an unworthy artifice to serve
God, and yet to avoid the loss which would result from a simple
observance of the command? It is plain that a man who acts thus
has no real intention of renouncing the possession of the leaven.
And this is not a single case; the oral law is rich in such cases, as it
allows a mock pawning, so it allows a mock sale or gift.
‫ אלא ישמרנו לו עד‬, ‫אעפ׳׳י שהישראל מכירו לעכו׳׳ם ויודע בו שלא יגע בו כלל‬
‫לאחר הפסח ויחזור ויתננו לו מותר ׃‬
“Although the Israelite knows that the Gentile will not touch the
leaven at all, but keep it for him until after the Passover, and will then
return it to him, it is lawful.” Of course a learned Israelite, acquainted
with this provision of the oral law, will select a Gentile of this
description to whom to sell or give his leaven, fully aware that after
Passover it will be his again, and he may enjoy the profit. But
suppose a Jew had lent money to a Gentile, and received the
interest every week in bread, what is he to do? It is evident that at
Passover he cannot make use of the bread on account of the leaven,
neither after the Passover can he receive that bread nor money for it,
as according to the oral law he must have no profit from leaven
which has witnessed the Paschal week. This is a difficult case, but it
is not of our making. The oral law which has proposed the difficulty,
has also provided a solution.
‫ישראל שמקבל מגוי ככרות ברבית בכל שבוע כתב אבי העזרי שיאמר לו קודם‬
‫הפסח שיתן לו בשבוע של פסח קמח או מעות ואז אפילו אם באו אחר כך לחשבון‬
‫מותר לקבל ממנו מה שלא קבל בתוך הפסח ׃‬
“An Israelite who receives bread from a Gentile every week as
interest, is, according to Avi Haezri, to tell him before the Passover,
that in the Passover week he must give him flour or money, and then
when they come to make up their accounts, he may receive from him
that which he did not receive during the Passover.” (Arbah. Turim.
Orach Chaiim, sec. 450.) According to this simple device, merely by
saying a few words, he can make that lawful, which before would
have been a great sin. It is not needful even to intend to have money
or flour, he may intend to have the leaven after the Passover; the
words have the transforming efficacy. The same book gives Rashi’s
solution of another similar difficulty.
‫ ישראל וגוי שיש להם תנור בשותפות מהו לומר לגוי טול אתה של‬, ‫שאלה לרש׳׳י‬
‫פסח ואני אטול אחר כך והשיב שיתנה קודם הפסח ויטול דמים מאות שבוע ׃‬
“A question proposed to Rashi—Suppose that an Israelite and a
Gentile had an oven in partnership, shall he say to the Gentile, Take
thou the profit during the Passover, and I will take afterwards? He
replied, Let him make a bargain before the Passover, and take the
price of that week.” (Ibid.) A man of common sense will see that
here, as in the other cases, the Jew does really receive the profit
from leaven in existence during the Passover, and that whether he
receive the money or the profit before or afterwards, there is no real
difference in the circumstances of the transaction; one principle
pervades all these decisions, and that is, evasion of what is
considered a Divine command. The man who gives away the leaven
with the full intention of resuming possession after the Passover, and
the man who sells only for the week, in full persuasion that his right
and interest remain, does in reality neither give nor sell. There may
be an outward appearance of the thing, but God does not judge
according to the appearance; he looks on the intention of the heart.
He is not satisfied with the form of giving or selling, but looking at the
inmost thoughts of the soul, He sees that the man does not wish nor
intend to do either one or the other, and marks him as a deliberate,
and wilful transgressor. But we appeal to every unsophisticated mind
in Israel, would such a system of evasion be considered as
honourable, even according to the maxims of this world? Or can that
conduct, which men would call dishonourable, be considered as an
acceptable service before God? But, above all, can it be the law
given to Moses by the God of truth? This it is which gives this
discussion all its importance. If the Talmud and all its decisions were
retained merely as a curious remnant of antiquity, as the effusions of
a perverse ingenuity, or the waking dreams of scholastics, we might
both pass it by with a smile. But it is proposed as the law of God. It is
the religion of the great majority of the Jewish people, and no doubt
at this very time, many an Israelite in Poland and elsewhere, if not in
England, is preparing a mock sale, or drawing up a contract for the
imaginary disposal of the leaven in his possession, in obedience to
the above directions. They do it in simplicity, with a mistaken
devotion. They are misled; but does not a fearful load of
responsibility rest upon those Israelites who know better, and yet
leave their brethren in this grievous error, yea, and confirm them in it
by joining in all the ceremonies which that system prescribes?
Because of this system, the nation is still exiled from the land of
Israel. Because of this system, the anger of the Lord is not turned
away, but His arm is stretched out still. If then you love your people
—if you desire their national exaltation, and their eternal welfare, lift
up your voice and protest against the oral law. Condemn the Scribes
and Pharisees as the inventors of the system, and the first authors of
that moral captivity in which the people has been held for so many
centuries. Now when you remember the mercies of the Lord in
delivering you from the house of bondage, make an effort to deliver
your brethren from the more degrading chains of error and
superstition. At the same time we would ask you to consider the
case of so many of your nation, who, when these chains were
rivetting, gloriously maintained their freedom, and have left us a
collection of writings, entirely free from every trace of this mistaken
ingenuity. We mean the disciples of Jesus of Nazareth. They, too,
were Jews, children of Abraham, and of the stock of Israel. How is it
then, that they who were condemned by the Talmudists as heretics,
and propagators of a false religion, have left us the principles of a
healthy, manly, and rational piety, whilst their judges and accusers
have fallen headlong into error and even absurdity? If Jesus and his
disciples were deceivers or fanatics, how is it that they were
preserved from inculcating such false doctrines: and if the Scribes
and Pharisees were right in condemning and persecuting them—
were actually serving God in resisting false pretensions, how is it that
they were given over to such delusions, and to such a system of
trifling? That they were not infallible, the above extracts from the oral
law prove beyond all controversy. They have altogether erred in the
first element of acceptable worship, simplicity of intention and
uprightness of heart. They have confounded the form with the reality
of obedience to God’s commands. And in all these things where they
have erred, Jesus and his disciples have asserted and maintained
the truth. Account for this fact. The Talmud tells you to light a taper
and search for leaven in a mousehole, and to get rid of all in your
possession by a fictitious contract. The New Testament says, “Purge
out the old leaven, that ye may be a new lump, as ye are
unleavened. For even Christ our Passover is sacrificed for us:
therefore let us keep the feast not with old leaven, neither with the
leaven of malice and wickedness; but with the unleavened bread of
sincerity and truth.” (1 Cor. v. 7, 8.)
 No. XII.
THE PASSOVER A TYPE OF FUTURE
DELIVERANCE.

This year, the Jewish and the Christian times for celebrating the
Feast of the Passover nearly coincide; and the coincidence ought to
remind us both of that happy period, when all the children of man, so
long divided, shall again be united into one great, holy, and happy
family; all rejoicing in the mercy and favour of their Heavenly Father,
and all loving each other in sincerity and truth. To that period we look
forward, and even now we use our humble endeavours to accelerate
its approach. Yea, one of the reasons, why we endeavour to lead
Israel to a rejection of the oral law, is because we firmly believe that
it is one of the main hindrances in the way of their happiness and
that of the nations of the world. We have no wish to rob you of any
one blessing promised in the Word of God. We would not deprive
you of one hope founded upon God’s promises. On the contrary, we
rejoice to think that notwithstanding all the vain traditions of the
Scribes and Pharisees, it has pleased God to keep alive in your
hearts the memory of his past mercy, and the hope of his future
goodness. To the consideration of these two points, the law of Moses
and your appointed prayers lead you at this season, and through the
mercy of God, and the love of some of your brethren, we of the
Gentiles have been brought to rejoice in similar considerations. Let
us then endeavour to anticipate the future, and rejoice together even
now, omitting on this solemn occasion a special discussion of the
oral law. If God’s mercy were all past, and only a matter of history,
we might and ought to feel grateful for the benefits bestowed upon
our fathers: our joy would, however, suffer a considerable diminution.
But this is not the case. In the midst of your grateful acknowledgment
for the wonders in Egypt, you can mingle a prayer for the future, and
say,
‫לשנה הבאה בירושלים ׃‬
“Next year in Jerusalem.”
, ‫רחם נא י׳׳י אלהינו על ישראל עמך ועל ירישלים עירך ועל מזבחך ועל היכלך‬
‫ובנה ירושלים עיר הקודש במהרה בימינו והעלנו לתוכה ושמחנו בה ׃‬
“O Lord our God, have mercy, we beseech thee, upon Israel thy
people, and upon Jerusalem thy city, and upon thine altar, and upon
thy temple; and build Jerusalem, the holy city, speedily, in our days,
and bring us up into the midst of it, and make us glad therein.”
(Haggadah Shel Pesach.) And to this prayer we can say, “Amen”
with all our hearts. The future restoration and blessedness of Israel
is one of our fondest expectations; and whilst we contemplate the
circumstances and the glory of the first Exodus, the Word of the
living God leads us to look forward to that which is to come.
‫כימי צאתך מארץ מצרים אראנו נפלאות ׃‬
“According to the days of thy coming out of the land of Egypt will I
show unto him marvellous things,” is the promise by the mouth of
Micah the prophet (c. vii. 10).
‫והחרים יהוה את לשון ים מצרים והניף ידו על הנהר בעים רוחו והכהו לשבעה‬
‫ והיתה מסלה לשאר עמו אשר ישאר מאשור כאשר היתה‬, ‫נחלים והדריך בנעלים‬
‫לישראל ביום עלותו מארץ מצרים ׃‬
“And the Lord shall utterly destroy the tongue of the Egyptian sea,
and with his mighty wind shall he shake his hand over the river, and
shall smite it in the seven streams, and shall make men go over dry
shod. And there shall be a highway for the remnant of his people,
which shall be left from Assyria; like as it was to Israel in the day that
he came up out of the land of Egypt,” is the declaration of the
Prophet Isaiah (xi. 15, 16). Seeing that neither of these declarations
was fulfilled at the return from Babylon, nor at any period since, we
firmly believe that they shall be fulfilled in the time to come, and that
therefore the compilers of the Haggadah were fully warranted in
intermingling, with their Passover thanksgivings, a prayer for the
fulfilment of the promised mercies; and we do not scruple to say that
in this respect, the Jewish Rabbies have been right, whilst many
Christian interpreters have been wrong; though they might have
known and given a true explanation of all similar passages, if they
had only followed the plain words of their master, Jesus of Nazareth,
“Think not that I am come to destroy the law or the prophets.” (Matt.
v. 17.) We make this remark to show that we do not condemn the
Rabbies inconsiderately; but that we are willing to do them all justice,
where their opinions agree with the Word of God. Their expectation
of the future restoration of Israel is well founded, and their faith in the
promises relating to it worthy of all imitation. Oh, that the whole
nation had more of it—that their hearts were more directed to the
land of their forefathers—that their thoughts were more full of the
Divine promises. Then they would cry more earnestly to God, and
He would “hear their groaning, and remember his covenant with
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,” as he did at the deliverance from
Egypt. The careless and the ungodly deceive themselves with the
idea, that when God’s time comes, the deliverance will take place
without any endeavour of theirs. Let them read the law of Moses,
and they will find that though God had promised to bring their fathers
out of Egypt, the deliverance itself was preceded by a time of prayer
and crying unto God. To Abraham he had said,
... ‫ידוע תדע כי גר יהיה זרעך בארץ לא להם ועבדום וענו אותם ארבע מאות שנה‬
‫ודור רביעי ישובו הנה וגו׳ ׃‬
“Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is
not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them four
hundred years.... But in the fourth generation they shall come hither
again,” &c. (Gen. xv. 13, 16.) But this promise was no warrant for
their remaining careless, and at ease; it was on the contrary a basis
for earnest prayer and supplication, and a plea for mercy. And,
therefore, when the time drew near, we read,
‫יואנחו בני ישראל מן העבודה ויזעקו ותעל שועתם אל האלהים מן העבודה ׃‬
“And the children of Israel sighed by reason of the bondage, and
they cried, and their cry came up unto God, by reason of the
bondage.” And God himself gives this as one reason why he came to
deliver them.
‫ועתה הנה צעקת בני ישראל באה אלי ׃‬
“Now, therefore, behold the cry of the children of Israel is come unto
me.” (Exod. iii. 9.) Here, then, all Israelites, who desire the fulfilment
of God’s promises should learn that state of mind, which is a pre-
requisite to the interposition of their great deliverer. Israel can no
more be delivered now than of old, unless they earnestly desire
deliverance. To what purpose should He deliver and restore those,
who care nothing about the land of their forefathers, nor about the
glory of the nation—who say, We are very comfortable and happy
here, and all we desire is to be like the other nations (‫—)נהיה כגוים‬
what good would it do to us to return to the land of Israel? God’s
promises are not to such grovelling and unbelieving spirits. Along
with his promise of mercy, he gives a command for continual
supplication,
‫ ואל תהנו דמי לו עד יכונן ועד ישים את ירושלים‬, ‫המזכירים את יהוה אל דמי לכם‬
‫תהלה בארץ ׃‬
“Ye that make mention of the Lord, keep not silence, and give him no
rest, till he establish, and till he make Jerusalem a praise in the
earth.” (Isaiah lxii. 6, 7.) And in Ezekiel, after the declaration, “This
land that was desolate is become like the garden of Eden; and the
waste, and desolate and ruined cities, are become fenced, and are
inhabited,” &c., he adds—
‫כה אמר אדני יהוה עוד זאת אדרש לבית ישראל לעשות להם ׃‬
“Thus saith the Lord God, I will yet for this be inquired of by the
house of Israel, to do it for them.” (Ezek. xxxvi. 37.) Upon which
Rashi remarks—
‫אתפתה להם בתפלתם בדושם אותי על זאת ׃‬
“I will be made favourable to them through their prayer, when they
seek me with regard to this.” Hence prayer is commanded; in Hosea
we are told, that without prayer deliverance is impossible.
‫אלך אשובה אל מקומי עד אשר יאשמו ובקשו פני ׃‬
“I will go and return to my place, till they acknowledge their offence,
and seek my face.” (Hosea v. 15.) Let the children of Israel return