CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Evolution explains how living things are changing today and how modern living things have
descended from ancient life from that no longer exist on earth. Organisms that were able to
adapt, survived the ordeal, and the organisms that were not, perished. Therefore, evolution
can be understood as a gradual change in the characteristic features of a species, brought
about by the need to adapt to situations and the environment through natural selection

Origin and evolution of life:

 The study of the evolution of life forms on Earth is known as evolutionary biology.
 To comprehend the evolution of flora and fauna on Earth over millions of years, we
must first comprehend the origin of life, which begins with the evolution of the earth,
stars, and the cosmos as a whole.
 The origin of life is thought to be a one-of-a-kind occurrence in the universe's history.
 The Big Bang Theory tries to explain the origins of the cosmos to humans.

Modes of evolution:

The Big Bang theory:

 A singular huge explosion of very dense matter from a point of singularity. This
caused the universe to expand and the temperature to fall drastically. After some time
hydrogen and helium were formed.
 The gases condensed due to gravitation. They later formed the galaxies in the
universe. The Earth is believed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years back in
the solar system of the Milky Way galaxy.
 The Big Bang Theory is a theory that describes how the universe began. A massive
explosion of incredibly dense stuff erupting from a singularity. As a result, the
universe expanded and the temperature dropped dramatically.
 Hydrogen and helium were produced after a while. Gravitational forces caused the
gases to condense. They later produced the universe's galaxies. The Earth is thought
to have formed some 4.5 billion years ago in the Milky Way galaxy's solar system.
The Oparin-Haldane theory of life's origin:

● Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the initial forms of life evolved
from non-living organic molecules that were already there (e.g. RNA, protein etc.).

● Chemical evolution, or the synthesis of different organic molecules from inorganic

ingredients, predates the emergence of life.

● S.L. Miller, an American physicist, showed the same in a laboratory size in 1953.

Experiment with Urey and Miller:

The Earth's conditions had deteriorated. Extremely hot weather. Volcanic Storms are a type
of natural disaster that occurs when a volcano erupts, reducing the amount of CH4 and NH3
in the atmosphere, etc.

S.L. Miller, an American scientist, created identical conditions in a lab setting in

1953. He established an electric discharge in a confined flask to imitate the circumstances of
the early earth. The temperature rose to 800°C as a result of this, inside the flask, CH4, H2,
NH3, and water vapour were used. He watched as amino acids were formed.

Acceptance of the hypothesis of chemical evolution: (evidence): Miller witnessed the

synthesis of amino acids from inorganic compounds that were simple in nature. In the
laboratory, he recreated the circumstances that were thought to exist on early Earth.

Other scientists witnessed the creation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment, and lipids
in identical tests. The existence of comparable chemicals was discovered in meteorite
samples. This suggests that similar processes are taking place in other parts of the universe.

Natural Selection Theory of Species Origin:

Charles Darwin determined that extant life forms share varying degrees of similarity
not only among themselves but also with life forms that existed millions of years ago, based
on observations made during a round-the-world voyage in a sailing ship called H.M.S.
Beagle.
 Many of these life species have vanished. Extinction of numerous life forms has occurred in
the past for a variety of reasons. At various times during the Earth's history, new types of life
have also emerged. The evolution of life forms has been gradual.

Survival of the fittest: According to Darwin, fitness refers to one's ability to adapt to change.
As a result, only the strongest creatures survive and generate more offspring than the others.

 As a result, they have higher survival rates and are thus chosen by nature. Natural
selection, he called it. Around the same period, Alfred Wallace, a naturalist working
in the Malay Archipelago, came to similar conclusions. The geological and biological
histories of the planet are inextricably linked.

Paleontological proof:

 Fossils are the hard remains of living organisms discovered in rocks. Various aged
rock sediments comprise fossils of a plethora of life forms and those forms probably
died during the development of sediment. They are the remains of extinct species (e.g.
Dinosaurs).
 The geological period in which fossils were found can be determined by examining
distinct sedimentary levels in which they were found. The study found that life forms
changed with time and that certain life forms are limited to specific geological epoch
periods.
 As a result, new types of life are thought to have emerged at various points during
 Earth's history. All of this is referred to as Paleontological evidence.

Comparative anatomy and morphological evidence:

Comparative anatomy and morphology show the similarities and dissimilarities between
living things today and that existed many years ago.

Divergent evolution:

Different warm-blooded animals such as bats, whales, cheetahs, and humans have similarities
in the design of the bones of the forelimbs. These forelimbs have unique abilities among
these creatures, but they have a comparative anatomical structure: their forelimbs have the
humerus, ulna, carpal, palm, metacarpal, and phalanx.
 Thus, it can be seen that due to adjustments to different needs, the same structure has
been created across different titles. The title of this progression or evolution is known as the
Divergent evolution, and these structures are homologous to one another. Homology
demonstrates common parentage/ancestry. Other cases of the homologous organ are
vertebrate brain and heart.

Convergent Evolution:

Anatomically they don't have a comparative structure in spite, they perform a

comparable function. So, basically, analogous organs are a result of convergent evolution.
The eyes of many animals, for example octopuses or mammals. The Flippers of Penguins and
Dolphins. Sweet potato is root adjustment and potato is a stem adjustment for capacity of
nourishment.

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION:

Natural selection is the basis of Darwin's Theory of Darwin regarding evolution.

 The appearance rate of new species is linked to the life cycle. For variations to get
chosen and develop there needs to be a genetic basis. Animals with beneficial
modifications are better adjusted to survive in an unfriendly environment.
 Variations cause adjustability. Variations have a genetic basis and Variations are
inherited. Fitness is the ability of the organism to accommodate itself to varying
environmental conditions and also to get selected by nature.

The principal concepts of Darwinism are:

Natural selection: The Survival of fittest by the nature in confront of changing environment.

Theory of Common Descent: Life forms are driven from common precursors

due to the collection of varieties.

MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION:

Hugo de Vries managed to plant evening primrose. Hugo de Vries gave the various ideas of
mutations. The mutation is the difference appearing quickly in a group.

HARDY – WEINBERG PRINCIPLE:

For a given population the frequency of occurrence of alleles of a particular gene present on a
specific locus can be calculated. This frequency is usually fixed and remains the same
throughout different generations. Hardy-Weinberg principle expressed the same using
algebraic equations. This is called the Hardy-Weinberg Principle.

Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencies are constant in a population and they
are constant from generation to generation. The gene pool remains constant. Which is called
genetic equilibrium.

The principle can be represented mathematically as follows:

(p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.

p and q represent the individual allele frequencies.

Therefore, p2 = frequency of homozygous condition represented by p And

q2 = frequency of homozygous alleles represented by q

pq = frequency of the heterozygous condition

Change in the genetic equilibrium (Hardy Weinberg equilibrium) can then be translated as
collection or change in inequalities which causes evolution. Five factors are known to affect
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

1) Gene migration or gene flow.

2) Genetic recombination.
3) Natural selection.
4) Genetic drift.
5) Mutation.

1) Gene migration: When a segment of the population transfers to another place gene
frequencies will vary in the original as well as in the new population. New genes /alleles will
be added to the new population and the same is lost from the old population.

2) Gene flow: When gene migration happens usually it is called gene flow.

3) Genetic drift: Alter in quality recurrence that happens due to arbitrary occasion or by
chance.
4) Founder effect: Sometimes the alteration in allelic frequency is so radical that in the new
population species and the variants form a different species. The first migrated population
from which the variations emerged gets to be founder species and this impact is called the
founder effect.

CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Cells are the basic units of life capable of doing all the required biochemical processes that a
normal cell has to do in order to live. The basic needs for the survival of all living organisms
are the same. All living organisms need to respire, digest food for obtaining energy, and get
rid of metabolic wastes. Cells are capable of performing all the metabolic functions of the
body. Hence, cells are called the functional units of life.

A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure
to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the first
Biologist who discovered cells. All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of
a single cell (unicellular), or many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest
known cells. Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the
body and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.

Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are
of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of
cells of different shapes and sizes. Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life
form. From organism to organism, the count of cells may vary. Humans have more number of
cells compared to that of bacteria.

Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to carry out life
processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary material of the organisms
is also present in the cells.

Cell Definition

A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s processes

Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular
structure, there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

PROKARYOTIC CELLS

1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a
region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is
called the nucleoid.

2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.

3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.

4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.

5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction.

They are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic
equivalent to sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.

2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.

3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.

4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell
communication.

5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.

There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant cell
contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.

CELL STRUCTURE
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry
out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus, and cell organelles. Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.

Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment.
The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles,
such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of
selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also
protects the cellular component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.

 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane
and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.

 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.

  It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks
and injuries.

Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.

 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.

 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria,

ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.

 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.

 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the
rest of the cell.

 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell
structure.

Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry
out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as
follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular
activities and cellular reproduction.

Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus
and other cell organelles.
 Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the
cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids
and proteins.

Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of
materials within the cell.

Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it
produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called
chlorophyll.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

What Are Stem Cells?

Stem cells are special human cells that are able to develop into many
different cell types. This can range from muscle cells to brain cells. In some cases,
they can also fix damaged tissues. Researchers believe that stem cell-based
therapies may one day be used to treat serious illnesses such as paralysis and
Alzheimer disease.
Types of stem cells: Stem cells are divided into 2 main forms. They are embryonic stem
cells and adult stem cells.

Embryonic stem cells: The embryonic stem cells used in research today come from unused
embryos. These result from an in vitro fertilization procedure. They are donated to science.
These embryonic stem cells are pluripotent. This means that they can turn into more than one
type of cell.

Adult stem cells: There are 2 types of adult stem cells. One type comes from fully developed
tissues such as the brain, skin, and bone marrow. There are only small numbers of stem cells
in these tissues. They are more likely to generate only certain types of cells. For example, a
stem cell that comes from the liver will only make more liver cells.

The second type is induced pluripotent stem cells. These are adult stem cells that have been
changed in a lab to be more like embryonic stem cells. Scientists first reported that human
stem cells could be changed in this way in 2006. Induced pluripotent stem cells don't seem to
be different from embryonic stem cells, but scientists have not yet found one that can develop
every kind of cell and tissue.

STEM CELLS IN MEDICINE

The only stem cells now used to treat disease are hematopoietic stem cells. These are
the blood cell-forming adult stem cells found in bone marrow. Every type of blood cell in the
bone marrow starts as a stem cell. Stem cells are immature cells that are able to make other
blood cells that mature and function as needed.

BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

A biomolecule refers to any molecule that is produced by living organisms. As such, most of
them are organic molecules. The four major groups of biomolecules include polysaccharides,
proteins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and lipids. They are found in and produced by living
organisms.

WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES ?

 Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are one of the three main ways by which our
body obtains its energy. They are called carbohydrates as they comprise carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen at their chemical level.

Carbohydrates are essential nutrients which include sugars, fibers and starches. They are
found in grains, vegetables, fruits and in milk and other dairy products. They are the basic
food groups which play an important role in a healthy life.

WHAT ARE NUCLEIC ACIDS?

Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, the monomer (the repeating unit)
is known as the nucleotides and hence sometimes nucleic acids are referred to as
polynucleotides.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are two major types of nucleic
acids. DNA and RNA are responsible for the inheritance and transmission of specific
characteristics from one generation to the other. There are prominently two types of nucleic
acids known to us.

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA):

Chemically, DNA is composed of a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and some cyclic
bases containing nitrogen. The sugar moiety present in DNA molecules is β-D-2-
deoxyribose. The cyclic bases that have nitrogen in them are adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine(C) and thymine (T). These bases and their arrangement in the molecules of DNA
play an important role in the storage of information from one generation to the next one.
DNA has a double-strand helical structure in which the strands are complementary to each
other.

RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA):

The RNA molecule is also composed of phosphoric acid, a pentose sugar and some cyclic
bases containing nitrogen. RNA has β-D-ribose in it as the sugar moiety. The heterocyclic
bases present in RNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine(C) and uracil (U). In RNA the
fourth base is different from that of DNA. The RNA generally consists of a single strand
which sometimes folds back; that results in a double helix structure. There are three types of
RNA molecules, each having a specific function:
  messenger RNA (m-RNA)
 ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)
 transfer RNA (t-RNA)

The Functions of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are responsible for the transmission of inherent characters from parent to offspring.

They are responsible for the synthesis of protein in our body

DNA fingerprinting is a method used by forensic experts to determine paternity. It is also used for
the identification of criminals. It has also played a major role in studies regarding biological
evolution and genetics.

DNA is required for replication and heredity.

It is a reserve bank of genetic information.

they are responsible for maintain the identity of different species of organism over millions of
years.

Various cellular functions is under the control of DNA.

Nucleosides are preciouses of the nucleic acid ie, DNA and RNA.