Stass Thermo 1

A simplified, well elaborated and illustrative approach to Physical Chemistry
Enthalpy,
Enthalpy is the total energy content of a substance.
It is denoted by the symbol, .
Enthalpy change,
Enthalpy change is the heat content of a substance measured at standard temperature
and pressure during a chemical reaction.
Enthalpy change is called heat of reaction and is denoted as
Standard enthalpy change,

This is the heat change when molar quantities of reactants shown in the balanced
equation for the reaction in their standard states react completely at 1 atmosphere and
298K.
Standard state of the substance is the phase in which a pure substance exists at 1
atmosphere and 298K.
DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

The units for standard enthalpy of reaction are
TYPES OF HEAT OF REACTIONS

All chemical reactions are accompanied by evolution or absorption of heat. This results
into two types of reactions namely;
(i) exothermic reaction
(ii) endothermic reaction
Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction

 Proceed with evolution of heat to the  Proceed with absorption of heat from the
environment environment
 Denoted by a negative sign  Denoted by a positive sign
 The products are at a lower energy level  The products are at a higher energy level
than the reactants than the reactants
For example; For example;
The equation can be interpreted as; The equation can be interpreted as

1 mole of hydrogen gas reacts with 1 mole of 1 mole of carbon reacts with 1 mole of steam
gaseous iodine to form 2 moles of hydrogen to form 1mole of carbon monoxide gas and 1
iodide gas with evolution of mole of hydrogen gas with absorption of
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The sign of the enthalpy change for a reaction is an indicator of its feasibility. The more negative
(exothermic) the value of , the more is the reaction likely to be feasible.
Energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions

An energy level diagram is a graph of potential energy of a reaction against reaction path or
reaction coordinate.
For the exothermic reaction shown above; For the endothermic reaction shown above;
Activated
complex
Activated
Potential complex
Potential
energy
energy
( )
( )

Reaction coordinate Reaction coordinate
is the activation energy for the reaction.
It can also be called activation energy for forward reaction.
is activation energy for backward reaction
is the enthalpy of reaction
Activation energy is the minimum energy which is required to be possessed by reactants in order
to react and form products.
Activated complex is the intermediate unstable compound formed immediately once the
reactants have absorbed the activation energy available.
This unstable compound undergoes bond re-organization by releasing some of the energy to form
the final stable product. The activated complex can also be called a transition state.
The enthalpy of reaction can be got from the expression ;
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Questions
1. For the reaction
(a) Draw a well labeled energy level diagram for the reaction.
(b) The activation energies for the forward and reverse reactions are known to be
respectively and . Calculate the heat of reaction.
2. (a) Define the term activation energy
(b) and react to form and according to the following equation
(i) Draw a fully labeled potential energy versus reaction coordinate diagram for
the reaction of and .
(ii) Calculate the activation energy of the backward reaction. (the activation for
forward reaction is

3. Dinitrogen tetraoxide dissociates at 40 oC and 1 atm according to the following
equation.
Draw a well labelled energy level diagram for the reaction above
Applications of exothermic reactions in everyday life

(i) In hot packs which are used to treat sports injuries and warming the body in case
of coldness. The instant hot packs have separate compartments of water and
anhydrous calcium chloride separated by a thin film placed in a plastic bag. When
the bag is squeezed, the thin film breaks and the anhydrous calcium chloride
dissolves in the water exothermically to release heat.
→
There are other salts that dissolve exothermically and can be used in a hot pack for
example anhydrous magnesium sulphate and anhydrous copper(II) sulphate
(ii) Combustion of fuels to release energy during cooking of food
(iii) In cellular respiration, where energy is obtained from carbohydrates and used by
living organisms. During the process carbohydrates react with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide, water and energy.
(iv) Condensation during formation of rain from water vapour
(v) Freezing of water into ice
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Applications of endothermic reactions in everyday life

(i) In instant cold packs which are used to treat sports injuries. The instant cold
packs have separate compartments of water and solid ammonium nitrate separated
by a thin film placed in a plastic bag. When the bag is squeezed, the thin film
breaks and the solid ammonium nitrate dissolves in water endothermically to
provide instant coldness. Heat is absorbed from the surrounding such as the
injured area of the athlete‟s body.
→
There are other salts that dissolve endothermically and can be used in a cold pack for
example ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate and sodium thiosulphate.
(ii) Photosynthesis. Energy is absorbed to convert carbon dioxide and water to sugars
in presence of chlorophyll.
(iii) Evaporation of liquid water

(iv) Melting of ice
Factors affecting enthalpy of reaction

1. Temperature at which the reaction is carried out
2. Pressure of gaseous reactants or products
3. Amount of reactants used
4. Physical state of reactants and products
Latent heat is involved in changes of state so that the state of the reagents and
products affect the enthalpy of a reaction
Combination of hydrogen and oxygen to form liquid water at 25 and atmospheric
pressure evolves
When 2g of hydrogen are burnt just above 100 , less heat is given out.
The observed difference is due to heat of vapourisation of 1 mole of water.
5. Allotropic modifications
There is an enthalpy change involved in conversion one allotrope to another. A particular
allotrope of an element used in a reaction affects the enthalpy of reaction. For example;
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CALORIMETRY
Calorimetry is a technique used to measure amounts of heat transferred to or from a
substance. A calorimeter is a container that is insulated against heat loss that is used to
measure the amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical process.
The common calorimeters used in laboratory experiments include the coffee cup
calorimeter and the bomb calorimeter.
The coffee cup calorimeter is used when measuring the heats of neutralisation, solution,
precipitation. It is constructed from a polystyrene cup with a lid. A thermometer is
usually inserted in it to measure heat changes.
The bomb calorimeter is mainly used to determine heat of combustion of a solid
substance.
Heat capacity of a calorimeter

The heat capacity of a calorimeter is the quantity of heat absorbed by the calorimeter

for each rise in temperature. Its unit is
The heat capacity of a calorimeter must be determined experimentally.
Experiment to determine heat capacity of a simple calorimeter/

plastic cup calorimeter
Using a measuring cylinder, measure of water into the calorimeter and record its
temperature, using a thermometer.
Measure another of water into a beaker and heat it to . Keep the
temperature steady to for to minutes.
Then pour the hot water quickly into the calorimeter containing cold water and stir the
mixture. Record the temperature, .
Treatment of results
[ ] [( )] ( )
[ ] ( ) [( )]
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( ) [( )]
[ ]
( )
TYPES OF ENTHALPY CHANGES

Enthalpy of formation
Enthalpy of formation of a compound is the heat evolved or absorbed when one mole
of a compound is formed from the constituent elements in their standard states.
When enthalpy of formation is determined under standard conditions, it is called
standard enthalpy of formation.
Standard enthalpy of formation

The standard enthalpy of formation of a compound, , is the heat evolved or

absorbed when one mole of the compound is formed from its elements in their normal
states at 298K and 1 atmosphere.
Enthalpy of formation can be exothermic or endothermic.
Prediction of relative stability of compounds from enthalpy of

formation
 When a compound is formed with evolution of heat (exothermically), that
compound is more stable and less reactive.
 When a compound is formed with absorption of heat (endothermically), that
compound is less stable and very reactive.
 The standard enthalpy of formation of elements in their standard states is
conventionally taken as zero. i.e. enthalpy of formation of is
The table below shows some compounds, equations and their enthalpies of formation.
Their stability can be predicted using values for enthalpy of formation. Also note that all
the equations show one mole of compound being formed.
Compound Equation for formation
Sodium chloride
Water
Hydrogen fluoride
Aluminium oxide
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Ammonia
Ethyne
Nitrogen monoxide
The first equation means that 1 mole of solid sodium chloride is formed from 1 mole of
solid sodium and 0.5 moles of chlorine gas with evolution of of heat under
standard conditions.
The last equation means that 1 mole of nitrogen monoxide gas is formed from 0.5
mole of nitrogen gas and 0.5 mole of oxygen gas with absorption of of heat
under standard conditions.
Determination of enthalpy of formation

Enthalpy of formation of compounds can be obtained directly by measuring the heat
change in the combination of known masses of the elements.
It can also be obtained indirectly by use of Hess‟ law when values of other enthalpies for

a given compound or components of the compound are known (this will be seen later).
Calculating using heats of formation

Enthalpy of reaction can be expressed as the difference between the sum of the
standard enthalpies of formation of the products and the sum of the standard
enthalpies of formation of the reactants when both reactants and products are in their
standard states at 1 atmosphere and 298K
∑ ∑
The standard enthalpy of formation of elements in their standard states is conventionally

taken as zero whenever the above equation is used.
Reactions involving ions can similarly be treated using the same equation if the values of
the standard molar enthalpies of formation of ions are known. The standard enthalpy of
formation of the hydrogen ion is 0.00 .
Examples
1. Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction below using the information
given;
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∑ ∑
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
2. The enthalpies of formation of some selected compounds are shown in the

table below.
Compound
Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reaction.

→

∑ ∑
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
3. The standard enthalpies of formation of water, sodium ion and hydroxyl ion
are given in the table below.
Compound/ion Enthalpy of formation,
̅
Calculate the enthalpy of the reaction between sodium and water.
∑ ∑
[ ] [ ]
[ ̅ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
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5. The standard enthalpies of hydrogen peroxide and water.

Compound
Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reaction.
Enthalpy of combustion
Enthalpy of combustion is the heat evolved when one mole of a substance is completely
burnt in oxygen under specified conditions, when the reactants and products are in
their standard states.
When enthalpy of combustion is determined under standard conditions
( ), it is called standard enthalpy of combustion.
Standard enthalpy of combustion

Standard enthalpy of combustion, is the heat evolved when one mole of a
substance is completely burnt in oxygen at 298K and 1 atmosphere.
Enthalpy of combustion is always a negative value indicating that heat is evolved
(reaction is exothermic)
The table below shows some compounds, equations and their standard enthalpies of
combustion.
Compound Equation for combustion

Carbon(graphite)
Methane
Ethyne
Ethane
Ethanol
Experiment to determine enthalpy of combustion of low

molecular mass alcohols (ethanol, propanol and butanol)
In this experiment we shall consider propanol but the same treatment can be done for
ethanol and butanol. The same experiment can be used for any other liquid fuel for
example liquid hexane.
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Set up
Thermometer
Stirrer
Heat shield
Thin metallic can
Water
Lamp
Propanol
A known volume of water, is put in a thin metallic can.

The can is fitted with a thermometer and a stirrer

The initial temperature of the water is read and recorded from the thermometer as
A spirit lamp is filled halfway with propanol and the mass of the lamp and its contents
is measured and recorded as
The spirit lamp is lit and the flame adjusted to just touch the bottom of the metallic can.
The water is heated while stirring until a reasonable rise in temperature is obtained.
The lamp is extinguished and the final temperature of the water recorded as
The mass of the spirit lamp and its contents is measured and recorded as
Assuming no heat was lost to the surrounding;
Heat capacity of the can is negligible
Heat produced by combustion of propanol is equal to heat absorbed by water.
( )
( )
( )
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Question;
Describe an experiment to determine the enthalpy of combustion of;
(i) Ethanol
(ii) Butanol
(iii) Liquid hexane
Use of experimental data
Example
When ethanol was burnt in a spirit lamp, the following results were obtained;
Mass of spirit lamp and ethanol before burning
Mass of spirit lamp and ethanol after burning
Volume of water heated
Initial temperature of water
Final temperature of water
(a) Calculate the heat of combustion of

ethanol.
(b) State why the value obtained in (a) above is lower than the actual value obtained in
books.
(a) Heat produced by combustion of ethanol is equal to heat absorbed by water.
( )
(b) The calculated value is less than the theoretical value because some of the heat
evolved is lost to the surroundings.
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Questions
1. A spirit burner containing ethanol was weighed and then used to heat up a copper
calorimeter containing of cold water and then reweighed. The results were
recorded as shown below;
Decrease in mass of ethanol
Rise in temperature of water
Decrease in mass of ethanol
Specific heat capacity of water
Heat capacity of calorimeter is negligible
Use the results to calculate the enthalpy of combustion of ethanol
2. When 0.95g of ethanol was burnt, the heat produced raised the temperature of
of water from to . Calculate the heat of combustion of ethanol.
Experiment to determine enthalpy of combustion of a solid

substance for example carbon (graphite) or coke
Enthalpy of combustion of a solid substance is determined using a bomb calorimeter.

Set up
Thermometer
to electric supply
Stirrer
Calorimeter
Water
Bomb calorimeter
Thin iron wire
Platinum crucible
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A known mass of carbon, is placed in a small platinum crucible

The crucible with its contents is placed in a bomb calorimeter
The bomb calorimeter is filled with oxygen at a pressure of about 25 atmospheres to
ensure rapid and complete combustion
The bomb calorimeter is immersed a known volume of water, placed in a
calorimeter fitted with a thermometer and stirrer
The initial temperature of the water is recorded as
The carbon is ignited by passing electric current through a small coil of iron wire
touching the carbon
The final temperature of the water is read from the thermometer as
Heat evolved by combustion of carbon and the iron wire heat absorbed by water heat gained
by calorimeter

[ ]
[ ]
[( ) ]
[( ) ]
( )
[( ) ]
( )
[( ) ]
( )
Calculation of enthalpy of reaction and enthalpy of formation,

using enthalpies of combustion
Examples
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1. If the heat of formation of carbon dioxide is , heat of formation of

water is and heat of combustion of butane is
Calculate the standard heat of formation of butane.
Equation for the reaction required;
Equations for reactions given;

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
According to the required equation, the 4C is obtained by multiplying equation (i) by 4. The
obtained by multiplying equation (ii) by 5. Since is on right hand side of the required
equation, the last equation is reversed. After this treatment and addition of the 3 resulting
equations the required equation is generated. The same treatment is done to the values.
Check through the working below and subsquent examples.

2. The table below shows the values of enthalpies of combustion of carbon, rhombic
sulphur and carbon disulphide.
Substance Enthalpy of combustion
Carbon
Sulphur
Carbon disulphide
Calculate the enthalpy of formation of carbon disulphide.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The required equation is obtained by adding all the three equations after equation (i) is
unchanged, equation (ii) multiplied by 2 and a reversed equation (iii). The same treatment
is done to the values.
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3. Given that the enthalpy of combustion of ethyne is and the

enthalpy of combustion of ethanal is Calculate the heat change
of the reaction;

(i)
(ii)
The required equation is obtained by simply adding equation (i) to a reversed equation (ii).
The same treatment is done to the values.

4. Given that the ;
Enthalpy of combustion of ethanol is
Enthalpy of formation of carbon dioxide gas is
Enthalpy of formation of water is .
Use the above information to calculate the heat of formation of ethanol

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The required equation is obtained by adding all the three equations after equation (i)
is reversed, equation (ii) multiplied by 2 and equation (iii) multiplied by 3. The same treatment
is done to the values..
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5. The standard enthalpies of combustion of some substances are given below.

Substance
Hydrogen -286
Benzene -3268
Cyclohexene -3752
Cyclohexane -3920
(a) Calculate the enthalpy of hydrogenation of;
(i) Cyclohexene
(ii) Benzene
(b) Using the two values in a(i) and (ii) above , explain the relative stability
of benzene.
(a) (i) Equation for the reaction required;

Equations for reactions required;
The required equation is obtained by simply adding equation (i), equation (ii) and a reversed equation
(iii). The same treatment is done to the values.
(ii) Equation for the reaction required;
The required equation is obtained by adding equation (i) multiplied by 3 to equation (ii) and a
reversed equation (iii). The same treatment is done to the values.
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Calculating heats of combustion from other experimental data

Examples
1. When 2 g of ethane is burnt in excess oxygen, of heat is liberated.
Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of ethane.
( )
2. The table below shows the values for standard enthalpies of formation of benzoic
acid, carbon dioxide and water in . Use the data to calculate the
enthalpy of combustion of benzoic acid.

Compound
∑ ∑
[( ) ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
3. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of benzene if the enthalpy of combustion

of carbon is , enthalpy of formation of benzene is
, and enthalpy of formation of water is .

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Application of heat of combustion in real life situation

 Burning of wood or charcoal to release energy during cooking
 Petrol and diesel cars rely on combustion to release the engine driving energy
 Gas cookers use alkane gases for combustion
The fuel values of various fuels

The fuel value of a fuel is the amount of heat released during its combustion. It is also
referred to as heat or energy or calorific value. The table below fuel values of various
fuels in kilo Joules per kilogram.
Fuel Fuel value
Hydrogen 141,700
Methane 55,500
Natural gas 50,840
Propane 50,000

Butane 49,300
Petrol/ gasoline 46,940
Kerosene 46,200
Diesel 45,600
Crude oil 45,300
Butanol 37,300
Ethanol 29,700
Charcoal 29,600
Coke 28,400
Coal 27.05
Methanol 22,700
Wood 19,800
The higher the fuel value, the more valuable the fuel.
Enthalpy of neutralisation
Enthalpy of neutralisation is the heat evolved in the reaction between that mass of an
acid which provides one mole of hydrogen ions and that mass of an alkali which
provides one mole of hydroxyl ions.
When enthalpy of neutralisation is determined under standard conditions
( ), it is called standard enthalpy of neutralisation.
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Standard enthalpy of neutralisation

Standard enthalpy of neutralisation is the heat evolved when one mole of an acid
reacts with one mole of a base to form one mole of water at 298K and 1 atmosphere.
Neutralisation is the formation of water from hydrogen ions and water.
̅
The enthalpy of neutralisation is exothermic.
The enthalpies of nuetralisation of strong acids and strong alkalis are approximately
constant about a value of .
Experiment to determine enthalpy of neutralisation between a

strong acid and strong alkali
(for example nitric acid and potassium hydroxide)
Describe an experiment to determine enthalpy of neutralisation of nitric acid by
potassium hydroxide.

A known volume, of nitric acid of known concentration, M is measured and
placed in a plastic beaker.
The initial temperature of the acid solution, is noted from the thermometer.
An equal volume, of potassium hydroxide solution of the same concentration, M
is also measured into another plastic beaker.
The initial temperature of potassium hydroxide solution, is also noted from the
clean and dried thermometer.
The two solutions are added together carefully, as fast as possible while stirring and the
maximum temperature, attained is noted.
Assumptions
The solution has the same specific heat capacity as water
Heat loss to the surroundings is negligible
Heat capacity of the beaker is negligible
Density of solution is
( )
[ ( )]
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( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
Describe an experiment to determine enthalpy of neutralisation of sulphuric acid by
sodium hydroxide.
A known volume, of sulphuric acid of known concentration, M is measured and
placed in a plastic beaker.
The initial temperature of the solution, is noted from the thermometer.
of sodium hydroxide solution of the same concentration, M is also measured

into another plastic beaker.
The initial temperature of sodium hydroxide solution, is also noted from the clean
and dried thermometer.
The two solutions are added together carefully, as fast as possible while stirring and the
Assumptions
( )
[ ( )]
( )
( )
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( )
( )
( )
Calculations on enthalpy of neutralisation

Example
1. of potassium hydroxide at ℃ were mixed in a plastic beaker
of negligible heat capacity with an equal volume of hydrochloric acid at
the same temperature. If the final temperature was ℃ . Calculate the
enthalpy of neutralization of potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid from
the following data.

( )
( )
( )
Questions
1. of hydrochloric acid at were placed in a plastic cup.
of sodium hydroxide at were added, the mixture stirred and the
temperature rose to . Calculate the enthalpy of neutralisation.
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2. of sodium hydroxide solution and of

nitric acid, both at were mixed and stirred in a calorimeter
with negligible heat capacity. The temperature of the mixture rose to .
Calculate the enthalpy of neutralisation.
3. (a) of potassium hydroxide solution required of

sulphuric acid for neutralisation in a calorimeter with negligible heat capacity.. If the
temperature rise was . Calculate the standard enthalpy of neutralisation of
potassium hydroxide by sulphuric acid.
The difference between heat of neutralisation between strong acid and strong alkali

and weak acid and strong alkali
Strong acid and strong alkali Weak acid and strong alkali
The enthalpy of neutralisation of any strong The enthalpy of neutralisation of any weak
acid and any strong alkali is approximately acid and strong alkali is lower
constant at about . This is than . This is because for a
because strong acids and strong alkalis and the weak acid and weak alkali, some of the heat
salts they form, are completely ionised in produced due to neutralisation is used for
dilute solution. The only reaction that takes further ionisation of the weak acid. This
place is that between hydrogen ions and further ionisation is endothermic.
hydroxyl ions to form water.
̅
The table below shows enthalpies of neutralisation between different acids and
alkalis
Acid Alkali
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The enthalpy of neutralisation of sodium hydroxide by nitric acid is

whereas the enthalpy of neutralisation of sodium hydroxide by
hydrocyanic acid is .
Sodium hydroxide is a strong base and nitric acid is a strong acid hence completely
ionise in dilute solution. The sodium chloride formed is also completely ionised in dilute
solution. The only reaction involved is between hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions to
form water.
̅
Hydrocyanic acid is a weak acid. Some of the heat is used for further ionisation of the
weak acid which is endothermic.

̅
Enthalpy of displacement
This is the heat evolved when one mole of ions of a less electropositive element is
displaced from its solution by a more electropositive element.
When enthalpy of displacement is determined under standard conditions
( ), it is called standard enthalpy of displacement.
Standard enthalpy of displacement

Standard enthalpy of displacement is the heat evolved when one mole of ions of a less
electropositive element is displaced from its solution by a more electropositive element
at 298K and 1 atmosphere.
A displacement reaction is a redox reaction.
The enthalpy of displacement is exothermic.
Determination of enthalpy of displacement between zinc powder

and copper(II) sulphate solution
A known volume of copper(II) sulphate solution of a known
concentration is put in a plastic beaker
The initial temperature, of the solution is measured and recorded from the
thermometer
An excess of zinc powder is added quickly and carefully to the solution while stirring
The final steady temperature, is read and recorded from the thermometer.
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Assumptions:
Density of solution is equal to density of water
Specific heat capacity of solution is equal to specific heat capacity of water
No heat is lost to the surroundings

Heat capacity of beaker is negligible
( )
( )
( )

( )
( )
( )
Calculations involving heat of displacement

Example
1. of copper(II) chloride solution is poured in a polystyrene cup and
the initial temperature of the solution is recorded as . 4g of zinc powder is
added to the solution and the mixture stirred. The highest temperature of the
mixture was recorded as .Calculate the heat of displacement of copper by
zinc.
( )
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( )
Note; The zinc added is excess so that all the copper is displaced. So its mass is not involved in
the calculation
Questions
1. Excess iron powder is added to copper(II) chloride solution of concentration
at an initial temperature of . If the temperature of the mixture
rose to a maximum temperature of .
(i) State what was observed
(ii) Calculate the heat of displacement of copper by iron.

2. In an experiment to determine heat of displacement of iron by magnesium, excess
magnesium powder is added to of iron(II) sulphate solution at an initial
temperature of . If the temperature of the mixture rose to a maximum
temperature of . Calculate the heat of displacement of iron by magnesium.
Atomisation energy
This is the heat absorbed when an element in its normal physical state is converted into
one mole of free gaseous atoms.
Standard enthalpy of atomisation

This is the heat absorbed when an element in its normal physical state is converted into
one mole free gaseous atoms at 1 atmosphere and 298K.
Or This is the heat absorbed when a compound in its normal physical state is
converted into free gaseous atoms at 1 atmosphere and 298K.
The table below shows values of standard enthalpies of atomization for some elements.
Element
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The values shown above show the enthalpy of formation of one mole of the gaseous
monoatomic element in its standard state.
For a compound, for example butanol, atomization can be shown as below;
Standard enthalpy of sublimation

The standard enthalpy of sublimation is the heat absorbed when one mole of an
element in its solid state is converted to one mole free gaseous atoms at 1 atmosphere
and 298K.
Enthalpy of sublimation is equal to enthalpy of atomization but only for solid elements.
Ionisation energy
This is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous
atom to form a charged gaseous ion.

Ionisation energy can be first, second or third,… ionisation energies depending on which
electron is being removed from the atom.
First ionisation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an

electron from a gaseous atom to form a unipositively charged gaseous ion.
For example formation of a free gaseous sodium ion from a free gaseous sodium atom
involves removal of one electron against the nuclear attraction.
Electron affinity
When an electron is gained by an atom, energy is given out.
This enery is called first electron affinity.

First electron affinity is the energy given out when one mole of electrons combines with
one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of uninegatively charged gaseous ions
or
The energy given out when an electron is added to a gaseous atom to form a
uninegatively charged gaseous ion
First electron affinity is an exothermic process (energy is given out)
For chlorine, it can be represented as;
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The uninegatively charged gaseous ion can gain one more electron to form a dinegatively
charged ion. This is called second electron affinity and is an endothermic process
(energy is absorbed)
For the case of Sulphur the values of first and second electron affinities are given below
The reasons for second electron affinity being endothermic are explained in the topic:
Atomic structure and the Periodic Table (Page 195)
Lattice energy
This is the heat given out when one mole of an ionic solid is formed from its
component gaseous ions under standard conditions.
For example solid sodium is formed from gaseous sodium ions and gaseous chloride ion

Lattice energy can also be defined as the heat absorbed when one mole of an ionic
solid is broken down into its component gaseous ions.
Factors affecting lattice energy

(i) Ionic charges.
The higher the product of ionic charges, the higher the lattice energy because of the
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions. This
explains why magnesium oxide has a higher (more exothermic) lattice enthalpy
than sodium chloride yet both compounds have the same molecular structure.
(ii) Ionic radius.

The smaller the cationic radius, the higher the lattice energy because the cations will
strongly attract the anions because of the increased effective nuclear charge .
The smaller the anionic radius, the higher the lattice energy because the cations will
strongly attract the anions.
In summary, lattice enthalpy is directly proportional to the product of ionic charges but
inversely proportional to the sum of ionic radii.
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Examples
1. The values of lattice energies of potassium halides are given below.
Formula of halide
Lattice energy(kJmol-1)
Explain the trend in these values for the potassium halides.
The lattice energies of the halides decrease (become less exothermic) from potassium
fluoride to potassium iodide. This is because the anionic radius increases from the
fluoride ion to the iodide ion. The halide anions therefore become less attracted by the
potassium ion. Thus a decreasing amount of energy is evolved when the potassium
halides are formed from the free gaseous ions.
2. The values of lattice energies of sodium chloride and magnesium chloride are
given below.
Formula of chloride
Lattice energy(kJmol-1)

Explain the difference in the two values.
Magnesium chloride has a higher (more exothermic) lattice energy than sodium
chloride.
This is because the magnesium ion has a higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius,
than the sodium ion. The magnesium ion therefore strongly attracts the chloride ion
more than the sodium ion does. Therefore greater amount energy is evolved when solid
magnesium chloride is formed into gaseous ions than sodium chloride.
Standard enthalpy of hydration

When an ionic solid is dissolved in water, the ions are first separated from the ionic
lattice. The energy involved in this process is called the lattice dissociation enthalpy.
The separate ions then interact with water molecules. The positive ions are attracted to
the negative end of the water molecules and the negative ions are attracted to the positive
end of the water molecules. Energy is released during this process and is called the
enthalpy of hydration or solvation.
→ →
Enthalpy of hydration is the heat given out when one mole of gaseous ions is
completely surrounded by water molecules to form an infinitely dilute solution with no
change in pH.
Enthalpy of hydration is exothermic hence always a negative value.
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313
Factors affecting enthalpy of hydration

(i) Ionic radius
The smaller the ionic radius, the higher the hydration energy because the forces of
attraction between ions for water molecules are strong.
(ii) Ionic charge
The higher the ionic charge , the higher the hydration energy because the forces of
attraction for water molecules is strong.
Which of the metal ions and is likely to have the highest hydration
energy? Give a reason.
The aluminium ion has the highest hydration energy because it has the highest ionic
charge, smallest ionic radius, highest charge density and highest polarizing power. The
ion is easily hydrated and therefore strongly attracts very many water molecules hence
giving off the highest amount of energy.
Calculations involving enthalpy of hydration

The table below shows the enthalpies of hydration of some ions
Ion Enthalpy of hydration
(a) State whether the values of enthalpies of hydration given in the table should
be positive or negative. Give reasons for your answer.
The values should be negative

Reason
Hydration of the ions involves attraction of water molecules releasing a lot of heat
(b) Explain the differences in the enthalpies of hydration of;
(i) Potassium ion and calcium ion
The potassium ion has a larger ionic radius and smaller ionic charge than the calcium
ion. The potassium ion therefore has a lower charge density thus a lower attraction for
water molecules than the calcium ion, giving off a lower amount of heat than the
calcium ion.
(ii) Fluoride ion and chloride ion
The fluoride ion has a smaller ionic radius than the chloride ion. The fluoride ion
therefore has a higher attraction for water molecules than the chloride ion, giving off a
higher amount of heat than the chloride ion.
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314
(c) Calculate the enthalpy of hydration of;

(i) Calcium fluoride
( )
(ii) Potassium chloride

Standard enthalpy of solution
The standard enthalpy of solution is the heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a
substance is dissolved in a specified number of moles of water under standard
conditions.
Enthalpy of solution can be either positive (endothermic) or negative (exothermic).

The enthalpy of solution of an ionic solid involves two energy terms:
(i) Lattice enthalpy
(ii) Enthalpy of hydration
In this case the lattice enthalpy required is lattice dissociation enthalpy and is
endothermic.
The enthalpy of solution of an ionic compound is therefore the sum of lattice

dissociation enthalpy and enthalpy of hydration.
A high (more positive)lattice enthalpy and a low(less negative) makes the enthalpy of
solution more positive.
Ionic salts that dissolve endothermically include ammonium nitrate, ammonium
chloride, potassium nitrate, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium thiosulphate
and sodium hydrogencarbonate.
|
315
A low (less positive)lattice enthalpy and a high(more negative) makes the enthalpy of
solution more negative.
Ionic salts that dissolve exothermically include sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride,
sodium carbonate
The more negative the enthalpy of solution, the more soluble a compound is. The less
negative the enthalpy of solution, the less soluble the compound is.
Experiments to determine enthalpy of solution

Experiment to determine enthalpy of solution for an ionic salt that dissolves
exothermically
For example sodium hydroxide
Set up
Thermometer

Calorimeter
Stirrers Empty copper cylinder
Double thin-walled copper vessel
containing water
Water
Corks
A known volume of water is put in a calorimeter fitted with a thermometer and

stirrer.
The initial temperature, of the water is recorded from the thermometer
A known mass of solid sodium hydroxide is added to the water and the solution is
stirred until there is no further change in temperature.
The final steady temperature is read and recorded from the thermometer.
Assumptions:

Heat capacity of the calorimeter is negligible
|
316
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
Experiment to determine enthalpy of solution for an ionic salt that dissolves

endothermically
For example ammonium chloride

A known volume of water is put in a calorimeter fitted with a thermometer and
stirrer.
The initial temperature, of the water is recorded from the thermometer
A known mass of solid ammonium chloride is added to the water and the solution
is stirred until there is no further change in temperature.
The final steady temperature is read and recorded from the thermometer.
Assumptions:

Heat capacity of the calorimeter is negligible
( )
( )
( )
( )
|
317
( )
Note the difference in the two experiments is the temperature rise and the sign on
the enthalpy value.
Calculations involving enthalpy of solution

1. The table below shows enthalpies of hydration and lattice energies of potassium
chloride and lithium chloride.
Salt Lattice energy Hydration energy
Potassium chloride
Lithium chloride
(a) Calculate the enthalpy of solution of potassium chloride and lithium
chloride.
(b) State which of the two salts is more soluble in water at a given temperature

and give a reason for your answer.
(a) Note that the given values of lattice energy are negative but for the compounds to
dissolve in water, the lattice enthalpy involved is lattice dissociation enthalpy which
is endothermic.
For potassium chloride For Lithium chloride
(b) Potassium chloride is more soluble in water because its enthalpy of solution is
exothermic.
3. The enthalpies of hydration of sodium ions and hydroxyl ions are

and . Calculate the lattice enthalpy of sodium hydroxide if its
enthalpy of solution is .
Note that although the values given for enthalpy of hydration have no negative
sign, it should be known that hydration enthalpies are always exothermic.
( )
̅
|
318
4. In an experiment, of potassium nitrate is added to of water in a

polystyrene foam cup at and the mixture stirred. If the solution
achieved a minimum final temperature of . Determine the enthalpy of
solution of potassium nitrate

( )
Questions
1. In an experiment, of sodium hydroxide was added to of water in a well-
insulated polystyrene foam cup the mixture stirred. The temperature of the solution
rose by . Determine the enthalpy of solution of sodium
hydroxide.
2. When 3.21g of solid ammonium nitrate dissolves in 50.0g of water at in a
calorimeter, the temperature decreased to . Calculate the enthalpy of solution
of ammonium nitrate. State any assumptions made.
3. The table below shows hydration enthalpies of magnesium and chloride ions.
Ion Enthalpy of hydration
If the lattice dissociation enthalpy of magnesium chloride is

. Calculate the enthalpy of solution of magnesium chloride.
|
319
4. The enthalpies of hydration for calcium ion and fluoride ion are and
respectively. If the lattice enthalpy of calcium fluoride is
. Calculate the enthalpy of solution of calcium fluoride.
5. (a) Define the terms;
(i) enthalpy of hydration
(ii) enthalpy of solution
(b) The enthalpies of solution and lattice energies of salts and are given in the
table below.
Salt Enthalpy of solution Lattice enthalpy
(i) Calculate the enthalpy of hydration of each salt

(ii) State the salt which has a larger value of hydration energy

Application of enthalpy of solution in real life situation
In instant cold and hot packs already explained in the beginning subtopics of the
topic.(Pages 284-285)
Heat of precipitation
When two aqueous solutions are added together and a precipitate is formed, the reaction
is called a precipitation reaction or double decomposition reaction. This reaction is
used to prepare insoluble salts for example silver chloride, barium sulphate, lead sulphate
and others.
The heat given out or absorbed is called heat of precipitation.
The heat of precipitation is the heat change that occurs when one mole of a precipitate
is formed from its ions in aqueous solution.
Heat of precipitation can be exothermic or endothermic.
Experiment to determine heat of precipitation of silver chloride

A known volume, of silver nitrate of known concentration, is
measured and placed in a plastic beaker.
The initial temperature of the silver nitrate solution, is noted from the
thermometer.
An equal volume, of sodium chloride solution of the same concentration is also
measured and poured into a separate beaker and its initial temperature, is noted
from the thermometer.
|
320
The two solutions are added together quickly and carefully while stirring and the
Assumptions
( )
[ ( )]

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
Calculations involving heat of precipitation
Example
of silver nitrate solution was added to of sodium
chloride solution in a plastic cup. The temperature of the resulting mixture rose by .
Assuming the container has a negligible heat capacity and the specific heat capacity of
the resulting mixture is . Calculate the heat of precipitation of silver
chloride.
|
321
( )
( )

Questions
1. In an experiment carried out to determine heat of precipitation of silver chloride,
of of silver nitrate solution is poured in a polystyrene cup
and its initial temperature recorded as . of of sodium
chloride solution was added and the resulting mixture stirred. The highest
temperature attained by the solution was . Calculate the heat of precipitation of
silver chloride.
2. When of of sodium chloride solution and of of
silver nitrate solution, both at were mixed in a coffee cup calorimeter, the
temperature increases to . Calculate the heat of precipitation of silver
chloride. State any assumptions made.
3. of silver nitrate solution at is added to of
potassium chloride solution which is at a temperature of . The
mixture is stirred and the highest temperature reached is . Calculate the heat
of precipitation of silver chloride.
|
322
Bond energy
Bond energy is heat given out when one mole of a single covalent bond of a diatomic
molecule is formed from free gaseous atoms.
This enthalpy change resulting into formation of a covalent bond is exothermic. It is

more correctly known as bond energy of formation.
Bond energies are very important because all chemical reactions involve forming and
breaking bonds. The strength of a covalent bond is represented by its bond dissociation
energy.
Bond dissociation energy

Bond dissociation energy is energy required to break one mole of a single covalent

bond of a diatomic molecule to form free gaseous atoms.
Bond dissociation enthalpy is endothermic because energy must be absorbed to break a
covalent bond.
Bond dissociation energy is related to atomization energy.
Consider the reaction;
Since
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323
Average bond energies (enthalpies)

For a polyatomic molecule such as , the average bond enthalpy is of the enthalpy
change of the process;
In methane, for example, the average bond enthalpy is given as
Since
This is because methane has four bonds

Average bond enthalpies are obtained from standard molar enthalpies of formation and
molar enthalpies of atomization

If the average bond enthalpy of one covalent bond in a molecule is known, then the
average bond enthalpy if the other bond can be determined.
Using bond energies to calculate enthalpy of a reaction

Enthalpy of any given reaction can be obtained if the average bond enthalpies of the
bonds involved are known. The relationship used is;
( )
∑ ∑
Calculations involving bond energies

Examples
1. (a) Define the term “standard enthalpy of atomization”
(b) Bond energies for some bonds are given below.
Calculate the standard enthalpy of atomization of methanol
Bond Bond energy
|
324
(b) Equation;
∑ ∑
[ ]
2. (a) Write equation for formation of steam.

(b) The enthalpy of formation of steam is . The bond energies
of some bonds are also given below.
Bond Bond energy

Calculate the oxygen-oxygen bond energy in .
(a)
∑ ∑
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
3. Hydrazine reacts exothermically with hydrogen peroxide when used as a rocket

fuel. The table below shows some bond energies.
Bond
Bond energy 463 388 163 146 944
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction;
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325
Bond Bond energy

715
345
414
351
464
436
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction above.
4. The table below shows some bond energies.
Bond
Bond energy 435 415 284 256 193
(a) What is meant by the term bond energy?
(b) Calculate the enthalpy of formation of;

(i) 1,2-dibromopropane
(ii) Propane
(c) Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction;
Note; Factors that affect strength of a covalent bond also affect bond energy. Refer
to one of the previous topics (STRUCTURE AND BONDING) and also for trends in
bond energy.
Hess’s law of constant heat summation

Hess’s law states that the enthalpy change in a chemical reaction at constant
temperature and pressure is the same whether the reaction is brought about in one
stage or through intermediate stages but depends on the initial and final states of the
reactants and products.
Demonstration of Hess’s law using an experiment

The validity of Hess‟s law can be demonstrated experimentally by measuring enthalpy
changes when a reaction is brought about in two or more different ways.
For example ammonium chloride solution can be made using 17g of ammonia , 36.5g of
hydrogen chloride and water in two ways;
(i) Reacting ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas to form ammonium chloride
which is then dissolved in water
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327
(ii) Dissolving ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas separately in water and the
solutions added to each other
According to Hess‟ law, the heat change in both cases is the same and then;
The Hess‟s law is very important in determining heats of reaction if direct determination
is not possible. It has already been applied in calculations involving heats of combustion.
Application of Hess’s law in some more calculations

Examples
1. (a) Calculate the enthalpy of formation of sodium chloride using the following

data
(b) Comment on the stability of sodium chloride. Give a reason for your answer.
(a) Equation for the reaction required;
328
2. (a) Define the term standard heat of reaction

(b) Given the following data:
Enthalpy of formation of magnesium chloride
Lattice energy of Magnesium chloride
Hydration energy of chloride ions
Enthalpy of solution of hydrogen chloride gas
Heat of formation of hydrogen chloride gas
Hydration energy of magnesium ions
Calculate the enthalpy of the reaction;
N.B The lattice energy given is positive(endothermic). This means its lattice
dissociation energy.
(b) Equations given;

Rearrangement
The equation generated above and the equation given in the question are the same.
|
329
ENTHALPY CYCLES (BORN HABER CYCLES)

A Born-Haber cycle is a technique for applying Hess‟s law to the standard enthalpy
changes. Born Haber cycles are used to calculate enthalpy changes which are difficult, or
impossible to evaluate directly. These include theoretical values for lattice energies,
electron affinities and enthalpies of formation. The only energy term in the cycle that
cannot be measured experimentally is the lattice enthalpy and the cycle enables its value
to be determined.
The cycle can be an energy level diagram or enthalpy cycle.
Terms used in Born-Haber cycle

The common energy terms below which have been previously defined the subtopics
above, are used in the Born Haber cycle;
 Standard enthalpy of sublimation
 Standard enthalpy of ionisation
 Standard bond dissociation enthalpy

The standard bond dissociation energy is twice atomization energy
 Electron affinity
 Standard lattice enthalpy
 Standard enthalpy of formation
Point to note when drawing Born Haber cycles

 The cycles should have well balanced equations
 Ions should have correct charges
 The chemical symbols of the elements must be correct
 State symbols must be shown and should be correct
 The enthalpy values should be shown along with the reactions they represent in
the cycle.
 For the energy level diagram it’s important to consider the ranges between any
two energy terms
(a) Enthalpy diagram or energy level diagram

An energy level diagram shows the energy changes in the order they happen.
Endothermic (positive) enthalpy changes are shown upwards and the exothermic
(negative) enthalpy changes are shown down wards. The diagram also must have well
balanced equations for the reactions that take place, with state symbols inclusive and the
energy changes must be labelled.
|
331
Examples
1. Given the following data;
Standard enthalpy of formation of aluminium fluoride
Enthalpy of atomization of aluminium
Bond dissociation energy of fluorine
First ionisation energy of aluminium
Second ionisation energy of aluminium
Third ionisation energy of aluminium
First electron affinity of fluorine
(i) Draw an energy level diagram for the formation of aluminium fluoride
(ii) Calculate the lattice energy of aluminium fluoride
(iii) If the hydration energies of aluminium ions and fluoride ions are 4690 and
364 respectively, calculate the enthalpy of solution of

aluminium fluoride.
(i) Energy level diagram for formation of aluminium fluoride;
Potential
energy
0
|
332
(ii) By Hess‟ law;
(iii)

Note that lattice energy substituted in the equation for above is the lattice
dissociation enthalpy hence it must be positive. Hydration enthalpies are also known to
be negative although given as positive values in the question.
2. (a) Use the data below to calculate the lattice enthalpy of calcium oxide
Enthalpy of formation of calcium oxide
Bond dissociation energy of oxygen
First electron affinity of oxygen
Second electron affinity of oxygen
Atomization energy of calcium
First ionisation energy of calcium
Second ionisation energy of calcium
|
333
Using an energy level diagram;

Potential
energy
Similarly, since oxygen shows both positive and negative values of first and second
electron affinities, they can be summed up. The value got is positive and the sum got
is represented by one arrow facing upwards. The arrow can then be labelled as
( )
By Hess‟ law;
|
334
(b) Born-Haber cycle in form of a usual enthalpy cycle

Examples
1. Below is thermochemical data about sodium chloride.

(a) Draw a Born Haber cycle of sodium chloride and use it to calculate the
electron affinity of chlorine using the following data above
(b) If the hydration enthalpies of sodium and chloride ions are
and respectively, calculate the enthalpy of
solution of sodium chloride.
(c) Comment on your answer in (b) above and give a reason for your answer.
(a)
By Hess‟ law;
|
335
(b)
( )
Note that lattice energy substituted in the equation in (b) above is the lattice
dissociation enthalpy hence it must be positive. Hydration enthalpies are also known to
be negative although given as positive values in the question.
(c) The enthalpy of solution of sodium chloride is endothermic because the
magnitude of its lattice energy is higher than the magnitude of its hydration

energy.
1. The information below shows thermochemical data of aluminium oxide.
(a) Construct a Born Haber cycle relating the enthalpy changes and use it to
calculate the enthalpy of formation of aluminium oxide
(b) Comment on the stability of aluminium oxide. Give a reason for your
answer.
|
336
(a)

→
By Hess‟ law;
(b) Aluminium oxide is stable because its enthalpy of formation is exothermic.
Born-Haber cycle involving enthalpies of combustion and formation
The standard heats of formation of ethanol, carbon dioxide and water ,

and respectively.
(a) Draw a Born-Haber cycle to relate the energy changes stated above
(b) Calculate the standard heat of combustion of ethanol using the drawn cycle.
(c) From your answer in (b) above and the energy changes in (a) , state one ideal
use of ethanol in chemistry. Give a reason for your answer.
(a)
→
|
337
(b) By Hess‟ law
(c) Ethanol is used as a fuel because its enthalpy of combustion is highly exothermic.
Determination of heat of hydration of hydrated and anhydrous compounds by use

of the Born Haber cycle and applying Hess‟ law
Example
In an experiment to determine hydration energy of anhydrous copper(II)
sulphate of the anhydrous salt was added to of water and the

temperature rose by . When of the hydrated copper(II) sulphate was
added to of water and the temperature dropped from to .
(a) Calculate the enthalpy of solution of;

(i) anhydrous copper(II) sulphate
(ii) hydrated copper(II) sulphate
(b) State which of the two salts is more soluble in water and explain your
answer.
(c) Construct a Born Haber cycle and use it to determine the heat of hydration of
anhydrous copper(II) sulphate.
Solution
(a) (i)
( )
|
338
N.B The enthalpy of solution for this reaction is negative (exothermic) because there
is an increase in temperature.
(ii)
( )
N.B The enthalpy of solution for this reaction is positive (endothermic) because
there is a decrease in temperature.

(b) Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate is more soluble than hydrated copper(II) sulphate
since its enthalpy of solution is exothermic whereas that of the hydrated salt is
endothermic.
This is because the copper(II) ion and sulphate ion in hydrated copper(II) sulphate
are already partly hydrated. When the hydrated salt is dissolved in water, its
lattice energy outweighs the enthalpy of hydration associated with any further
hydration. This makes the enthalpy of solution positive. For the anhydrous salt,
the hydration energy outweighs the lattice energy making the enthalpy of
solution negative.
(c) →
By Hess‟ law
|
339
Born-Haber cycle involving bond energies

1. (a) Distinguish between atomization energy and bond energy
(b) Draw a labelled Born Haber cycle and identify the energy changes involved
at each step when carbon reacts with hydrogen to form methane
(c) Given the enthalpy of formation of methane and atomisation energy of
carbon and hydrogen are , and
respectively, calculate the average bond energy for – bond.
(b) →
By Hess‟ law

2. (a) Draw a Born Haber cycle for formation of chloroethane
(b) Calculate the enthalpy of formation of chloroethane using following
thermochemical data.
Bond energy of bond

Bond energy of bond
Bond energy of bond
Atomization energy of hydrogen
Bond dissociation energy of chlorine
Enthalpy of atomization of graphite
|
340
Solution
𝑯𝑩𝑬 [𝟓 𝑪 𝑯 𝑪 𝑪 𝑪 𝑪𝒍 ]
𝟓 𝟒𝟏𝟑 𝟑𝟏𝟖 𝟑𝟑𝟔
In this calculation you should clearly note that bond energy of formation is exothermic
(negative)
By Hess‟ law
[ ]

3. Calculate the bond energy of given that the bond energy is
, bond energy is and the enthalpy of
formation of hydrogen chloride is
By Hess‟ law
|
341
4. The standard heat of formation of phosphorus trichloride is . The

bond dissociation energy and enthalpy of atomisation of chlorine and
phosphorus are 242 and 314 respectively.
(i) Draw a Born-Haber cycle for the formation of phosphorus trichloride.
(ii) Use the Born-Haber cycle to calculate the bond energy.
→

( )
Questions
Questions involving enthalpy cycles
1. The thermochemical data of lithium and oxygen are given below.
(a) (i) Draw an energy level diagram for the formation of lithium oxide
(ii) Use your diagram to find the second electron affinity of oxygen
(b) Comment on the electron affinities of oxygen
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342

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A simplified, well elaborated and illustrative approach to Physical Chemistry

Standard enthalpy change,

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

TYPES OF HEAT OF REACTIONS

Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction

The equation can be interpreted as; The equation can be interpreted as

Energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

Applications of exothermic reactions in everyday life

Applications of endothermic reactions in everyday life

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

Factors affecting enthalpy of reaction

The observed difference is due to heat of vapourisation of 1 mole of water.

Heat capacity of a calorimeter

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

The heat capacity of a calorimeter must be determined experimentally.

Experiment to determine heat capacity of a simple calorimeter/

TYPES OF ENTHALPY CHANGES

Standard enthalpy of formation

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

Enthalpy of formation can be exothermic or endothermic.

Prediction of relative stability of compounds from enthalpy of

Determination of enthalpy of formation

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

Calculating using heats of formation

The standard enthalpy of formation of elements in their standard states is conventionally

2. The enthalpies of formation of some selected compounds are shown in the

Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reaction.

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

5. The standard enthalpies of hydrogen peroxide and water.

Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reaction.

Standard enthalpy of combustion

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

Compound Equation for combustion

Experiment to determine enthalpy of combustion of low

A known volume of water, is put in a thin metallic can.

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

(a) Heat produced by combustion of ethanol is equal to heat absorbed by water.

Experiment to determine enthalpy of combustion of a solid

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

Enthalpy of combustion of a solid substance is determined using a bomb calorimeter.

A known mass of carbon, is placed in a small platinum crucible

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

Calculation of enthalpy of reaction and enthalpy of formation,

1. If the heat of formation of carbon dioxide is , heat of formation of

Equations for reactions given;

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

Equations for reactions given;

3. Given that the enthalpy of combustion of ethyne is and the

Equation for the reaction required;

Equations for reactions given;

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

Equation for the reaction required;

Equations for reactions given;

5. The standard enthalpies of combustion of some substances are given below.

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

(ii) Equation for the reaction required;

Equations for reactions required;

Calculating heats of combustion from other experimental data

DEMYSTIFYING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY | by Joseph Jobs Kayiira

3. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of benzene if the enthalpy of combustion

Equation for the reaction required;