River landforms

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CIE IGCSE Geography Your notes
2.2 Rivers
Contents
2.2.1 Hydrological Characteristics
2.2.2 Drainage Basin
2.2.3 River Processes
2.2.4 River Landforms
2.2.5 River Hazards & Opportunities
2.2.6 River Management
Page 1 of 38
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2.2.1 Hydrological Characteristics

Your notes
The Characteristics & Processes of Rivers
Water on Earth
Only 2.5% of the water on Earth is freshwater
68.7% of freshwater is stored in glaciers and ice sheets and 30% is groundwater
The remaining 1.3% of freshwater is in rivers, soil moisture, lakes and the atmosphere
All water is part of the hydrological cycle
Sources of Water
Hydrological cycle
The hydrological cycle is a closed system
Water is constantly recycled through the system
Within the hydrological cycle, there are stores and transfers (flows)
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Your notes
The Hydrological Cycle

Stores are those places where water is held for a period of time. These include:
Water in the atmosphere in the form of water vapour or water droplets in clouds
Surface stores such as puddles, lakes, rivers and reservoirs
Interception is how precipitation is prevented from reaching the ground, usually by being caught
on leaves or branches
Aquifers are permeable rocks such as limestone and sandstone which can hold water
Ice and snow
Seas and oceans
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Flows are the ways in which water is moved around the hydrological cycle. They include:
Evaporation
Condensation Your notes
Transpiration
Evapotranspiration
Precipitation
Overland flow
Infiltration
Percolation
Through flow
Groundwater flow
Exam Tip
Remember that percolation and infiltration are not the same. Percolation happens after the water has
infiltrated the soil.
Worked example
Which of the following statements are correct?
Tick two statements in the table below:
[2]
Tick
Overland flow occurs under the surface of the land
Water percolates from the surface into the soil
Groundwater flow moves water through the rocks
Water flows to the river on the surface by through flow
Interception occurs when water vapour is evaporated
Infiltration occurs when water soaks into the soil
Answer:
Ground water flow moves water through the rocks [1]
Infiltration occurs when soil soaks into the soil [1]
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2.2.2 Drainage Basin

Your notes
The Drainage Basin Processes
Drainage basin
A major part of the hydrological system, drainage basins drain all the water which lands on the Earth's
surface
A drainage basin is an open system
Every drainage basin is unique and is different in shape and size, with different rock types, relief and
land use
Drainage basin features
All drainage basins have some features in common:
Watershed
Source
Confluence
Tributary
Mouth
Drainage Basin Features
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Channel network
Every drainage basin is covered by a network of tributaries which connect to the main river channel. The Your notes
numbers of tributaries in a drainage basin is referred to as the drainage density:
Drainage basins with lots of tributaries have a high drainage density
Drainage basins with few tributaries have a low drainage density
Worked example
Study Fig 1, which shows information about flows through the
drainage basin,
(i) What is meant by transpiration?

[1]
Answer:
The changing of water to water vapour by plants/evaporation of water by
plants/trees/vegetation [1]
(ii) Identify the processes which take place at X ,Y and Z in Fig 1.
[3]
Answer:
X = Overland flow/surface run off [1]
Y = Through flow [1]
Z = Ground(water) flow [1]
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2.2.3 River Processes

Your notes
River Processes
Erosion is the wearing down of surfaces
There are four erosion processes which change the shape of the river channel:
Hydraulic action
Abrasion
Attrition
Corrosion (solution)
Types of Erosion
Erosion can be mainly vertical or lateral:
Vertical erosion is dominant in the upper course of rivers. It increases the depth of the river and
valley, as the river erodes downwards
Lateral erosion is dominant in the middle and lower course of rivers. It increases the width of the
river and valley as it erodes sideways
There are four processes of transportation:
Traction
Saltation
Suspension
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Solution
Your notes
Transportation Processes
Exam Tip
It can sometimes help to remember a word and the process it refers to if you know what the word
means.
Traction - the action of pulling something over a surface
Saltation - leaping or jumping
Deposition
When a river does not have enough energy to carry materials it drops them. This is deposition
The causes of reduced energy include:
Reduced discharge due to a lack of precipitation or abstraction upstream
Decreased gradient
Slower flow on the inside of a river bend or where the river is shallower
When the river enters a sea/ocean or lake
The heaviest material is deposited first, this is known as the bedload
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The lighter materials, gravel, sand and silt are known as alluvium and they are carried further
downstream
The dissolved materials are carried out to sea Your notes
As a result of erosion, transportation and deposition the character of a river changes as it moves down
stream
These changes are summarised in the Bradshaw model
The Bradshaw Model
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Worked example
Your notes
Study Fig 1, which is a photography of a river in an upland area.
Explain how the river in Fig 1 is likely to carry out erosion.

[5]
Answer:
Hydraulic action [1] Power of water wears away bed and banks releasing air compressed in
cracks [1]
Abrasion [1] Material carried by river grinds bed and banks/sandpaper action [1]
Corrosion / solution [1] Rocks dissolved by chemical reactions [1]
Attrition [1] Load reduced in size as particles hit each other when being carried by
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water [1]
Vertical erosion [1]
Remember you will receive 1 mark for the type of erosion and the second mark for explaining how Your notes
the erosion process works.
River characteristics
All rivers have a long and cross profiles
Each river's long and cross profiles are unique but they do have some characteristics in common
These profiles show changes in river characteristics from the source to the mouth
Long profile
The long profile of a river shows the changes in the river gradient from the source to the mouth
Most long profiles have a concave shape with similar characteristics:
The source is usually in an upland area
The upper course of the river includes areas which are steep with uneven surfaces
In the middle course the gradient decreases
In the lower section the gradient decreases further until it becomes almost flat
Long Profile
Cross profiles
The cross profiles of a river are cross-sections from one bank to another
Cross profiles of the upper, middle and lower courses show the changes in the river channel
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Upper course characteristics include:

Shallow
Steep valley sides Your notes
Narrow
Low velocity
Large bedload
Rough channel bed
High levels of friction
Vertical erosion
Middle course characteristics:

Deeper than upper course channel
Gentle valley sides
Wider than upper course channel
Greater velocity than upper course channel
Material in river decreases in size
Smoother channel bed
Lower levels of friction than upper course channel
Lateral erosion
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Your notes
Lower course characteristics:

Deeper than middle course channel
Flat floodplains
Wider than middle course channel
Greater velocity than the middle course channel (apart from as the river enters the mouth)
Material carried mainly sediment and alluvium
Smooth channel bed
Lowest friction
Deposition is dominant
Exam Tip
Remember valley shape and river shape are not the same thing. If you are asked to describe valley
shape you should focus on the gradient and shape of the land either side of the river channel.
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2.2.4 River Landforms

Your notes
River Landforms
River landscape characteristics
The changes in river channel characteristics, lead to changes in the river landscape
The upland and lowland areas of rivers have distinctive landforms
Upland:
Waterfalls
Gorges
V-shaped valleys
Interlocking spurs
Waterfalls and gorges
Waterfalls form where there is a drop in the river bed from one level to another
This drop is often due to changes in the hardness of the rock, where hard rock overlies soft rock
Hydraulic action and abrasion are the main erosional processes:
The soft rock erodes quicker, undercutting the hard rock and creating a plunge pool
This leads to the development of an overhang of hard rock which eventually over time, collapses
The overhang falls into the plunge pool increasing abrasion and making the plunge pool deeper
The process then begins again and the waterfall retreats upstream leaving a steep sided gorge
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Your notes
Waterfall Formation
V-shaped valleys
Vertical erosion is dominant in the upper course of the river
This cuts down into the river bed and deepens the river channel
Weathering and mass movement leads to material from the valley sides collapsing into the river
forming a steep v-shaped valley
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Your notes
Formation of a V-Shaped Valley

Interlocking spurs
In the upper course of the river the channel starts to meander
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Erosion happens on the outside of the bend

In the upland areas this forms interlocking spurs
Your notes
Interlocking Spurs
Potholes
Potholes are round depressions in the riverbed
They are formed by abrasion
Where there are dips in the riverbed the river flow can cause the sediment to spin
This erodes the dip, forming a circular hollow (pothole)
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As the size of the hollow increases, larger material becomes trapped in the pothole
This further increases the erosion of the pothole
Your notes
Lowland features:
Meanders
Ox-bow lakes
Floodplains
Levees
Meanders
In lowland areas lateral erosion is dominant
Meanders increase in size
The fastest water flow (thalweg) is on the outside of the river bends, leading to erosion:
The erosion undercuts the riverbank forming a river cliff
The riverbank collapses and the edge of the meander moves further out
The slowest flow is on the inside of the river bends, leading to deposition:
The deposits form a slip-off slope
Deposition on one side and erosion on the other leads to the meander migrating across the valley
Cross-section of a Meander
Oxbow lakes
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With distance downstream the size of the meanders increase

The erosion on outside bends can eventually lead to the formation of a meander neck
At a time of the flood, the river may cut through the neck of the meander forming a straighter course for Your notes
the water
The flow of water at entry and exit from the meander will be slower, leading to deposition
The meander becomes cut off from the main river channel, forming an oxbow lake
Oxbow Lake Formation
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Exam Tip
Your notes
Remember when describing the formation of oxbow lakes it is important to state that the river will
break through the neck of the meander during a flood. At other times the river does not have enough
power to break through.
Floodplains and levees

Floodplains are flat expanses of land either side of the river
The migration of meanders leads to the formation of the floodplain
High discharge may cause the river to overflow the banks
More of the water is in contact with the land surface as the water spreads across the floodplain
Increased friction reduces velocity and material is deposited across the floodplain gradually
increasing the floodplain height
The heaviest material is deposited first nearest to the river channel forming natural embankments
called levees
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Your notes
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Your notes
Levee and Floodplain Formation

Deltas
Deltas are formed when streams flow into standing bodies of water
Rivers must carry a large amount of sediment for deltas to form
Flocculation increases deposition
Bioconstruction increases deposition
Delta formation must have a rapid drop in stream velocity
There are a variety of delta formations, such as arcuate and bird’s foot
Types of delta
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Your notes
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Your notes
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2.2.5 River Hazards & Opportunities

Your notes
Causes of River Hazards
The main river hazards are flooding and erosion
Rivers flood when the water in them reaches bankfull discharge and then overspills across the
floodplain
Flooding occurs as the result of two main causes;
If there is a period of heavy, torrential rain leading to high levels of overland flow because the water
cannot infiltrate
A prolonged period of steady rain which means that the ground becomes saturated leading to
high levels of overland flow because the water cannot infiltrate
There are other natural causes of river flooding which include;
Landslides
Snow and ice melt
Storm surges pushing water up the river channel
Although the root cause of flooding is precipitation the risk of flooding can be increased by human
activities such as;
Urbanisation
Deforestation
Building of bridges and dams
Human induced climate change
Agriculture
Flooding often goes hand in hand with erosion of the banks due to increased discharge and velocity
Hazards of flooding and erosion
Flood waters may increase the spread of water related diseases;
The water may act as a breeding ground for the animals that spread disease for example, the
mosquito
The water may be contaminated by bacteria which can spread diseases such as cholera
Deaths and injuries as floodplains are often densely populated due to the fertile soils
Bridges and transport routes may be damaged or destroyed by the flood waters
Erosion of the river banks leads to the loss of farmland, housing and transport routes
Destruction of crops
Increased insurance costs
Lower house prices
Opportunities
As well as the hazards there are many opportunities provided by rivers:
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The silt deposited during flooding is often rich in minerals and nutrients, making it ideal for growing
crops
Rivers are a source of food Your notes
The floodplains are flat land which makes the construction and building of transport networks
easier
Water can be used to irrigate farmland
Leisure and tourism
Generating electricity
Transporting goods and people
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Worked example
Your notes
Study Fig 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3, which are photographs of three different
rivers
Fig 1.1
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Your notes
Fig 1.2
Fig 1.3
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Using evidence from Figs 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 only, describe three
different benefits of living near a river. Your notes
[3]
Answer:
Agriculture/grazing/farmland/fertile soils/growing crops/cultivation/keeping animals [1]
Fishing/fish market/fish farming [1]
Transportation/moving cargo/imports/exports [1]
Tourism [1]
Industry [1]
Flat land for building [1]
Exam Tip
Remember when a question states to use evidence 'only' from the resources provided you cannot
include anything which is not shown in the resource(s).
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2.2.6 River Management

Your notes
Managing the Impacts of River Flooding
Flood prediction
Prediction of flooding means that steps can be taken to manage flooding
Flood hydrographs are used to predict the reaction of a river discharge to a rainfall event
A flood hydrograph shows the changes in river discharge after a storm event
The graph shows a short period of time, usually 24 hours
The flood hydrograph has a number of features:
Base flow
Peak rainfall
Rising limb
Peak discharge
Lag time
Recessional limb
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Your notes
Flood Hydrograph in an Urban Area

The key factor in assessing the flood risk is time taken for the precipitation to reach the river from where
it falls - the lag time
Rivers with a short lag time and steep rising limb have a much greater risk of flooding
The water reaches the river rapidly and the river may not have the capacity to cope with the influx of
water
Rivers with a long lag time and gentle rising limb have a lower flood risk
The water reaches the river more slowly causing a gradual increase in discharge
The lag time depends on some human and physical factors
These lead to increased overland flow which shortens the lag time
Human and Physical Factors which Increase the Risk of Flooding
Human Factors Impact
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Deforestation Lack of trees reduces interception and infiltration, increasing overland flow
Your notes
Impermeable concrete and tarmac increase overland flow
Urbanisation
Water flows into the drains reaching the river rapidly
Agriculture Bare soil and ploughing increase overland flow
Climate Change Rising global temperatures may increase storm frequency and intensity
Physical Factors Impact
Relief Steep slopes reduce infiltration and increase overland flow
Rock Type Impermeable rocks reduce percolation and increase overland flow
Frozen, saturated or compacted soil reduces infiltration and increases

overland flow
Soil
Some soil types such as clay reduce infiltration and increase overland flow
Heavy or prolonged rainfall means that the rate at which water reaches the
surface exceeds the infiltration rate leading to increased overland flow
Weather
After a period of snow rising temperatures can cause rapid melting which
increases overland flow
Flooding in Northern Europe tend to occur in the autumn and winter when
rainfall is more frequent
In areas affected by monsoon much of the annual rainfall occurs in a few
Seasonal Variations weeks saturating the ground and increasing overland flow
Higher temperatures in spring leads to snow melt in mountainous areas

increasing overland flow
Where drainage density is high there are many tributaries taking water to the
Drainage Density main channel causing a rapid increase in discharge
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Where there is little natural vegetation there is reduced interception leading

Vegetation to increased overland flow
Your notes
Worked example
Study Fig 1, which is a hydrograph of a river after a storm.
How long after the start of the rain storm is the peak flow?
..................................................... hours
[1]
Answer:
Between 26-28 hours
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Exam Tip
Your notes
In the exam, you may be asked to explain the causes of flooding. Remember this means that you need
to give connections between factors such as deforestation and the increased flood risk. Rather than
simply stating that deforestation increases flood risk you need to explain the reasons - decreased
interception and infiltration, leading to increased overland flow and shorter lag time.
Flood management
The key cause of flooding is the amount and duration of precipitation this cannot be altered
There are a number of methods of managing floods and reducing the severity and/or impact
The two main categories of flood management are hard and soft engineering:
Hard engineering involves building structures or changing the river channel
Soft engineering works with natural processes of the river and surrounding environment
Soft engineering is increasingly popular
Soft engineering is an example of mitigation where schemes aim to minimise damage rather than trying
to prevent the flooding
Examples of Hard and Soft Engineering
Hard Engineering Soft Engineering
River restoration, this supports the river by

Dams and reservoirs enable the amount of restoring it back to its original regime - putting
discharge downstream to be controlled meanders back in, stabilising banks and
connecting to flood plains
Wetland conservation these areas provide

Embankments or levées increase the capacity
somewhere for excess water to go and slow the
of the river
flow of the flood water
Straightened channels mean that the river Catchment management plans assess the risk
flows more quickly pass vulnerable areas, of flooding in an area and outline how this will be
reducing the risk of flooding managed
Flood plain zoning means that only certain land

Flood relief channels allow some water to flow
uses are allowed on the flood plain, reducing
out of the main channel reducing the discharge
the risk
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Afforestation involves the planting of

Spillways or overflow channels these take
vegetation and trees to increase interception
excess water away from the main channel Your notes
and infiltration
Other methods that can be used to decrease the risk of flooding are:
Leaving the stubble on the fields after the crop is harvested helps to stabilise the soil and increase
infiltration
Contour ploughing which involves ploughing fields across the slope rather than up and down. This
gives the water more time to infiltrate and stops the ploughed furrows becoming channels for
water
Improved forecasting and flood warnings
Dredging the rivers to increase capacity, however this often leads to the need for concrete
reinforcement of the banks
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Case Study: Ganges/Brahmaputra

The Ganges is 2,510km long Your notes
It flows through India and Bangladesh where it becomes the River Padma and joins with the
Brahmaputra River
The drainage basin covers 1.2 million km2
The population living within the area drained by the Ganges is over 650 million people
The Brahmaputra River is 3,969 km long
It flows through Tibet, India and Bangladesh where it joins with the River Padma
The drainage basin covers 651,334km2
Both rivers;
Source is in the Himalayan Mountains
Waters enter the sea in the Bay of Bengal
The Ganges and Brahmaputra Basin

Opportunities
Water supply
There are many cities including New Delhi and Kolkata along the Ganges/Brahmaputra drainage
basins which take their water supplies from the river
Agriculture and fishing
The regular flooding in the drainage basin leaves deposits of alluvium which are rich in nutrients and
ideal for growing crops such as rice and jute
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The rivers provide water for irrigation and for the flooding of rice fields
Fish from the river provide food and jobs for local people
Culture Your notes
The Ganges is sacred to Hindus and is worshipped as the goddess Ganga
Tourism
Three sites which are holy to Hindus lie on the banks of the Ganges (Haridwar, Allahabad and
Varansi) this leads millions of pilgrims to visit each year
Rafting and river cruises are also increasingly popular
Flat land
The flat floodplains mean that construction is easy, and the floodplains have one of the highest
density populations in the world
Energy
There are a number of dams along both rivers including the Tehri Dam on the Ganges, which is the
biggest hydroelectric power plant in India
Hazards
The Ganges/Brahmaputra drainage basin regularly experiences floods including most recently in May
2022
In 1998 75% of Bangladesh was flooded over 30 million people were made homeless
Over 1000 people died
700,000 hectares of crops were destroyed
'Normal' floods are vital to provide fertile soil and irrigation, but increasingly flooding is becoming more
unpredictable and extensive
The causes of flooding are both human and natural - see the table below
Human Natural
Deforestation particularly in the upland areas Low-lying land- the land in the Ganges delta in
leads to less interception and infiltration increasing Bangladesh is at or just above sea level meaning
overland flow that it floods more easily
Human induced climate change has led to
increased melting of Himalayan snow and ice Climate - Bangladesh has a monsoon climate
which increases discharge. It may also have which means that there are heavy and prolonged
affected climate patterns leading to increased rains for a number of months
frequency and severity of tropical cyclones
Urbanisation as the population increases and
there is more rural-urban migration this leads to
Tropical cyclones - these bring heavy rainfall
increased overland flow due to impermeable
surfaces
Agriculture increases overland flow and soil Melting snow and ice from the Himalayas in spring
erosion which reduces the capacity of the rivers leads to a rapid increase in river discharge
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Management
Bangladesh is an LEDC Your notes
The country lacks the money for large schemes to reduce the impact of flooding
Flood Action Plan (FAP)was funded by the World Bank and a number of MEDCs, measures that were
proposed include:
Monitoring of flood levels
Construction of levées/embankments
Building 5000 flood shelters
Creating flood water storage systems
A more effective flood warning system
Building of dams to store water
Reducing deforestation
The FAP was not considered a success because;
Many parts of the project were never completed including the dams and floodwater storage areas
due to inadequate funding and corruption
There was later a recognition that some flooding was necessary to maintain agriculture in many
areas
8 million people were forced to move to accommodate the FAP constructions
Changing the channel upstream meant that areas downstream suffered more
The government cannot afford the maintenance costs
New management suggestions include;
Better flood forecasting and warning systems
More well stocked flood shelters
These are less damaging to the environment and cheaper to maintain than hard engineering such as
embankments, dams and floodwater storage areas
Page 38 of 38

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CIE IGCSE Geography Your notes

2.2.1 Hydrological Characteristics

The Hydrological Cycle

2.2.2 Drainage Basin

Drainage Basin Features

(i) What is meant by transpiration?

2.2.3 River Processes

The Bradshaw Model

Explain how the river in Fig 1 is likely to carry out erosion.

Upper course characteristics include:

Middle course characteristics:

Lower course characteristics:

2.2.4 River Landforms

Formation of a V-Shaped Valley

Erosion happens on the outside of the bend

With distance downstream the size of the meanders increase

Oxbow Lake Formation

Floodplains and levees

Levee and Floodplain Formation

2.2.5 River Hazards & Opportunities

2.2.6 River Management

Flood Hydrograph in an Urban Area

Human Factors Impact

Agriculture Bare soil and ploughing increase overland flow

Physical Factors Impact

Relief Steep slopes reduce infiltration and increase overland flow

Frozen, saturated or compacted soil reduces infiltration and increases

Higher temperatures in spring leads to snow melt in mountainous areas

Where there is little natural vegetation there is reduced interception leading

Hard Engineering Soft Engineering

River restoration, this supports the river by

Wetland conservation these areas provide

Flood plain zoning means that only certain land

Afforestation involves the planting of

Case Study: Ganges/Brahmaputra

The Ganges and Brahmaputra Basin

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