Medievel Society (English) (3)

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Medieval Society in a Global Perspective

Content
UNIT 1 MEDIEVAL WORLD
Lesson 1 Understanding Feudalism, Church and Nobility
Lesson 2 Cultural Patterns, Crystallisation of Hierarchies: Medieval Life and
Thought.
UNIT 2 GENESIS OF A NEW SOCIAL ORDER AND ISLAMIC CULTURE
Lesson 3 Rise of Islam
Lesson 4 The Cultural Patterns in Islamic World
UNIT 3 MEDIEVAL CHINA
Lesson 5 Dynastic Change, Confucianism and Changing State Ideology
Lesson 6 Agriculture, Trade, Technological and Cultural Growth
All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/
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Q 1. Describe the reasons for the rise and fall of European feudalism. Along with
this, also assess the main features of feudalism.
Answer - INTRODUCTION
The term feudalism has been used by

historians to describe the economic,
legal, political, and social relations of
medieval Europe. "It is derived from the
German word" "Feud" "meaning" "a piece

of land" "and refers to a society that
developed in central France and later also
in England and southern Italy." Many social
and economic changes took place during this period, especially in Western Europe. During
the Middle Ages, Western Europe developed a social system that was very different from
the rest of the world. This is known as "ghosting."
THINKER’S VIEWS:
According to Webster, feudalism is a system in which local rulers exercise powers that
accrue to the king, emperor, or any central power. Feudalism was a mixture of individual
rule, a specific land system and individual dependency.
According to Henry Pirenne, feudalism was a closed system in which production was
mainly for consumption and trade was almost non-existent.
THE RISE OF FEUDALISM IN EUROPE:
The beginning of feudal system in Europe is considered to be from fifth century. The
feudal system in Europe lasted until the 5th century. This period is known as the Middle
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Ages in European history. By the 15th century, however, this practice had weakened
considerably and soon the feudal system was abolished throughout Europe.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, feudalism emerged. After the fall of the Roman
Empire, chaos arose in Europe. There was bloodshed and looting everywhere. In such a
situation, the normal life of the European continent began to deteriorate. Seeing this kind
of expansion of terrorism, people accepted the submission of a person who could protect
them from these atrocities in order to protect their lives and property. All such people
were given the title of feudal in that tyrannical era.
The powerful people whom the Europeans had sheltered, in course of time, became the
owners of a vast territory and, being strong and prosperous, started to manage the
security of the refugees. The burden of the orderly life of these subordinates also fell on
these feudatories. Thus the feudal lords began to occupy an important place in the
history of Europe.
CAUSES OF THE COLLAPSE OF FEUDALISM:
The development of feudalism has a long and complex history, and its decline has
been a long process. The decline of communism has been a question of controversy
among historians. Scholars believe that feudalism began to gradually decline in the 14th
century and after some time this system was abolished from Europe. Some scholars
believe that the re-emergence and growth of trade and the consequent growth of cities
was the main reason for the decline of feudalism. Other issues such as the level of
technology of other scholars, productivity in agriculture, demographic changes and

changes in the rural landscape were responsible for the decline of feudalism.
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1. Use of new weapons and ammunition
The use of new weapons and gunpowder also contributed significantly to the decline of
feudalism. The feudal lords had built powerful forts in their respective territories, due to
which it was not easy to defeat them and capture their forts, but the invention of
gunpowder and its use in wars changed the status of the feudal lords. The kings
established their own armies and equipped them with new guns and ammunition. The
use of gunpowder made it easier to demolish and capture the powerful forts of the
feudatories.
2. Increase in population
Neo-Malthusians in the 1960-70 s also interpreted the fall of feudalism in their own way.
They believe that changes in population patterns led to the collapse of the feudal
economy. He further states that population played a major role in the long-term change
in the economic structure.
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie argued that agriculture was unable to bear the burden of
increased population in medieval Europe. Along with the increase in population, the
decline in productivity, fragmentation of holdings, fall in wages and increase in
consumption led to an agrarian crisis. So famine in 1314-15 and plague in 1348-51
caused such havoc that a quarter of the population of Europe was wiped out. This
upset the overall balance of medieval Europe and led to a further transition to capitalism.
3. Mutual conflict
One of the major reasons for the downfall of the feudal system was the interpersonal
struggle of the feudal lords. Each feudatory had its own separate army, whose main
purpose was to protect the country when needed. In medieval Europe, the king had no
personal army of his own. When the situation of war arose, he used the combined forces
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of his feudatories. But they often fought with each other. The 'War of the Roses' in England
is a direct example of this. The situation in France was even worse than in England.
There was a constant interpersonal struggle among the feudatories, which not only
caused loss to the country but also to their own power. Many feudal lords sold or
mortgaged their lands to participate in the Crusades and to protect Christianity.
4. renaissance and reform movement
Social and cultural changes such as the Renaissance and the Reformation changed
socioeconomic values and attitudes, leading to the decline of the feudal system. In the
14th century the wave of renaissance started in Italy and soon spread all over Europe. The
movement propagated a new approach to society, politics and culture, replacing the
traditional medieval worldview. Renaissance thinkers emphasized the importance of
human reason, individualism, and education, which were at odds with traditional
feudal values of obedience, hierarchy, and loyalty. The Renaissance also gave birth to
new forms of art, literature and science that challenged the traditional feudal culture. The
Reformation movement in the 16th century also challenged the Catholic Church as well
as traditional feudal relations.
5. The invention of new weapons
On the other hand, the number of feudal lords was decreasing due to frequent wars and
their social and strategic importance was also decreasing due to the invention of new
weapons. Equestrian feudal lords fought with their spears, spears and swords and were
therefore considered skilled in warfare. At this time the long bow began to be used.
With this the archer-peasant also began to fight against the horse-riding feudal lords and
from the social point of view the old primacy of the knight was now gone.
The second reason for the strategic superiority of these feudatories was that they easily
protected themselves by staying in their formidable forts, but the Mongols brought
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gunpowder to Europe first and gunpowder shells began to be used in the Arab wars. It
became easier to attack the feudal forts with ammunition, so now the vulnerability of the
feudal forts was gone.
6. Farmers "protest
One of the main reasons for the fall of the feudal lords was the revolt of the peasants.
Over-exploitation of agricultural surplus by feudal lords adversely affected the
farmers. Small and medium farmers were also affected because they were hardly left with
anything due to the increase in the rate of surplus exploitation. According to Poston,
half of the total produce was taken from the dependent peasants by the feudal elite. Along
with this, the fertility of the land was also decreasing due to continuous agriculture
because the farmers could not leave the land fallow for many days to get the fertility. Also,
due to limited income of farmers, they could not spend on advanced seeds, fertilizers and
technology.
7. Increase in trade
Belgian historian Henri Pitten attributes the decline of feudalism to the spread of trade
and the rise of urban centres. The Crusades and new geographical discoveries brought
the peoples of East and West into contact, leading to a revival of trade and commerce
and the emergence of a new merchant class. This weakened the sovereignty of the
feudal lords because the merchant class was not bound by the feudal system. The
business environment was one of freedom and the feudal system one of discontent and
narrowness. So, it was natural for both of them to fight. Some merchants made so much
money in trade that they became richer, wealthier and more opulent than the feudal lords.
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FEATURES OF FEUDALISM:
The political and administrative structure of feudalism was based on land grants
and agricultural serfdom. Under this system, people from different sections of society
used to bind themselves in a certain mutual relationship. This relationship was based on
defence and service. The powerful section of the society took upon itself the responsibility
of protecting the weaker section and the weaker section accepted to serve the powerful
section.
Feudalism was a social, political and economic system of Europe, in which nobles,
vassals and serfs in a hierarchical structure were tied in a complex relationship based on
mutual obligations and services.
Feudalism in medieval Europe had three main characteristics: vassalage, protection,

and sovereignty. The feudatories had large fiefdoms, which they received from the king
in return for military service. Protection meant the protection of the landholder by the
landlord, and sovereignty was the full or partial ownership of the landlord in his fief.
Feudalism was a medieval administrative and social system in which the king was
legally the owner of all land and the land was divided among various classes of feudal
lords and soldiers. Land was considered a means of wealth and property. The land
distributed among the feudal lords was their fiefdom, in which they cultivated the
peasants according to their wishes, collected taxes from them, received gifts and gifts.
In practice, the feudal lords held sway over their fiefs and exercised all the
administrative powers that had previously belonged only to the kings. It was the
responsibility of the feudal lords to maintain peace and security in their fiefdom and in
return they collected taxes from the peasants.
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CONCLUSION
It can be said that the feudal system of production in Europe had become dominant. The
institutions of feudal polity, society and economy were classified along hierarchical lines.
Despite the similarity in structures, there were differences in the development of feudal
social structure throughout Europe. In this pyramid-like structure of power relations, land
became the principal instrument for determining socio-political relations.
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Q 2. Examine the relationship of the state with the church. and Describe the role of
the Church in medieval Europe.
Christianity originated in the Roman Empire as the

religion of the downtrodden and poor people.
Initially, the state considered it a challenge for
itself. Because the Christians were not willing to
accept the divinity of the Roman emperors. But

with the passage of time, this religion also started
helping the ruling class in its work. In 303 A.D., the

Edit of Milan declared Christianity equal to other pagan religions.
THE RELATIONS OF THE STATE WITH THE CHURCH:
1. Historical Context: Throughout history, the state and the church often had close ties,
particularly in ancient and medieval times. Many societies were governed by religious
principles, and religious leaders played a significant role in shaping and legitimizing the
ruling power. This relationship is often referred to as "church-state" or "theocracy," where
religious institutions and political authority were closely intertwined. For example, in
medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church held substantial political power, and its
leaders influenced decisions of kings and emperors.
2. Secularization and Separation of Church and State: The process of secularization

began to gain momentum during the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Philosophers and thinkers promoted the idea of separating church and state, advocating
for the governance based on reason, individual rights, and the rule of law. This led to the
emergence of secular states, where government institutions and religious institutions

were separated, and religious freedom was promoted.
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3. Freedom of Religion: In modern times, many democratic societies uphold the principle
of religious freedom, allowing citizens to practice their faith without interference from the
state. The state is expected to be neutral concerning religious matters and treat all citizens
equally, regardless of their religious beliefs or affiliations. The First Amendment of the
United States Constitution, for instance, establishes a separation of church and state and
protects religious freedom.
4. Different Models: Despite the idea of separation, the relationship between the state
and the church can still vary significantly worldwide. Some countries have established
religions, where one particular faith is officially recognized or supported by the state. In
contrast, others have adopted a more secular approach, ensuring that religious
institutions operate independently from the government.
5. Contemporary Challenges: Even in secular states, challenges can arise regarding

issues like education, health care, and public policy, where religious beliefs intersect with
societal norms and laws. Debates often occur over matters such as same-sex marriage,
abortion, access to contraceptives, and end-of-life care.
6. Political Influence: Religious groups can have considerable political influence in
certain countries, either through direct involvement in politics or by lobbying for specific
policies that align with their beliefs. This can sometimes lead to tensions between religious
organizations and the government, especially when religious perspectives clash with the
principles of a secular state.
THE ROLE OF THE CHURCH IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE:
 Spiritual Guidance: The Church was the center of religious life and provided spiritual
guidance to people. It taught about Christianity, the Bible, and the teachings of Jesus
Christ.
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 Religious Ceremonies: The Church conducted important religious ceremonies such
as baptisms, weddings, and funerals, which were crucial events in people's lives.
 Social Order: It played a major role in maintaining social order by promoting moral
values and ethics, influencing the behavior of individuals and communities.
 Education: The Church was the primary source of education during the medieval
period, operating schools and monastic institutions where literacy and knowledge
were preserved and transmitted.

 Charitable Work: The Church was involved in charitable activities, helping the poor,
providing relief during times of famine, and running hospitals and orphanages.
 Political Influence: The Church had significant political power, often influencing rulers
and kings, and played a role in shaping the politics and governance of medieval
Europe.
 Art and Architecture: The Church sponsored and inspired many artistic and
architectural creations, including beautiful cathedrals, sculptures, and paintings,
reflecting its spiritual significance.

 Papal Authority: The Pope, as the head of the Church, held great influence over
religious matters and often acted as a unifying force for Christians in Europe.
 Feudal System: The Church owned vast lands and became an integral part of the
feudal system, playing a role as a powerful landowner.
CONCLUSION
The relations of the state with the church and the role of the church in medieval Europe
were deeply interconnected. The church's spiritual authority overlapped with secular
authority, and its teachings and practices permeated all aspects of medieval society.
However, this relationship was not without tensions and challenges as both institutions
vied for power and influence over the course of European history.
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Q 3. Describe the authority of the Pope in Medieval Europe and analyze the reforms
carried out in the Church later.
OR
Write an essay on Reformation.
The Reformation was a historical and cultural phenomenon that fought for religious and
social change. This movement emerged in medieval Europe in the form of various social-
reform movements that transformed the church and religious institutions.
THE RIGHTS OF THE POPE IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE:
In Medieval Europe, the Pope held significant authority as the head of the Roman Catholic
Church. This authority was derived from a combination of religious belief and political
influence, making the Pope one of the most powerful figures of the time.
1. Religious Authority:
The Pope was seen as the highest spiritual authority on Earth, believed to be the successor
of Saint Peter and the Vicar of Christ. According to Catholic doctrine, he possessed the
power of apostolic succession, meaning his authority could be traced back to the original
apostles of Jesus Christ. As the supreme spiritual leader, the Pope had the authority to
interpret scripture, define dogma, and issue decrees on matters of faith and morality.
2. Political Authority:
The Pope's political power was significant during the Middle Ages. He played a central
role in the Investiture Controversy, a conflict between the Papacy and secular rulers over
the right to appoint and invest bishops and other church officials. The Pope asserted the
church's independence from secular control and claimed the authority to appoint bishops,
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which often resulted in tensions with monarchs and nobles who wanted to exert influence
over church appointments.
3. Papal States:
In addition to his religious and political authority, the Pope also ruled over the Papal
States, a region in central Italy that gave him territorial power and resources. The Papal
States were a significant political entity, granting the Pope considerable influence over
the politics and affairs of the Italian peninsula.
REFORMS IN THE CHURCH:
The Medieval Church was not without its problems, and there were several reform
movements aimed at addressing issues within the church. Some of the notable reforms
were:
Gregorian Reforms: In the 11th century, Pope Gregory VII initiated a series of reforms to
address issues such as simony (the buying and selling of church offices), lay investiture
(the secular appointment of church officials), and clerical marriage. The Gregorian Reforms
sought to restore the independence and integrity of the Church from secular interference
and corruption.
Mendicant Orders: In the 13th century, the rise of mendicant orders, such as the
Franciscans and Dominicans, brought about a renewal of religious fervor and commitment
to poverty and preaching. These orders emphasized a simple lifestyle, devotion to the
gospel, and service to the poor, which helped to counteract some of the opulence and
worldliness that had crept into the church.
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Councils and Synods: Throughout the Middle Ages, several Church councils and synods
were convened to address theological disputes, enforce reforms, and reaffirm church
teachings. These gatherings played a crucial role in shaping the doctrine and discipline of
the Church.
Renaissance Papacy: During the Renaissance period, some popes focused more on
worldly matters and patronage of the arts rather than spiritual leadership. This led to
increased criticism of the papacy and the need for further reform.
Counter-Reformation: The 16th-century Protestant Reformation, led by figures such as

Martin Luther and John Calvin, brought about significant challenges to the authority and
practices of the Catholic Church. In response, the Catholic Church initiated the Counter-
Reformation at the Council of Trent (1545-1563), which addressed various issues and
reaffirmed Catholic teachings while implementing internal reforms.
CONCLUSION
The authority of the pope was a symbol of his authority and dominance in medieval
Europe, giving him respect and power inside and outside the church. However, at the time
of the Protestant Reformation, these rights began to be questioned, and this led to a
religious divide that transformed the religious and social fabric of Europe.
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Q 4. Discuss the contribution of society for the rise of Islam.
OR
Write an essay on the Life and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad.
The literal meaning of Islam is surrender. Islam is
a monotheistic religion (that is, believing in one
God, called Allah). The spread of Islam in India

is considered to be from 712 AD. When the
Mughals came to power in India, the followers of

this religion increased.
THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD:
Prophet Muhammad, the last and most revered prophet in Islam, was born in the city of
Mecca in the year 570 CE. His life and teachings have had an immense impact on the
course of human history, shaping the faith of more than a billion Muslims worldwide.
Early Life and Prophethood
Muhammad was orphaned at an early age and raised by his grandfather and later his
uncle. He was known for his honesty, integrity, and contemplative nature, earning him the
title of "Al-Amin" (the trustworthy) from his community. In his early adulthood,
Muhammad worked as a merchant and gained valuable experience that shaped his
character.
At the age of 40, Muhammad received his first divine revelation while meditating in the
cave of Hira. The angel Gabriel appeared to him, commanding him to "Read" or "Recite"
in the name of God. This event marked the beginning of his prophethood, and he
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embarked on a mission to convey the message of monotheism and moral rectitude to the
people of Arabia.
THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM:
1. Faith : He should proclaim the kingdom of God and the prophethood of Muhammad.
This announcement is called reading the 'Kalma'. "There is no god but Allah and
Muhammad is His Prophet. '
2. Keep up the prayers : He should pray five times every day and every Juma should
pray in the mosque after noon.

3. To pay zakat : He should give zakah (charity) to the poor thinking that he is offering
something to Allah. It's a good job.
4. Keeping the fast of Ramadan : They should fast during the holy month of Ramadan.
5. Perform hajj : He should go for 'Hajj' as per his capacity or at least once in his life.
THE RISE OF ISLAM:
The rise of Islam was significantly influenced by the contributions of society in various
ways. Several factors within the social context of 7th-century Arabia played crucial roles
in shaping the emergence and spread of Islam.
Here are some of the key societal contributions:
1. Pre-Islamic Arabian society: Before the advent of Islam, Arabian society was
characterized by tribalism, polytheism, and social stratification. The tribes were often
engaged in conflicts and vendettas, and there was a sense of fragmented unity among
the people. This social backdrop provided a fertile ground for the message of Islam to
take root, as it offered a unifying force and stressed the importance of brotherhood and
equality among believers.
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2. Intellectual and cultural milieu: Mecca and Medina, the cities where Islam emerged,
were important centers of trade and commerce. These cities attracted people from diverse
backgrounds and cultures, fostering an atmosphere of intellectual exchange and cultural

diffusion. This environment facilitated the spread of new ideas and religious thoughts,
including those brought by the Prophet Muhammad, which eventually found resonance
among various segments of society.
3. Religious discontent: Pre-Islamic Arabia was marked by the worship of numerous
deities and idols. However, there was a growing discontent and dissatisfaction with the
prevailing polytheistic beliefs. Many people were looking for a more meaningful and
unified spiritual path. Islam, with its monotheistic message and emphasis on a direct
connection between the individual and God, provided an alternative that resonated with
those seeking a deeper, more personal faith.
4. Role of women: In pre-Islamic Arabia, women often faced marginalization and limited
rights. Islam brought about significant social changes in this regard, elevating the status
of women and granting them certain rights and protections. The Qur'an addressed
women's issues, advocated for their rights, and emphasized their role as equal partners in
society, which was a progressive step at the time.
5. Muhammad's leadership and character: Prophet Muhammad's character, integrity,
and leadership played a critical role in garnering support for Islam. He was known for his
honesty, humility, and compassion, which earned him the respect and admiration of many
individuals from different walks of life. His ability to mediate disputes and unite people
under the banner of Islam was instrumental in the religion's early growth.
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6. Spread through trade and commerce: The Islamic message spread rapidly through
trade routes that connected Arabia with neighboring regions. Merchants and travelers
who embraced Islam carried its teachings to far-off lands, contributing to its expansion
beyond the Arabian Peninsula.
7. Social justice and egalitarian principles: Islam's emphasis on social justice, charity,
and equality resonated with the marginalized and oppressed sections of society. The
religion offered a new social order that challenged existing power structures, providing
hope and dignity to those who had been overlooked or exploited.
CONCLUSION
The rise of Islam has influenced the world not only religiously but also culturally, socially,
politically and economically.
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Q 5. Highlight the growth of state under four points Caliphate.
OR
Analyse the economy under Abbasids.
OR
Discuss the basic features of Economy under the Abbasiud Caliphs.
OR
Describe and evaluate the formation of state under Abbasiud Caliphs.
Correctly guided caliphs were necessary for the establishment of a powerful Muslim
state in the Middle East. This is because they expanded Islam through conquest and
established the necessary institutions that successor dynasties continued to use. A

caliphate is a form of Islamic government where a caliph, as a successor to the
Prophet Muhammad, assumes leadership over the Muslim community.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE DURING THE PERIOD OF FOUR HOLY CALIPHS :
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1. Expansion of the Islamic State: The Rashidun Caliphs played a vital role in the
expansion of the Islamic State beyond the Arabian Peninsula. Under the leadership of
Caliph Umar, much of the Byzantine and Sassanian Empires were conquered, including
significant regions of present-day Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and Persia.
2. Administrative Reforms: The Caliphs implemented various administrative reforms,
establishing a decentralized system of governance. They appointed governors (Walis)
to oversee different provinces, who were accountable for maintaining justice,

collecting taxes, and ensuring proper governance.
3. Compilation of the Quran: During Caliph Uthman's reign, he oversaw the
compilation of the Quran into a standardized written form to preserve its authenticity
and prevent any variations in its recitation.

4. Development of the Hijri Calendar: The Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri
calendar, was initiated during the time of Caliph Umar, marking the migration (Hijra)
of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE.
5. Development of Islamic Governance: The concept of consultation (Shura) was an

essential aspect of the governance during the Rashidun Caliphate. The Caliphs sought
the advice and counsel of scholars and prominent companions before making
important decisions.
ECONOMY AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS DURING THE PERIOD OF ABBASIDS:
1. Agriculture and Trade: Agriculture was the backbone of the Abbasid economy. The
caliphate encompassed a vast and diverse geographical area, which allowed for the
cultivation of various crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and fruits. Agricultural
productivity was crucial to sustaining the urban centers and supporting the growing
population. Trade flourished, facilitated by the expansive Islamic trade networks, which
linked regions from the Mediterranean to East Asia. Major cities like Baghdad and
Basra became vital commercial hubs.
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2. Urbanization: The Abbasid period witnessed significant urbanization, with several
large cities emerging as major economic centers. Baghdad, the capital, was a bustling
metropolis renowned for its grand markets and economic prosperity. Urban centers
facilitated commerce, administration, and cultural exchange, contributing to the
overall economic growth of the empire.
3. Monetary System: The Abbasids established a sophisticated monetary system. The
official currency was the gold dinar and the silver dirham. The caliphate minted
and regulated these coins to maintain stability in trade and finance. The standardized
coinage helped facilitate commerce across the vast territory of the Abbasid Empire.
4. Banking and Finance: Islamic financial institutions, such as the "Sarraf" (money
changer) and "Hawala" (early form of informal banking), played a crucial role in
facilitating trade and commerce. These institutions provided services like currency
exchange, money transfers, and credit, which fostered economic activity and
international trade.
5. Intellectual and Cultural Contributions: The Abbasid era was known for its vibrant
intellectual and cultural scene. Scholars, scientists, and philosophers thrived under the
patronage of the Abbasid caliphs. The House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah) in Baghdad
served as a center for translation, preservation, and dissemination of knowledge from
various cultures, contributing to the advancement of science, mathematics, medicine,

and other fields.
FORMATION OF THE ABBASID STATE
1. Uprising against the Umayyad Caliphate: The Umayyad Caliphate, which preceded
the Abbasids, faced increasing opposition due to its perceived favoritism towards the
Arab elites and neglect of non-Arab Muslims. In 750 CE, a revolt led by Abu al-Abbas
al-Saffah culminated in the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate, and the Abbasid
Caliphate was established.
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2. The Battle of the Zab: The pivotal Battle of the Zab in 750 CE resulted in the decisive
victory of the Abbasid forces over the Umayyads, leading to the end of the Umayyad
dynasty. This battle solidified the Abbasid claim to power and established them as the
new rulers of the Islamic world.
3. Establishment of Baghdad: The first Abbasid caliph, Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah, chose
the newly founded city of Baghdad as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate in 762 CE.
The strategic location of Baghdad along the Tigris River facilitated trade and
communication, contributing to the city's growth as a cosmopolitan center of learning
and culture.
4. Golden Age of the Abbasids: Under the early Abbasid caliphs like Harun al-Rashid (r.
786-809 CE) and his son Al-Ma'mun (r. 813-833 CE), the empire experienced a "Golden
Age." This era was marked by flourishing art, science, philosophy, literature, and trade,
with Baghdad becoming a hub of intellectual activity and attracting scholars from
various disciplines.
5. Decline and Fragmentation: Despite the prosperous early period, the Abbasid
Caliphate began to decline over time. Internal conflicts, political rivalries, and revolts
by regional governors weakened the central authority of the caliphate. Additionally,
external threats from various invasions, such as the Mongols in the 13th century,
further fractured the empire.
EVALUATION OF THE FORMATION OF THE ABBASID STATE:
1. Cultural and Intellectual Contributions: The Abbasid Caliphate made significant
contributions to human civilization through its Golden Age. Scholars and intellectuals
from diverse backgrounds thrived in Baghdad, leading to advancements in various
fields, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, and literature.
2. Trade and Economic Prosperity: The Abbasid state's geographical location and
strong trade networks fostered economic prosperity. The Silk Road and maritime
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routes facilitated trade between the East and West, enriching the empire and
promoting cultural exchange.
3. Religious and Cultural Tolerance: The early Abbasid caliphs generally showed
greater religious and cultural tolerance compared to their Umayyad predecessors.
They promoted learning and patronized scholars from diverse religious and ethnic
backgrounds, which fostered an environment of intellectual pluralism.
4. Political Instability and Fragmentation: As the caliphate expanded, the central

authority weakened due to political infighting and regional rebellions. This
fragmentation paved the way for the emergence of independent and competing
states, which contributed to the eventual downfall of the caliphate.
5. Decline and Fall: The gradual decline of the Abbasid Caliphate and its eventual
collapse in 1258 CE with the sacking of Baghdad by the Mongols marked the end of a
once-great empire. The fall of Baghdad was a turning point in Islamic history and had
far-reaching consequences for the political and cultural landscape of the region.
CONCLUSION
The reign of the Abbasid Caliphate witnessed the spread of Islamic culture. They
supported the propagation of Islam and many initiatives were taken to promote Islamic
culture.
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Q 6. Analyze the factors responsible for the rise and popularity of Sufism.
Sufism, also known as Islamic mysticism, has risen to
popularity over the centuries due to a combination of
historical, social, and philosophical factors. It emerged
as a spiritual and mystical response to the rigidity of
early Islamic orthodoxy and has since attracted a

diverse range of followers.
THE FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE RISE AND POPULARITY OF SUFISM ARE:
1. Spiritual Quest and Inner Fulfillment: Sufism emerged as a response to the quest
for deeper spiritual experiences and a closer relationship with the divine. Many
individuals sought a more profound and personal connection with God, which Sufism
offered through its focus on spiritual practices, such as meditation, chanting, and
intense devotion.
2. Adaptability and Inclusivity: Sufism displayed a remarkable ability to adapt and
integrate itself with local cultures and traditions across various regions. This inclusivity
allowed it to resonate with people from diverse backgrounds, leading to its popularity
and widespread acceptance.
3. Mystical Experiences and Divine Love: Sufism emphasized the concept of divine love
and the longing to be closer to God. Sufi poets and philosophers often wrote about
the intense experiences of divine love and union with the divine, which resonated
deeply with the human desire for transcendence and spiritual ecstasy.
4. Charismatic Sufi Saints and Teachers: Throughout history, charismatic Sufi saints
and teachers played a significant role in popularizing Sufism. Their personal piety,
profound wisdom, and miraculous stories attracted large followings and inspired
25
devotion among their disciples. These Sufi leaders often established Sufi orders or
brotherhoods, creating organized communities that further spread the teachings of
Sufism.
5. Syncretism and Interfaith Dialogue: Sufism's openness to dialogue with other
religious traditions and its syncretic elements, where it integrated aspects from various
spiritual traditions, allowed it to appeal to individuals from different religious
backgrounds. This openness to interfaith dialogue made Sufism more accessible to

seekers from diverse faiths.
6. Social Welfare and Humanitarianism: Sufi orders were often involved in charitable
activities, supporting the poor, marginalized, and the sick. Their humanitarian efforts
earned them respect and admiration from communities, enhancing the appeal of
Sufism.
7. Resistance to Formalistic and Dogmatic Interpretations: In some periods of Islamic
history, Sufism emerged as a reaction to rigid and dogmatic interpretations of Islam.
It offered a more flexible and spiritual alternative to those seeking a deeper,

experiential understanding of the faith.
8. Political and Cultural Influences: Sufi orders sometimes played a role in political and
cultural spheres, influencing rulers and societies. Some Sufi leaders had close
relationships with political leaders, contributing to the spread and acceptance of Sufi
teachings in certain regions.
CONCLUSION
It's essential to recognize that Sufism's popularity has evolved over time and has varied
across different regions and historical periods. These factors together have contributed
to the rise and endurance of Sufism as a significant spiritual and cultural aspect of the
Islamic world.
26
Q 7. Discuss urbanism, trade and art, architecture in the Islamic world.
Urbanism, trade, art, and architecture played significant roles in shaping the Islamic world
throughout history. The Islamic world, which encompassed a vast geographic area, saw
the rise of several influential civilizations, including the Umayyads, Abbasids, Ottomans,
Mughals, and many others. As a result, there was a rich diversity in urban planning, trade
networks, art, and architecture across different regions and periods.
URBANISM IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD:
Islamic cities were centers of civilization and learning, known for their well-planned
layouts and sophisticated infrastructure. They often featured prominent landmarks like
mosques, markets, and public baths. One key feature of Islamic urbanism was the
"medina," which was the historic core of the city and usually enclosed by walls. The medina
housed the main religious and administrative buildings, while the surrounding areas (the
"riyad") were used for residential purposes.
Cities were designed to accommodate the needs of their residents and visitors, providing
amenities like bazaars, educational institutions (madrasas), and public spaces that
fostered social interactions. The layout of cities also often reflected Islamic principles, such
as the alignment of streets and buildings towards Mecca.
TRADE IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD:
Trade was an essential aspect of the Islamic world's economy, facilitated by extensive
networks that connected diverse regions, cultures, and civilizations. Early Islamic traders
traveled along the Silk Road, connecting the Middle East with East Asia, and later
established maritime trade routes that stretched from the Indian Ocean to the
27
Mediterranean. Key trading hubs included Baghdad, Cairo, Damascus, Istanbul, and cities
along the Silk Road like Samarkand and Bukhara.
Islamic merchants played a crucial role in disseminating knowledge, culture, and
goods across different lands. The prosperity of these trade networks contributed to the
growth of cities and the spread of Islamic culture beyond its heartland.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ISLAMIC WORLD:
Islamic art and architecture are renowned for their intricate designs, geometric patterns,
and elaborate ornamentation. Due to the Islamic tradition's prohibition of depicting
sentient beings in religious contexts, Islamic art focused on non-representational forms,
such as calligraphy, arabesque patterns, and geometric designs.
ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IS CHARACTERIZED BY SEVERAL DISTINCT FEATURES:
 Mosques: Islamic places of worship, often grand and adorned with domes, minarets,
and impressive facades. The architectural style varies across different regions,
reflecting the local cultural influences.
 Palaces and Fortresses: Islamic rulers and dynasties constructed opulent palaces and
fortified citadels as symbols of their power and wealth.
 Gardens: Islamic gardens, known as "paradises" (Jannat), were meticulously designed
spaces that symbolized the idea of an earthly paradise. They often featured water
channels, fountains, and lush vegetation.
 Madrasas and Caravanserais: Madrasas were centers of education, and caravanserais
served as resting places for traders along their journeys, both displaying architectural
beauty and functionality.
28
Islamic art and architecture were deeply intertwined, reflecting the aesthetics and
philosophy of the faith. These artistic expressions served to create a sense of beauty,
order, and spirituality in the built environment.
CONCLUSION
urbanism, trade, art, and architecture were crucial components of the Islamic world's
cultural and economic development. The exchange of ideas, goods, and artistic
expressions through trade routes and urban centers helped shape a diverse and vibrant
Islamic civilization, leaving behind an enduring legacy in the fields of architecture and
artistic expression that continues to influence modern Islamic aesthetics and design.
29
Q 8. Explain the dynastic changes in medieval China.
Dynastic changes in medieval China refer to the periodic shifts in ruling power and the
rise and fall of different imperial dynasties that occurred from the early centuries AD to
the end of the last dynasty, the Qing Dynasty, in 1912. This period in Chinese history is
characterized by a succession of dynastic cycles, where one dynasty would typically rise
to prominence, rule for a certain period, and then eventually decline and be replaced by
another.
THE DYNASTIC CHANGES IN MEDIEVAL CHINA ARE:
1. Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE): The Han Dynasty is considered the first great
imperial dynasty in Chinese history. It was founded by Emperor Liu Bang in 206 BCE,
who unified China after the fall of the Qin Dynasty. The Han Dynasty is known for its
centralized governance, economic prosperity, advancements in science, and the
spread of Confucianism as the state ideology.

2. Period of Disunity (220 - 589 CE): After the fall of the Han Dynasty, China entered a
period of fragmentation and political instability known as the "Three Kingdoms"
period, followed by the Jin Dynasty, the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the Sui
Dynasty. During this time, China was divided into several warring states, and power
was decentralized.
3. Tang Dynasty (618 - 907 CE): The Tang Dynasty emerged as one of the most
prosperous and culturally vibrant periods in Chinese history. Under the Tang rulers,
China experienced a golden age of art, literature, and technological innovations. The
Silk Road trade flourished, and China's influence extended into Central Asia and
beyond.
30
4. Song Dynasty (960 - 1279 CE): After a brief period of fragmentation, the Song
Dynasty reunified China and established a centralized government in the northern part
of the country. The Southern Song Dynasty later ruled in the south. The Song era was
marked by significant developments in arts, culture, and technology, including the
invention of movable type printing and gunpowder.
5. Yuan Dynasty (1271 - 1368 CE): The Mongols, led by Kublai Khan, conquered the
Song Dynasty and established the Yuan Dynasty, making China part of the larger
Mongol Empire. Despite its foreign rulers, the Yuan Dynasty saw the promotion of
trade and cultural exchanges between East and West.
6. Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644 CE): The native Han Chinese overthrew the Yuan Dynasty
and established the Ming Dynasty. The Ming rulers sought to restore traditional
Chinese culture and Confucian values. The period was marked by significant maritime
exploration, including the voyages of Zheng He, and the construction of the Great
Wall.
7. Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1912 CE): The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty in
China. It was founded by the Manchus, who came from the northeastern region of
China. The Qing rulers successfully expanded China's territory and maintained a multi-
ethnic empire. However, by the 19th century, internal corruption and external
pressures from Western powers led to the decline of the dynasty.
CONCLUSION
The dynastic changes in medieval China were often driven by a combination of internal
factors, such as political corruption, economic issues, and social unrest, as well as external
factors like invasions and foreign influences. These shifts in power played a crucial role in
shaping Chinese history and culture throughout the medieval period.
31
Q 9. How did the Mongol invasion affect Chinese civilization ?
The Mongol invasion had a profound and lasting impact on Chinese civilization during
the 13th and 14th centuries. Led by the renowned Genghis Khan and his successors, the
Mongols established the Yuan Dynasty, ruling over China from 1271 to 1368. This period
of Mongol domination brought about significant changes that affected various aspects of
Chinese society, culture, economy, and governance.
THE WAYS MONGOL INVASION AFFECTED CHINESE CIVILIZATION:
1. Political Changes: The Mongols established the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) in China,
making Beijing their capital. This marked the first time a foreign ruling power had
control over all of China. The Chinese were initially treated as subjects of the Mongol
rulers, and the traditional Chinese political system was dismantled. The highest
positions in the government were often filled by Mongol officials or non-Chinese
bureaucrats.
2. Cultural Exchange: Despite their initial foreign rule, the Mongols did not actively
suppress Chinese culture. Instead, there was a significant cultural exchange between
the Mongols and the Chinese. The Mongols adopted many aspects of Chinese culture,
and Chinese customs and knowledge spread to other parts of the Mongol Empire.
3. Economic Impact: The Mongol Empire's vast size and trade networks facilitated
increased commerce between different regions, including China. The famous Silk Road
flourished during this time, and China became an integral part of the international
trade routes. This economic integration had both positive and negative effects on the
Chinese economy, as it boosted trade and cultural exchange but also led to some
economic exploitation.
32
4. Infrastructure Development: The Mongols invested in infrastructure projects in
China, including the construction of roads, canals, and public works. This contributed
to improved transportation and communication within the empire and facilitated the
movement of goods and people.
5. Religious Tolerance: The Mongols were generally more tolerant of different religions
compared to previous Chinese dynasties. While they were not particularly religious
themselves, they allowed the practice of various faiths, including Buddhism, Islam, and
Christianity.
6. Social Upheaval: The Mongol invasion and rule led to significant social disruptions in
China. Many Chinese people were displaced, and there were uprisings against Mongol
rule. The Mongols also relied heavily on non-Chinese ethnic groups to govern China,
which created tensions and conflicts within society.
7. Decline of Confucianism: Confucianism had been the dominant ideology and moral
framework in China for centuries. However, during the Mongol rule, Confucian
scholars and officials were often marginalized, and the civil service examination
system, which had been the cornerstone of Chinese governance, lost much of its
influence.
8. Chinese Resistance: The Mongol rule faced resistance from various Chinese rebel
groups and regional uprisings. One of the most notable was the Red Turban Rebellion,
which paved the way for the eventual downfall of the Yuan Dynasty.
CONCLUSION - The Mongol invasion and the Yuan Dynasty's rule significantly impacted
Chinese civilization, leaving lasting effects on politics, culture, economy, and society. The
collapse of the Yuan Dynasty eventually led to the rise of the Ming Dynasty, which sought
to restore traditional Chinese values and institutions. Nevertheless, the interactions and
exchanges during the Mongol period contributed to the shaping of China's historical
development.
33
Q 10. Analyze the cultural achievements of medieval China and the technological
innovation of the society.
Medieval China, also known as Imperial China. Medieval China boasted remarkable
cultural achievements, including advances in art, poetry, and literature, exemplified by the
exquisite Tang and Song dynastic artworks and the immortal poems of Li Bai and Du Fu.
The society thrived with technological innovations such as gunpowder, printing
technology, and the magnetic compass, revolutionizing warfare, communication, and

navigation.
CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS:
1. Literature and Poetry: During the Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese literature
flourished. Renowned poets like Li Bai and Du Fu emerged, leaving behind a legacy of
beautiful verses capturing nature, love, and the human experience.

2. Art and Calligraphy: Chinese art experienced tremendous growth during this period.
The Song Dynasty was particularly known for its landscape paintings, which displayed
breathtaking natural scenes and sought to evoke a sense of harmony with nature.
3. Philosophy and Confucianism: Confucianism continued to play a central role in
Chinese culture, shaping the values and ethics of society. The teachings of Confucius
emphasized filial piety, respect for elders, and the importance of cultivating virtue in
individuals and rulers alike.
4. Imperial Examination System: The imperial examination system, established during
the Sui Dynasty and further refined under the Tang Dynasty, allowed individuals to
gain positions in the government based on merit rather than hereditary status.
34
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS:
1. Gunpowder: One of China's most significant technological innovations was
gunpowder. Originally discovered as an elixir for immortality, gunpowder's military
potential was realized during the Tang Dynasty.
2. Printing Technology: The Chinese invented woodblock printing during the Tang
Dynasty, which revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge and culture. Later,
during the Song Dynasty, movable type printing was developed, making the printing
process more efficient and further contributing to the spread of information and
books.
3. Compass and Navigation: The Chinese improved and perfected the compass, which
significantly advanced navigation and contributed to their prowess in maritime
exploration during the Ming Dynasty.
4. Agricultural Innovations: Medieval China saw several agricultural advancements,

including the use of the heavy plow, waterwheels, and improved irrigation systems.
These innovations helped increase agricultural productivity, leading to population
growth and economic development.
5. Porcelain and Ceramics: The Song Dynasty is renowned for its advancements in
porcelain production. High-quality ceramics, such as delicate celadon and beautiful

blue-and-white ware, became highly sought after commodities in international trade.
CONCLUSION
Medieval China's cultural achievements laid the foundation for its artistic and intellectual
legacy, influencing future generations, while the technological innovations contributed to

the country's prosperity, military strength, and lasting impact on global civilization.
35
Q 11. Describe the development of feudal institutions in medieval China.
The development of feudal institutions in medieval
China took place over several dynastic periods,
with significant changes and adaptations occurring

along the way. Feudalism in China emerged as a
way to establish a centralized government while
maintaining control over a vast territory through a

system of mutual obligations between the ruling authority and local elites.
THE IMPORTANT PHASES IN THE GROWTH OF FEUDAL INSTITUTIONS IN

MEDIEVAL CHINA ARE:
1. Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046 BCE - 256 BCE): The concept of feudalism in China is often
traced back to the Western Zhou Dynasty. During this period, the Zhou kings
established a feudal system known as the "fengjian" system. The ruler would grant
land and titles to loyal nobles and military commanders in exchange for their loyalty
and military support. These nobles governed their territories as vassals of the central
Zhou court, but over time, they started to gain more autonomy, weakening the central
authority.
2. Warring States Period (c. 475 BCE - 221 BCE): As the Zhou Dynasty declined, the
feudal system underwent significant changes. During the Warring States Period, the
central authority weakened further, leading to the rise of numerous independent
states, each ruled by powerful aristocratic families. The system became more
decentralized, and the vassals enjoyed greater autonomy over their territories.
36
3. Qin Dynasty (221 BCE - 206 BCE): The Qin Dynasty marked the end of the Warring
States Period, as the Qin state managed to conquer its rivals and unify China under
Emperor Qin Shi Huang. The Qin rulers implemented a more centralized system of
governance, abolishing the feudal system and replacing it with a centralized
bureaucracy. This marked a brief departure from the traditional feudal structure.
4. Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE): After the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, the Han
Dynasty emerged and restored a system similar to the early Zhou feudal system. The
Han emperors divided the empire into administrative regions, each governed by
appointed officials or local nobles. These officials had significant autonomy in
managing their territories, collecting taxes, and maintaining order. However, the
power of the central government was more firmly established compared to the Zhou
period.
5. Six Dynasties and Sui Dynasty (220 CE - 618 CE): During the Six Dynasties period
and the subsequent Sui Dynasty, China experienced fragmentation and division.
Different regional rulers and warlords governed various parts of the country, each
adopting their own feudal systems and local administrative structures.
6. Tang Dynasty (618 CE - 907 CE): The Tang Dynasty marked a period of reunification
and stability in China. While not strictly a feudal system, the Tang rulers continued to
rely on a system of regional administration through appointed officials and governors.

These officials often came from noble families or military elites, and they were granted
extensive powers over their respective territories, maintaining the overall stability and
prosperity of the dynasty.
CONCLUSION - It's important to note that the term "feudalism" as applied to China's
history may not fully correspond to the European model of feudalism. Chinese feudal
institutions had unique characteristics and evolved differently in response to various

historical and cultural factors.
37
Q 12. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Knight
(b) Development of Art and Architecture
(c) Contribution of Arab Civilization to the World.
(d) Akhlaq
Answer -
(A) KNIGHT
INTRODUCTION
Christian warriors, who were also called "knights," were
famous in Europe in the medieval period for their chivalry,
courage and morality. They were conscious of providing
protection to the companions of Christianity, protecting

the religion, saving people from foreign invasion. These
knights are significantly remembered in the history of

medieval Europe.
THE HISTORY OF THE NIGHT:
The history of the Christian Knights originated in the medieval period. These knights
were particularly prominent between the 11th and 13th centuries. During this time, there
was a change in the religious and social structure in Europe and the influence of
Christianity increased in European society and culture. The Knights were a major
participant of this time, playing an important role in the upliftment and preservation
of Christianity.
38
THE NIGHT'S ACTIVITIES:
Protection and Defense: The Knights' principal task was to protect and defend the
companions of Christianity. They were ready to protect Christian temples, churches and
community places and were ready to protect religious interests.
Crusades: The Knights defended their religion with their valor and courage in the
Crusades. They used to come to the war zone to save the people from the attack of the
enemies and put their lives at stake.
Social Service: Knights were not just religious warriors, but they were also engaged in
social service. He used to donate his time and money to help the poor, sick and helpless
people.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE KNIGHTS:
Protecting European Society: The Knights protected European society by protecting the
companions of Christianity. His courage and ethics united the people on religious lines
and created an atmosphere of peace and goodwill in the society.
Promotion of Art and Culture: The Knights also contributed to the field of art and
culture. Their religious forms of music, poetry, and art were developed and contributed
to the development of European culture.
Promotion of Language and Literature: The Knights spread Christian literature and
language to make people aware of the values and principles of their religion.
CONCLUSION
knights played an important role in medieval Europe. His valour, courage and morality
inspired people and he contributed to the growth of Christianity and culture. The Knights'
work and contributions earned them prestige and respect in European society.
39
(B) DEVELOPMENT OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE
INTRODUCTION
Art: Art is a broad and diverse realm of human
creativity that encompasses various forms of

expression, such as painting, sculpture, drawing,
photography, music, literature, dance, theater, and
more. It is a means of communicating ideas, emotions,
and experiences through creative and imaginative

means.
Architecture: Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings
and other physical structures. It goes beyond mere construction and encompasses
elements of aesthetics, functionality, sustainability, and social considerations. Architects
work to create spaces that meet human needs while harmonizing with their environment
and cultural context.
DEVELOPMENT OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE:
Western architecture that was predominantly Christian in contrast, the Byzantine rulers
revived and promoted Greek heritage. In fact the Byzantine Empire is often referred to as
the 'Holy Roman Empire of the Greek Nation'. The most famous church was the church
of St. Sophia in the capital Kustuntunia (Constantinople).
The art and architecture of the High Middle Ages revolved around the church. The
notion of divinity necessitated a high degree of accuracy, and even aesthetic achievement.
Popular fantasies of art forms were created with the aim of underlining the dominance
and authority of the church. The architectural pattern is divided into two different styles:
40
Romanesque and Gothic. The Romanesque style represents a transformed Roman

architecture.
According to Kidson, both styles systematically addressed the imbalance between the
skilled and the unskilled with the use of a new range of tools and technology.
The Romanesque style of architecture developed in the tenth century and attained
its mature form by the middle of the twelfth century. It developed as a church reform
movement. Architectural details were subdued to emphasize the glory of God in stone.
The key features of this style include round arches, massive walls and large supporting
columns, small windows and horizontal lines. The interiors were either plain or decorated
with mosaics and frescoes in bright colors. Decorative sculptures were installed in both
the exterior and interior of the structure.
During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Romanesque style was replaced by
the Gothic style, with some scholars drawing a continuity between the two, while others
maintain that they are two distinct styles. The Gothic style emerged in France in the
middle of the twelfth century. This includes pointed arches, ribbed vaulting and flying
buttresses.
In comparison with the Romanesque style, the Gothic style made it possible to build
high and light buildings. The structures look like skeletal structures surrounded by
massive windows. The facades were adorned with elaborate sculptures and figures of
characters from early literature. The stained glass of the windows allowed sunlight to enter
the structures. The Gothic style also incorporated secular themes into religious structures.
Most of the Gothic structures are located in urban centers.
This indicates that they were symbols of urban community life and were the pride
of the city. Thus, we see that the art and architecture of this period reflect the cultural
faith that the Christian church instilled in the social structure.
41
CONCLUSION
The development of art and architecture in medieval society was deeply intertwined with
the religious, social, and political aspects of the time. This period saw remarkable
achievements in both the sacred and secular spheres, leaving behind a rich legacy of
artistic and architectural masterpieces that continue to inspire and amaze people today.
42
(C) CONTRIBUTION OF ARAB CIVILIZATION TO THE WORLD
INTRODUCTION
The Arab civilization is an ancient and
prosperous civilization that developed

mainly in the territory of the Arab group of
Western Asia and North Africa. The history
of this civilization is very old and its
beginning goes briefly to the 6th century

BC, when the ancient Arab tribes began to
develop in their surrounding areas. From
this time to the medieval period, Arab civilization has made many ancient cultural and
scientific contributions. He made significant contributions to the fields of mathematics,

science, technology, philology, scientific thought and philosophy.
THE ARAB CIVILIZATION:
Islam played an important role in the development of this civilization. Around the 7th
century, a great poet and educationist of Arabic language "Mohammad Ibn-Eisa Al
Nihari" had praised Islamic culture and ideology in his poetry. Arab civilization created
vast empires under various Palestinian and Islamic regimes, which were very
important in world history. They are also known for their significant contributions in the
fields of business, culture, science and education.
THE GIFT OF ARAB CIVILIZATION TO THE WORLD:
1. Education: According to a directive of the Prophet "It is the duty of every Muslim to
seek knowledge." The Arabs absorbed all knowledge and developed it.
43
2. Medicine: The Arabs produced many great physicians. An Arab scientist named Al -
Razi correctly diagnosed smallpox. Al-Razi was known as Rahez in Europe. Ibn-Sina, who
was known as Avicenna in medieval Europe, discovered that tuberculosis was an infectious
disease. Ibn-Sina described many diseases of the nervous system. The Arabs made great
strides in acquiring information on the spread of plague, eye diseases, infectious diseases,
etc., and in the organization of hospitals.
3. Numerology and Mathematics: In the field of mathematics, billions learnt the Indian
numeral system and spread it far and wide. For this reason, the numerals are still called
'Arabic numerals' in Western countries. The Arabs also developed seed mathematics,
triangle dating, and chemistry. Omar Khayyam created a calendar that is purer than the
Christian calendar that is used in many countries of the world today. Arab astrologers
speculated that the Earth probably rotated on its own axis and went around the Sun.
4. Philosophy and Life: The achievements of the Arabs were also important in
philosophy. Greek knowledge and intellectual traditions reached the Arabs through Syria
and Persia. Ibn-Sina was known as a philosopher in Europe. Abu al-Walid Muhammad
ibn-Rusht, known to Europeans as Aivaronj. The main inspiration for medieval Islamic
literature came from Iran (Persia). Some of the famous works of this period are 'Rubaiyan'
of Omar Khayyam, 'Shahnama' of Ferdousi and a collection of 1001 stories' Aliflaila 'whose
stories give a lot of information about the then culture and society.
5. Arab art: Arab art was influenced by Byzantine and Iranian art, but the Arab settlers
brought out original patterns of ornamentation. Their buildings had bulbous domes, small
minarets, horseshoe-shaped arches and twisted columns. Features of Arab architecture

can be seen in the mosques, libraries, palaces, hospitals and schools of the time.
44
CONCLUSION
Arab civilization is known for its diversity, religion, trade, art, and scientific contributions.
This civilization played an important role with the origin of Islamic civilization and its
influence was visible all over the world.
45
(D) AKHLAQ
INTRODUCTION
The appearance of the word 'Akhlaq' in the
sense of morality in the Quran and many

Hadiths is an indication of the importance
attached to morality in Islam. Akhlaq or
morality is fundamental to the creation of
mankind. For a Muslim, in addition to following

the Prophet's Sunnah, performing acts of worship
such as charity, advice, recitation of the Qur'an,
and repentance is said to be sincere, and a good akhlaq with the truth. Islam is different
from many other religions in providing the whole purpose of life.
Akhlaq : "Akhlaq," is an Arabic term that refers to one's character or moral virtues. It
encompasses a range of ethical and behavioral qualities that are highly valued in Islamic
teachings and many other cultures.
THE FOUNDATION OF AKHLAQ:
The roots of Akhlaq in Islam are deep in the teachings of the Quran and Hadith, which
provide comprehensive guidance on how a Muslim should conduct himself in his
personal, social, and spiritual life. The Quran serves as the ultimate source of moral
wisdom, as it not only sets clear moral guidelines, but also exemplifies great characters
through the stories of prophets and righteous individuals.
“Prophet Muhammad” is considered the epitome of Akhlaq, who is known for his
impeccable character and qualities. Hadith literature preserves his sayings and deeds,
providing a model for Muslims to follow in their daily lives.
46
THE MAIN QUALITIES OF AKHLAQ INCLUDE:
God-consciousness (Taqwa): Having a deep awareness and consciousness of God's
presence, which leads to the avoidance of sinful acts and the constant striving to do
what is righteous.
Honesty (Sidq): Being truthful and sincere in words and actions, avoiding lies and
deceit.
Kindness (Rahmah): Showing compassion, empathy, and benevolence towards
others, both humans and animals.
Humility (Tawadu'): Being modest and humble, avoiding arrogance and pride.
Forgiveness ('Afu): Pardoning others and letting go of grudges or resentments.
Patience (Sabr): Demonstrating patience and perseverance in the face of challenges
and difficulties.
Gratitude (Shukr): Showing thankfulness to God and expressing appreciation for the
blessings one receives.
Respect (Ihsan): Treating others with respect, regardless of their social status,
ethnicity, or beliefs.
Justice ('Adl): Upholding fairness and equity in all dealings with others.
Sincerity (Ikhlas): Acting with sincerity and purity of intention, seeking to please God
rather than seeking praise from others.
CONCLUSION
Akhlaq, the moral framework for ethical conduct in Islam, is a rich and profound concept
that provides timeless guidance for individuals who desire to live a virtuous life. By
embodying the principles of Akhlaq, individuals can contribute to the betterment of

society, promoting compassion, justice and a sense of communal responsibility.

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1

Medieval Society in a Global Perspective

UNIT 1 MEDIEVAL WORLD

Lesson 1 Understanding Feudalism, Church and Nobility

Lesson 2 Cultural Patterns, Crystallisation of Hierarchies: Medieval Life and

UNIT 2 GENESIS OF A NEW SOCIAL ORDER AND ISLAMIC CULTURE

Lesson 3 Rise of Islam

Lesson 4 The Cultural Patterns in Islamic World

UNIT 3 MEDIEVAL CHINA

Lesson 5 Dynastic Change, Confucianism and Changing State Ideology

Lesson 6 Agriculture, Trade, Technological and Cultural Growth

The term feudalism has been used by

legal, political, and social relations of

medieval Europe. "It is derived from the

German word" "Feud" "meaning" "a piece

developed in central France and later also

in England and southern Italy." Many social

THE RISE OF FEUDALISM IN EUROPE:

CAUSES OF THE COLLAPSE OF FEUDALISM:

technology of other scholars, productivity in agriculture, demographic changes and

1. Use of new weapons and ammunition

decline in productivity, fragmentation of holdings, fall in wages and increase in

consumption led to an agrarian crisis. So famine in 1314-15 and plague in 1348-51

4. renaissance and reform movement

traditional medieval worldview. Renaissance thinkers emphasized the importance of

5. The invention of new weapons

Over-exploitation of agricultural surplus by feudal lords adversely affected the

Feudalism in medieval Europe had three main characteristics: vassalage, protection,

Christianity originated in the Roman Empire as the

Initially, the state considered it a challenge for

itself. Because the Christians were not willing to

accept the divinity of the Roman emperors. But

helping the ruling class in its work. In 303 A.D., the

THE RELATIONS OF THE STATE WITH THE CHURCH:

ruling power. This relationship is often referred to as "church-state" or "theocracy," where

2. Secularization and Separation of Church and State: The process of secularization

emergence of secular states, where government institutions and religious institutions

5. Contemporary Challenges: Even in secular states, challenges can arise regarding

6. Political Influence: Religious groups can have considerable political influence in

THE ROLE OF THE CHURCH IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE:

 Religious Ceremonies: The Church conducted important religious ceremonies such

were preserved and transmitted.

architectural creations, including beautiful cathedrals, sculptures, and paintings,

reflecting its spiritual significance.

carried out in the Church later.

Write an essay on Reformation.

THE RIGHTS OF THE POPE IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE:

REFORMS IN THE CHURCH:

Counter-Reformation: The 16th-century Protestant Reformation, led by figures such as

Q 4. Discuss the contribution of society for the rise of Islam.

Write an essay on the Life and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad.

The literal meaning of Islam is surrender. Islam is

a monotheistic religion (that is, believing in one

God, called Allah). The spread of Islam in India

Mughals came to power in India, the followers of

THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD:

Early Life and Prophethood

THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM:

Muhammad is His Prophet. '