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FUNDAMENTALS OF
Pharmacognosy
AND Phytotherapy
This page intentionally left blank

     
 THIRD
EDITION

FUNDAMENTALS OF
Pharmacognosy
AND Phytotherapy
Michael Heinrich Dr rer nat habil MA(WSU) Dipl. Biol. FLS
Professor and Head, Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, UCL School of Pharmacy,
University of London, London, UK

Joanne Barnes BPharm(Hons) PhD MPSNZ RegPharmNZ FLS

Associate Professor in Herbal Medicines, School of Pharmacy, University of Auckland,
Auckland, New Zealand

José M. Prieto Garcia MPharm PhD MRSC FLS FHEA

Lecturer in Pharmacognosy, Centre for Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, UCL School of Pharmacy,
University of London, London, UK

Simon Gibbons FRSC FLS

Professor of Medicinal Phytochemistry, Research Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological
Chemistry, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK

Elizabeth M. Williamson BSc (Pharm) PhD MRPharmS FLS

Emeritus Professor of Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, UK

FOREWORDS BY
A. Douglas Kinghorn BPharm MSc PhD DSc FRPharmS FAAAS FAAPS FLS FSP
Professor and Jack L. Beal Chair of Natural Products Chemistry and Pharmacognosy,
College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA

Mark Blumenthal BA ND (hon causa) PhD (hon causa)

Founder and Executive Director, American Botanical Council; Editor-in-Chief, HerbalGram and
HerbClip; Founder and Director, ABC-AHP-NCNPR Botanical Adulterants Program, Austin, Texas, USA
© 2018, Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved.
First edition 2004
Second edition 2012
Third edition 2018

The rights of Michael Heinrich, Joanne Barnes, Simon Gibbons and Elizabeth M. Williamson to be iden-
tified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.

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or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
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the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluat-
ing and using any information, methods, compounds or experiments described herein. Because of
rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and
drug dosages should be made. To the fullest extent of the law, no responsibility is assumed by
Elsevier, authors, editors or contributors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 9780702070082

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Printed in China

Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

 v

Contents

Dedication vii 8. Isolation and structure elucidation of natural

products 121
Foreword ix
A. Douglas Kinghorn 9. Anticancer natural products 142
Foreword xi
Mark Blumenthal
SECTION 4 MEDICINES AND
Preface xv NUTRACEUTICALS/BOTANICALS DERIVED
FROM PLANT EXTRACTS
PART A FUNDAMENTALS OF 10. Production, quality control and standardization of
PHARMACOGNOSY 1 herbal materials 162
11. The complex chemistry and pharmacology of herbal
medicines 173
SECTION 1 PHYTOTHERAPY AND
PHARMACOGNOSY 12. Toxicity of herbal constituents 179

1. Importance of plants in modern pharmacy and

medicine 4
2. Pharmacognosy and its history: people, plants and
natural products 13
SECTION 2 BASIC PLANT BIOLOGY
3. General principles of botany: morphology and
systematics 29
4. Families yielding important phytopharmaceuticals 37
5. Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacy 52
SECTION 3 NATURAL PRODUCT CHEMISTRY
SECTION 5 MEDICINAL PLANTS IN
TRADITIONAL MEDICINE SYSTEMS,
COMPLEMENTARY AND INTEGRATIVE
MEDICINE
13. Overview of medicinal plants in healthcare
systems 185
14. Characteristics of traditional medicine systems using
herbal substances 190
15. Western herbal medicine 192
16. ‘Oriental’ and ‘Asian’ forms of traditional medicine 196
17. African, American and Oceanian traditional medicine
using herbal preparations 210

6. Natural product chemistry 65 18. Complementary/alternative or ‘integrative’ therapies

involving use of plant substances 218
7. Methods in natural product analytical
chemistry 105 19. Herbal medicine interactions 228
vi Contents

PART B IMPORTANT NATURAL PRODUCTS 27. The musculoskeletal system 309

AND PHYTOMEDICINES USED IN 28. The skin 318
PHARMACY AND MEDICINE 233
29. The eye 326
20. The gastrointestinal and biliary system 235
30. Ear, nose and oropharynx 328
21. The cardiovascular system 250
31. Weight loss supplements 331
22. The respiratory system 259
32. Miscellaneous supportive therapies for stress, ageing,
23. The central nervous system 273 cancer and debility 334
24. Infectious diseases 286
25. The endocrine system 295 Index 345
26. The reproductive tract 306
 vii

Dedication

To our families, for their unfailing support through-

out the preparation of this book, and to our many
colleagues around the world who are interested in
medicinal plants/ethnopharmacology, pharmacognosy
and phytotherapy.
This page intentionally left blank

     

Foreword
A. DOUGLAS KINGHORN
Worldwide, drugs derived from organisms continue
to be important for the treatment and prevention of
many diseases. Pharmacognosy, which is defined in
this book as ‘the science of biogenic or nature-derived
pharmaceuticals and poisons’, has been an established
pharmaceutical science taught in institutions of phar-
macy education for well over a hundred years.
The subject area has changed considerably since
its initiation, having metamorphosed from a largely
descriptive botanical and mycological field in the late
19th and early 20th centuries, to having much more of
a chemical and biological focus within approximately
the last 60 years. Today, pharmacognosy embraces the
scientific study of mainly small-molecule organic com-
pounds from plants, animals and microbes, of both ter-
restrial and marine origin. It has been estimated that
almost 50% of new drugs introduced into medicine in
Western countries over the last 70 years were either
obtained directly from an ever more diverse range of
organisms, or were otherwise derived from natural
products. Even in an age of biotechnology, computer
chemistry and refinements in chemical synthesis, there
continues to be a steady stream of new natural product-
derived drugs approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration. Most of the new natural product-­
derived drugs that have reached the market over the
last decade and a half have been obtained from terres-
trial microbe sources, but there are several other exam-
ples of both higher plant and marine animal origin. In
the United States, the first two examples of ‘botanical
drug products’ (sinecatechins from green tea – Camellia
sinensis (L.) Kuntze and crofelemer from Croton lechleri
Müll. Arg.) have received official approval within the
last 10 years. Natural products continue to be widely
utilized as laboratory probes for many different targets
to help better understand cellular processes.
ix
Pharmacognosy has evolved relatively recently to
include the topics of phytotherapy and nutraceuti-
cals. Also, the teaching of pharmacognosy has become
more relevant than previously over the last 20 years, as
a result of a substantially increased use of herbal rem-
edies (phytomedicines) by the public, particularly in
Europe, North America and Australasia. If the United
States is taken as an example, community pharmacists
have to deal with the availability of a rather bewilder-
ing array of thousands of ‘botanical dietary supple-
ment’ products, of which many were introduced soon
after the passage of the Dietary Supplement Health
and Education Act of 1994. There are now many pub-
lications in the biomedical literature describing the
biological properties and mechanistic parameters of
purified constituents of dietary supplements of natural
origin. Therefore, societal interest in pharmacognosy is
likely to increase in the future as the biochemical role
of phytomedicines, nutraceuticals and drugs of natural
origin in general becomes more clearly defined.
The third edition of this volume, Fundamentals of
Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, by Michael Heinrich,
Joanne Barnes, José Prieto Garcia, Simon Gibbons and
Elizabeth Williamson, aims to provide a contemporary
perspective of natural product drugs providing an in-
troduction into this field. The book is organized into
two major parts, ‘Fundamentals of pharmacognosy’
(Part A) and ‘Important natural products and phyto-
medicines in medicine and pharmacy’ (Part B). Part A
is divided into five sections, dealing, in turn, with: the
history and importance of pharmacognosy and phyto-
therapy in pharmacy and medicine; relevant principles
of botany and ethnobotany; the chemistry and analy-
sis of secondary metabolites of organisms pertinent to
drug therapy; the characterization and standardization
of phytomedicines and nutraceuticals; and the use of
x Foreword
medicinal plants in Oriental and South Asian systems
of traditional medicine, as well as in Western comple-
mentary and alternative medicine. Part B provides
coverage of the use of phytomedicines in various thera-
peutic categories, affecting, respectively: the gastroin-
testinal system and biliary system; the cardiovascular
system; the respiratory system; the central nervous sys-
tem; infectious diseases; the endocrine system (includ-
ing effects on diabetes); the reproductive tract; the mus-
culoskeletal system and bones; the skin; the eyes; the
ears, nose and orthopharynx; weight loss supplements;
and miscellaneous supportive therapies. Some of these
categories are new for this third edition of the book.
This comprehensive pharmacognosy textbook inte-
grates very effectively the various traditional elements of
pharmacognosy and phytotherapy. The five talented co-
authors have been successful in this endeavour in large
part because they have contributed their collective and
complementary technical expertise in several diverse
areas, including ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology,
classical botanical pharmacognosy, natural product and
analytical chemistry, phytochemistry, phytotherapy and
clinical pharmacy.
This new edition may be confidently recommend-
ed for purchase by undergraduate and professional
doctoral students in pharmacy, as well as beginning
graduate students in programmes in the pharmaceuti-
cal sciences and related areas. It will also be of great
interest for use in continuing education courses for
pharmacists, dentists, nurses and physicians. In ad-
dition, all those with a scientific interest in herbalism
and traditional medicine will find the content of value.
The book will moreover serve as a reliable source of
information on natural product drugs for the interest-
ed lay reader. The previous editions of Fundamentals
of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy have proven to be
very highly regarded by readers. This updated and
partially reorganized volume will be especially warm-
ly welcomed by educators of future pharmacists and of
other healthcare professionals.

Foreword
MARK BLUMENTHAL
Consumer interest in and use of herbs, teas, medicinal
plants, phytomedicines, plant-derived ingredients and
so-called ‘nutraceuticals’ has been growing worldwide
over the past four decades. Scientific and clinical re-
search on the chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology,
and clinical applications of medicinal plants and re-
lated products is accelerating at a significant rate. The
growth of publications on such research increased al-
most 700% in a 30-year period from 1977 to 2007, and
if such growth in research publications were measured
today (2017), the rate of the continued increase might
be even higher.
Accordingly, the corresponding need for reliable
professional educational materials on these increas-
ingly popular natural products has never been more
compelling.
Consumers continue to purchase and utilize herbs
and medicinal plant products in growing numbers.
They are regulated in a variety of ways, either as a
form of food or as various types of medicines: dietary
supplements in the US and food supplements in the
European Union (EU), so-called Traditional Herbal
Medicines in the EU, Natural Health Products in Can-
ada, and other names for a wide spectrum of product
formulations that are regulated under a variety of reg-
ulatory regimes.
Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs of natural
origin, whether they are derived from plants, bacte-
ria, fungi, or animals. Many modern drugs are de-
rived directly from plants – a truism that is commonly
known among pharmacists, physicians, researchers,
and even many educated consumers. Classic exam-
ples include the still-employed cardiac drug digoxin
(from the toxic foxglove plant, Digitalis purpurea and
D. ­lanata), the anti-inflammatory drug colchicine (from
the also toxic Mediterranean autumn crocus, Colchicum
xi
a­ utumnale) and the analgesic and anodyne opiates –
­codeine and morphine – from the opium poppy (Papa-
ver somniferum). The latter (morphine) is the very first
plant-based drug (isolated in 1804). In relatively rapid
­succession, in the early 19th century other plant-derived
single-chemical entity drugs were isolated from their
plant sources: strychnine (from Strychnos nux-vomica),
the antimalarial quinine (from the South American cin-
chona bark, Cinchona officinalis), and numerous others,
giving rise to the modern pharmaceutical industry.
In recent years there has been some debate among
researchers as to whether the search for new pharma-
ceutical drugs from plants is a worthwhile endeavour.
Chemists normally prefer the purity of single-chemical
entity (SCE) drugs, whether natural or synthetic, and
chemical synthesis has often been the preferred route
of discovery, when appropriate, usually due to the
lower cost and chemical simplicity of SCEs, i.e. when
compared to the chemically complex botanical materi-
als – roots, leaves, barks, flowers, seeds, etc., and their
extracts.
Investigations into the long history of the use of
medicinal plants in indigenous cultures – the sciences
of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology – has often
produced excellent leads for the development of new
medicines. Although now dated, the most-cited study
of this process was published by the World Health
Organization in 1979 in which 119 modern plant-­
derived drugs were listed (including, of course, all
those mentioned above). Not surprisingly, the mod-
ern applications of 74% of these drugs correlated di-
rectly with the traditional ethnobotanical uses of their
source plants.
Lest anyone think that the ethnobotanical approach
to drug discovery is an archaic and/or futile endeav-
our, one only need review the blockbuster news in
xii Foreword
the medical plant community in 2015 that Chinese
­researchers were granted the Nobel Prize in Physiol-
ogy or Medicine for discovery of the highly successful
antimalarial drug artemisinin, derived from the tradi-
tional Chinese herb quinghao (Artemisia annua, some-
times referred to as sweet wormwood). Traditional
uses of this plant for reducing intermittent fevers led to
its being investigated by Chinese scientists in the 1970s
when seeking leads for the development of a new an-
timalarial drug.
Further interest is generated by the recent develop-
ment and official United States government approval
of two new plant-derived chemically complex medi-
cines, a tannin-rich extract of green tea (Camellia sinen-
sis) in an ointment for the topical treatment of human
papilloma virus and an oligomeric proanthocyanidin-
rich extract of the exudate of the bark of a South Amer-
ican tree sangre de drago (Croton lechlerii, dragon’s
blood) for symptomatic relief of diarrhoea in HIV/
AIDS patients on antiretroviral therapy. Approval of
new chemically complex plant-derived medicines is
probably inevitable and may constitute a new era in
pharmacy and medicine.
Medicinal plants have played and will continue to
play a significant role in the development of modern
medicines, and will continue to be used by the pub-
lic as self-selected medicines and supplements. Cor-
respondingly, a growing number of licensed health
professionals also recommend or prescribe medicinal
plant-based supplements and related natural products.
Of particular interest is the increased consumer ac-
ceptance and use of herbs and medicinal plant prod-
ucts in industrialized nations. In the U S market, retail
sales of herbs and other plant-based dietary supple-
ments in 2015 reached almost US$7 billion – a new
record for sales in the United States. These sales data
do not reflect similar growth in other countries. This
does not reflect the additional sales volume related to
the use of herbal teas or the growing use of botanical
ingredients in cosmetics and, more recently, in conven-
tional foods, e.g. nutrition bars.
What should be immediately clear from examining
a list of top-selling herbs (at least as it represents con-
sumer demand in the United States) is the presence of
many botanicals that have a long history of food use,
either as spices and food flavourings and/or as con-
ventional foods.
Popular spices such as turmeric root and rhizome
(Curcuma longa), the top-selling supplement in the
United States in the natural food store channel for the
past 4 years, garlic (Allium sativum), ginger (Zingiber
officinale), and red pepper (Capsicum annuum) are used
by consumers for a variety of traditional and clinically
documented health benefits. Conventional foods, such
as cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon), bilberry (Vaccin-
ium myrtillus, an anthocyanin-rich type of blueberry),
pomegranate (Punica granatum), soy (Glycine max),
and/or their extracts have gained significant popu-
larity as dietary supplements and phytomedicines in
various countries, again based on the growing amount
of clinical research demonstrating their obvious safety,
as well as their activity/efficacy in published clinical
trials.
This brings a relatively new spectrum of plants
to the pharmacognosist for study of their chemistry,
pharmacology, toxicology, and various ways that these
substances in raw, dried, powdered form, or as extracts
(and essential oils) can be formulated for optimal con-
sumption by a growing consumer base interested in
safe, effective, reliable natural products.
With the increased acceptance of the health-­
promoting benefits of many food items, one can fore-
cast that future pharmacognosy educational materials
will recognize the field of nutritional biochemistry as
an equally important area of research. The growing
trend of ‘food as medicine’ is rife with opportunities
for pharmacists, physicians, and dietitians/nutrition-
ists to share vitally important information for the ben-
efit of health consumers.
While consumer demand for natural health prod-
ucts continues to grow and the market responds with
an almost dizzying array of natural products, one of
the most important recent developments is the grow-
ing concern of botanical experts regarding the quality
and identity of botanical raw materials, extracts, and
essential oils.
Quality issues related to herbal ingredients have
come under increased scrutiny due to increased re-
ports of problems related to the first issue noted above,
i.e. the adulteration of the raw materials, extracts, or
essential oils with undisclosed lower-cost ingredients.
While adulteration with another plant can be a re-
sult of accidental misidentification of the plant in the
field or in processing and/or inadequate training of
harvesting and processing personnel, reliable reports
continue to confirm the highly lamentable practice of
intentional adulteration of botanical materials used as
ingredients in consumer products meant for health ef-
fects, e.g. dietary/food supplements. Adulterated bo-
tanical materials are also found in cosmetic products
and other items for topical use.
There are generally two areas of concern when it
comes to medicinal plant quality: (1) identity and au-
thenticity, and (2) purity. With respect to the former,

the first priority in any effective quality-control system
for herbs and medicinal plants is ensuring the proper
identity of the raw plant material, whether it is to be
used as simply raw material for a consumer product
(e.g. a herbal tea or capsule), or whether it is to be used
as the starting material for the creation of a botanical
extract (made with one or more solvents) or distilled
into an essential oil. The second priority of purity deals
with ensuring that the raw material does not contain
any excessive levels of other plant materials (pharma-
copeias usually allow up to 2% of foreign organic ma-
terial in herbal starting materials used for medicinal
purposes), excessive levels of pesticides or other agri-
cultural chemicals or excessive levels of heavy metals
(often derived from soil or water), and that there is no
microbial contamination.
Adulteration of foods, spices, botanical drugs, and
medicinal products is not a recent phenomenon. ­Recent
publications document the problem of s­ubstitution
with undisclosed lower-cost materials and/or ­dilution
with such ingredients going as far back as 2000 years,
and probably even earlier. It was for this reason that
the first pharmacopeia was initiated in the late 15th
century – as a means to compile methods to ensure the
proper botanical identity of herbal drugs and to detect
known adulterants.
As a section of this book demonstrates, botanical
authentication is a necessary first step in any robust
and effective quality-control system used in the vari-
ous areas of the supply chain and manufacturing in
the botanical industry. Plant species identification
and authentication is conducted using various tech-
niques – macroscopic and organoleptic, microscopic,
chemical and genetic. Industry and nonprofit groups
Foreword xiii
continually offer training programmes on these tech-
niques in order to serve the increasingly specialized
quality-­control needs of the global botanical industry.
Accordingly, there is a growing need in the burgeoning
botanical industry for well-qualified technicians and
scientists with adequate training in medicinal plant
identity, authentication, and other means of appro-
priate qualification, e.g. botanists, pharmacognosists,
natural product chemists, and others. This textbook
presents as an excellent reference contributing to such
education and training.
While earlier pharmacognosy texts tended to be
organized on a phytochemical basis (e.g. alkaloids,
glycosides, tannins, etc.), this text takes the rational
approach of organizing the content based on a thera-
peutic and clinical basis – physiological systems upon
which the natural medicines have their primary ac-
tions and uses (e.g. cardiovascular system, nervous
system, digestive system, etc.). The authors, all experts
in pharmacognosy, also provide essential and ratio-
nal information for the appropriate use of medicinal
plants in therapy, especially as practiced by licensed
health professionals.
This book, the third edition of a work that has gained
significant prominence and respect as a leading text-
book, contains highly valuable and authoritative infor-
mation for anyone who is a student of pharmacy and/
or pharmacognosy. It is also a valuable reference for
industry quality-control personnel, herbalists, natural
product researchers, and others in the health profes-
sionals who wish to learn about the growing popularity
of herbs and medicinal plants and how natural botani-
cal preparations can provide a growing range of safe
and effective health benefits for c­ onsumers w
­ orldwide.
This page intentionally left blank

     

Preface
In the last few decades, pharmacognosy (the study
of drugs of natural origin) as an academic discipline,
and its application in healthcare, has changed re-
markably but still focuses on the quality of products
and the development of new medicines Anagnostou
and Heinrich, 2017. There has been a revival of in-
terest in natural products as sources of new drugs,
phytotherapy and herbal medicines highlighting the
responsibilities of healthcare professionals. This has
created the need to provide teaching and learning in
these topics for students of pharmacy, medicine, nurs-
ing and other health professions, including medical
herbalism. Knowledge about plant-derived medici-
nal products is essential in all areas of healthcare, not
only because these forms of treatment are a popular
healthcare choice (often used as self-medication) but
because of the importance of them in many tradi-
tional medical systems globally. This text aims to pro-
vide a contemporary, therapeutics-oriented perspective on
plants as medicines, as well as a general overview of
the topic that non-specialist readers will find interest-
ing and useful. This book is not a guide to treatment,
rather, it is a textbook presenting the scientific prin-
ciples and summarizing the traditional, preclinical
and clinical evidence underpinning the use of herbal-
and other plant-derived medicines. The content has
arisen, in part, from new lecture courses developed
by the authors, as well as from developments in the
analysis, evidence-based practice and regulation of
herbal medicines. The book covers all fundamental
aspects of pharmacognosy, as well as topics relating
to the therapeutic use of plant drugs, known as phy-
totherapy. The text is unique in covering the subject
of m
­ edicinal plants as an important element of con-
temporary healthcare, an approach that reflects the
current public interest in it.
xv
The book combines sections on the scientific study
of plant drugs – phytochemistry, ethnopharmacy and
botany – with descriptions of traditional medicine sys-
tems, such as Western medical herbalism, traditional
Chinese medicine (TCM), and Ayurvedic medicine.
For this edition, a new chapter covering the analysis of
complex plant mixtures has been added (phytochemi-
cal analysis) and summaries of Australian Aboriginal
medicine, Rongoā Māori (Aotearoa New Zealand),
Kampo (Japan), Unani (India, Pakistan, Middle East),
Jamu (Indonesia, Malaysia) and the traditional medi-
cine of the Americas, have also been included. This
new material is introduced and supported by a new
overview of medicinal plants in healthcare systems.
As in previous editions, a separate chapter covers ‘in-
tegrative’ or ‘complementary/alternative’ therapies,
such as aromatherapy, homoeopathy and others, if it
involves the use of plant-derived substances.
The fully revised and updated Part B continues
to provide a comprehensive summary of the use of
and evidence for herbal medicines and pure natural
substances in different medical conditions, organized
into therapeutic categories based on the British Na-
tional Formulary (BNF) classification. Numerous me-
dicinal plants and a new section on superfoods have
been added. Natural product-derived drugs include
those produced by biotechnology and from animal
and microbial sources; these are vast and important
subjects, so comprehensive coverage was not possible
in this text.
Our intention is to equip the reader with the infor-
mation and knowledge necessary to understand the
role of natural products in the drug discovery pro-
cess, and to enable the assessment of potential benefits
and harms of plant-based medicines when advising
patients who wish to use them. We aim to provide a
xvi Preface

strong foundation in the scientific principles of plant- Pharmacognosiaceae. Finally, from our plant family to
derived drugs, focusing on their chemistry, with chem- our own families, as ever, our deepest and warmest
ical structures where necessary and appropriate. thanks are for you.
In this new edition, we have increased the refer- Last, but not least, Dr José Prieto Garcia has joined
ences and further reading material in each section, the team of authors.
so the reader can delve further into the subject, and Michael Heinrich
consult the original work from which our informa- Joanne Barnes
tion was taken. We thank all those who have contrib- José M. Prieto Garcia
uted advice, suggestions and support, including our Simon Gibbons
colleagues, both present and former, and the wider Elizabeth M. Williamson

Reference
Anagnostou, S., Heinrich, M., 2017. Pharmacognosy – from
Pharmacographica to DNA-based techniques’? Planta
Medica. doi.org/10.1055/s-0043–108999.

PART A
Fundamentals
of pharmacognosy
Why are plants and their extracts still important in
pharmacy and medicine? In 2015, the scientific impor-
tance of pharmacognosy and natural product research was
highlighted globally. Prof. Youyou Tu (* 1930, China) was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ‘for her
discoveries concerning a novel therapy against malaria’
and more specifically for the discovery and development of
artemisinin, one of the most important antimalarial drugs
we have today (Tu 2016) and to Prof. William C. Campbell
(* 1930, Northern Ireland / USA) and Prof. Satoshi Ōmura
(* 1935, Japan) ‘for their discoveries concerning a novel
therapy against infections caused by roundworm para-
sites’. These two scientists led the development of aver-
mectins, fungal metabolites from Streptomyces avermitilis
and their derivatives (Campbell 1991, Ōmura and Shiomi
2007).
Historically, plants have yielded some of our most
important drugs, but, with the great advances in medicinal
chemistry of the last century, in many drug discovery pro-
grammes synthetic drugs superseded them as the main fo-
cus of research. However, the development of drugs using
natural products as ‘lead’ molecules continues, and many
plant-derived pure compounds (or natural products) are
used in modern, conventional medicine; other compounds
are potentially useful to humans or are of toxicological
relevance.
There has also been a huge rise in the use of phyto-
pharmaceuticals and herbal medicines in recent years,
especially in North America, Europe and Australasia. Tra-
ditional medicine, which uses many plant remedies, re-
mains an important (and in some cases, the only) form of
treatment in many developing countries but is increasing
throughout the world. People in many countries now want
to cure minor health problems with something ‘natural’
and ageing populations have an increasing demand for
1
medicines and foods (‘nutraceuticals’) to help combat the
symptoms and problems of ageing. This public demand
is an enormous challenge for all health professionals,
many of whom have little specialist knowledge of natural
medicines.
This book is divided into two parts. The first part ad-
dresses the concepts that help in the understanding of
the pharmacognostical basis of such medical products,
including pharmaceutical, pharmacological, toxicological
and phytochemical aspects. The second part is devoted to
important plant-derived medicines, which are arranged in
therapeutic categories.
Part A is devoted to the basic scientific principles un-
derlying the use of medicinal plants, and the extracts and
pure compounds (sometimes referred to as ‘natural prod-
ucts’) derived from them. This part is selective, and high-
lights those aspects most relevant to everyday practice. In
the first chapter, a general introduction to the scientific
field of pharmacognosy, and one of its main applications,
phytotherapy, is given. Chapter 2 provides an overview
of the historical development of plants in pharmacy and
medicine, showing how the modern use of medicinal
plants has evolved. In Chapters 3–5 the botanical basis
of the discipline is summarized, covering classification
and the use of plants by people with little or no access
to modern medicine – known as ethnobotany and ethno-
pharmacy. Chapters 6–8 deal mainly with phytochemistry.
Here, the types of compounds that may be present are
discussed, together with their isolation and identification,
using chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques. In
Chapter 9 a very short overview of the process is given,
from agricultural production or collection from the wild,
to the processing of the pharmaceutical product or
health-food supplement. Phytomedicines have particular
attributes not encountered using synthetic drugs or single
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Title: Luba: en studie

Author: Ina Lange

Release date: January 2, 2024 [eBook #72592]

Language: Swedish

Original publication: Helsingfors: G. W. Edlunds förlag, 1889

Credits: Tapio Riikonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LUBA: EN

STUDIE ***
LUBA

En studie

Af

DANIEL STEN [Ina Lange]

Helsingfors, Edlunds, 1889.

INNEHÅLL:

Företal. 1. Demonen. 2. Luba. 3. Tre friare. 4. Två systrar. 5. Prosa.

6. Kris. 7. Aftonvandring. 8. Om tio år. 9. Helgonet. 10. Nattens
skuggor. 11. Mosters ogudaktighet. 12. Barnabss-föreningen. 13.
Återseendet. 14. Förlofvad karl. 15. Han kommer. 16. Idealet funnet.
17. Luba gift. 18. Slutet.
FÖRETAL.

Då jag nu sänder dig denna min nya lilla bok, en anspråkslös studie
som du ser, öfver några af de egendomliga fenomener —
patologiska kallas de ju — som just nu så mycket låta tala om sig, så
sker det i den glada tillförsigt, att du förstår mig.

Som du vet, finns det många goda människor hvilka äro så naiva
att de på allvar tro att det är författaren sjelf som talar i de personer
han för fram i sin berättelse. Människor som förmena att då
författaren skildrar några mindre sympatiska individer inom en
nation, en församling, en sekt, han därmed vill angripa eller anklaga
nationen, församlingen, sekten.

Naturligtvis kommer jag att dömas så af några. Men andra skola

måhända liksom du med intresse följa berättelsen om en urspårad
tillvaro i kamp med lifvets svårigheter; dess ifriga men från orätt sida
började sökande efter de eviga sanningarne. De skola gärna läsa
denna skildring om ett förfeladt men rikt lif som går förloradt, till följe
af en osund natur och en ytlig uppfostran; så ytlig som ännu i dag
välmenande och tanklösa föräldrar bestå den dotter, som är ämnad
att pigas balsalongerna och sedan göra ett godt parti.
 Du vet att mina såkallade modeller längesen äro döda, och att de
lefvat på andra orter. Men vet också att hvarje ord är sannt, alla
händelser engång upplefvade.

Mottag boken och läs den med den sympati för lidandet — det må
nu vara sjelfförvålladt eller icke — som jag sjelf känt. Af dig
åtminstone kan jag ju hoppas det.

Helsingfors, 1 September, 1880.

>I. L.

1.

DEMONEN.

I hennes lilla rum lågo alla sakerna från i går kringkastade åt olika
håll. På soffan hängde tyllklädningen med lifvet snuddande vid
golfvet och de trasiga fållarne uppåt karmen, på stolarne hade hon
kastat sina kjolar, och på skrifbordet låg en bundt skrynklade hvita
blommor tillsammans med den ena skon, handskarne och de halft
afvigtdragna strumporna.

Den lata gamla Katrina som inte satt in allt detta, eller tagit det bort
då hon gick!

Unga fröken kom dock inte riktigt noga ihog hur det var när de
kommo hem: Katrina hade sett så otäckt sömnig ut, så att hon sändt
henne bort. Det är inte roligt att se ett sådant skenheligt, gammalt
ansigte när man kommer från en förtjusande bal, ännu alldeles
betagen och varm. Och så… hvarför skulle man inte skynda i säng
till sina drömmar.

På ena sidan sofvo systrarne som om det ingen glädje fanns i

världen, sä tungt och dumt. De gamla skåpen, ingen under att de,
som aldrig varit unga, sofvo bort allting.

Det var annat med henne som bara var aderton år och ändtligen
fått börja lefva!

Hur hon njöt af att dansa! Att såsom nyss få sväfva omkring i
värme, i ljus och under döfvande musik! Att få fladdra som en fjäril,
iklädd lätta kläder, från den en» till den andra, tryckt af starka armar,
smickrad af leende människor, och allt detta efter toner, i böljor, med
klappande hjärta och blodet i svallning.

Så härligt!

Att pappa också kunde afbryta alltsammans midt i det roligaste,

klockan var ju då knappt två. Just i det allra bästa, när hon dansade
med doktorn, och var så glad och lycklig som i himlen.

Hur tråkigt att allting måste afbrytas just då man riktigt var i farten!

Nej, hon skulle fortsätta dansen i drömmen, lemna sig i hans

armar, så kunde de valsa hur länge som helst. Det var då väl att man
åtminstone fick tänka sig vidare, eftersom det var förbjudet i
värkligheten.

Nu ville hon njuta.

Hon hade i hand en liten näsduk, starkt parfymerad och

hopskrynklad som en boll. Den hade hon fällt i kotiljongen och så
hade han tagit upp den och fört den till sina läppar.

Där fanns ännu kvar en liten doft af likör och cigarr.

Hon tryckte näsduken mot sitt ansigte och höll andan. O! att den
kunde tala.

Hvad tänkte han på då han gaf henne den tillbaka? Månne på det
som hon?
Månne han var så glad, så öm som hon?

Hon ville alls inte sofva, utan hellre drömma vaken. Så ensam hon
dock var — så utan en förtrogen att tala med! Om hon bara haft en
jemnårig, men hon hade ju ingen.

Modren var död för längesen, henne mindes hon ej mer.

Och systrarne, de voro ju gamla, tjugufyra år, och tjugufem, dem

kunde man naturligtvis knappt räkna för medmänniskor.

Det skulle då möjligen varit fadren. Han var lefnadsglad! Det var
på honom hon bråddes. Hans vackra drag, hans figur, hans varma
blod.

Och han hade hjärta!

Men de gamla, hvad hade de? Huslighets själar, moralkakssinnen,

det var allt.

Hur de förmanat henne för den här usla picknicken! Hon skulle
vara försigtig med herrarne, inte skratta för mycket, inte låta kurtisera
sig för mycket; som om man rådde för att folk tyckte om en!
 Syster Anna var alldeles fatal, när hon förmanade. Och syster Lina
odräglig, när hon bad henne vara "fin, tillbakadragen, men ändå
naturlig!"

Naturlig ja, det ville hon vara! Och det var naturligt att vara glad,
att vara vänlig, att ta emot vänlighet, att njuta sin ungdom.

Sådant bråk systrarne haft att sy den där fattiga klädningen! Och
den var naturligtvis för hög i halsen, för lång i ärmarne, och för lite
stram i lifvet.

På eftermiddagen när hon skickat ut systrarne på ärenden, hade

hon sjelf hjelpt upp den en liten smula. Sytt in, och klippt bort. Det
fanns ändå ingen af de riktiga baldockorna, som var så lite utringad,
och det var vackert, det visste hon.

Tänk så roligt hon haft denna afton. Hur tiden flög! Klockan i
matsalen slog tre. — Det var så mörkt det kunde utanför, allt var
vinter och drifvor, ingenting lefde utom hon, och hennes hjärta var
nog det enda son klappade så vildt den tiden på dygnet.

Nattlampan brann sömnigt och kastade ett sken öfver klädningen,

som nu såg röd ut, och ej hvit. Och blommorna, tänk att de varit
hvita, så grå och tillplattade som de nu sågo ut. Sådana
skräpgrannlåter som inte tålte det smula trycket mot kavaljerns bröst
i dansen!

De fördärfvades af det som gjorde att hon bara blef vackrare och
mer liffull!

Där låg hon i sin lilla säng, och vände och vred sig medan
tankarna alltjemt dansade i valstempo. Kudden slängde hon åt alla
håll, klämde ihop den, och bredde den ut igen, kramade den i sina
hota armar, och sökte alltjemt nya svala ställen att trycka sitt
blossande ansigte mot.

Från fadrens sofrum på andra sidan kunde hon höra hans ljudeliga
andedrag.

Så han sof prosaiskt! Och snarkade så otäckt

Det var nog längesen han var så upphettad och orolig efter en bal
som hon; skulle hon väl nånsin bli så lugn? — nåja, kanske vid hans
ålder.

Om det snart åter blef något, om också bara en studentbal! Då

skulle hon ha ny klädning, pappa kunde ej neka. Blått, och med
band, allt som var lätt och mjukt och tunnt klädde henne. Men inga
blommor, det rika håret uppsatt i en fläta.

Hon ville att man skulle erkänna henne som den mest firade. Att
häradshöfdingen och doktorn och student Horn och kusin Alfred
kunde ge sig af med att dansa så mycket med den tjocka Ella, som
om det fanns något poetiskt om henne.

De skulle bara vetat hur gärna Luba ville dansa, hur själfull hon
var, och hur söt!

Hon blef allt hetare, ju längre det led. Hon hörde musiken så tydligt
som om den ännu spelade, och hennes hjärta klappade i takt.

Pulsarne slogo hårdt, och kinderna glödde som mörka rosor.

Småningom blefvo hennes tankar mer orediga, balen liksom

fjärnades, och andra föreställningar kommo i stället. Hon fantiserade,
för hennes inbillning sväfvade en hop gestalter, och de spolade i
hennes hjärna en komedi däri hon sjelf var hufvudpersonen.

Några romanfigurer eller hjeltar från bekanta dikter antogo kött och
blod och lefde med henne, i hennes krets, de besökte hennes hem
och hon knöt ömma band med dem, än den ena än den andra.

Isynnerhet var det en. Var han ifrån en roman eller ifrån en dikt?
Hade hon sett hans bild i museet, eller hvar?

Hvem var det?

Nej nu blef hon alltför varm, och kastade bort täcket. Hennes
kropp, höljd i det tunna linnet, låg feberhet på bädden, hon borrade
fötterna in i lakanet och ansigtet i dynorna.

Med tätt slutna ögon låg hon så och halfdrömde.

Var det någon där borta, bakom henne? Var det ett mänskligt
väsen, eller en ande? En dröm eller något värkligt?

Där hon låg med ögonen begrafna i kudden tyckte hon sig se. Det
var en stor skepnad med ett underligt mörkt ansigte och svart hår,
han såg ut som den där bilden hon sett, eller dikten hon läst,
hvilkendera visste hon ej.

Hon tyckte att han rörde sig och nalkades henne, hon kände att
han böjde sig öfver henne och betraktade henne, hon visste att hans
stora, oroliga ögon stirrade på henne med brinnande blickar.

Hon såg hur hans mun rördes, han hviskade och hviskade, men
hon kunde ej höra orden.
 Han stödde sig på handen; rakt öfver hennes hufvud hade han
den, på sängkarmen. Och när han böjde sig närmare henne föll hans
här öfver hans panna, och dolda ögonbrynen.

Hon ville höra hvad han sade, höll andedrägten, och lyssnade.

Det var alldeles skymt i rummet, lampan lyste så dåligt som om

den höll på att slockna. Om hon tordes vända sig om, och öppna
ögonen, bara en liten smula?

Men nej, hon tordes icke.

Hon ville inte heller, ty då kunde han ju försvinna. Och nu var han
där, klädd i något svart, hvilket omslöt honom som en mantel. Det
knittrade som silke, det häfde sig som under tunga andedrag.

Hon försökte att halföppna ögonen, men såg inte! Hon tyckte sig
skymta hans stora svarta vingar som till hälften fyllde rummet och
sakta och svalkande flägtade.

Ja, han hviskade! kunde hon blott urskilja orden!

Hon tyckte sig känna hans andedrägt i sin nacke, het darrade den
genom hennes hår och gick upp mot hjärnan som däraf blef än mer
omtöcknad. Men nu, nu började hon höra hans tal, hon visste ej
hvad han sade, hon förnam orden utan att förstå.

Han talade som hennes romaneska, uppjagade fantasi dikterade,

som hjeltarne ifrån hennes romaner brukade tala, hon igenkände
talesätten, accenterna, ja sjelfva orden, men hon förstod honom
ändock icke.
 "Luba, Luba", sade han, "här är jag! — Älska mig! Du har mig
ändtligen, med kropp och själ, så se på mig! Du har ju längtat efter
mig, tränat efter denna stund, hvarför dröjer du?

"Är du nu, när jag ändtligen är kommen, är du nu rädd för mig,

fruktar du? Det hjelper icke, ty du undgår mig icke, och du är lika fast
bunden vid mig som vid ditt eget öde.

"Luba, Luba, hädanefter är jag hos dig alltid då du är ensam, jag

kommer sakta, kallad af din längtan och dina böner.

"Minns du demonen på den stora och sällsama bilden du en gång

säg? Det är jag, — och klosterjungfrun hvars världsliga själ behöfdo
jordisk, men icke himmelsk kärlek, det är du!

"Ja, jag älskar dig, och din lidelsefulla själ! Såsom du där ligger
darrande och skälfver, upphettad af dansen, förstår du dig icke sjelf,
men jag känner dig! Och jag är kommen som inkarnationen af dina,
för dig sjelf oförklarade passioner, kommen, icke att med mina vingar
flägta dig sval, men att hetsa upp dig än mer!"

Den unga flickan drog sig närmare mot väggen, tryckte ansigtet
fastare i kudden; hon kände kalla kåror gå sig öfver ryggen, men hon
vågade inte röra sig för att ta upp täcket och svepa sig in i det.

Hon hörde rösten hviska vidare:

"Luba, känner du mig nu? Vet du hvem jag är? Du älskar mig, och
tillhör mig, men känner ej ens mitt namn!

"Jag är din hjelte, din själs begär, ditt lifs innehåll, och du känner
mig icke!
 "När du efter uppeldande, yra balnätter ligger där utsträckt i din
bädd, så vet att ditt hjärtas längtan har löst den trollformel, som hållit
mig fängslad, och så är jag här, lutad öfver din späda, sköna gestalt,
och fyllor dina öron med djärfva sånger, ditt väsen med på engång
tjusning och ängslan!"

Nu var hon åter het, och hennes blod rusade i en ström från hjärtat
och upp öfver hals, kinder och panna. Hon skulle i detta ögonblick
gifvit mycket om hon med en häftig rörelse kunnat jaga honom bort
för att få en smula luft; ty hans ord gjorde ju henne orolig och
skrämd.

Men hon kunde icke. Hon låg som fängslad. Och hon förmådde ej
mer hålla emot, drömmen tog henne allt starkare, hon var ej mer
Luba, postmästar Donners yngsta dotter, hon var värkligen
klosterjungfrun som i sin cell låg och lyssnade till demonen,
demonen som ville föra henne ut till världen och till ett lif i synd och
oro.

"Blir du snart färdig?" sade rösten. "Så skynda dig, eljest blir det
för sent! Vågar du inte följa ditt hjärtas röst? Hvad fruktar du?
(Världen kanske, världen, hvars dom du ännu ej vet vigten af). Är du
feg, Luba, och törs ej se mig i ansigtet? Tänk då hur skönt det
okända är, dit jag ville föra dig, det fremmande, framtidslandet! Och
kom, kan du ännu stå emot, så vackert jag ber dig? Slå dina armar
om min bals så fly vi, mina vingar är starka nog att bära oss tusen
mil bort — kom".

Hon ryste, men rörde sig icke. Igenom hennes hjärna for, som en
svag erinring, minnet om legendens demon. Hon tyckte sig minnas
att han där talade så mycket om prester och vigselceremonier, och
dyra, heliga eder.
 — "Luba" fortsatte rösten, nu i en annan ton, liksom hånande: —
"Är du kanske min täcka, blyga klostermö? Den af världen oberörda,
den drömmande novisen från St. Istara Monastér vid Krim! Är det
du?

"Nåväl, men minnes du då hvad himlen fordrar af henne, hvad

öfverguden befallt? Din kärlek skall vara sådan Gud vill, och sådan
människorna vilja, eljes frälsar du icke den irrande, kropplösa
demonen, som blott kan räddas af den rena jungfru, som i oskyldig
kärlek vill offra sig!

"Sä gå ofta, dagligen och stundligen i kyrkan, bed till helgonen,

späk dig, offra!

"Luba, blif helig, eljes kan du ej hjelpa mig från den eviga elden
som förtär mig! Blif helig, kväf dina syndiga tankar och räck mig din
hand, men blott vid altaret där den brune arkimandriten välsignar
oss! Så kunna vi bli saliga ett helt långt människolif."

Rösten tystnade. Luba kände sig tryggare och var färdig att vända
sig om och i tillitsfull förtröstan betrakta honom. Men så började han
åter, med förändrade tonfall, mer inträngande än förr, mer
passioneradt, än eldigare:

"Nej — tro ej legenden. Du är Luba, världsbarnet, den vackra,

firade baldockan från i går. Hvem skulle äga din skönhet och ej
begagna den! Slå fritt dina armar om min hals, och känn hur mitt
hjärta slår! Vildt och fullt som ditt eget!

"Kom och låt mig känna den första kyssen på mina läppar som
brinna. Kom — snart randas morgonen. Tänk ej på arkimandriten!
När du blir äldre, så kan det vara tid att be till helgonen, att göra
hjärtat kallt och otillgängligt, att bli tvär som de andra. Kom —
hvarför vor' du väl eljes så skön — kom!

"Kom, se upp, blicka in i mina ögon. Haf mod! Luba… Luba…

Luba!"

Hon tordes icke. Hans tal blef allt oredigare, hon hörde nu endast
som en sakta susning.

Var det lampan som slocknande sjöng så där? Eller var det suset
af hans vingar? Ljudet blef allt svagare. Så dog det hän.

Och allt var stilla, alldeles stilla.

*****

"Nu är det tid att stiga upp. Fröken lilla, klockan är nio, och
frukosten väntar. De andra ha ren länge varit uppe!"

Katrina drog upp rullgardinerna och gick och pysslade af och an i

rummet. Plötsligen kom hon att kasta en blick på sängen.

"Hjärtandes! Så hon ligger! Stackare, alldeles naken! Och krupen

åt väggen som om hon var rädd! Upp nu, lilla fröken, vakna! Och
lampan osar ännu! Så styggt med luften här inne… lite för varmt har
hon haft, det glöder ju än i kakelugnen, nå, vaknar hon inte,
sötungen min?"

Den gamla tjenarinnan tog Luba om lifvet och reste henne upp.
Med yrvakna, skrämda blickar stirrade den unga flickan omkring sig i
rummet, en glödande rodnad slog upp öfver kinderna, spred sig
öfver pannan och ända ned till halsen.
 "Hvar är han — hvar?" sade hon och spärrade upp ögonen.

"Jessos, barnungen min, sofver hon än?" klagade Katrina och

stödde Lubas hufvud med handen medan hon jemkade om
kuddarne så hufvudgärden blef högre.

"Sof mitt lilla gull", småpratade hon, "sof ut balosot sitt. Kommer
nog den tid då hon får rusa upp bitti och vagga sina ungar eller koka
kaffe till mannen sin. Sof ut! Jag skall öppna spjellet så får hon luft,
och städa härinne. Här har hon täcket sitt. Sof ut min docka! Om inte
postmästarn går på tåspetsarne, så blir jag arg! Sof min dufva, min
lilla oskyldiga dufunge… gamla Kati skall nog se att hon inte störs!
Sof mitt lam, och dröm om himlens små englar! Den som stör dig
skall få med gamla Kati att göra Sof mitt socker! Voj voj, så blek och
så vacker hon är! Sof. Sof och dröm om små englar. Sof!"
LUBA.

Sommarn hade kommit och på de fjärdar, som för några veckor sen
lågo fjättrade i is, svallade nu vågorna fria, och skummade upp mot
grönklädda stränder.

Träden stodo i vårfrisk bladkostym och från marken doftade det

svagt af nyssutspruckna blommor.

Det var ett jublande uppe i trädtopparne, i boen lågo honorna på

sina ägg och besvarade med sina späda och svaga stämmor
hanarnes ljudeliga sång. Ekorren hoppade från tall till tall och innerst
ifrån skogen hördes göken, det var de sista tonerna, ty snart kom
midsommar…

Där viken vidgade sig till fjärd låg en liten hvit sommarvilla mellan
tallarne. Postmästarn hade hyrt den för sommarn, hans döttrar hade
godt af frisk luft och af salta bad, isynnerhet den yngsta som hade så
ömtålig hälsa.

Hon var bara själ, bara nerver, en högst ömtålig natur. Ja, hon var
ett söderns barn liksom han, alltför varmblodig för Finlands kalla och
hårda klimat. Och så hade hon naturligtvis dansat för mycket i