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Mathematical Techniques of Fractional
Order Systems
Mathematical
Techniques of
Fractional Order
Systems
Edited by
Ahmad Taher Azar

Faculty of Computers and Information, Benha University,
Benha, Egypt
School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Nile University,
Giza, Egypt
Ahmed G. Radwan
Engineering Mathematics and Physics Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
Nanoelectronics Integrated Systems Center (NISC),
Nile University, Cairo, Egypt
Sundarapandian Vaidyanathan
Research and Development Center, Vel Tech University,
Chennai, India
Elsevier
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List of Contributors
Amr M. AbdelAty Engineering Mathematics and Physics Department, Faculty of

Engineering, Fayoum University, El Fayoum, Egypt
Salwa K. Abd-El-Hafiz Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
Norelys Aguila-Camacho University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
Mohsen Alimi University of Kairouan, Kairouan, Tunisia
Dalia Allam Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
Ahmad Taher Azar Faculty of Computers and Information, Benha University,
Benha, Egypt; School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Nile University,
Giza, Egypt
Pagavathigounder Balasubramaniam Gandhigram Rural Institute (Deemed to be
University), Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India
Yassine Bensafia Mohand Oulhadj University of Bouira, Bouira 10000, Algeria
Muzaffar A. Bhat Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
Y. Boukal Université de Lorraine, Cosnes et Romain, France; Université Hassan II,
Casablanca, Maroc; Université de Valenciennes et du Hainaut-Cambrésis,
Famars, France
Bachir Bourouba University of Sétif, Sétif 19000, Algeria
Daniele Casagrande University of Udine, Udine, Italy
M. Darouach Université de Lorraine, Cosnes et Romain, France
Subir Das Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Manuel A. Duarte-Mermoud University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
Magdy Eteiba Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
Ibiyinka A. Fuwape Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria; Michael
and Cecilia Ibru University, Ughelli, Nigeria
Gokul P.M. Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
Hany N. Hassan Benha Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, Benha,
Egypt; Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
Samar M. Ismail Faculty of Information Engineering and Technology (IET),
German University in Cairo (GUC), Cairo, Egypt
Tomasz Kapitaniak Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
Khatir Khettab Mohamed Boudiaf University of M’sila, M’sila 28000, Algeria
xvii
xviii List of Contributors
Wiesław Krajewski Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,

Warsaw, Poland
Jitendra Kumar Instrumentation and Control Engineering Division, Dwarka, New
Delhi, India
Vineet Kumar Instrumentation and Control Engineering Division, Dwarka, New
Delhi, India
Matı́as G. Mayol-Suárez University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
Joana P. Neto Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Samuel T. Ogunjo Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
Kayode S. Ojo University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
Adel Ouannas University of Larbi Tebessi, Tebessa, Algeria
Adel Ounnas University of Larbi Tebessi, Tebessa, Algeria
Viet Thanh Pham Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Hanoi,
Vietnam; Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
N.E. Radhy Université Hassan II, Casablanca, Maroc
Ahmed G. Radwan Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt; Nanoelectronics
Integrated Systems Center (NISC), Nile University, Cairo, Egypt
Kamal Pal Singh Rana Instrumentation and Control Engineering Division, Dwarka,
New Delhi, India
Abdelwaheb Rebai University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
Ahmed Rhif University of Carthage, La Marsa, Tunisia
Lobna A. Said Nano-Electronics Integrated Systems Center (NISC), Nile University,
Giza, Egypt
T. Sathiyaraj Gandhigram Rural Institute (Deemed to be University), Dindigul,
Tamil Nadu, India
Wafaa S. Sayed Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
Mourad S. Semary Benha Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, Benha, Egypt
Fernando E. Serranot Central American Technical University (UNITEC),
Tegucigalpa, Honduras
Bharat B. Sharma National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh,
India
Manoj K. Shukla National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh,
India; Lovely Professional University, Punjab, India
Shikha Singh Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
Mayank Srivastava Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Hamed Taghavian Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
List of Contributors xix
Peachimuthu Tamilalagan Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham (Deemed to be

University), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Mohammad Saleh Tavazoei Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Sundarapandian Vaidyanathan Vel Tech University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Duarte Valério Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Umberto Viaro University of Udine, Udine, Italy
Susana Vinga Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Christos Volos Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
Vijay K. Yadav Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Dalia Yousri Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
M. Zasadzinski Université de Lorraine, Cosnes et Romain, France
Preface
Fractional calculus, as generalization of integer order integration and differ-

entiation to its noninteger (fractional) order counterpart, has proved to be a
valuable tool in the modeling of many physical phenomena and engineering
problems. Fractional derivatives provide an excellent instrument for the
description of memory and hereditary properties of various materials and
processes.
The main reason for using integer order models was the absence of solu-
tion methods for fractional differential equations. The advantages or the real
objects of the fractional order systems are that we have more degrees of free-
dom in the model and that a “memory” is included in the model. One of the
very important areas of application of fractional calculus is the chaos theory.
Chaos is a very interesting nonlinear phenomenon which has been inten-
sively studied. It is found to be useful or has great application potential in
many fields such as secure communication, data encryption, financial sys-
tems, and biomedical engineering. The research efforts have been devoted to
chaos control and chaos synchronization problems in nonlinear science
because of its extensive applications.
Recently, studying fractional order systems has become an active
research area. The chaotic dynamics of fractional order systems began to
attract much attention in recent years. It has been shown that the fractional
order systems can also behave chaotically, such as the fractional order
Chua’s system, the fractional order Lorenz system, the fractional order Chen
system, the fractional order Rössler system, the fractional order modified
Duffing system, the fractional order Newton Leipnik system, the fractional
order Lotka Volterra system, and the fractional order Liu system.
Moreover, recent studies show that chaotic fractional order systems can also
be synchronized. Many scientists who are interested in this field have found
it to be a challenging research problem to achieve the synchronization of
fractional order chaotic systems, and this research area has potential applica-
tions in secure communication and cryptography.
A wide variety of mathematical methods and techniques have been used
in this book to study the dynamics, control, design, and synchronization of
the fractional order control systems such as sliding mode controller, active
and adaptive control methods, fuzzy logic control, nonlinear control
xxi
xxii Preface
methods, fractional order discrete maps, multiswitching synchronization,

metaheuristic algorithms, backstepping control, etc.
ABOUT THE BOOK

The new Elsevier book, Mathematical Techniques of Fractional Order
Systems, consists of 21 contributed chapters by subject experts who are spe-
cialized in the various topics addressed in this book. The special chapters
have been brought out in this book after a rigorous review process in the
broad areas of mathematical techniques of fractional order systems. Special
importance was given to chapters offering practical solutions and novel
methods for the recent research problems in the mathematical modeling and
control applications of fractional order systems. This book discusses trends
and applications of mathematical models of fractional order systems in
engineering.
OBJECTIVES OF THE BOOK

This volume presents a selected collection of contributions on a focused
treatment of mathematical techniques for fractional order systems. The book
also discusses multidisciplinary applications in electrical engineering, control
engineering, mechanical engineering, and computer science. Both novice and
expert readers should find this book a useful reference in the field of frac-
tional order systems.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

This well-structured book consists of 21 full chapters.
BOOK FEATURES
G The book chapters deal with the recent research problems in the areas of
fractional order systems.
G The book chapters present various mathematical techniques for fractional
order systems such as active control, adaptive control, backstepping con-
trol, nonlinear control, fuzzy logic control, metaheuristic algorithms, etc.
G The book chapters contain a good literature survey with a long list of
references.
G The book chapters are well-written with a good exposition of the research
problem, methodology, block diagrams, and mathematical techniques.
G The book chapters are lucidly illustrated with numerical examples and
simulations.
G The book chapters discuss details of engineering applications and future
research areas.
Preface xxiii
AUDIENCE
The book is primarily meant for researchers from academia and industry,
who are working on fractional order systems in the research areas—electrical
engineering, control engineering, mechanical engineering, and computer sci-
ence. The book can also be used at the graduate or advanced undergraduate
level as a text-book or major reference for courses such as power systems,
control systems, electrical devices, scientific modeling, computational sci-
ence, and many others.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As the editors, we hope that the chapters in this well-structured book will
stimulate further research in mathematical techniques of fractional order sys-
tems, and utilize them in real-world applications.
We hope sincerely that this book, covering so many different topics, will
be very useful for all readers.
We would like to thank all the reviewers for their diligence in reviewing
the chapters.
Special thanks go to Elsevier, especially the book Editorial team.
Ahmad Taher Azar

Faculty of Computers and Information, Benha University,
Benha, Egypt; School of Engineering and Applied Sciences,
Nile University, Giza, Egypt
Ahmed G. Radwan
Engineering Mathematics and Physics Department, Faculty of Engineering,
Cairo University, Giza, Egypt; Nanoelectronics Integrated Systems Center (NISC),
Nile University, Cairo, Egypt
Sundarapandian Vaidyanathan
Research and Development Center, Vel Tech University, Chennai, India
Chapter 1
Variable Order Fractional

Derivatives and Bone
Remodeling in the Presence of
Metastases
Joana P. Neto, Duarte Valério and Susana Vinga
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with variable order fractional derivatives, which are a gen-
eralization of fractional order derivatives.
1.1.1 What Are Variable Order Fractional Derivatives?

Fractional order derivatives are, of course, themselves a generalization of usual
integer order derivatives and integrals, known from Calculus. Differentiation
and integration notions of orders nAN are, in Fractional Calculus, generalized
to account for orders αAR (Wheeler, 1997). But since all real numbers are now
available as orders, it is now rather easy to conceive variable order derivatives,
with an order that changes with time. Among the first papers on the subject
were Samko (1995) and Lorenzo and Hartley (2002a), mostly based upon the
RiemannLiouville definition of fractional derivatives. Variable order deriva-
tives have been further developed in Valério and Sá da Costa (2011b); Valério
and Sá da Costa (2013), using not only the RiemannLiouville definition,
but also the GrünwaldLetnikoff and the Caputo definitions. Additional
insights are provided in Sierociuk et al. (2015a,b) and Sierociuk and
Malesza (2017), including experiments with electronic circuits imple-
menting the relevant mathematical operators.
These variable order derivatives are useful in practice, just as fractional
derivatives of constant order are. In fact, being more than 300 years old,
Mathematical Techniques of Fractional Order Systems. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813592-1.00001-5

© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Mathematical Techniques of Fractional Order Systems
fractional calculus has seen a rapid growth in its applications. As it can be

said that real objects are generally fractional, even if that fractionality is
very low (Petrás, 2009), fractional calculus is particularly well suited to
describe the nonlinear relationship with time of anomalous diffusion
(Margin, 2006). Indeed, noninteger derivatives occur most frequently, and
naturally, in physical problems where the essential mechanisms, reactions, or
interactions are governed by diffusion processes. Of course, seeing that
many biological processes often present anomalous diffusion, fractional cal-
culus is an eligible and powerful tool to describe these phenomena (e.g., sub-
threshold nerve conduction, viscoelasticity, bioelectrodes) (Magin, 2006).
But diffusion, being one of the most relevant applications of fractional calcu-
lus, is far from being the only one. Fractional derivatives are used to formu-
late and solve different physical models allowing a continuous transition
from relaxation to oscillation phenomena; to predict the nonlinear survival
and growth curves of food-borne pathogens; to adapt the viscoelasticity
equations (Hooke’s Law and the Newtonian fluids Law) (Rahimy, 2010;
Petrás, 2009); fractional control plays an important role in general physics,
thermodynamics, electrical circuits theory and fractances, mechatronic sys-
tems, signal processing, chemical mixing, chaos theory, and many others
(Petrás, 2009). And there are many possible applications of fractional deriva-
tives in control (Valério and Sá da Costa, 2006, 2011a, 2012; Azar et al.,
2017).
Many physical processes, however, also appear to exhibit a fractional
order behavior that varies with time or space (Lorenzo and Hartley,
2002b). In what concerns the field of viscoelasticity of certain materials,
the temperature effect in small amplitude strains is known to induce
changes from an elastic to viscoelastic/viscous behavior, where real appli-
cations may require a time varying temperature to be analyzed. The relax-
ation processes and reaction kinetics of proteins, which are described by
fractional differential equations, have been found to have an order with a
temperature dependence. The behavior of some diffusion processes in
response to temperature changes can be better described using variable
order elements rather than time-varying coefficients, among other cases
(Lorenzo and Hartley, 2002b). These are natural applications where vari-
able order operators as a function of time (t) or some other variable (x)
can be introduced with profit and in a very natural way (Lorenzo and
Hartley, 2002b; Valério and Sá da Costa, 2013)
This chapter presents one such application of variable order derivatives:
the development of simpler mathematical models of bone remodeling, both
for healthy bone, and for bone tissue affected by cancer. There are several
models published in the literature, but the novelty which is the use of vari-
able order derivatives will result in simpler models that are easier to
understand.
Variable Order Fractional Derivatives and Bone Remodeling Chapter | 1 3
1.1.2 Application Example of Variable Order Derivatives: Bone

Remodeling
Bone is constantly being renewed, being destroyed, and formed, due to cells
termed osteoclasts and osteoblasts, respectively. In the adult skeleton, both
processes are in balance and tightly coupled through autocrine and paracrine
factors between bone cells that allow for a constant bone density to be main-
tained. As this specific microenvironment provides the necessary conditions
for the growth and proliferation of tumor cells, bone is a common site for
the development of metastases, mainly from primary breast and prostate
cancer.
Mathematical and computational models, with differential equations that
represent the control mechanisms involved, can replicate this remodeling
process (Komarova et al., 2003). These models have been extended to
include the effects of tumor disruptive pathologies in the bone dynamics, as
metastases contribute to the decoupling between bone resorption and forma-
tion and to the self-perpetuating tumor growth cycle (Ayati et al., 2010).
Counteraction effects of currently used therapies were also contemplated
(Ayati et al., 2010), through the pharmocokinetic (PK) and pharmacody-
namic (PD) combination of anticancer (chemotherapy) with antiresorptive
treatments (bisphosphonates or monoclonal antibodies) (Christ et al., 2018;
Coelho et al., 2016, 2015).
Fractional and variable order derivatives can be successfully used in
modeling the dynamics of bone remodeling. Christ et al. (2018) implemented
fractional derivatives in the differential equations of bone remodeling pre-
sented in Ayati et al. (2010), and analyzed its dynamic behavior in the
absence and presence of tumor and PK/PD applied treatment, for a discre-
tized single point and a one-dimensional bone. Valério et al. (2016) applied
the same methodology to the more accurate biochemical model of Coelho
et al. (2016). Variable order derivatives have also been introduced in Neto
et al. (2017), as a simplification technique, in the models of Ayati et al.
(2010) and Coelho et al. (2015), in an effort to replicate the same bone
microenvironment response but recurring to less parameters to impose the
known bone behavior. It is the latter that is here revisited and further
analyzed.
1.1.3 Chapter Organization

The remaining sections of this chapter are organized as follows. Variable
order concepts and definitions are addressed in Section 1.2. Bone remodeling
physiology, PK/PD concepts, and published integer mathematical models are
presented in Section 1.3. Variable order bone models are address in
Section 1.4. Finally, conclusions are presented in Section 1.5.
1.2 VARIABLE ORDER DERIVATIVES

This section introduces a variable order differential operator DαðtÞ f ðtÞ,
where f ðtÞ is the differentiated function, and αðtÞ is a time-variable differen-
tiation order. The reader is presumed to already know what Dα f ðtÞ; αAR
is. The variable order operator is introduced informally in Section 1.2.1 for
integer orders only, and then more formally for arbitrary real orders in
Section 1.2.2.
1.2.1 Intuitive Results for Integer Orders

If αðtÞAZ; ’ t then its variations with time must be steps, since it can only
assume values in a discrete set. Still, this simple case illustrates an impor-
tant issue when dealing with variable order derivatives: the existence or not
of a memory of past values of the order. In fact, considering for instance
the case
f ðtÞ 5 t2 ð1:1Þ

2 if tA½0; 1½ , ½2; 3½ , ½4; 5½ , . . .
αðtÞ 5 ð1:2Þ
1 if tA½1; 2½ , ½3; 4½ , ½5; 6½ , . . .
it can intuitively be seen that the reasonable result of operator DαðtÞ f ðtÞ, in
this case, when orders are positive, should be

αðtÞ 2 if tA½0; 1½ , ½2; 3½ , ½4; 5½ , . . .
D f ðtÞ 5 ð1:3Þ
2t if tA½1; 2½ , ½3; 4½ , ½5; 6½ , . . .
In other words, the result simply jumps from one derivative to another.
But things are different if there are negative orders. Consider now the case
f ðtÞ 5 t ð1:4Þ

2 1 if tA½0; 1½ , ½2; 3½ , ½4; 5½ , . . .
αðtÞ 5 ð1:5Þ
0 if tA½1; 2½ , ½3; 4½ , ½5; 6½ , . . .
If the result should again merely jump between the derivative of order
21 (the integral of the function) and the derivative of order 0 (the function
itself), then
8
< 1 t2 if tA½0; 1½ , ½2; 3½ , ½4; 5½ , . . .
αðtÞ
D f ðtÞ 5 2 ð1:6Þ
:
t if tA½1; 2½ , ½3; 4½ , ½5; 6½ , . . .
Notice, consequently, that the integration goes on even when it is not
being used. The question naturally arises of whether it should, or not.
Without such a memory, the result would be
Dtα(t) f (t) Dtα(t) f (t)
f (t) f (t)
FIGURE 1.1 Left: block diagram for Eq. (1.6); right: block diagram for Eq. (1.7).
8
>
>
1 2
>
> t if tA½0; 1½
>
> 2
>
>
>
> t if tA½1; 2½
>
>
>
> 1 3
>
> t2 2 if tA½2; 3½
>
> 2 2
>
>
>
>
< t if tA½3; 4½
DαðtÞ f ðtÞ 5 1 2 ð1:7Þ
>
> t 2 5 if tA½4; 5½
>
> 2
>
>
>
> t if tA½5; 6½
>
>
>
>
> t2 2 11 if tA½6; 7½
>
1
>
>
>
>
2 2
>
>
>
> t if tA½7; 8½
:
...
This result corresponds to an integral that, whenever it is not used, does
not grow. When the 21 order branch is used again, the integral restarts at
the same value it had when used the last time. In other words, the operator
remembers that, for some past time intervals, the value of the order was not
the current one. Notice that this memory of past values of the order is inde-
pendent of the memory of past values of the differentiated function, which is
always present for order 21 (and not for order 0).
Section 1.2.2 will introduce mathematical definitions of variable-order
derivatives with and without memory of past values of the order. Before
that, it is important to assert that both cases (in Eqs. 1.6 and 1.7) make sense:
it is not that one definition is correct and the other not. And these results can
be found in practice. The most obvious way is the use of electronic compo-
nents, such as operational amplifiers and switches. The corresponding block
diagrams are given in Fig. 1.1.
1.2.2 Defining Variable Order Derivatives

To generalize differentiation and integration notions of order nAℕ to orders of
αAR, there are several alternative definitions: those of GrünwaldLetnikoff,
RiemannLiouville, Caputo, AtanganaBaleanu, etc. Here the first two are
addressed. Notice that, save only for orders α 5 1; 2; 3; . . ., operator Dα is non-
local, as it always depends on the integration limits c and t. That is why it has
memory of past values of f ðtÞ (Valério and Sá da Costa, 2013). Recall that, for
constant differentiation orders, the GrünwaldLetnikoff (GL) definition is
given by Eq. (1.8a), and the RiemannLiouville (RL) definition is given by
Eq. (1.8c).
bP
h c
t2c
α
ð21Þk f ðt 2 khÞ
α k50 k
c Dt f ðtÞ 5 lim1 ð1:8aÞ
h-0 hα
8
>
> Γ ðα 1 1Þ
>
> ; if α; k; ðα 2 kÞAR Z2
> > Γ ðk 1 1ÞΓ ðα 2 k 1 1Þ
<
α
5 ð21Þk Γ ðk 2 αÞ ð1:8bÞ
k >
> Γ ðk 1 1ÞΓ ð2 αÞ ;
> if αAZ2 XkAZ1 0
>
>
>
:
0; if ðkAZ2 3ðk 2 αÞAℕÞXα= 2Z2
8
>
> Ð t ðt2τÞ2α21
>
> c Γ ð2 αÞ f ðτÞ dτ; if αAR
2
>
>
<
α
c Dt f ðtÞ 5 f ðtÞ; if α 5 0 ð1:8cÞ
>
> dαe
>
> d α2dαe 1
>
> D f ðtÞ; if αAR
: dtdαe c t
The fractional order of integrals and derivatives can be a function of time

or some other variable (Lorenzo and Hartley, 2002b). Here we will express
it a function of time; the other case is a straightforward generalization. If no
memory of past values of the order is intended, the definition must only
include its current value:
bP
h c
t2c
k αðtÞ
ð21Þ f ðt 2 khÞ
αðtÞ k50 k
D
c t f ðtÞ 5 lim ð1:9aÞ
h-01 hαðtÞ
8
>
> Ð t ðt2τÞ2αðtÞ21 2
>
> c Γ ð2 αðtÞÞ f ðτÞ dτ; if αðtÞAR
>
>
>
<
αðtÞ
D
c t f ðtÞ 5 f ðtÞ; if αðtÞ 5 0 ð1:9bÞ
>
>
>
> d dαðtÞe
>
> αðtÞ2dαðtÞe
>
: dtdαðtÞe c Dt f ðtÞ; if αðtÞAR1
These GL and RL formulations without memory of α are equivalent (if

the function is well-behaved enough so that both formulations can be
applied). They are called type-1 variable order derivatives in Lorenzo and
Hartley (2002a); Valério and Sá da Costa (2011b); Valério and Sá da Costa
(2013), and type-A variable order derivatives in Sierociuk et al. (2015a,b).
It seems reasonable to think that, if a memory of past values of the order

α is intended, then, in the summation of Eq. (1.8a), and in the integral of 8c,
for each time instant, the value of the order that was available at that time
instant should be used, as in Eq. (1.10).

t2c ð21Þk
αðt 2 khÞ
bXh c
f ðt 2 khÞ
αðtÞ k
h-0 k50 hαðt2khÞ
8
>
> Ð ðt2τÞ2αðτÞ21
> ct
> f ðτÞ dτ; if αðtÞAR2
>
> Γ ð2 αðτÞÞ
<
αðtÞ
c Dt f ðtÞ 5 f ðtÞ; if αðtÞ 5 0 ð1:10bÞ
>
>
>
> ddαðtÞe
>
> DαðtÞ2dαðtÞe f ðtÞ; if αðtÞAR1
: dtdαðtÞe c t
This time, however, the GL definition of Eq. (1.10a) and the RL defini-
tion of Eq. (1.10b) do not provide the same result. The RL definition of
Eq. (1.10b) will for instance correspond to the result of Eq. (1.7); the GL
definition will not. In any case, these definitions are called type-2 variable
order derivatives in Lorenzo and Hartley (2002a); Valério and Sá da Costa
(2011b); Valério and Sá da Costa (2013), and type-B variable order deriva-
tives in Sierociuk et al. (2015a,b).
Another way of obtaining a memory of past values of the order is using,
in the RL definition, the order at time t 2 τ, that appears in the numerator of
the kernel. In the GL definition what corresponds to the difference between t
(the current time) and τ (the time at which the function appears in the defini-
tion) turns out to be t 2 ðt 2 khÞ 5 kh, thereby resulting in a GL definition
including a discrete time convolution. The expressions are those of
Eq. (1.11), which are again not equivalent. They are called type-3 variable
order derivatives in Lorenzo and Hartley (2002a); Valério and Sá da Costa
(2011b); Valério and Sá da Costa (2013), and type-C variable order deriva-
tives in Sierociuk et al. (2015a,b).

t2c ð21Þk
αðkhÞ
bX h c
f ðt 2 khÞ
αðtÞ k
h-0 k50 hαðkhÞ
8
>
> Ð t ðt2τÞ2αðt2τÞ21
>
> c Γ ð2 αðt 2 τÞÞ f ðτÞ dτ; if αðtÞAR
2
>
>
<
αðtÞ
c Dt f ðtÞ 5 f ðtÞ; if αðtÞ 5 0 ð1:11bÞ
>
> dαðtÞe
>
>d
>
> DαðtÞ2dαðtÞe f ðtÞ; if αðtÞAR1
: dtdαðtÞe c t
In all the models below, a GL variable order derivative of type-D was

used (Sierociuk et al., 2015a,b). This is another possible formulation with a
memory of past values of the order, and is derived from the approximations
of the GL definition in Eqs. (1.12a) and (1.12b), which are respectively an
iterative approximation and a recursive approximation. The step time is
hAR1 , the lower integration limit is c 5 0, and n 5 bt=hc. If implemented
for the entire length of the simulation, without any truncation of the series,
both formulations are equivalent (Sierociuk et al., 2015c).

α 1 X
n
r α
0 Dt f ðtÞ α ð21Þ f ðt 2 rhÞ ð1:12aÞ
h r50 r
!
rec α f ðtÞ X n
2α r α
0 Dt f ðt Þ 2 ð21Þ 0 Dt2rh f ðt 2 rhÞ ð1:12bÞ
r
hα r51
r
The GL type-D variable order derivative can be approximated according

to Eq. (1.13a). This derivative was already successfully used for modeling
the heat transfer process in a media with a time-varying structure (Sierociuk
et al., 2013).
!
f ðtÞ Xn
2αðtÞ D αðtÞ
D αðtÞ
0 Dt f ðtÞ 2 ð21Þ 0 Dt2rh f ðtÞ ð1:13aÞ
r
hαðtÞ r51
r
" #
f ðtÞ Xn
D αðtÞ 2αðtÞ D αðt2jhÞ
2N Dt f ðtÞ αðtÞ 2 ð21Þj
j
D
2N t2jh f ðtÞ 2 c 1c
h j51
ð1:13bÞ
The type-D construction corresponds to an input-reductive strategy that
assumes the rejection of input differentiators, which translates in an immedi-
ate effect of order switching (Fig. 1.2). Additionally, this construction also
allows for the effect of initial conditions to be without memory of accumu-
D
lated values, as formulated in Eq. (1.13b) where 2N Dαl f ðtÞ 5 c 5 constant,
for l 5 ð2N; 0Þ, and represented in the Fig. 1.3. These characteristics are
i-r Ξ{α(t)}
f (t) ser
b b b b
i-r D α(t) f (t)
0 t
a α1 αN–1 αN
a aS a S
S1 S2 N–1 N
FIGURE 1.2 Schematic representation of the input-reductive switching order scheme, in serial
form, from orders α1 to α2 . From Sierociuk, D., Malesza, W., Macias, M., 2015b. Fractional
Variable Order Derivative Simulink User Guide, https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/
fileexchange/38801-fractional-variable-order-der.
Influence of accumulated values

0.55
T=∞
T = 5000
0.5 T = 500
T = 100
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time t [days]
FIGURE 1.3 Testing the effects of accumulated values of order α. Obtained results for α 5 0:5
integrator output with initial conditions c 5 0:5 and different values of T (the length of initial
conditions function).
essential for the application of type-D variable order definition to the bone
remodeling models presented next.
1.3 BONE REMODELING

This section begins by introducing bone physiology concepts, in Section 1.3.1.
PK and PD models follow, in Section 1.3.2. Finally, a road-map through pub-
lished integer models, that reflect bone dynamic, is presented in Section 1.3.3.
All models presented here use dimensionless variables and parameters,
including the cell populations, except when explicitly said otherwise in
Table 1.1. D1 refers to the first order derivative in time, dtd , and DαðtÞ or
Dαðt;xÞ refers to the GrünwaldLetnikoff type-D variable order derivative,
αðtÞ
D
2N Dt
D
or 2N Dαðt;xÞ
t , respectively.
1.3.1 Introducing Bone Physiology

The skeleton is an active metabolic tissue, besides providing support and
protection to the vital organs (Chen et al., 2010). It is not, however, static, as
it constantly undergoes remodeling. This process is spatially heterogeneous,
with regular but asynchronous cycles that can take place in 5%25% of the
total bone surface available (Crockett et al., 2011). It is estimated that about
10% of the bone is renewed each year (Lerner, 2006). Cortical bone provides
strength and protection while trabecular is the most metabolically active.
Consequently, it is within the trabecular bone that most of bone turnover
occurs, under normal conditions and in diseases of bone loss or formation.
This reconstruction occurs within a Basic Multicellular Unit (BMU), a
temporary anatomical structure where bone is resorbed by cells termed
osteoclasts and sequentially formed due to cells called osteoblasts (Parfitt,
1994). This process is remarkably well balanced, as a tightly controlled
TABLE 1.1 Summary and Description of the Variables and Parameters of

the Models of Eqs. (1.19)(1.22) (in the case of non-integer models, units
of Day-1 are replaced by pseudo-units Day-α)
Variables Description Units

t Time Day
x Distance xA½0; 1
C ðt; xÞ Osteoclast population —
Bðt; xÞ Osteoblast population —
zðt; xÞ Bone mass density %
T ðt; xÞ Bone metastases density %
αðtÞ=αðt; xÞ Variable order expression —
d1 ðtÞ Effect of denosumab —
d2 ðtÞ Effect of zoledronic acid —
d3 ðtÞ Effect of paclitaxel —
Parameters Description Units

αC OC activation rate Day21
αB OB activation rate Day21
βC OC apoptosis rate Day21
βB OB apoptosis rate Day21
gCC OC autocrine regulator —
gBC OC paracrine regulator —
gCB OB paracrine regulator —
gBB OB autocrine regulator —
κC Bone resorption rate Day21
κB Bone formation rate Day21
σC Diffusion coefficient for OC Day21
σB Diffusion coefficient for OB Day21
σz Diffusion coefficient for bone mass Day21
σT Diffusion coefficient for metastases Day21
rCC OC tumorous autocrine regulation —
rBC OC tumorous paracrine regulation —
rCB OB tumorous paracrine regulation —
(Continued )
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Give diligent ear to my words, and thou shalt little regard ten
thousand words spoken by men.
*2. Christian. O Lord God, thou just judge, strong and patient,
thou who knowest the frailty and wickedness of man, be thou my
strength, and my whole trust, for my own conscience sufficeth me
not.
Thou knowest that which I know not, and therefore in every

reproof, I ought to have humbled myself, and to have borne meekly.
Vouchsafe mercifully to pardon me as often as I have failed

herein, and give me grace to bear it better hereafter.
For thy abundant mercy is more available to me for the obtaining

of pardon, than my fancied justice for my defence, since I cannot see
to the bottom of my conscience.
Although I know nothing by myself, yet I cannot hereby justify

myself: for without thy mercy no man living shall be justified in thy
sight.
C H A P T E R XXXIII.
Of eternity, and the shortness of this life.
MOST blessed mansion of the heavenly city! O most

O
Christian. clear day of eternity, which night obscureth not, but
the highest truth ever enlighteneth!
A day of continual joy, of perpetual quietness, and never

changing into a contrary state!
O that that day would once appear, and all these temporal things
were at an end!
To the saints above it shineth with everlasting brightness; but to

those that are pilgrims upon earth, it appeareth only afar off, and
through a glass.
O good Jesus, when shall I stand to behold thee! When shall I

contemplate the glory of thy kingdom! When wilt thou be unto me all
in all!
O when shall I be with thee in thy kingdom, which thou hast

prepared for thy beloved from all eternity!
2. Comfort my banishment, assuage my sorrow; for my whole

desire sigheth after thee.
My God, be not far from me, depart not in thy wrath from thy
servant.
Cast forth thy lightning and disperse them; shoot out thine
arrows, and consume all the imaginations of the enemy.
Gather in, call home my senses unto thee, make me forget all the
things of this world:
Grant me to cast away speedily the imaginations of wickedness.
*Succour me, O thou, the everlasting truth, that no vanity may

move me.
*Come, heavenly sweetness, and let all impurity fly from thee.
Pardon me as often as I think upon any thing besides thee in

prayer.
I truly confess, that I am wont to be subject to many distractions.

For oftentimes I am not there, where I stand or sit; but I am rather
there whither my thoughts carry me.
Where my thoughts are, there am I; there are often my thoughts

where my actions are.
But blessed is that man, that for thee, O Lord, dismisseth all
creatures, violently resisteth nature, and through fervour of spirit,
crucifieth the lusts of the flesh: that so with a serene conscience he
may offer pure prayer unto thee, and be meet to be admitted into the
angelical choirs, all earthly things both outwardly and inwardly being
excluded.
C H A P T E R XXXIV.
Of the desire of everlasting life, and how great rewards are
promised to those who fight valiantly.
ON, when thou perceivest the desire of everlasting bliss

S
Christ. given thee from above, open thy heart wide, and receive
this holy inspiration with thy whole soul.
Give most ardent thanks to the heavenly goodness, that dealeth

with thee so favourably, visiteth thee mercifully, stirreth thee up
fervently, sustaineth thee powerfully, lest through thine own weight
thou fall down to the things of earth.
Neither dost thou obtain this by thine own thought or endeavour,

but by the mere condescension of heavenly grace:
To the end that thou mayst make a farther progress in holiness

and humility, and prepare thyself for future battles:
And that thou mayst cleave unto me with the whole affection of
thy heart, and serve me with fervent desire.
2. Ask not that which is delightful and profitable unto thee, but
that which is acceptable to me, and for my honour.
For if thou judgest aright, thou oughtest to prefer and follow my

appointment, rather than thine own desire.
I know thy desire, and have heard thy frequent groans.
Thou wouldst now enjoy the everlasting habitation; and thy

heavenly country, replenished with all joy, now delights thee.
But that hour is not yet come; as yet there is another time, a time
of war, a time of labour and trial.
Thou desirest to be filled with the supreme good, but thou canst
not attain it for the present.
I am the supreme good: patiently wait for me, until the kingdom of
God come.
3. Now therefore be humbly obedient unto all, and regard not

who said or commanded this:
But take great heed, that whether thy superior, inferior, or thine
equal, require any thing of thee, or insinuate their desire, thou take it
all in good part, and endeavour to fulfil it with a sincere will.
Let one seek this, another that; let him glory in this, the other in
that, and be praised a thousand times; but do thou neither rejoice in
this, nor in that, but in the contempt of thyself, and in my good
pleasure and honour alone.
This art thou to wish, that whether it be by thy life or by thy death,
God may be always glorified in thee.
C H A P T E R XXXV.
How a person in heaviness ought to give up himself into the
hands of God.
ORD God, holy Father, be thou blessed both now and for
L
Christian. evermore; because as thou willest, so it is done, and
what thou dost is good.
Let thy servant rejoice in thee, not in himself, nor in any thing
else; for thou alone art the true gladness, thou art my hope and my
crown, thou art my joy and my honour, O Lord.
What hath thy servant, but what he hath received from thee, even
without any merit of his?
Thine is all that thou hast given, and whatsoever thou hast made.
I am poor, and in labour from my youth: and sometimes my soul

is sorrowful even unto tears; sometimes also it is troubled, by reason
of the evils which hang over my head.
2. I long after the joy of peace, I earnestly crave the peace of thy
children, that are led by thee in the light of thy comfort.
If thou givest peace, if thou pourest into my heart holy joy; the
soul of thy servant shall be full of gladness, and shall become devout
in thy praise:
But if thou withdrawest thyself, he will not be able to run the way
of thy commandments, but rather he will bow his knees, and smite
his breast, for it is not with him as it was heretofore, when thy candle
shone upon his head, and he was protected under the shadow of thy
wings, from the temptations which violently assaulted him.
*O righteous Father, and ever to be praised, the hour is come

that thy servant is to be tried.
Behold, dear Father, meet it is that in this hour thy servant suffer
something for thy sake.
O Father, ever more be honoured, the hour is come; that for a

short time thy servant should outwardly be oppressed, but inwardly
live with thee.
That he should be a little despised, humbled, and made abject in

the sight of men, and worn down with heaviness; that he may rise
again with the morning of the new light, and be glorified in heaven.
Holy Father, thou hast so appointed it; and this is fulfilled which
thyself hast commanded.
3. It is a favour to thy friend, that he may suffer and be afflicted in

the world for the love of thee, how often soever, and by whomsoever,
thou permittest it to fall upon him.
Nothing cometh to pass on earth without thy counsel, without thy

providence, or without a cause.
It is good for me, Lord, that thou hast afflicted me, that I may
learn thy righteous judgment, and cast away all haughtiness of heart,
and presumption.
*It is profitable to me, that shame hath covered my face, that I

may rather seek to thee for comfort than to men.
4. I have learned also here to dread thy unsearchable judgments,

who afflictest the just with the wicked, but not without equity and
justice.
I give thee thanks, for that thou hast not spared my sins, but hast
worn me away, inflicting sorrows, and sending griefs within and
without.
There is none under heaven that can comfort me, but thou my
Lord God, the heavenly physician of souls, that strikest and healest,
bringest down to hell, and bringest back again.
Let thy correction be upon me, and let thy rod instruct me.
5. Behold, dear Father, I am in thy hands, I bow myself under the

rod of thy correction:
Strike my back and my neck, that my perverseness may be

conformed to thy will.
Make me an holy and humble disciple of thine (as thou art wont
to do) that I may be ready at every beck of thy pleasure.
I commend myself and all that is mine unto thee to be corrected.
It is better to be corrected here than hereafter.
Thou knowest every thing, and there is nothing in the conscience

of man hidden from thee.
Before things are done, thou knowest that they will come to pass,
and hast no need that any should teach thee, or admonish thee of
those things which are done on earth.
Thou knowest what is expedient for my profiting, and how fit

tribulation is to scour off the rust of my sins.
Do with me according to thy good pleasure, and disdain me not

for my sinful life; better and more clearly known to none than to thee
alone.
6. Grant me, O Lord, to know that which ought to be known, to

love that which ought to be loved;
To praise that which pleaseth thee most, to esteem that which is

precious unto thee, to despise that which is contemptible in thy sight.
Suffer me not to judge according to the sight of the outward eyes,
nor to give sentence according to the hearing of the ears of ignorant
men.
But to discern invisible and spiritual things with a true judgment,

and, above all things, ever to search after thy good will and pleasure.
C H A P T E R XXXVI.
That a man ought to esteem himself not worthy of any
comfort.
ORD, I am not worthy of any comfort nor of any spiritual

L
Christian. visitation.
And therefore thou dealest justly with me; when thou leavest me
poor and desolate.
For though I could shed a sea of tears, yet I were not worthy of
thy comfort.
For, alas, I deserve nothing but to be punished, in that I have

grievously offended thee in many things.
But thou, O merciful God, who willest not that any should perish,
to shew the riches of thy goodness, vouchsafest to comfort thy
servant above the manner of men:
For thy comforts are not like the words of men.
2. What have I done, O Lord that thou shouldest bestow any

heavenly comforts upon me?
I remember not that I have done any good, but have been always
prone to sin and slow to amendment.
This is true, and I cannot deny it: if I should say otherwise, thou
wouldst stand against me, and there would be none to defend me.
What have I deserved but hell and everlasting fire?
I confess in very truth, that I am worthy of all scorn and contempt,

and it is not fit that I should be numbered among thy saints.
3. What shall I say, guilty as I am, and full of all confusion?
I have nothing to say but this; I have sinned, Lord, I have sinned;
have mercy on me, pardon me;
*Suffer me a little, that I may vent my grief, before I go into the

land of darkness, a land covered with the shadow of death.
What dost thou require of a guilty and miserable sinner, but that
he humble himself for his offences?
Of true contrition and humbling of the heart, ariseth hope of

forgiveness; the troubled conscience is reconciled to God; the favour
of God which was lost, is recovered; man is preserved from the
wrath to come, and God and the penitent soul meet together with an
holy kiss.
4. Humble contrition for sin is an acceptable sacrifice unto thee,

O Lord, savouring much sweeter in thy presence than the perfume of
frankincense.
This is also the pleasant ointment which thou wouldst should be

poured upon thy sacred feet.
For thou never despisest a contrite heart.

C H A P T E R XXXVII.
Of the different motions of nature and grace.
ON, mark diligently the motions of nature and grace, for they
S
Christ. move in a very subtle manner, and cannot be discerned but
by him that is spiritually enlightened.
All men pretend some good in their words and deeds; and
therefore under the shew of good many are deceived.
Nature is crafty, and seduceth, entangleth, and deceiveth many,

and always proposeth herself for her end:
But grace walketh in simplicity, useth no deceit, and doth all things
purely for God’s sake, in whom also she finally resteth.
2. Nature will not willingly die, nor be kept down, nor be overcome,
nor be subject to any:
But grace studieth mortification, resisteth sensuality, seeketh to be

subject, is willing to be kept under, and will not use her own liberty.
She loveth to be kept under discipline, and desireth not to rule any,
but always to live and remain wholly subject to God; and for God, is
ready humbly to obey all men.
Nature striveth for her own advantage, and considereth what profit
she may reap by another;
But grace considereth not what is profitable unto herself, but what
is profitable to many.
Nature willingly receiveth honour and respect.

But grace faithfully attributeth all honour and glory unto God.
3. Nature feareth shame and contempt;
But grace rejoiceth to suffer reproach for the name of Jesus.
Nature loveth ease and bodily rest;
But grace cannot be idle, but willingly embraceth labour.
Nature seeketh to have those things that are beautiful, and

abhorreth that which is mean or coarse;
But grace delighteth in plain and humble things, and despiseth not
rough things, that are old and mean.
Nature respecteth temporal things, rejoiceth at earthly gain,

sorroweth for loss, is moved with every little injurious word;
But grace thinketh on that which is everlasting, and cleaveth not to

temporal things; she is not troubled at losses, nor disquieted with hard
words; because she hath placed her treasure and joy in heaven,
where nothing perisheth.
4. Nature is covetous, and doth more willingly receive than give;

she loveth her own things;
But grace is bountiful to all, shunneth private interest, is content

with a little, thinketh it more blessed to give than to receive.
Nature inclines to the creatures, to her own flesh, to vanities and

wanderings;
But grace draweth unto God, and unto goodness, renounceth

creatures, flieth the world, hateth the desires of the flesh, restraineth
wanderings abroad, blusheth to be seen in public.
Nature is willing to have some outward comfort, wherein she may

be sensibly delighted;
But grace seeketh comfort in God alone, and delighteth above all
visible things in the highest good.
5. Nature worketh all for her own profit; she can do nothing but for
benefit she hopeth to obtain, either that which is equal or better, either
praise or favour, and coveteth to have her works and gifts much
esteemed:
But grace requireth no other reward than God alone; nor desireth
more of temporals, than may serve her for the obtaining of things
eternal.
6. Nature rejoiceth to have many friends and kinsfolks; glorieth in

noble place and birth; is obsequious to the powerful, fawneth upon the
rich, and applaudeth those that are like herself;
But grace loveth her enemies, and is not puffed up with multitudes
of friends, nor esteemeth place or birth, but where it is joined with
virtue:
She rather favoureth the poor than the rich; hath more tenderness
for the innocent than the powerful; rejoiceth in the true, not in the
deceitful:
Always exhorting good men to labour for more excellent gifts; and
by goodness to resemble the Son of God.
Nature quickly complaineth of want and trouble; grace with

constancy endureth need:
Nature coveteth to know secrets, and to hear news; she will appear
abroad, and make proof of many things by her own senses; she
desireth to be known, and to do those things for which she may be
praised and admired:
But grace careth not for hearing curious matters;

She teacheth to restrain the senses, to avoid vanity and
ostentation; and in every thing and every knowledge to seek the praise
and honour of God.
She will not have praise, but desireth that God should be praised in
his gifts, who of mere love bestoweth all things.
C H A P T E R XXXVIII.
Of the corruption of nature, and efficacy of Divine grace.
LORD, my God, who ♦hast created me after thy likeness,

O
Christian. grant me this grace which thou hast shewed to be so
necessary to salvation, that I may overcome my wicked
nature, which draweth me to sin and perdition.
♦ “has” replaced with “hast” per Errata
For I feel in my flesh the law of sin contradicting the law of my

mind; neither can I resist, unless thy most holy grace, infused into my
heart, assist me.
2. O Lord, how exceeding needful is thy grace for me to begin any

good work, to go forward, and to accomplish it;
For without it I can do nothing; but in thee I can do all things.
Arts, riches, beauty, strength, wit, eloquence, are of no value with

thee, O Lord, without thy grace.
3. O most blessed grace, that makest the poor in spirit rich in

virtue, and makest the rich in many blessings, to be humble in heart;
Come, come down unto me, replenish me early with thy comfort,
lest my soul should faint for weariness and dryness of mind.
O Lord, thy grace is sufficient for me, though other things that
nature desireth be wanting.
If I be tempted and vexed with many tribulations, I will not fear any
evils, while thy grace is with me:
This is stronger than all enemies, and wiser than all the wise.
Let thy grace, O Lord, always prevent me, and follow me, and
make me ever diligent in good works, through Jesus Christ thy Son.
Amen.
C H A P T E R XXXIX.
That we ought to deny ourselves and imitate Christ.
OLLOW Me, I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life.

F
Christ.
I am the way, which thou oughtest to follow; the truth
which thou oughtest to trust; the life which thou oughtest to hope for.
I am the strait way, the supreme truth, the true life: yea, the blessed
life, the uncreated life.
If thou remainest in my way, thou shalt know the truth, and the truth
shall make thee free, and thou shalt lay hold on everlasting life.
2. Christian. Lord Jesus, forasmuch as thy life was poor and

contemptible unto the world, grant me grace to imitate thee in suffering
worldly contempt.
For the servant is not greater than his Lord, nor the disciple above
his Master.
Let thy servant be exercised in thy life, for therein my salvation

consists.
Whatsoever I read or heard besides it, doth not refresh or delight

me fully.
3. Christ. Son, now thou knowest these things, happy shalt thou be
if thou do them.
He that hath my commandments, and keepeth them, he it is that

loveth me;
And I will love him, and will manifest myself unto him, and make
him sit with me in the kingdom of my Father.
Christian. Lord Jesus, as thou hast said and promised, so let it

come to pass.
I have received the cross, I have received it from thy hand; I will
bear it, and bear it till death, as thou hast laid it upon me.
Truly the life of a Christian is the cross; but yet it is a guide to

paradise.
I have begun, I may not go back, neither is it fit to leave that which I
have undertaken.
Behold, our King goeth before us, who also will fight for us.
Let us follow him manfully, let none be dismayed, but be ready to

die valiantly in the battle, and let us not blemish our glory by flying from
the cross.
C H A P T E R XL.
That a man be not too much dejected when he feeleth some
defect.
ON, patience and humility in adversity are more pleasing to

S
Christ. me, than much devotion in prosperity.
Why art thou grieved for every little trifle spoken against thee?
Although it had been much more, thou oughtest not to have been
moved.
But now let it pass; it is not the first that hath happened, nor is it
any new thing, neither shall it be the last.
Thou art valiant enough, as long as no adversity happeneth.
Thou canst give good counsel, and strengthen others with thy
words; but when tribulation cometh to thy door, thou art destitute of
counsel and strength.
I yet live, saith the Lord, ready to help thee, and to give thee
greater comfort than before, if thou puttest thy trust in me, and callest
devoutly upon me.
2. Be patient, and prepare thyself to greater sufferings.
All is not lost, if thou feelest thyself afflicted, or grievously tempted.
I am he, who will strengthen with health them that mourn, and raise
up unto glory those that know their own infirmity.
3. Christian. Lord, blessed be thy word, more sweet unto my mouth

than honey, and the honey-comb.
What should I do in tribulations, unless thou didst comfort me with

thy holy words?
What matter is it, how much and what I suffer, so I may at length
attain the port of salvation?
Grant me a good end. Grant me a happy passage out of this world!
Be mindful of me, O my God, and direct me in the right way to thy

kingdom. Amen.
C H A P T E R XLI.
Of searching the secret judgments of God.
SON,secret
Christ.
beware thou disputest not of high matters, nor of the
judgments of God.
Why this man is left, and that man taken into favour; why this is so
much afflicted, and that so greatly advanced:
These things are beyond the reach of man; neither can reason
search out the judgments of God.
When the enemy therefore suggesteth these things unto thee,

answer; thou art just, O Lord, and thy judgments are right.
And again, the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous
altogether.
Thy judgments are to be feared, not to be discussed; they are such

as cannot be comprehended by the understanding of man.
2. Neither enquire or dispute of the merits of saints, which of them

is holier than the other.
3. I know both the first and the last: I embrace all with inestimable
love.
I am to be praised in all my saints; I am to be blessed above all
things, and to be honoured in every one.
C H A P T E R XLII.
That all our hope and trust is to be fixed in God alone.
LORD,
Christian.
what is my trust in this life? Or what is my greatest
comfort of all things under heaven?
Is it thou, my Lord God, whose mercies are without number?
Where hath it been well with me without thee? Or when could it be

ill with me, when thou wert present?
I had rather be poor for thee, than rich without thee.
I had rather chuse to be a pilgrim on earth with thee, than to

possess heaven without thee.
*Where thou art, there is heaven; and there is death and hell,
where thou art not.
Thou art my desire; and therefore I cannot but sigh, and cry, and
pray unto thee.
For I have none to trust in, none that can help me in my

necessities, but thee alone, my God.
*Thou art my hope, thou art my trust, thou art my comfort, and most
faithful unto me in all things.
2. All men seek their own; thou only seekest my salvation, and
turnest all things to my good.
Although thou exposest me to divers temptations and adversities;
yet thou orderest all this to my advantage, who art wont to try thy
beloved a thousand ways.
In which thou oughtest no less to be loved and praised, than if thou

didst fill me with heavenly comforts.
3. In thee therefore, O Lord God, I put my whole hope and refuge:
On thee I rest in all tribulation and anguish.
For I find all to be weak and inconstant, whatsoever I behold out of

thee.
*For neither can my friends avail, nor strong helpers aid, nor wise
counsellors give any profitable answer, nor the books of the learned
comfort, nor any wealth deliver, nor any secret or pleasant place
defend: if thou thyself dost not assist, help, strengthen, comfort,
instruct, and keep us.
4. For all things that seem to make for peace, without thee are
nothing, and bring indeed no felicity at all.
Thou therefore art the end of all that is good, the height of life, the
depth of wisdom:
*And the strongest comfort of thy servants is, to trust in thee above
all things.
To thee therefore do I lift up mine eyes; in thee O my God, the

Father of mercies, I put my trust.
*Bless and sanctify my soul with thy heavenly blessing, that it may
be made thy holy habitation, and the seat of thy eternal glory:
*And that nothing may be found in the temple of thy glory, that may
offend the eyes of thy majesty.
According to the greatness of thy goodness, and the multitude of
thy mercies, look upon me, and hear the prayer of thy poor servant,
who is far exiled from thee in the land of the shadow of death.
*Protect and keep the soul of thy servant, amidst so many dangers
of this corruptible life, and by thy grace accompanying me, direct it by
the way of peace to the country of everlasting light. Amen.
An Extract of the
CHRISTIAN PATTERN:
Or, a treatise on the imitation of Christ. Written in Latin by
Thomas a Kempis.
B O O K IV.
An Exhortation unto the Holy Communion.
The voice of Christ.
C OME unto me, all ye that travail and are heavy laden and I will
refresh you.
The bread which I will give is my flesh, for the life of the world.
Take, eat, this ♦ is my body that is given for you: do this in

remembrance of me.
♦ “in” replaced with “is”

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Copyright r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

For Information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Mara Conner

Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

Amr M. AbdelAty Engineering Mathematics and Physics Department, Faculty of

Wiesław Krajewski Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,

Peachimuthu Tamilalagan Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham (Deemed to be

Fractional calculus, as generalization of integer order integration and differ-

methods, fractional order discrete maps, multiswitching synchronization,

ABOUT THE BOOK

OBJECTIVES OF THE BOOK

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

Ahmad Taher Azar

Variable Order Fractional

1.1.1 What Are Variable Order Fractional Derivatives?

Mathematical Techniques of Fractional Order Systems. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813592-1.00001-5

fractional calculus has seen a rapid growth in its applications. As it can be

1.1.2 Application Example of Variable Order Derivatives: Bone

1.1.3 Chapter Organization

1.2 VARIABLE ORDER DERIVATIVES

1.2.1 Intuitive Results for Integer Orders

Dtα(t) f (t) Dtα(t) f (t)

1.2.2 Defining Variable Order Derivatives

The fractional order of integrals and derivatives can be a function of time

These GL and RL formulations without memory of α are equivalent (if

It seems reasonable to think that, if a memory of past values of the order

In all the models below, a GL variable order derivative of type-D was

The GL type-D variable order derivative can be approximated according

Influence of accumulated values

1.3 BONE REMODELING

1.3.1 Introducing Bone Physiology

TABLE 1.1 Summary and Description of the Variables and Parameters of

Variables Description Units

Parameters Description Units

Thou knowest that which I know not, and therefore in every

Vouchsafe mercifully to pardon me as often as I have failed

For thy abundant mercy is more available to me for the obtaining

Although I know nothing by myself, yet I cannot hereby justify

MOST blessed mansion of the heavenly city! O most

A day of continual joy, of perpetual quietness, and never

To the saints above it shineth with everlasting brightness; but to

O good Jesus, when shall I stand to behold thee! When shall I

O when shall I be with thee in thy kingdom, which thou hast

2. Comfort my banishment, assuage my sorrow; for my whole

Grant me to cast away speedily the imaginations of wickedness.

*Succour me, O thou, the everlasting truth, that no vanity may