Personality and

Values
 What is Personality?
• Personality is described in terms of measurable traits a person
exhibits.
• Traits are habitual patterns of behaviour, thought and emotion.
• Traits are characteristics that are relatively stable over time, differ
across individuals, are relatively consistent over situations, and
influence behaviour.
• The more consistent the trait over time, and the more frequently it
occurs in diverse situations, the more important the trait is in
describing the individual.
• The American Psychological Association (APA) also defines personality
as “individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking,
feeling, and behaving” (2017).
• Personality is the sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and
interacts with others.
 What is Personality?
• Each of us has a unique personality that differentiates us from
other people
• understanding someone’s personality gives us clues about how
that person is likely to think, feel and act in a variety of situations
• how that person affects others
• how he/she understands and view himself/herself.
• To manage effectively, it is helpful to understand the personalities
of different employees.
• Having this knowledge is also useful for placing people into jobs
and organizations.
If personality is stable, does this mean that it does not change?
• Most of us have changed and evolved as a result of your own life
experiences, parenting style and attention we have received in early
childhood, successes and failures we experienced over the course of
our life, and other life events.
• In fact, personality does change over long periods of time. Moreover,
even in childhood, our personality matters, and it has lasting
consequences for us.
• Furthermore, personality is more changeable in adolescence and more
stable among adults.
Personality Determinants: Nature or Nurture
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.

Environment: Life experiences, parenting style and attention we have

received in early childhood, successes and failures we experienced over the
course of our life, and other life events.

• Twin Studies
• Both nature and nurture (aggression).
Personality and Behaviour at Work
• Is our behaviour in organizations dependent on our personality? To
some extent, yes, and to some extent, no.
• the relationship between personality and behaviour at work are
also influenced by other factors.
• our behaviour may be more strongly affected by what is
expected of us, as opposed to how we want to behave.
Measuring Personality
• Managers need to know how to measure personality.
• Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions and help managers
forecast who is best for a job.
• The most common means of measuring personality is through self-
report surveys and observer ratings.
• Important theoretical frameworks and assessment tools help us
categorize and study the dimensions of personality.
• Reminder: When we talk about the dimensions of personality in the
context of OB, we mostly refer to traits.
 Personality Frameworks

• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

• Big Five Personality Model
• Core Self-Evaluations
• Dark Triad
The Big-Five Framework
Scoring
BFI scale scoring (“R” denotes reverse-scored
items):
• Extraversion: 1, 6R, 11, 16, 21R, 26, 31R, 36
• Agreeableness: 2R, 7, 12R, 17, 22, 27R, 32,
37R, 42
• Conscientiousness: 3, 8R, 13, 18R, 23R, 28,
33, 38, 43R
• Neuroticism: 4, 9R, 14, 19, 24R, 29, 34R, 39
• Openness: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35R, 40,
41R, 44
• Add the score (1-5) of your responses for
all the items of a construct.
• Divide the sum by the total number of
questions answered for that construct to
get your final score in that construct.
• Your score: _____ (average score)
Ø1.00 - 2.99 Low
Ø3.00 - 4.30 Neutral
Ø4.31 - 5.00 High
Big Five Traits and OB
The Core Self-Evaluations Framework
• Core self-evaluations (CSEs) are bottom-line conclusions individuals have about
their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person.

• The concept of core self-evaluations was first examined by Judge, Locke, and
Durham and involves four personality dimensions: locus of control, neuroticism,
generalized self-efficacy, and self-esteem.
Self-Esteem
• Self-esteem refers to the overall value one places on oneself as a
person. It is the degree to which individuals feel confident,
valuable, and worthy.
• An employee with high self-esteem believes in their abilities and
feels proud of their accomplishments.
• They are more likely to take on challenging tasks and persist in the
face of difficulties.
Generalized Self-Efficacy
• Generalized self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to perform well across a
variety of situations. It reflects confidence in the ability to cope with life's
demands.
• Although an individual can differ in levels of self-efficacy across different
domains, generalized self-efficacy is the global estimate of ability across a
wide range of situations, and can be considered a stable trait.
• An employee with high self-efficacy believes they can successfully handle a
new project, even if it requires learning new skills.
• Individuals high in generalized self-efficacy are more likely to take on new
tasks that allow for growth in their ability and are more persistent than those
low in generalized self-efficacy.
Locus of Control
• Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe
they have control over the events affecting their lives. It can be
internal (belief that one controls their own destiny) or external
(belief that external forces control one’s fate).

• Internal Locus of Control: An employee with an internal locus of control

believes their success is a result of their efforts and decisions. They are
proactive in solving problems and taking initiative.
• External Locus of Control: An employee with an external locus of
control believes their success or failure is due to luck, fate, or other
external factors. They might feel less empowered to change their
situation.
Emotional Stability (Low Neuroticism)
• Emotional stability is the tendency to remain calm, composed,
and secure, rather than experiencing negative emotions like
anxiety, depression, or vulnerability.
• An emotionally stable employee remains calm under pressure,
handles stress well, and is less likely to experience emotional
breakdowns.
• They can maintain focus and performance even in challenging
situations.
The Dark Triad
• Machiavellianism: the degree to which an individual
is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and
believes that ends can justify means.
• Narcissism: the tendency to be arrogant, have a
grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive
admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
• Psychopathy: the tendency for a lack of concern for
others, a lack of guilt or remorse when their actions
cause harm.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VpX6ts5Z2cU
An Emerging Framework for Dark Side Traits
• First, antisocial people are indifferent and callous toward
others.
• Second, borderline people have low self-esteem and high
uncertainty.
• Third, schizotypal individuals are eccentric and
disorganized.
• Fourth, obsessive compulsive people are perfectionists
and can be stubborn, yet they attend to details, carry a
strong work ethic, and may be motivated by achievement.
• Fifth, avoidant individuals feel inadequate and hate
criticism.
 Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB

• Self-Monitoring: measures an individual’s tendency and ability to

adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.
• Proactive Personality: people who identify opportunities, show
initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change
occurs
The Situation, Personality, and Behavior
Role of Situation in the Personality-Behaviour Relationship

• Do you think personality changes in different situations? Let’s explore this

possibility.

• Research has established that the effect of particular traits on organizational

behaviour depends on the situation.

• Two theoretical frameworks, situation strength and trait activation, help explain how
this works.
Situation Strength Theory
• indicates that the way personality translates into behavior depends on the
strength of the situation.
• the strength of a situation determines the extent to which personality
predicts behaviour.
• A strong situation exerts significant pressure on individuals to act in certain
ways, thereby minimizing the influence of personality. Conversely, a weak
situation allows for more expression of individual personality traits.
Researchers have analyzed situation strength in organizations in terms of four elements:

1. Clarity, or the degree to which cues about work duties and responsibilities are available and clear. Jobs high
in clarity produce strong situations because individuals can readily determine what to do. For example, the job
of a delivery executive probably provides higher clarity about each task than the job of nanny.

2. Consistency, or the extent to which cues regarding work duties and responsibilities are compatible with one
another. Jobs with high consistency represent strong situations because all the cues point toward the same
desired behaviour. The job of acute care nurse, for example, probably has higher consistency than the job of
manager.

3. Constraints, or the extent to which individuals’ freedom to decide or act is limited by forces outside their
control. Jobs with many constraints represent strong situations because an individual has limited individual
discretion. Bank examiner, for example, is probably a job with stronger constraints than forest ranger.

4. Consequences, or the degree to which decisions or actions have important implications for the organization
or its members, clients, supplies, and so on. Jobs with important consequences represent strong situations
because the environment is probably heavily structured to guard against mistakes. A surgeon’s job, for example,
has higher consequences than a gym instructor’s.
Trait Activation Theory

• Trait Activation Theory (TAT) suggests that certain situations or

job roles can activate specific personality traits, leading
individuals to exhibit behaviours aligned with those traits.
• According to this theory, personality traits are expressed when
relevant situational cues trigger them. This means that the
environment or context can "activate" particular traits, making
them more prominent in an individual's behaviour.
Values
 Values
• Values: basic convictions about what is right, good, or desirable.
• Value system: ranks values in terms of intensity.
• The Importance of Values:
ØLay the foundation for understanding of attitudes and motivation.
ØInfluence attitudes and behaviors.
 Schwartz’s (1992) Value Inventory
Values Definition
Achievement The desire for personal success.
Benevolence The desire to protect the well-being of people who are close to the person.
Conformity Being motivated by being self-disciplined and obedient. Conforming to others.
Hedonism The desire for pleasure in life.
Power The desire for control over others, attaining power and prestige.
Security Valuing safety and stability.
Self-direction The desire to be free and independent.
Stimulation The desire for a stimulating and exciting life.
Tradition Acceptance of social customs and traditional ideas in a society.
Universalism The desire to protect the well-being of all people. Caring about social justice.
Organization of Values
• Terminal vs. Instrumental Values
• Terminal values: desirable end-states of existence.
• Instrumental values: preferred modes of behavior or means of achieving
terminal values.

• Some examples of terminal values are prosperity and economic success,

freedom, health and well-being, world peace, and meaning in life.
• Examples of instrumental values are autonomy and self-reliance, personal
discipline, kindness, and goal-orientation.
• Each of us places value on both the ends (terminal values) and the means
(instrumental values). A balance between the two is important, as well as an
understanding of how to strike this balance.
 Generational Values
Cohort Entered the Workforce Dominant Values
Boomers 1965-1985 Material success, acknowledgment from peers, loyalty to
career and employer, non-specific focus of satisfaction
(often leisure time), high loyalty to employer, job security
Gen X 1985-2000 Work-life balance, competence and self-reliance,
relationships are less important, job satisfaction, loyalty to
self, autonomy
Gen Y 2000-2015 Freedom and flexibility, meaningful work and contribution,
team-oriented, leisure time, low loyalty to employer,
purpose and meaning
Gen Z 2015-present Financial security and entrepreneurship, public
recognition and personal brand, collaborative and
inclusive environments, work-life integration with a focus
on mental health, loyalty to personal values and career
goals, impactful work and innovation
 Person-Environment Fit

• Person-Job Fit

• Person-Organization Fit
• Person-group fit

• Person-supervisor fit
Hofstede’s Six Value Dimensions

• Hofstede’s Framework
– Power distance
– Individualism versus collectivism
– Masculinity versus femininity
– Uncertainty avoidance
– Long-term versus short-term orientation
– Indulgence vs Restraint
• Power Distance: The extent to which less powerful members of a
society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.
• High Power Distance: Societies accept hierarchical order without
much question. There is a clear difference between levels of
power and authority.
• Low Power Distance: Societies strive for equality and demand
justification for inequalities of power. There is a more consultative
or democratic relationship between authority and subordinates.
Individualism versus Collectivism: The degree to which
individuals are integrated into groups.
• Individualism: Societies in which ties between individuals are
loose. Everyone is expected to look after themselves and their
immediate family.
• Collectivism: Societies in which people are integrated into
strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families, which
continue protecting them in exchange for loyalty.
• Masculinity versus Femininity: The distribution of roles between
the genders.
• Masculinity: Societies that value competitiveness, assertiveness,
ambition, and accumulation of wealth and material possessions.
• Femininity: Societies that value relationships, modesty, caring for
the weak, and quality of life. There is a greater overlap between
male and female roles.
• Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which members of a
culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and
have created beliefs and institutions to avoid these.
• High Uncertainty Avoidance: Societies that have a low tolerance
for uncertainty and ambiguity. They maintain strict codes of
behavior and beliefs and are resistant to change.
• Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Societies that have a more relaxed
attitude in which practice counts more than principles, and
deviations from norms are more easily tolerated.
• Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation: The extent to which a
society maintains links with its own past while dealing with the
challenges of the present and future.
• Long-Term Orientation: Societies that focus on the future. They
value thrift and perseverance and are willing to delay short-term
success for long-term success.
• Short-Term Orientation: Societies that focus on the present or
past and consider them more important than the future. They
value traditions, the current social hierarchy, and fulfilling social
obligations.
Indulgence versus Restraint: The extent to which people try to
control their desires and impulses.
Indulgence: Societies that allow relatively free gratification of basic
and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun.
Restraint: Societies that suppress gratification of needs and
regulate it by means of strict social norms.
The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Culture
The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE)
research program updated Hofstede’s research.

Cultural dimensions are power distance, uncertainty avoidance,

performance orientation, assertiveness, future orientation, humane
orientation, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, and
gender egalitarianism.