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Purchasing Principles and Management

“Essential reading for the practitioner or student of the
subject - this book remains the standard text.”
Professor Peter Hines, Cardiff University
Peter Baily
“Nobody reading this text will be in any doubt that purchasing
and supply are core to the business strategy of an organisation.
This is an excellent text that should be required reading for
David Farmer
students and managers alike”
Steve Brown Professor of Operations Management,
David Jessop
University of Exeter
David Jones

Purchasing Principles and Management

provides comprehensive coverage of this
dynamic subject area in a single book. A clear
and easy to read guide based on current good
practice, it also explores the latest developments
in ideas and approach.
‘Practice Notes’ throughout the text help the
reader apply the concepts to commercial and
industrial practice across all sectors and this
ninth edition includes improved coverage of
Supply Chain Management and addresses
international issues throughout.
The four sections cover every
aspect of purchasing:
 Objectives and organisation -
focuses on strategic themes and
the scope of purchasing activity
 Key considerations - covers
essential tactical issues, including
quality and price
 Specialised aspects - deals with
activities and applications, including

Peter Baily, former Chief Examiner for CIPS

the latest developments in new
technology and e-commerce
 Systems and Control - highlights
personnel and performance, and
ninth
Purchasing Principles
David Farmer, Henley Management College
David Jessop, formerly University of Glamorgan
David Jones, Blackburn College
explores the future direction of
purchasing. edition
and Management
Purchasing Principles and Management is Baily, ninth edition
published in association with the Chartered Farmer,
Institute of Purchasing and Supply (CIPS),
which is the central reference point for the Jessop
purchasing and supply profession. and
Details about courses, conferences and Jones
other services are available at ISBN 0-273-64689-3
www.cips.org

9 780273 646891
www.pearson-books.com
An imprint of
PPA_A01.qxd 9/26/07 7:49 AM Page i

Purchasing Principles
and Management

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PPA_A01.qxd 9/26/07 7:49 AM Page ii

We work with leading authors to develop the

strongest educational materials in management,
bringing cutting-edge thinking and best learning
practice to a global market.

Under a range of well-known imprints, including

Financial Times/Prentice Hall, we craft high quality print and
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and apply their content, whether studying or at work.

To find out more about the complete range of our

publishing, please visit us on the World Wide Web at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk

..
PPA_A01.qxd 9/26/07 7:49 AM Page iii

Purchasing Principles
and Management

Ninth Edition

Peter Baily BSc (Econ), ACIS, FCIPS

David Farmer MSc, PhD, FCIPS, Dip. Man. Studies, Dip. Mktg.
David Jessop BA, FCIPS, FILog, ICSA, Cert. Ed.
David Jones PhD, MSc, BSc (Econ), MCInstM, MBIM, Cert. Ed.

..
PPA_A01.qxd 9/26/07 7:49 AM Page iv

Pearson Education Limited

Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at:

www.pearsoned.co.uk

First published 1968

Ninth edition published 2005

© Institute of Purchasing and Supply, 1968, 1974

© Peter Baily and David Farmer, 1977, 1981, 1985, 1990
© Peter Baily, David Farmer, David Jessop, David Jones, 1994, 1998, 2005

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior
written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying
in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd,
90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP.

ISBN 0273 64689 3

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
09 08 07 06 05

Typeset in 9.5/13pt stone by 35

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Ashford Colour Press, Hampshire

The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.

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Contents

Preface xii

Part 1 OBJECTIVES AND ORGANISATIONS 1

1 Purchasing scope and development 3

Introduction 3
Objectives of this chapter 3
The scope of purchasing 3
The changing role of purchasing and supply 6
Proactive purchasing 11
Procurement positioning 13
Total acquisition cost (and total cost of ownership) 14
Non-manufacturing organisations 19
The supply chain concept 20
Purchasing development 21
Best practice in strategic supply management 28
Summary 29
References and further reading 29

2 Strategic aspects of purchasing 31

Introduction 31
Objectives of this chapter 31
Growth in the strategic role of purchasing and supply 32
Problems associated with activities and value 33
The concept of strategy 34
The mission statement 36
Levels of strategy 39
Strategic management 40
Strategic analysis 42
Strategic development 49
Strategy implementation 52
Objectives for purchasing 52
Strategies and their scope 52
Selecting a strategy 55
Effective supply-market strategies 59

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Contents

Softer approach to planning 64

Summary 65
References and further reading 65

3 Purchasing structure and organisation 67

Introduction 67
Objectives of this chapter 67
Strategy and structure 67
Purchasing and supply in different types of organisation 74
Organisation of the activity 76
Purchasing in the organisation structure 83
Purchasing devolution 85
Conclusion 86
Summary 86
References and further reading 87

4 Management aspects 88
Introduction 88
Objectives of this chapter 88
The supply chain 88
Improving the efficiency of the supply chain 95
Types of supply chain 95
Strategic development of purchasing 96
Summary 103
References and further reading 104

Part 2 KEY PURCHASING VARIABLES 105

5 Quality 107
Introduction 107
Objectives of this chapter 107
What is quality? 108
Statistical process control 110
Taguchi methods for the ‘off-line’ control of quality 112
Failure mode and effect analysis 115
Specification 116
Producing a specification 117
Early supplier involvement 119
Concurrent engineering 121
Standardisation 122
Supplier assessment 126
Economics of quality 130
Quality circles 131
The seven wastes 131

vi

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Contents

Value analysis/value engineering 132

Summary 134
References and further reading 135

6 The right quantity 136

Introduction 136
Objectives of this chapter 136
Provisioning systems 136
Order quantities and stock control 137
Order quantities for production 145
Distribution resource planning (DRP) 150
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) 151
Just-in-time (JIT) 151
Vendor managed inventory (VMI) 154
Late customisation 156
Summary 158
References and further reading 158

7 Time 160
Introduction 160
Objectives of this chapter 160
Time and competitive advantage 160
On-time delivery 161
Expediting 164
Network analysis 166
Liquidated damages 170
Shortages 173
Summary 175
References and further reading 176

8 Source decision-making 177

Introduction 177
Objectives of this chapter 177
The nature of the sourcing decision 177
Attributes of a good supplier 179
Different types of sourcing 179
Sourcing decisions 180
The sourcing process 183
Source location 183
Sources of information on potential suppliers 184
Supplier evaluation 185
The right relationship 190
Other aspects of sourcing 192
Partnering 200

vii

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Contents

Tiering of suppliers 202

Summary 204
References and further reading 205

9 Price and cost 206

Introduction 206
Objectives of this chapter 206
Factors affecting pricing decisions 206
How buyers obtain prices 214
Auctions 215
Discounts 215
Price analysis and cost analysis 217
Pricing major contracts 220
Investment appraisal 225
Learning curves and experience curves 226
Conclusion 227
Summary 228
References and further reading 228

10 Purchasing negotiations 229

Introduction 229
Objectives of this chapter 229
Negotiation 229
Negotiation skills 232
Preparation 233
The introductory stage 241
Discussion stage 242
Agreement stage 244
The post-negotiation stage 244
Competition and co-operation in negotiation 245
Body language 248
Negotiation strategies 249
Negotiation mix 250
Conclusion 250
Summary 251
References and further reading 252

Part 3 APPLICATIONS 253

11 Make-or-buy decisions and subcontracting 255

Introduction 255
Objectives of this chapter 255
The level at which make-or-buy decisions are taken 255
Buying or ‘doing’ – subcontracting services 261

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Contents

Purchasing – a candidate for outsourcing? 262

Subcontracting 263
Conclusion 269
Summary 269
References and further reading 270

12 Buying commodities 271

Introduction 271
Objectives of this chapter 271
The principal commodities 272
Why do commodity prices fluctuate? 274
Price stabilisation schemes 275
The role of the speculator 276
Hedging with futures contracts 277
Some buying techniques 279
Indifference prices 281
Traded options 284
Glossary 285
Summary 285
References and further reading 286

13 Buying internationally 287

Introduction 287
Objectives of this chapter 287
Why buy from abroad? 287
Problems with foreign sourcing 288
Incoterms 2000 293
Arbitration 295
Transport 296
Customs 296
Countertrade 297
The European Union (EU) 298
Summary 298
References and further reading 299

14 Capital goods 300

Introduction 300
Objectives of this chapter 300
The acquisition of capital equipment 300
What are capital items? 302
Leasing and hiring of capital equipment 303
Capital requisitions 304
Specification of capital equipment 305
The project approach 308

ix

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Contents

Lifetime costs 309

Investment appraisal 309
Investment appraisal criteria 311
Conclusion 316
Summary 317
References and further reading 317

15 Purchasing for resale 318

Introduction 318
Objectives of this chapter 318
Retailing 319
Retailing research 320
Supply chains in retailing 320
Electronic point of sale (EPOS) 321
Merchandise planning 322
Stock analysis and sales analysis 324
Brands 326
Supplier selection 327
Developments in the retail sector 327
Conclusion 328
Summary 328
References and further reading 329

16 Buying services 330

Introduction 330
Objectives of this chapter 330
What is meant by ‘services’? 331
Special factors 331
Outsourcing 334
Service level agreements 336
European Union Public Contracts Directive 338
Management in service provision 339
Summary 340
References and further reading 341

17 Government and public sector procurement 342

Introduction 342
Objectives of this chapter 342
Part A 343
Context of public sector procurement 343
Background 343
The last public sector ‘bastion’ 346
Part B 353
The EU and procurement 353

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Contents

EU competition procurement cycle for goods and services 353

EU procurement directives 354
The main provisions of the directives in relation to contracts 357
Contract pricing mechanisms 364
Future developments 364
Summary 364
References and further reading 365

Part 4 SYSTEMS AND CONTROLS 367

18 Purchasing systems 369

Introduction 369
Objectives of this chapter 369
The transaction sequence or procurement cycle 369
Electronic systems 378
Non-standard purchases 383
Development of systems 388
Summary 389
References and further reading 389

19 Controlling performance, efficiency and effectiveness 391

Introduction 391
Objectives of this chapter 391
Measuring purchasing performance 393
Purchasing as the intelligent customer 398
Benchmarking in purchasing and supply 399
Other indicators of performance 400
Reporting to management 401
Budgets 403
Disposing of redundant stock, scrap or waste 407
Summary 409
References and further reading 410

Index 411

xi

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Preface

As we said in our preface to the last edition, the original text was written
almost 30 years ago by Peter Baily and David Farmer and was in its day one of
a very small (probably single figure) number of specialised texts relating to
the field of purchasing and supply. We commented then that there were
many excellent books on the subject, that purchasing and supply chain
management had become recognised as a crucial strategic activity by those
concerned with organisational management and as a recognised academic
discipline with a growing number of university professors dedicated to the
subject area. It is reassuring to note that the literature on the subject con-
tinues to expand, as does the amount of academic and practitioner interest
in the subject, reflected in the now substantial number of university degrees
available at both under- and postgraduate level. As we also said, the visionary
and pioneering work that Peter and David took part in, probably to some
extent as a gesture of faith, is now fully justified.
The book could not have survived for this length of time without continu-
ous change, and of course the idea behind this new edition is to continue
that process. It should be pointed out that the change process is evolutionary,
and that we have taken care to balance the newer philosophies emerging in
our profession with the proven and established thinking and practice. This
book is not of the ‘read this and it will change your life’ genre; rather it is, we
hope, a reflection of sound mainstream practice, accompanied by comment
on the way things seem to be going, and by insights into developing ideas
and approaches.
The revisions for the ninth edition include the substantial rewriting of sev-
eral chapters, and the inclusion of much new material. We are very grateful
for the contribution by Alexis Brooks CIMA and David Moore of Cranfield
University for the revised Chapter 17 on the subject of buying for govern-
ment and public services. We also thank Neil Fuller, a chief examiner for the
Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply, for his help and advice, and for
his contribution of material included in our treatment of the ‘quality’ theme.
Readers will notice a feature not found in previous editions: the inclusion of
‘practice notes’ embedded into the text, showing the way in which some of
the themes of the text are reflected in actual supply management.
The book is, as before, organised into four parts. The first, on the theme
of objectives and organisations and covering Chapters 1–4, deals with the
scope of purchasing activity and its evolution, relevant strategic issues and

xii

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PPA_A01.qxd 9/26/07 7:50 AM Page xiii

Preface

considerations, the structure and organisation of purchasing, and manage-

ment aspects of the activity. The second part, Chapters 5–10, looks at the key
purchasing variables of quality, quantity, time, source, price and negotiation.
Part 3, Chapters 11–17, concerns itself with important purchasing activities
and applications, dealing with processes associated with buying in particular
markets or economic sectors. The final part, covering Chapters 18 and 19,
deals with systems and controls and includes an appreciation of the direction
which research in purchasing is taking.
We continue to hope that the book will appeal to those in the practitioner
and academic communities. We have attempted to strike a balance between
the demands of a pure academic text and the sometimes simplistic treatment
of ideas encountered in the literature aimed at managers.
We are grateful for the help and support of many colleagues and friends
who have contributed in a great variety of ways to the book, and to the copy-
right holders of some of the included material. Specific acknowledgements
are, of course, made at the appropriate points in the text.

David Jessop
David Jones

xiii

..
PPA_A01.qxd 9/26/07 7:50 AM Page xiv

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright

material:
Figure 1.6 courtesy of British Airways; Figure 2.3 adapted from Exploring
Corporate Strategy by Johnson and Scholes, with permission of Pearson
Education; Figure 2.6 adapted from Corporate Strategy by Richard Lynch, with
permission of Pearson Education, © Richard Lynch 2003; Figure 2.9 adapted
with the permission of The Free Press, a Division of Simon & Schuster Adult
Publishing Group, from COMPETITIVE STRATEGY: Techniques for Analyzing
Industries and Competitors by Michael Porter. Copyright © 1980, 1998 by The
Free Press. All rights reserved. Figure 5.1 courtesy of Nestlé; Figure 5.6 courtesy
of Kodak; Figure 8.3 courtesy of Partnership Sourcing; Table 10.3 from Getting
to Yes, Century Business Publishing, (Fisher and Ury, 1991) Figure 17.2
adapted from Smart Procurement in the MOD, Hawksmere (Boyce, T., 2000).
In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of the copy-
right material, and we would appreciate any information that would enable
us to do so.

xiv

..
PPA_C01.qxd 9/26/07 7:05 AM Page 1

Part 1
Objectives and organisations

Chapter 1 Purchasing scope and development

Chapter 2 Strategic aspects of purchasing
Chapter 3 Purchasing structure and organisation
Chapter 4 Management aspects

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PPA_C01.qxd 9/26/07 7:05 AM Page 3

1
Purchasing scope and
development

Introduction
All organisations need inputs of goods and services from external suppliers or
providers. In this chapter we examine the developing role of the purchasing and
supply function in managing these inputs, and comment upon the ways in which
the activity can contribute to the efficiency of the organisation. We will identify
ways of measuring the stage of development reached by an organisation and
demonstrate how the development stage reached can affect performance of the
purchasing activity.

Objectives of this chapter

n To discuss the scope of purchasing
n To identify the purchasing cycle concept
n To discuss purchasing and supply as a service activity
n To discuss the changing role of purchasing and supply
n To explain how purchasing might develop from an independent function to an
integrated activity
n To identify the internal and external influences which have affected the evolution
of purchasing
n To examine the ‘total acquisition cost’ concept
n To consider the adoption of relationships based on mutual benefits as an altern-
ative to the traditional transactional, adversarial approach
n To highlight the evolution of concepts relating to purchasing development
n To identify key practices encountered in developed strategic purchasing.

The scope of purchasing

A well-known statement of the objectives of purchasing is: to acquire the
right quality of material, at the right time, in the right quantity, from the right
source, at the right price. This somewhat hackneyed statement is criticised by

..
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Chapter 1 • Purchasing scope and development

some as being rather superficial and simplistic. This is undoubtedly valid

comment, though the definition does provide a practical starting point for
discussion, and has been useful to the authors in organising this textbook.
However, a good objective should be measurable in some way, but who is to
say, for example, what price is right? For present purposes, remembering the
need to work as an effective function in the management team, the following
broad statement of objectives is suggested:

n To supply the organisation with a flow of materials and services to meet its
needs.
n To ensure continuity of supply by maintaining effective relationships with
existing sources and by developing other sources of supply either as altern-
atives or to meet emerging or planned needs.
n To buy efficiently and wisely, obtaining by an ethical means the best value
for every pound spent.
n To maintain sound co-operative relationships with other departments,
providing information and advice as necessary to ensure the effective
operation of the organisation as a whole.
n To develop staff, policies, procedures and organisation to ensure the
achievement of these objectives.

In addition, we might add some more specific objectives such as:

n To select the best suppliers in the market.

n To help generate the effective development of new products.
n To protect the company’s cost structure.
n To maintain the correct quality/value balance.
n To monitor supply market trends.
n To negotiate effectively in order to work with suppliers who will seek
mutual benefit through economically superior performance.
n To adopt environmentally responsible supply management.

n The purchasing cycle

The main stages in the purchasing process may be summarised as follows:

n Recognition of need
n Specification
n Make or buy decision
n Source identification
n Source selection
n Contracting
n Contract management
n Receipt, possibly inspection
n Payment
n Fulfilment of need

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The scope of purchasing

The idea of the purchasing cycle is often employed to indicate the main
activities in which purchasing might be involved. The activities included in
the cycle do not include all of those that a purchasing staff might be involved
with; there are many activities such as, for example, negotiation, vendor rating
and source development that are not specifically included. It will be noticed
that the early and late stages in the cycle may not necessarily involve spe-
cialist purchasing staff, the core purchasing contribution to the cycle being
the items included in the central part of the list.
A limitation of the cycle concept is that it does not recognise the strategic
contribution made by modern purchasing. We shall discuss this contribution
within this chapter and elsewhere in the text.

n Is purchasing a service activity?

The thinking prevalent at the time of the first edition of this book was that
purchasing was a service function, often subordinated to production or
engineering in the manufacturing sector, or to finance in the service or public
sectors. The idea was that specialist supplies staff could do the bidding of
the more strategic elements of the organisation, and employ their skills at a
secondary ‘support’ level. Thinking moved on, and there came a more general
realisation that purchasing might contribute more effectively at a strategic as
well as an operational level. The idea that purchasing and supply was merely
a support activity has been somewhat discredited, with a developing recogni-
tion that purchasing involvement in issues such as the ‘make or buy’ decision,
or strategic commercial relationship gave the function a central and strategic
role in the competitive organisation.
Paradoxically, the now widespread recognition of the strategic nature of
much of the work of the purchasing staff has led to a kind of reversion. It
is now widely thought, and practice reflects this thinking, that high level
purchasing expertise is best employed in determining supply strategy in line
with that of the corporation, and assisting those concerned with day-to-day
operations in reflecting this strategy in managing their own acquisition and
use of externally sourced products and services. In many concerns purchasing
is again seen as a service or support activity, but by no means a servile func-
tion. In much the same way top management is often depicted these days as
supporting the organisation, inverting the traditional view that the organisa-
tion supports its management. We discuss the development of purchasing
later in the book, but we offer at this stage the idea that in many cases pur-
chasing has moved through evolution of its role to devolution of much of the
more straightforward buying activity, whilst retaining and developing its
strategic contribution.

..
Another random document with
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countenance the heart is the features the heart is
made better. improved.

¹ Or, anger.

(3.) Good is vexation (the vexation of disappointment――see

chapter i. 18, references) above laughter; for in the evil (concrete,
and therefore an evil or distortion) of the faces (plural, but ‫ פנים‬is so
generally, as the face is double) is bettered (a pe. jud verb, with
double jud) the heart. I think the equivoke here is, ‘the worse one
looks, the better one gets.’

4 The heart of the That heart of the wise

wise is in the house of which is in the house of
mourning; but the heart the mourning, when the
of fools is in the house of heart of the befooled is
mirth. in the house of mirth.

(4.) The heart of wise ones (as ‘heart’ is repeated again, it

gives the idea of ‘that heart’ spoken of before. This, however, as
occurring in a new clause containing a fresh sentiment, must not be
pressed too far) is in the house of mourning, and the heart of
befooled ones in the house of rejoicing. This aphorism is very
suggestive: the heart of the wise is improved in the house of
sadness; fools, or rather befooled ones, who are mistaken with their
own joy, are improved in the house of feasting, but it is an
improvement in evil. This equivoke the rendering of the LXX.
preserves.
 5 It is better to hear
the rebuke of the wise,
than for a man to hear
the song of fools.
(5.) Good is it to hear
the rebuke of the wise,
more than that any
should hear the song of
the befooled.

(5.) Good is it to hear the rebuke of a wise one (‫ גערת‬occurs in

this book here only, but at Proverbs xiii. 1, 8, xvii. 10), above a man
(i.e. any one) hearing a song of befooled ones (the hiphil form is
here especially to be noticed, ‘many befooled ones sing;’ as Jeremy
Taylor says, ‘We commonly enter singing into the snare.’ Ginsburg
would amend this passage by relegating the ‫ איש‬to the first clause;
but this is to miss the point, which is, that ‘it is better to listen to a
wise rebuking, than for any one to hear the song of the befooled’).

6 For as the For as the crackling

¹crackling of thorns of thorns under a pot, so
under a pot, so is the is the cackling of the
laughter of the fool: this befooled――and
also is vanity. besides, it is
evanescent.
¹ Hebrew
sound.
 (6.) For as the voice of the thorns under the pot (there is both
alliteration and equivoke here, the root ‫ סור‬having the meaning, ‘to
turn aside,’ ‘be crooked,’ etc., and ‫סר‬, ‘displeased,’ 1 Kings xx. 43,
xxi. 4) so (the word ‘so’ is somewhat emphatic, as standing alone) a
laugh of the befooled (generic), also this is vanity (i.e. an instance
of evanescence).

7 ¶ Surely Yet affliction makes

oppression maketh a false a wise man’s hope,
wise man mad; and a and destroys the heart of
gift destroyeth the heart. his purpose.

(7.) For the oppression (generic, ‘the affliction of life’) makes

mad (poel future, occurs Job xii. 7, Isaiah xlii. 5; compare also
chapter ii. 2, which we have seen is the madness of false
expectation) a wise man (hence the meaning must be, that the
oppressions or afflictions of life put out the calculations of the wise,
and make their expectation false) and destroys with respect to the
heart (‫את לב‬, therefore emphatic; hence the LXX. render τὴν καρδίαν,
and the meaning is, that affliction [compare chapter iv. 1] not only
makes his expectations false, but disappoints his desires; which
clearly, with the advantages of sorrow stated above, it ought not to
do to a wise man) of his purpose. (Following the LXX., who derive
the word from the root ‫מתן‬, which exists in the Arabic, and also in the
Syriac――see Bernstein, s. v., ‘moratus est,’ ‘tardus fuit;’ ‘that
which is purposed or appointed’ would be quite a natural meaning,
for ‫ נתן‬not only has the meaning ‘to give,’ but also ‘to settle or
appoint.’ If we render with the Authorized Version ‘gift,’ we introduce
an idea altogether new and strange, while with the rendering
supported by the LXX. and unpointed text, the aphorism connects
itself with what went before and follows after.)
 8 Better is the end of
a thing than the
beginning thereof: and
the patient in spirit is
better than the proud in
spirit.
(6.) [Yet] good is the
end of a matter, and
more than its beginning.
(7.) [And] good is the
long-suffering soul
above the high swelling
spirit.

(8.) Good is the end of a matter (in its technical sense of a

reasoning) above its beginning; good is a long spirit above a
high spirit (this is equivocal; ‘long-suffering is better than high
mindedness’ will render the equivoke. Thus, then, it appears that
these aphorisms are all closely related to one another, or, at any
rate, hang on the same thread of argument. The existence of
oppression makes the wise man mad by reason of disappointed
hopes, and destroys his purpose; but he must wait to see the end,
and be patient. ‘Good’ has occurred in seven paradoxical relations,
having the appearance of evil. The same strain is continued in the
following, but the argument is somewhat different).

9 Be not hasty in thy Do not be in haste to

spirit to be angry: for be disappointed; for
anger resteth in the disappointment nestles
bosom of fools. in the bosom of the
befooled.
 (9.) Do not hasten in thy spirit to be angered (by
disappointment), for anger in the bosom of befooled ones rests.

10 Say not thou, Do not say either,

What is the cause that
the former days were
better than these? for
thou dost not inquire
¹wisely concerning this.
¹ Hebrew out
of wisdom.
How was it that former
days were so good as
compared with these?
because it is not wisdom
which prompts you to
inquire in this way.

(10.) Do not say (‫אל‬, the particle of prohibition being repeated,

this second is equivalent to ‘neither say’) what was (how was it) that
the days (with the article, and therefore generic), the former ones
(again generic, in strict apposition) were good ones beyond these
(the whole construction of the sentence shows that the Laudator
temporis acti is here specially reprehended), because not from
wisdom (i.e. the wisdom of such an inquiry is here negatived) thou
askest (‫ שאל‬is to ask in the sense of wishing to have――Exodus
iii. 22) upon (or about) this.
 11 ¶ Wisdom ¹is good As good is wisdom
with an inheritance: and as an inheritance, and
by it there is profit to something more, to
them that see the sun. those who see the
sunshine;
¹ Or, as good
as an
inheritance,
yea, better
too.

(11.) A good is wisdom (the two nouns both abstracts or in

strict agreement) together with an inheritance, and a profitable
thing (‫ְו ֹי ֵת ר‬, which the Masorets point as a participle, not ‫יתרון‬, which
would give a different idea, i.e. a ‘profit generally,’ which, in the
sense of this book, wisdom is not always, for it fails, through
unforeseen accidents, of always attaining its end, and sometimes
perishes like folly; but with an inheritance, wisdom to know how to
use it is always a real advantage in some way even in this life, and
hence the qualification) to those that see the sun (generic, as a sun
which is light and warmth indeed, but also glare and heat).

12 For wisdom is a for the shelter of wisdom

¹defence, and money is is just as the shelter of
a defence: but the money: but the profit of
excellency of knowledge knowledge is, the
is, that wisdom giveth wisdom that enables its
life to them that have it. possessor to live.

¹ Hebrew
shadow.

(12.) For in shadow of the wisdom is in shadow of the silver.

(The sentence, whichever way we take it, is enigmatical, as indeed
the form shows. The LXX. render ad sensum, ‘Because in her
shadow, wisdom is as the shadow of silver,’ but very probably not
because they read differently, this rendering merely gives the
equivoke; for the literal meaning of the sentence, as it stands in the
text, is, ‘Because in the shadow of wisdom generically, is the same
as to be in the shadow of money.’ The idea of shadow arises
naturally from that of sunshine, spoken of above; for we must
remember that in the East, shadow is always desired, and it is to the
natives of southern Europe and Asia the symbol of pleasant
refreshment. Shadow and sun are cognate ideas――see Psalms
xci. 1, Isaiah xxxii. 2. Again, the root ‫ כסף‬has the meaning to desire
earnestly――see Job xiv. 15, Psalms xvii. 12; hence the further play
upon the words.) And a profit of a knowledge of the wisdom?
(generic, this special wisdom, but the passage might also be
rendered, and a ‘profit of knowledge, it is wisdom which,’ etc.) it
enlivens its possessor. (The Masorets, by accenting ‫ ַּ֔ד ַעת‬with
zakeph, separate it from what follows, and so render as above. Thus
the meaning is――‘and there is this advantage in the knowledge of
wisdom, it makes its possessor live,’ or gives him life: but not
absolutely so; this appears from what follows.)
 13 Consider the work Consider then, with
of God: for who can regard to the working of
make that straight, which the Almighty, that none
he hath made crooked? is able to explain with
regard to what He has
made complex.

(13.) See (as the verb stands first, this is the emphatic word in
the sentence, equivalent, therefore, to ‘observe, however’) with
respect to the working of the Deity, for who is enabled to set in
order (occurs chapters i. 15, xii. 9 only, and is a word peculiar to
Ecclesiastes; it is used in the technical sense of ‘resolve,’ or ‘account
for,’ a providential mystery) with respect to that which (the LXX.
give the force of this ‫ את‬here by the rendering ὃν ἂν ὁ Θεὸς) He hath
involved it? (‫עות‬, in hithpael, occurs Job xix. 6, chapters i. 15, and
xii. 3. The cognate ‫ עוה‬occurs nearly as often, and with the same
signification, which is the exact opposite of ‫תקן‬, ‘to involve,’ ‘make
complex.’ ‘Who can resolve that with respect to which He has
determined that it shall be involved?’ is the precise meaning given by
the suffix to the verb.)

14 In the day of In the day then of good,

prosperity be joyful, but
in the day of adversity
consider: God also hath
¹set the one over against
the other, to the end that
accept the good; in the
day of distress, discern:
for the one indeed hath
the Almighty appointed
as the counterpart of the
man should find nothing other, for the very
after him. purpose that Humanity
should by no means be
¹ Hebrew
able to discover anything
made. of what is to result.

(14.) In a day of good (‫טובה‬, the abstract here having the

meaning of ‘prosperity’) be in good (which the LXX. render, ‘live in
good,’ and as the root is repeated, we must render, that good), and
in a day of (with the meaning, ‘and in a time also of’) evil (abstract
as above) see (emphatic, not only from the alliteration of ‫ רעה‬and
‫ראה‬, but from its being the same word at the end as at the beginning,
verse 13). Moreover, with respect to this, to the counterpart
(‫לעמת‬, see chapter v. 16 (15), where this word is discussed) of that
makes (i.e. so works) the Deity, for the reason (‫ על דברת‬occurs
chapters iii. 18, vii. 14, viii. 2, and in the same sense ‘to the intent
that’) he might not (contract relative, with the negative, and
involving its usual subjunctive meaning) find even humanity, his
future (i.e. that which comes after him or succeeds, whether this be
due to his own labour or otherwise) anything (which is reserved to
the end of the sentence, and is equivalent to ‘anything at all.’ Thus,
then, the transition to the next clause is quite manifest. It follows of
course that this uncertainty as to the result applies even in the case
of virtue and vice: this, therefore, is the topic next discussed).

15 All things have I With regard to the whole

seen in the days of my of life, then, I have
vanity: there is a just observed during the
man that perisheth in his days of my evanescent
righteousness, and there
is a wicked man that
prolongeth his life in his
wickedness.
existence that there may
be a just man who
perishes by reason of
his justice, and there
may be an impious man
who prolongs his
existence by his wrong.

(15.) With regard to the whole (with ‫ את‬and the article, ‘with
regard to the whole of life’ is therefore the meaning, as so often in
this book――see chapter i. 2) I have observed in the days of my
vanity (with the idea, therefore, ‘so far as my short experience
goes’) that there is (a person or thing) made right, yet perishing in
his righteousness, and that there is (as ‫ יש‬is repeated it becomes
emphatic, and thus we must render ‘there also is’) an impious
caused to be prolonging (himself) in his mischief (i.e. the hiphil
participle gives the idea that this prolongation of life by evil means, or
the like, is due to the wickedness itself: it is again the problem of
successful impiety; for the word ‫ מאריך‬compare Exodus xx. 12).

16 Be not righteous Do not be then righteous

over much; neither make to excess, or make
thyself over wise: why thyself wise too
shouldest thou ¹destroy confidently: why
thyself? shouldest thou be
grievously disappointed?
 ¹ Hebrew be
desolate.

(16.) Do not be made right too much, and do not (repeated,

‘do not also’) make thyself wise (the hithpael occurs only Exodus
i. 10, and has a sinister meaning. Pharaoh’s policy with the children
of Israel was for the time dealing wisely, but also a ‘prolonging in
wickedness’) to excess (‘or over and above what is reasonable,’
expecting a ‘profit,’ ‫יותר‬, from it, in that sense in which this word is
used in this book). Wherefore shouldest thou be desolated? (but
the hithpolel occurs Psalms cxliii. 4, Isaiah lix. 16, lxii. 5, Daniel
viii. 27, and in all cases with the idea of ‘consternation’ at an
unexpected and afflictive occurrence. Thus the meaning must be,
‘that this righteousness overmuch, and wisdom beyond what is
reasonable, will disappoint.’ We must not then, in the days of our
vanity, expect too much from right actions; they may to all
appearance prove as disastrous as the most impious could be. In the
same way impiety, that is, high-handed and presumptuous rebellion
against right, may succeed so well that it may cause a prolongation
of itself; the very word is sarcastic, as pointing to an end of wrong at
last. The inference naturally seems to be――If this be so, what is the
use of doing right at all? but a deeply sarcastic refutation is given to
this thought in the succeeding clause).

17 Be not over much but then, do not be

wicked, neither be thou wicked to excess either,
foolish: why shouldest and by no means
thou die ¹before thy become a clever fool:
time?
 why shouldest thou die
¹ Hebrew not
in thy time.
when it is not thy time?

(17.) Do not be impious to excess, and do not be (the

quadruple repetition of the particle of prohibition gives emphasis to it,
especially at the close of the sentence――(1.) Do not be over right,
and (2.) do not be over wise either, (3.) nor impious either, nor
(4.) still less either a clever fool, are the four stages of the argument;
the emphatic ‫ תהי‬is reserved to the last clause here in this member;
in the former clause it stands first, giving it thus a still further
sarcastic emphasis, something like our ‘whatever you are do not be’)
an elaborate fool (‫סכל‬, compare chapters ii. 19, x. 3, 14; and see the
meaning of this term discussed there. This wickedness then, it
seems, is wise folly, or false prudence). Wherefore shouldest thou
die in what is not your time? The sarcasm is surely deep and
cutting which, covertly reminding the impious that he has yet to die,
advises him not to die before his time.

18 It is good that It is good that thou

thou shouldest take hold
of this; yea, also from
this withdraw not thine
hand: for he that feareth
God shall come forth of
them all.
shouldest lay hold of the
former; moreover, of the
latter, by no means let
your hand touch it, for he
that fears God comes
out safely with regard to
all of these.
 (18.) Good it is that (full relative, referring to both the following
clauses) thou layest hold of this, and, moreover, from that do
not withhold with respect to thine hand (the root ‫ ינח‬occurs
chapters ii. 18, x. 4, xi. 6; see also Genesis ii. 15, xix. 16, etc.――the
precise meaning being, in all these cases, ‘to lay up.’ The LXX.
translate this word by μιαίνῃς, ‘defile;’ and hence consider the word
to refer to the second clause of the verse above; but it may be
doubted, as Schleusner points out, whether the rendering of the
LXX. is not a misreading of Symmachus’ μὴ ἀνῇς, which was
successively altered to μίανῃς and μὴ μίανῃς, so that with this before
us we may well reject their reading as not entitled to disturb our
confidence in the Hebrew text; observing also that it is ‫את ידך‬, i.e. do
not rest, or do not lay it up, with respect to thy hand; the conclusion
is, do not touch either the wickedness or the false prudence. The
rendering of the Authorized Version is ambiguous; it is not clear what
the second ‘this’ refers to, but evidently admits of the meaning
above. The whole drift then of the aphorism is, ‘lay hold of right
notwithstanding, and have nothing to do with wickedness’). For he
who fears God goes out of (or ‘gets free from,’ as ‫ את‬follows) with
respect to all of them (i.e. the whole four difficulties here
mentioned; he will neither be over-expectant of an immediate result
from his righteousness, nor of his prudence; on the other hand, he
will not be either impious, or an elaborate fool).

19 Wisdom This wisdom is a

strengtheneth the wise better defence to the
more than ten mighty wise than ten powerful
men which are in the men within a fortress.
city.
 (19.) The wisdom (wisdom generically) strengthens (a play
between ‫ תאחז‬above and ‫ תעז‬here) to the wise more than ten
persons who have been invested with power who are (emphatic)
in a city. Powerful men in a city are hard to overcome, or get at; ten,
the indefinite number, gives the idea of ‘ever so many.’

20 For there is not a However, there is no

just man upon earth, that single man on earth so
doeth good, and sinneth right that he always does
not. good, and never makes
a wicked mistake.

(20.) For a man (a man, as a specimen of the race, which we

have already seen is the meaning of this word standing alone
without the article) there is not (for we have in this case ‫אין‬, and not
‫ ;לא‬thus the meaning is, ‘there is not a single man’) made right in
the earth who does good and does not sin (i.e. ‘make wicked
mistakes:’ hence, as no man is perfectly right, it would be
unreasonable to expect a perfect result; thus the relevancy of
verse 17 is apparent. If our right acts do not always succeed, it is but
just, considering the many sins we all commit).

21 Also ¹take no Besides, to all those

heed unto all words that arguments by which
are spoken; lest thou men direct themselves,
do not give much heed,
hear thy servant curse just as thou hadst better
thee: not listen to thy servant
when he curses thee;
¹ Hebrew
give not
thy heart.

(21.) Moreover (an additional reason), to all the words (‫הדברים‬,

in the usual sense, and very emphatic as followed by the
corresponding verb) which they speak (reason about) do not give
thine heart (because they are not worth thinking about: the reason
follows), which (repeated, equivalent to ‘they are such that’) not
dost thou hear (‘as thou wouldest not listen to if’) with respect to
thy servant he was cursing thee.

22 For oftentimes because thou knowest

also thine own heart that besides, times out
knoweth that thou thyself of mind thyself also hast
likewise hast cursed cursed――some one
others. else.

(22.) For moreover, times many knows (but the LXX. read ‫ירע‬,
κακώσει, ‘afflicts,’ that is, the servant does so. Symmachus also
reads ὅτι πρὸς πλεόνακις καιροῦ πονηρεύσεται καρδία σου, supporting
the LXX.; the Syriac, on the other hand, reads as the Hebrew. If,
therefore, ‫ ירע‬was the real reading, the change took place in ancient
times) thy heart (which is nominative to ‫ )ידע‬which (the third
repetition of the relative; it ought therefore to be taken in the
meaning of ‘and this,’) also thou (which is emphatic if we follow the
Masorets, who point ‫ ַא ָּת‬in which apparently they are supported by
both the LXX. and Symmachus) hast cursed others.

Were it not for this suspicious ‫ ַא ָּת‬there would be no reason at all

to disturb the present Hebrew text. Nor, probably, is the evidence
strong against it, unless indeed it should turn out, on further
investigation and discovery, that when the version of the LXX. was
made, there was a greater difference between the letters ‫ ͏͏ר‬and ‫ד‬
than there is now. If the reading of the LXX. were right, the following
was the meaning of the passage:――‘Moreover, to all the words
which they speak [they being supposed to refer to the wicked, hence
the explanatory gloss of B, ἀσεβεῖς], do not give thine
heart,’――which [amounts to this]――‘thou wouldest not hear (or
listen to) with respect to thy servant cursing thee, because many
times he vexes thy heart, which [amounts to this also] in regard that
thou hast cursed others.’ The innuendo being that our reasonings
with regard to God’s dealings with ourselves are like the rash
improper speeches of a grumbling servant. It must be confessed that
the expression, ‫אשר גם את קללת‬, literally, ‘which also with respect to
thou hast cursed,’ is unprecedentedly harsh and elliptical, even for
Koheleth. But to alter the text――and the Masoretic punctuation is
here a virtual alteration of the text――is to interpret an imaginary
document, and not the one which exists before our eyes. The
Masorets, however, with their customary caution――and in this
respect they are a brilliant example to some modern critics――would
not add a single letter, on mere conjecture only, however plausible.

23 ¶ All this have I All this have I explored

proved by wisdom: I by means of wisdom. I
said, I will be wise; but it said, I shall be wise
was far from me. enough, but what may
 24 That which is far be is altogether beyond
off, and exceeding deep, me! beyond me how far?
who can find it out? a double depth! how
could any find it?

(23, 24.) All this (the Masorets point ‫ ֹז ה‬feminine, equivalent to

neuter) have I tried with wisdom; I said I will be wise (with ‫ה‬
paragogic, and Taylor in his note observes that this form is optative,
and expresses a strong desire [Lange, Commmentary on Old
Testament, American edition]; might it not with truth be said that it is
the abstract idea of which the verb is the concrete, ‘I shall be
wisdomed’?), but that was far from me (but notice again ‫רחוקה‬,
agreeing no doubt with ‫ חכמה‬understood, but not the less an abstract
on that account: it was farness or distance itself from me――‘beyond
my reach’ is the meaning), a distant thing, what is it which it will be
(that is, that he could not reach by wisdom to discern what the future
might be), and deep, deep (‘doubly deep,’ very emphatic), who will
find it out? (as these questions expect the answer, No, they are
equivalent to ‘a distant thing! is not it, the future, indeed? and a vast
depth which none can discover.’)

This concludes this part of the discourse, as is evident from the

formula, ‘I turned round, I and my heart,’ with which the following
passage begins; that which is to succeed is a personal experience of
another kind.

25 ¹I applied mine To come to another point

heart to know, and to then, in my own
search, and to seek out experience of knowledge
wisdom, and the reason and investigation: I
of things, and to know mean the discovery of
the wickedness of folly, wise and prudent
even of foolishness and experiments by which
madness: one may recognise
wickedness as folly, and
¹ Hebrew I
false-prudence as mad
and my disappointment.
heart
compassed.

(25.) I turned round (to do something, as this formula always

implies), I and my heart (for we have here a confession) to know
and to investigate (that is in order to know, etc., the prepositions
being repeated) and seek (without a preposition; the distinction
seems to be that the seeking is to be the consequence of the above
investigation) wisdom and device (‫ חשבון‬is exclusively a Koheleth
word, and occurs verse 27, ix. 10, only, it is thus not easy to
determine its precise meaning, but it is probably, as Moses Stuart
points out, the opposite of ‫ ;הללות‬and if so, it will be something
reasonable, in the sense of wise or well-formed and successful plan,
as its opposite is an ill-formed and disappointing one; thus
‫――השבונות‬occurs only here, verse 29, and 2 Chronicles xxvi. 15,
where it is used to denote Asa’s engines of war――is evidently
‘efficient contrivances.’ To know wisdom and a device, then, in this
sense, is ‘wisdom how to obtain a reasonable or proper result; and,
on the other hand, to discover the opposite.’ With this accords what
follows), and to know (as this is repeated it is equivalent to, and so
to know) wickedness (as) folly (‫――ֶכֶס ל‬the only instance of the
occurrence of this form in Ecclesiastes――compare Job viii. 14,
xxxi. 24, where we find that ‘expectation’ is the meaning, though not
necessarily in a bad sense, yet clearly so here. The LXX. render
ἀσεβοῦς ἀφροσύνην [which E. X. alter to εὐφροσύνην], ‘the folly of a
wicked person’) and the false wisdom (plural form in ‫――ות‬with the
article) follies (‫הוללות‬, as we have seen, compare chapter i. 17, of the
disappointing kind. The LXX. render here ὀχληρίαν, ‘trouble,’ and
περιφοράν, ‘madness,’ with καὶ ‘and,’ which is so far wrong, as there
is no conjunction in the original. The meaning of this passage it is no
doubt difficult to discover, but if we are right in the above analysis the
interpretation must be as follows: ‘I turned myself round, I and my
heart――(or, my own personal experience) to know and to
investigate, and so seek, wisdom and well-formed plans: and so to
recognise a wicked folly; and [a series of] falsely-wise acts, [which
were] disappointing follies.’ The punctuation represents the accents,
the larger distinctive accents being represented by the longer
pauses. The Syriac reads
, ‘to know the wickedness of the fool, and folly and
adultery,’ which coincides with the above; a reason for the peculiar
rendering ‘adultery’ will appear presently).

26 And I find more Now, I have made a

bitter than death the
woman, whose heart is
snares and nets, and her
hands as bands: ¹whoso
pleaseth God shall
escape from her; but the
sinner shall be taken by
her.
discovery, and that more
bitter than death; it is
with respect to woman,
when she is in the
nature of an ensnarer,
her affection seductions,
and her hands bondage.
A real good in the sight
of the Almighty is it to be
delivered from her, but
 the erring sinner is taken
¹ Hebrew He
that is
by such as she.
good
before
God.

(26.) And finding (a participle written full, giving a peculiar

emphasis to this word) am I a bitterness above death with respect
to the woman (‫ את‬with the article, which the LXX. note by σὺν, as
usual; thus ‘woman’ is generic, hence the precise idea seems to be
‘and a discovery of mine more bitter than death――is with respect to
woman;’ and, again, this follows the accentuation, which makes a
pause at ‘death,’) who (but the relative is full, and so refers back to
the whole clause, ‘when she’) is snares (masculine plural, and
hence distributive, ‘in the nature of an ensnarer’ then, see Proverbs
xii. 12, chapter ix. 14, where this form alone ‫ מצודה‬in the feminine
occurs, chapter ix. 12, Isaiah xxix. 7, Ezekiel xix. 9, and with shurek
at Job xix. 6; there is a slight difference in meaning in these forms)
and allurements (the root ‫ חרם‬is to destroy, and the noun signifies ‘a
cursed thing’ as often as a ‘net;’ see Deuteronomy vii. 26, Joshua
vi. 17) her heart (singular following plural; her heart then is in the
nature of things which allure to destruction, a whole armoury of
them, as it were, in her love) and bonds her hands (or ‘powers’);
good in the sight of Divine providence (‘a real good is it in the
sight of Divine providence’ is the meaning) is deliverance from her
(emphatic), but the erring one (a full participle, which the LXX.
note) is taken by her (emphatic).

27 Behold, this have Observe, this have I

I found, saith the discovered, and this is