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Nonconformity, Dissent,
Opposition, and
Resistance in Germany,
1933–1990
The Freedom to Conform
Sabrina P. Ramet
Nonconformity, Dissent, Opposition, and
Resistance in Germany, 1933–1990
 Sabrina P. Ramet

Nonconformity,
Dissent, Opposition,
and Resistance in
Germany, 1933–1990
The Freedom to Conform
Sabrina P. Ramet
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Trondheim, Norway

ISBN 978-3-030-55411-8    ISBN 978-3-030-55412-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55412-5

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
­publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
­institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Martin Nangle / Alamy Stock Photo

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Bob Goeckel
 Freedom is always the freedom to think differently.
—Rosa Luxemburg
If all mankind minus one were of one opinion, mankind would no more be
justified in silencing that one person than he, if he had the power, would be
justified in silencing mankind.
—John Stuart Mill
 Preface

This book is conceived as a comparison of three different systems intro-

duced within one nation: Nazism, 1933–1945; communism, 1949–1990;
and parliamentary pluralism in West Germany, 1949–1990. The focus is
on nonconformity, dissent, opposition, and resistance, embracing political
engagement (broadly understood), music and art, religion, and the sexual
sphere. This is, thus, not a history of Germany; it is a comparative analysis
of the systems operating in three periods of German history in the twenti-
eth century with emphasis both on how the systems operated and on the
sundry forms of noncompliance and opposition which emerged in each of
them. In order to understand how and why there were individuals and
groups determined to ignore or criticize or mock or oppose or fight
against one or another regime, it is necessary to understand the nature of
the regime and its policies.
During the time I have worked on this book, I have made use of the
University Library of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
the Library of Northwestern University, and the Van Pelt Library of the
University of Pennsylvania. I am grateful to Jennifer Bailey, Thomas
Berker, John Connelly, Robert F. Goeckel, Mikhail Gradovski, Christine
M. Hassenstab, Jo Jakobsen, David Kanin, Torbjørn Knutsen, László
Kürti, Jerry Pankhurst, Priscilla Ringrose, and Michael Weigl for taking
the time to check earlier drafts of portions of this manuscript and offer me
helpful suggestions and corrections. I am also deeply grateful to Magnus

ix
x Preface

Rom Jensen, research librarian, for his energetic assistance in obtaining

books and other materials I have needed for my research and to Radmil
Popovic who prepared the maps for this book. Christine Hassenstab also
joined me in proofreading the chapters.

Saksvik, Norway Sabrina P. Ramet

 Pronunciation of German Vowels and
Consonants

a is pronounced like “uh”

ä is pronounced like the “air” in “airplane”
au is pronounced like the “ow” in “cow”
e is pronounced like the “e” in “egg”
ei is pronounced like “eye”
eu or äu is pronounced like the “oi” in “oil”
i is pronounced like the “i” in “hit”
ie is pronounced like the “ea” in “easy”
o is pronounced like the “o” in “on”
ö or oe is pronounced like the “u” in “purring”
u is pronounced like the “u” in “chute”
ü or ue has no equivalent in English; English speakers are often advised
to approximate this sound by trying to say “see” while pursing one’s
lips to whistle
ch is an aspirated “h,” pronounced like the “h” in “hard”; it is pro-
nounced even when it occurs at the end of a word, as in the name “Bach”
j is pronounced like the “y” in “yodel”
sch is pronounced like the “sh” in “shush”
st at the start of a word is pronounced like “sht”
th is pronounced like the “t” in “boat”
tsch is pronounced like the “ch” in “church”
v is pronounced like the “f” in “fife”
w is pronounced like the “v” in “victor” or “poverty”
z is pronounced like the “ts” in “cats” or “tsar”

xi
 Contents

1 Introduction: The Freedom to Conform  1

2 Nazi Germany, 1933–1945: Nonconformity as

“Degeneration” 15

3 Democratic Reconstruction Under Allied Occupation,

1945–1949: Neither Tradition nor “Degeneration” 87

4 The Soviet Occupation Zone, 1945–1949: Building

New Structures of Conformity117

5 The German Democratic Republic, 1949–1990:

Conformity as Alienation147

6 West Germany, 1949–1990: Nonconformity as Alienation217

7 Conclusion265

Further Reading269

Index275

xiii
 About the Author

Sabrina P. Ramet is Professor Emerita at the Norwegian University

of Science and Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim, Norway. She was
born in London, England, of an Austrian mother and a Spanish father.
The family moved to California when she was 10 years old. After earn-
ing her undergraduate degree in Philosophy at Stanford University,
Ramet served in the U.S. Air Force and was stationed at Ramstein Air
Base. Following her service in the Air Force, she earned her PhD in
Political Science at UCLA. She taught at the University of California,
Santa Barbara, and the University of Washington, where she attained
the rank of full Professor, prior to moving to Trondheim, Norway, to
take up a position as Professor of Political Science at NTNU. She is the
author of 14 previous scholarly books, including Social Currents in
Eastern Europe: The Sources and Consequences of the Great
Transformation, 2nd ed. (1995), Nihil Obstat: Religion, Politics, and
Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia (1998), Thinking
about Yugoslavia: Scholarly Debates about the Yugoslav Breakup and the
Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo (2005), The Three Yugoslavias: State-
Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005 (2006), The Catholic Church in
Polish History: From 966 to the Present (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), and
Alternatives to Democracy in Twentieth-Century Europe: Collectivist
Visions of Modernity (2019). She is also the editor or co-editor of more
than three dozen scholarly books.

xv
 Acronyms1

AMZON The American Zone of Occupation

BDM Bund Deutscher Mädel (League of German Girls)
CC Central Committee
CDU Christlich Demokratische Union (Christian Democratic Union)
COMECON Council of Mutual Economic Relations
CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union
CSU Christlich-Soziale Union (Christian Social Union)
CTC Central Textbook Committee
DBD Demokratische Bauernpartei Deutschlands (Democratic
Farmers’ Party of Germany)
DEFA Deutsche Film-Aktiengesellschaft (German Film Joint-­Stock
Company)
DFD Demokratischer Frauenbund Deutschlands (Democratic
Women’s League of Germany)
DPA Deutsche Presse-Agentur (German Press Agency)
DVU Deutsche Volksunion (German People’s Union)
DZVJ Deutsche Zentralverwaltung für Justiz (German Central
Administration for Justice)
DZVV Deutsche Zentralverwaltung für Volksbildung (German Central
Administration for People’s Education)
EKD Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland (Evangelical Church in
Germany)
FAP Freiheitliche Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (Free German
Workers’ Party)
FDGB Freier Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (Free German Trade
Union Federation)
FDJ Freie Deutsche Jugend (Free German Youth)

xvii
xviii ACRONYMS

FDP Freie Demokratische Partei (Free Democratic Party)

FRG Federal Republic of Germany
FUB Freie Universität Berlin (Free University of Berlin)
GDR German Democratic Republic
HJ Hitlerjugend (Hitler Youth)
KDC Kirchenbewegung Deutsche Christen (German Christian
Movement)
KPD Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (Communist Party of
Germany)
LDPD Liberal-Demokratische Partei Deutschlands (Liberal Democratic
Party of Germany)
MfS Ministerium für Staatssicherheit (Ministry of State Security)
NDPD National-Demokratische Partei Deutschlands (National Democratic
Party of Germany)
NPD Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands (National Democratic
Party of Germany)
NSDAP Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist
German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party)
OMGUS Occupation Military Government, United States
PDS Partei des Demokratischen Sozialismus (Party of Democratic
Socialism)
RKK Reichskulturkammer (Reich Culture Chamber)
RMK Reichsmusikkammer (Reich Music Chamber)
RSHA Reichssicherheitshauptamt (Reich Security Main Office)
SA Sturmabteilung (Storm Detachment)
SBZ Sowjetische Besatzungszone (Soviet Occupation Zone)
SD Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service)
SDS Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund (Socialist German
Student Union)
SED Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity Party of
Germany)
SHB Sozialistischer Hochschulbund (Socialist University Union)
SMAD Sowjetische Militäradministration in Deutschland (Soviet Military
Administration in Germany)
SPD Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (Social Democratic Party
of Germany)
SS Schutzstaffel (Protection Squad)
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
ZDF Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (Second German Television)
 ACRONYMS xix

Note
1. Note: All acronyms are taken from the German words, except for the names
of the countries, common terms such as “Central Committee,” and words
associated with the Soviet Union and the Soviet bloc.
 List of Maps

Map 2.1 Nazi Germany, August 1939 19

Map 3.1 Occupied Germany, July 1945–October 1949 88
Map 6.1 East and West Germany, 1949/57–1990 218

xxi
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 The numbers murdered at the main extermination camps 32

Table 2.2 The religious affiliation of Germans (1933) 35
Table 4.1 The number of teachers dismissed in the SBZ within the
framework of denazification 126
Table 4.2 Party affiliations of teachers in the SBZ (1947) 131

xxiii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: The Freedom to Conform

The underlying triune thesis of this book is that nonconformity, dissent,

opposition, and resistance make a social and political difference, that their
effectiveness is affected by the nature of the political system in which they
emerge, and that, in the three incarnations of Germany between 1933 and
1990, these forms of noncompliance and obstruction, even when unsuc-
cessful (as in the case of the attempted assassination of Hitler in July 1944)
had a direct or indirect impact on the political culture, assumptions, expec-
tations, or behaviors of Germans, whether in the short term or in the long
term. It may seem strange at first sight to construe nonconformity as a
form of obstruction. But, in the project to define, shape, and maintain the
mindset of a people, nonconformity represents a refusal to accept the
dominant or prescribed mindset.
At the national identity level, conformity is about more than just speak-
ing the same language or accepting certain events in the past as important
for the nation. National identity also involves adherence to certain tradi-
tions, norms, and social expectations. In other words, national identity
always involves conformity. Every stable society endeavors to socialize its
citizens, already from childhood, to the norms appropriate to the given
society, typically conveying the message that certain values are to be prized
over others. Thus, in a society where freedom is given the highest value,
such as the United States, talk about equality, especially equality for same-­
sex couples, is contested and considered by conservatives to be outside the
norm (or perhaps “left-wing”), while in, let us say, Stalin-era Russia—to

© The Author(s) 2020 1

S. P. Ramet, Nonconformity, Dissent, Opposition, and Resistance in
Germany, 1933–1990,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55412-5_1
2 S. P. RAMET

take an extreme example—talk of thinking for oneself or, for that matter,
of desiring to travel could result in one’s arrest and incarceration in the
gulag. For purposes of this book, I shall distinguish between nonconfor-
mity, deviance, dissent or dissidence, opposition, and resistance. To begin
with the second in this list, by deviant, following the Cambridge Dictionary,
I shall mean “not usual and … generally considered to be unacceptable,”1
and not chosen for any social or political reason. By dissent or dissidence, I
shall mean the conscious embrace of views or engagement in actions in
opposition either to the government or to society at large, chosen for
some higher social or political reason. By nonconformity, basing my defini-
tion once again on that offered by the Cambridge Dictionary, I shall mean
“the quality of thinking and behaving in a way that is different from [the
way most] other people” think and behave.2 Thus, nonconformity, accord-
ing to this definition, embraces not only both deviance and dissent, but
also creative originality (as in the arts), the simple refusal to accept what an
individual considers arbitrary idiocy, mere thinking for oneself rather than
following the crowd (thus deciding on one’s own criteria for decision-­
making), seeing decisions to be made where others do not, and other
forms of independence. A nonconformist, thus, is a free person, not in the
sense of freedom to conform but in a more fundamental sense. But, by the
same virtue, a nonconformist, at least in the sense of dissidence, chooses
to stand aside from the modal understanding of a society’s identity and, as
such, is implicitly, if not explicitly, threatening to the given regime’s iden-
tity project. For any regime, whether an authoritarian regime or a demo-
cratic regime, whatever other freedoms may be recognized, there is always
an endorsement of the freedom to conform.
Two more terms remain to be defined: opposition and resistance. Thomas
Ammer distinguishes between these two, suggesting that the criterion for
distinguishing between them is their relationship to the law. Thus, accord-
ing to Ammer, opposition (Opposition) should be understood as consist-
ing of more or less legal activity, while resistance (Widerstand) involves
illegal activity.3 I shall, however, use these terms as they are defined in the
Cambridge Dictionary. Here one finds opposition defined as “disagree-
ment with something, often by speaking or fighting against it, or (esp. in
politics) the people or group who are not in power.”4 By contrast, resis-
tance is defined in the Cambridge Dictionary as “a situation in which peo-
ple or organizations fight against something or refuse to accept [it].”5
Thus, resistance necessarily entails fighting, while opposition may or may
not. Further, resistance typically involves the aspiration either to prevent
 1 INTRODUCTION: THE FREEDOM TO CONFORM 3

the government from pursuing policies of highest priority to the party in

power, or to overthrow the government or at least remove its chief office-
holders. Or, to put it differently, all resistance involves opposition, but not
all opposition involves resistance.
I have chosen, in this book, to focus on four battlegrounds (in the
Third Reich five, adding race) where the regime has dictated norms for
conformity and where national identity has been contested: the state’s
concept of what Germanness means or should mean, religion and religious
instruction in the schools, understandings of sexuality (can a gay or lesbian
be considered a “good” German? what is the significance of abortion for
the body politic?), and the arts (especially painting and music, where since
the 1920s new idioms such as atonalism in music or abstract art have chal-
lenged people’s ways of relating to art and perhaps also to reality). The
differences over these policy spheres became visible in the years of the
Hohenzollern empire, flared in the Weimar years, continued in the Third
Reich, were muffled in the German Democratic Republic, and continued
in new forms in the years of the Federal Republic, including where the
presence of religious symbols in the schools and the legal status of homo-
sexuality have been concerned. On the face of it, the debates seemed
sometimes to pit “modern” or “modernist” views against “traditional”
ways of thinking, but the reality has often been more complex.
In Germany, as elsewhere, collective identity is variously shaped or
affected or challenged by state conditioning (typically but not exclusively
through the schools), repression (e.g., of religious minorities or forms of
art of which the Nazis disapproved), programs of control (e.g., of history
textbooks), popular protest (building collective self-confidence and affirm-
ing values different from those espoused by the regime), resistance, and
inevitably and most obviously also regime change. The pressures and pol-
icy fronts to be discussed herein relate, as already mentioned, to appropri-
ate gender/sexual behavior, the place of religion in the schools and in
society, control of culture (largely a theme for the Nazi era and the German
Democratic Republic), and issues related to nation and race—all of which
impinge directly on national or regional identity; and of course conformity
to Bavarian social norms, for example, would not necessarily signal inte-
gration in Hanover or Hamburg. Every state, every regime in the world is
interested in how its citizens think and behave and seeks, at least to some
extent, to shape the political culture, values, and identity of its citizens.
The United States wants its citizens to prize freedom (which for some
Americans means the freedom to own and carry guns). Norway wants its
4 S. P. RAMET

citizens to value equality in the first place even to the extent of keeping
salary differences within a single organization within a relatively narrow
range. Communist regimes, in their heyday, wanted their citizens to be
convinced that a one-party regime ruled by a communist party was intrin-
sically better than any multiparty system, since—it was argued—a multi-
party system could allow parties working against the interest of working
people to gain advantage. But systems change and, when system change
brings in tow changes in the values which the outgoing regime in question
wished to promote, then the incoming regime will inevitably seek to
reshape the political culture and values of its citizens, perhaps modestly,
perhaps radically, and to reconstruct the identity of its citizens, so that
they see themselves and their place in history in a different way.

National Identity and Conformity

There have been a number of studies of national or regional identity in the
German context, both in the Anglophone world and in the Germanophone
world. As will be seen in Chap. 5, East German historians played their
assigned part, in the wake of the erection of the Berlin Wall, in depicting
the two Germanys as two distinct nations. At the center of the effort to
promote and reinforce the construction of an East German nation was the
argument that East Germany was an “anti-fascist” nation, while West
Germany was not.6 Ultimately, however, this effort failed, even though the
legacy of four decades of communist rule left “Ossis,” as the residents of
the eastern part of the country are sometimes called, with a sense that they
are different in some ways from “Wessis.” But then again, Bavarians, to
take just one of the provinces in what was West Germany, have long felt
that they have their own culture, cuisine, music, and outlook.
One of the earliest contributions to the literature on national identity
and homeland (Heimat) is Klaus Weigelt’s collection, Heimat und Nation
[Homeland and Nation].7 The contributors to this volume stressed famil-
iarity with one’s locality as central to a sense of Heimat. Detlef Grieswelle
put it this way:

The social, cultural-spiritual, and natural environment of a street, a village, a

city or a smaller region gains value and meaning and mediates feelings of
proximity, security, safety, and warmth. Heimat is all about spatial and social
structure: the topographic and objective-architectural reality such as land-
Another random document with
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 Prognosis. The prognosis is grave, it may be said very grave,
because treatment is difficult to apply, and dangerous complications,
which almost always prove fatal, may already have been set up.
One must always distinguish, however, and take into account in
forming the prognosis, the special characteristics of the phlebitis,
and weigh carefully the signs of complication. The fistula should be
cautiously explored, and its depth, etc., noted, while the temperature,
circulation, respiration, etc., should be carefully studied.
Treatment. A very important item of treatment consists in
regularly and scrupulously cleansing the region of the umbilicus after
the cord has separated and until the wound has completely
cicatrised. The parts are washed with boiled water and dusted with
boric acid, iodoform, etc.
A still better plan, and one that almost certainly guards against
this disease, is to apply an antiseptic dry dressing as soon as the new-
born animal has become dry. This need only consist of a small sheet
of antiseptic cotton wool fixed to the umbilicus by four pitch
bandages or by two pieces of webbing passed over the back. In this
way contamination of the cord and the risk of infection are avoided.
In cases of fully-developed phlebitis the old generation of
practitioners used to recommend local dressings with adhesive
plasters, astringent and vesicant applications, etc. All such methods
are useless, because they only act on a part of the diseased structures
and cannot reach the blind ends of the sinuses. The classic treatment
of suppurative phlebitis also is out of the question.
All that can be done, therefore, is slightly to open up the sinuses
and wash them out frequently with antiseptic solutions, such as
boiled water, sublimate glycerine, carbolic glycerine, etc., afterwards
applying antiseptic dressings. These methods, however, are scarcely
likely to put an end to infectious complications such as suppurative
polyarthritis.
There is no danger in using strong carbolic solution, 3 per cent.
creolin, 4 per cent. chloride of zinc, sulphate of copper, etc. Should
there be several sinuses and should one of them extend in a
backward direction, it is necessary to make certain that no
communication exists between the urachus and the bladder. For this
purpose some boiled water may be injected into the sinus. If a
communication exist, this water will fill the bladder and distend the
urachus. The treatment necessary in this case is similar to that of
persistence of the urachus.
It is well in all cases to be guided by the following principle: never
to resort to treatment unless suppuration has occurred and the sinus
is blind. To check suppuration a blister may be applied around the
umbilical region while means are taken to prevent the animal licking
the parts.
Chassaing in 1886 suggested a rather original method of operation
which deserves description. It is founded on the permanent
treatment of sinuses, and consists in introducing a flexible osier
stick, a kind of bougie, enveloped in tow and moistened with the
following mixture:

Collodion 3 parts.
Sublimate 1 part.

This is introduced for a distance of 3 to 4 inches into the fistula, and

is fixed to the skin with gutta-percha or pitch. The dressing is
renewed every five or six days, and healing takes place, it is said, in
one, two, or at most three weeks.
It is very likely that if the sinuses were previously cleared and
simply plugged with antiseptics or treated by introducing pencils of
salol, nitrate of silver, sulphate of copper, iodoform, etc., at least as
good results might be obtained.
 CHAPTER V.
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD.

SEPTICÆMIA OF NEW-BORN ANIMALS.

The above title is given to that exceedingly fatal disease commonly

known as “white scour,” etc., the mortality in which often rises to 95
per cent.
The disease was studied by Poels in Holland in 1889, Dèle in
Belgium in 1891, Perroncito in Italy, Galtier in the centre of France in
1891–92, and quite recently by Nocard in Ireland in 1901.
It occurs throughout all the breeding districts of France, and in
some parts causes enormous losses, the mortality comprising two-
thirds or even three-fourths of all new-born calves. In certain
breeding establishments in Normandy all the new-born animals
without exception die unless special precautions are adopted.
In foals, septicæmia of the new-born is very rare, because horse-
breeding establishments are much better cared for, and breeding
mares are segregated. In byres, on the other hand, the greatest
promiscuity exists. The disease is equally uncommon in lambs,
although it makes numerous victims in folds which have once been
attacked. It is, however, quite common in young pigs.
Symptoms. The development and course of the disease are in
certain respects characteristic.
The disease usually appears within two or three days after birth,
and only in rare cases after the second week. Calves which at birth
appeared vigorous and in good health are found dull on the second
day; after the second or third meal they suffer from diarrhœa, and
from that time refuse all nourishment, lie down as though exhausted,
and sometimes die very rapidly.
Some even perish in ten to twelve hours without showing
diarrhœa; although apparently well at night, they are found dead or
dying the next morning. This is the peracute form.
Most frequently the young creatures suffer for two or three days,
sometimes a week. Appetite is partly preserved; at first the diarrhœa
resembles that due to inability to digest milk, but the fæces soon
become greyish or blackish and very fœtid. The hair of the tail,
quarters and hocks is soiled and matted, the skin irritable and
reddish; the patients lose strength, appear unsteady on their limbs,
and develop rapid respiration and tumultuous action of the heart.
They take little food, become weaker by degrees, and die in a
condition of exhaustion.
Fever, well marked at first, frequently diminishes, and the
temperature may remain normal for several days, falling to 97°
Fahr., or even 95° Fahr., twenty-four hours before death.
This is the commonest form of the disease. It lasts three to five
days, and is always grave.
Cattle-men recognise the disease chiefly by the diarrhœa and loss
of appetite.
Lastly, a third and rarer form occurs during which appetite is
maintained in spite of the diarrhœa. The animals remain thin,
develop poorly, but survive for a month, six weeks or two months.
The diarrhœa diminishes or disappears, but its disappearance is
followed by complications such as broncho-pneumonia, pleuro-
pneumonia, endocarditis, acute arthritis, etc., a fact which led Prof.
Galtier to give the disease the name of “septic pleuro-pneumonia in
calves.” These complications, again, are extremely grave, and
generally prove fatal after a period of varying length. They are due to
local development of microorganisms of the kind which produce
septicæmia, and similar to those described under the name of
broncho-pneumonia of intestinal origin in sucking calves.
They differ, however, as regards their cause, from the primary
affection, and may be due to very varied organisms, the commonest
being those of suppuration. These organisms, in fact, are alien to the
primary disease, and obtain entrance from without, very probably by
the tracheobronchial tract.
In young pigs septicæmia assumes the same forms as in the calf. In
lambs the chronic form seems more frequent than the peracute and
the ordinary forms.
Causation. The septicæmia of calves, and possibly of all new-
born animals, of whatever species, is produced by a microbe which
flourishes in the manure and litter of stables, and which Nocard
included in the group of Pasteurella. It can be found in the blood
from the moment the first external symptoms appear until the time
of death. During the last hours, however, the bacterium Coli
communis also invades the circulation in many instances, and if
cultures are not made until some hours after death, the colon bacillus
and bacteria of putrefaction are more particularly discovered.
The microbe of calf septicæmia can be readily cultivated in jelly or
in ordinary liquid media. Injected into the veins of experimental
animals, it reproduces the clinical symptoms, and causes death more
or less rapidly, according to the dose injected.
The virulence of cultures grown in defibrinated calf’s blood seems
more intense, and Moussu has been able to reproduce the clinical
form of the disease by applying to the umbilical cord of a new-born
animal a pledget of cotton wool saturated with such a culture, and
covering it with a dressing. The germs of the disease are spread
throughout the byres through the medium of fæces. When the
umbilical cord has become dry, that is, after the third day, the
application of virulent cultures to the stump no longer causes
infection.
Pathogeny. The pathogeny of this septicæmia of calves and of
new-born animals is easy to explain.
At birth the young animals fall on the litter, and the umbilical cord
becomes contaminated. The infective agent, finding an excellent
culture medium in the tissues of the cord, at once begins to develop,
increases in enormous numbers, steadily ascends along the cord, and
sets up septicæmia. It grows in the gelatinous Wharton’s jelly and in
the fibrinous plug closing the arteries and umbilical vein, and soon
enters the true circulation. Septicæmia is then fully established,
general disturbance sets in, and with it the diarrhœa by which it is
externally indicated.
It is important to remember, however, that infection occurs most
readily through the medium of the cord, and during the first few days
after birth: it may occasionally be brought about towards the eighth
or tenth day, when the shrivelled portion of the cord falls; in this case
its entrance is effected through the little umbilical wound.
Lesions. The lesions are sometimes so obscure that the
practitioner may hesitate to deliver an opinion.
 In acute cases, where death occurs in two or three days, or even in
ten to twelve hours, post-mortem examination reveals only increased
vascularity of the serous membranes—the peritoneum, pleura,
pericardium, etc.; and it may be almost impossible to discover
anything abnormal in the cord, for although the clots closing the
arteries and veins are infected, they are neither separated from the
walls of the vessels nor broken up.
On the surface of the urachus, at the base of the bladder, and in the
depths of the peritoneal folds supporting the allantoid arteries
(sometimes also the hepatic vein), unequivocal signs of local
ascending infection may, however, almost always be found, together
with intense injection of the capillaries, little hæmorrhagic spots, and
commencing formation of false membranes, etc.
The infection extends also by the lymphatic vessels contained in
these peritoneal folds, and finally attains the sublumbar region.
When the disease develops less rapidly the peritoneal cavity
contains a certain quantity of blood-stained serosity, as do the
pleuræ and pericardium, whilst vascular engorgement of the serous
membranes is extremely marked. The intestine shows traces of
congestion and inflammation throughout its length, and its contents
contain the specific organism in very large numbers.
Finally, in the chronic forms, the serous membranes and the
intestine seem only slightly attacked, possibly because the lesions
have undergone retrogressive changes. The striking features are the
secondary lesions, such as those of pneumonia, broncho-pneumonia,
pericarditis, and abscess formation in the lung.
Nocard gives the following description of the lesions found during
his investigation of “white scour” of calves in Ireland (Veterinarian,
April, 1902, p. 171; see also Prof. Mettam’s paper, Veterinarian,
June, 1902, p. 307):—“The lesions found on autopsy vary according
to whether the evolution of the disease has been rapid or slow. One
lesion, however, is never absent—that of the navel and the navel
vessels. In all the calves attacked we found a large umbilicus with
hardened coats enclosing a clot easily broken down, sometimes soft
and purulent. In every case, also, we observed blood suffusions, often
very extensive, along the course of the umbilical vessels and of the
urachus, invading often the posterior third of the bladder. In cases
where the evolution had been rapid we found the lesions of true
hæmorrhagic septicæmia. All the viscera were congested to excess;
their surface was studded with petechiæ, ecchymoses, or subserous
blood suffusions. The capillary network of the peritoneum, pleura,
and pericardium appeared strongly injected. This lesion was
especially marked on the epiploon. The intestine was the seat of
intense congestion, especially at the level of the ‘floating colon.’
“The mucous membrane was thickened, gorged with blood, and
friable; the solitary glands, thick and protruding, were sometimes
transformed into a kind of bloody magma, or they were ulcerated, as
in anthrax; the contents of the bowel were mixed with a large
quantity of blood. The mucous membrane of the fourth stomach was
altered nearly to the same degree; it was studded with interstitial
hæmorrhages, especially above the level of the open edge of its folds.
The mesenteric glands—especially those of the colon—were
enormous, gorged with blood, reddish, and often hæmorrhagic. The
mucous membrane of the bladder was often covered with petechiæ,
the urine which it contained was clear and limpid, but always rich in
albumen. [In one sample which was analysed, the urine contained
more than 4 grammes of albumen to the litre.] The lungs were
gorged with blood, like the intestines; sometimes they were
manifestly œdematous, but generally their tissue was still supple,
elastic, permeable, and without apparent lesion.
“In the subacute forms the lesions are much less marked. The
mucous membrane of the intestine is less congested; sometimes
œdema of the submucous tissue exists. The mucous membrane of the
fourth stomach is often punctuated with brownish-red patches,
traces of the capillary hæmorrhages which were produced at the
onset of the disease. The mesenteric glands are swollen, gorged with
serum, but not hæmorrhagic; the liver is large and of a yellowish tint;
the spleen is little altered; the urine always contains albumen; the
lungs are seldom quite sound; they usually contain here and there
small diffuse centres of catarrhal pneumonia, of nodular bronchial
pneumonia, or simply of atelectasis.
“These lesions are more constant and more dense if the animals
have resisted the disease for some time; they then constitute the
transition stage between the simple collapse at the beginning of the
disease and the suppurating lesion of lung disease. The joint lesions
when they exist are very interesting. At the beginning all the
periarticular tissues are infiltrated with a yellowish gelatinous
serosity. The synovial membrane is covered with vascular
aborisations of an extreme richness, which extend on to the articular
cartilages. The synovial capsules are distended by a considerable
quantity of thick synovia of a deep yellow or brownish tint, holding in
suspension flakes of fibrous exudate more or less dense and
abundant. When the lesion is older the synovia is replaced by a thick
fibrous exudate, which fills sacculations, and extends between the
articular surfaces. In this case the lesion appears identical with that
of the arthritis seen in pleuro-pneumonia of sucking calves.”
Diagnosis. The diagnosis presents no difficulty, for the
development and acute course of the disease (the majority of patients
die within a week of birth) leave little room for doubt.
This disease is easily distinguished from dysentery in new-born
animals, which appears at birth, as also from simple diarrhœic
enteritis; in the latter disease the symptoms are delayed, sometimes
occurring only when the animals are weaned; moreover, the disease
is never so grave as that now under consideration.
Should, however, the post-mortem appearances seem indecisive,
the diagnosis can be based simply on the high mortality.
Prognosis. The prognosis is extremely grave. About 95 per cent.
of the animals attacked die, and among those which survive many
show thoracic complications, that render them useless.
Treatment. Treatment of animals already affected is useless, and,
moreover, too costly. Drugs administered through the digestive
apparatus to a large extent miss their mark, because the digestive
symptoms are secondary, primary infection having occurred through
the circulation. The administration of purgatives and internal
antiseptics can, therefore, only prove illusory.
On the other hand, prophylactic treatment is of the greatest value;
all that is necessary is to prevent the umbilical cord from becoming
infected.
The great mortality, which causes such severe loss to breeders, is
simply due to want of proper care of new-born animals. Even in
carefully kept byres the mortality may be high, for the specific agent
develops in litter contaminated with fæcal matter, by lying on which
young animals become fatally infected.
 Fig. 184.—Dressing for umbilicus of new-born calf.

To check or prevent this septicæmia in breeding establishments, it

is merely necessary to take the same precaution as is taken in dealing
with young children, i.e., to apply an aseptic or antiseptic dressing to
the stump of the cord after ligation. As soon as the young animal has
been dried by the mother or by artificial means, a carefully boiled
ligature is applied to the cord at a distance of about 1 inch from the
umbilical ring. The portion of the cord below the ligature is snipped
off, the remaining part is carefully washed with boiled water or boric
solution, and is surrounded with a mass of iodoform wool, kept in
place by a bandage passed over the back.
The cord will shrivel a little less rapidly than it would if exposed to
the air, but will be protected from all infection. The young animal
should be separated from the mother to prevent her from displacing
the dressing by licking the parts.
 In a few days all danger is at an end. This method is very simple,
and can be carried out even by the breeder and in an infected byre.
Nocard recommends the use of umbilical dressings containing
collodion, and the practitioner can choose whichever method he
pleases.
In grave outbreaks involving large establishments, the byres
should be rigorously disinfected, and it is sometimes well to
segregate cows about to calve in a special byre, from which the calves
are not allowed to pass until the umbilicus is cicatrised.

TAKOSIS: A CONTAGIOUS DISEASE OF GOATS.[4]

4. Annual Report, U.S.A. Bureau of Animal Industry, 1902, p. 354 (Mohler and
Washburn).
This disease has been seen in Angora goats brought from Texas
into Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Symptoms. The disease presents many of the symptoms usually
accompanying a parasitic invasion, and is characterised by great
emaciation and weakness, with symptoms of diarrhœa and
pneumonia. In the early stages of the affection there is usually little
to indicate that anything is seriously amiss with the animal. The first
observable symptom manifested is the listless and languid
appearance of the animal, evidenced by its lagging behind the flock,
and is usually accompanied by a drooping of the ears and a drowsy
appearance of the eyes. The pulse is slow and feeble, and the
temperature is elevated slightly at first, but becomes subnormal a
few days before death. The highest temperature observed in the
natural disease was 104·1°, and the lowest, in a prostrated animal a
few hours before death, registered 99·7° Fahr. Snuffling of the nose,
as in a case of coryza, with occasional coughing is sometimes in
evidence.
As the disease advances the animal moves about in a desultory
manner, with back arched, neck drawn down toward the sternum,
and with a staggering gait. Rumination is seldom impaired. The
appetite, while not so vigorous, is still present, though capricious,
and the affected animal shows plainly that the ravages of the disease
are rapidly overcoming the restorative elements derived from the
food. The fleece is usually of good growth, and presents a
surprisingly thrifty appearance when the condition of the animal is
taken into consideration. All the exposed mucous membranes appear
pale, and the respirations are accelerated and laboured. The goats
finally become so weak that they are readily knocked down and
trampled upon by their fellows. If picked up they may move off
slowly and eat a little, but within a few hours are down again, and in
this way linger for several days, shrinking to about half their natural
weight, and occasionally bleating or groaning, with head bent around
on the side or drawn down to the sternum. A fluid discharge from the
bowels of a very offensive odour is usually observed in the last few
days of life, but this symptom is not constant.
Course and Susceptibility. This disease may assume a
subacute or chronic type, usually the latter. The animal dies of
inanition in from eight days to six or eight weeks. Several owners
have reported deaths after only two or three days of illness, but the
goats doubtless had been affected for a longer period, although not
noticed on account of their mingling in the flock. Many of the
animals live for weeks, but gradually become weaker and more
debilitated, finally dying in a comatose condition. In no instance has
the natural recovery of an animal after once the symptoms of takosis
were noticed been observed or heard of.
The younger goats seem to be the most susceptible to the disease,
although the old animals are by no means immune.
Pathological Anatomy. As already indicated, the general
appearance of the carcase simulates that produced by a wasting
disease. The visible mucous membranes are pale and anæmic, while
the fleece, which appears somewhat dry and lustreless, furnishes a
shroud for the extremely emaciated condition, that becomes plainly
perceptible on skinning. The same anæmic condition of the
subcutaneous and muscular tissues is observed on eviscerating the
carcases. The lungs in most cases are the seat of a peculiar diversified
inflammation, never of a remarkable extent. The external appearance
of these organs is at times mottled, caused by a few congested areas,
several patches of an iron-grey colour similar to areas of pneumonia
during the process of absorption, and normal tissue. On section
through the reddened patches, a frothy mucus may exude from the
bronchioles, and in one case numerous punctiform hæmorrhages
were observed on the sides of the incision. This tissue, while not so
buoyant as a normal portion would be, nevertheless floats when
placed in water.
The heart in all cases is pale and dull, its tissue soft and flabby,
while inflamed areas, more or less penetrating, are present at times
on the epicardium about the auricular appendages, and at other
times on the endocardium, especially that lining the ventricles. These
hæmorrhagic patches consist of either pure extravasated blood or
blood mixed with serum, which gives them a more diffuse
appearance and a gelatinous consistence. The pericardium is slightly
thickened, and usually contains a small increase of fluid tinged with
blood. The liver usually appears normal, although the gall bladder is
frequently distended with pale-yellow watery bile. The kidneys are
anæmic and softened. The cortex appears slightly thicker and paler
than normal, and contrasts strongly with the darker pyramids. The
capsule strips off easily from the parenchyma of the organ. In one
instance several pale areas simulating anæmic infarcts were observed
under the capsule extending into the cortex, which probably resulted
from the compression of the capillaries by the swollen
parenchymatous cells. The presence of albumin in the urine was
detected by the nitric-acid test. The spleen appears atrophied and
indurated, and on section the fibrous tissue far exceeds the splenic
pulp. Attachments by fibrous adhesions may fix the spleen to the
diaphragm or the neighbouring organs. The intestines may contain
normal fæcal matter or semi-fluid fæces of a disagreeable odour. The
surface of the mucous membrane is at times covered with a slimy
mucus or plastic exudate, and the appearance is that of a chronic
catarrh associated with necrosis of the mucosa.
Bacteriology. Examination of cultures and slides showed the
presence of a micrococcus, usually arranged in the form of a
diplococcus, which was found in pure cultures from the heart’s
blood, spleen, kidneys, and pericardial fluid, and essentially so in the
tubes inoculated from the other organs.
The specific organism of takosis appears in fresh bouillon cultures
as a spherical or oval micrococcus with a diameter of 0·8 to 1 µ. In
these cultures it is single or in chains of two, three, or four elements,
but most frequently in pairs, as diplococci, with a diameter
transverse to the axis of the chain greater than the longitudinal
diameter.
Treatment: Prophylaxis. Sudden climatic changes should be
avoided as far as possible, and when shipments of goats for breeding
purposes are to be made which necessitate their transportation over
considerable distances the changes should be made during the
months of summer or late spring, and not in the fall or winter, when
the contrast of temperature will be so much greater.
Angora goats should be provided with stables that are thoroughly
dry, erected upon ground that has perfect natural drainage.
As a third measure of prevention may be mentioned careful
feeding.
The segregation or isolation of all affected animals as soon as they
evince any symptoms of the disease will be found a most valuable
means of protection for those that remain unaffected, and a strict
quarantine over all of the diseased members of the flock should be
maintained so long as the disease remains upon the premises.
Medicinal treatment has proved unsatisfactory in many of the
cases of takosis to which it has been applied. The best results have
been derived from the administration of calomel in 0.1 gram doses
twice daily for two days, followed by arsenic, iron, and quinine, as
follows:

Arsenious acid 1·40 grams.

Iron, reduced 12·00 „
Quinine sulphate 6·00 „

Mix and make into twenty powders, giving one to each adult goat
morning and evening at the conclusion of the administration of
calomel. After an interval of two days this treatment is repeated. In
case the diarrhœa persists, the sulphate of iron has been substituted
for the reduced iron, with beneficial effects.
Conclusions. After preliminary investigation, the following
conclusions have been reached:—
(1.) The disease described as takosis has appeared in many parts of
America, but particularly in the Northern States, where it has caused
great loss to many breeders of Angora goats.
 (2.) It is a progressive, debilitative, contagious disease,
characterised by great emaciation and weakness, with symptoms of
diarrhœa and pneumonia, and causes a mortality of 100 per cent. of
those affected and from 30 to 85 per cent. of the whole flock.
(3.) From the carcases of numerous animals that have succumbed
a new organism, Micrococcus caprinus, has been recovered in purity,
and is presumably the etiological factor.
(4.) This micrococcus possesses pathogenic properties for goats,
chickens, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and white mice, but not for sheep,
dogs, or rats.
(5.) Medicinal treatment was attempted with varying success,
while the immunising experiments thus far conducted (although too
few to permit of any conclusive statement or accurate estimate as to
their protective value) have shown highly encouraging results. When
accompanied with measures of isolation and disinfection, the
treatment may prove of great assistance in the suppression and
eradication of the disease in an infected flock.

BLOOD POISONING (MALIGNANT ŒDEMA) IN SHEEP AND

LAMBS IN NEW ZEALAND.

This disease, which occurs during the operations of shearing sheep

and of castrating and docking lambs, is the cause of considerable loss
annually to sheep breeders in several districts of New Zealand. In
1893 J. A. Gilruth, Chief Veterinarian for New Zealand, issued a
leaflet dealing with the disease and the preventive measures to be
adopted. Generally the first thing that draws the owner’s attention
seriously to the condition of his flock is the discovery, in from thirty-
six to forty-eight hours after docking or shearing, of a few dead sheep
lying in various parts of the paddocks. Next morning he finds a few
more dead, and so on for three or four days, when, as a rule, the
mortality ceases.
Symptoms. In the early stages of this disease the animal seems
listless, disinclined to move about, and, if the sun is shining strongly,
prefers to lie in the shade. If forced to move, the hind legs are drawn
forward with a peculiar stiff, dragging motion, as if there were no
joints. There are slight muscular tremors all over the body, which
become spasmodic as the disease progresses. If the flock be driven
about much, the diseased animal soon shows signs of great fatigue,
ultimately dropping to the ground thoroughly exhausted. The
breathing is fast and painful, being maintained more by a series of
spasmodic jerks than by any regular act. The pulse is quick and
weak; the temperature is very high, registering 106° to 108° Fahr.,
showing acute fever; the eyes close, and the whole face is expressive
of pain. Gradually the spasms cease and coma sets in, resulting in
death. The scrotum and surrounding skin right along the floor of the
abdomen and between the hind legs become swollen and black. This
gangrenous tissue, when present before death, can be peeled off
without pain to the animal. On post-mortem examination various
conditions are met with. The animals are generally found to be
among the best of the flock and in fairly good condition. The scrotal
and perineal regions in lambs (between hind legs and below tail) are
always, or almost always, gangrenous, this condition extending along
to the floor of the chest, and sometimes implicating the tail. Many of
the muscles, generally those of the shoulders, haunches, and loins,
are dark in colour and infiltrated with a black, watery fluid. The
intestines are generally healthy, though sometimes the peritoneum is
inflamed. The spleen and liver are in the usual condition after death,
due to febrile disturbance. In the chest, either the pleuræ (coverings
of the lungs) or pericardium (covering of the heart) are often
inflamed, with occasionally a fibrinous exudation, causing surfaces to
adhere.
Cause. In Gilruth’s report for 1900 he demonstrated the cause of
blood poisoning to be a microbe known as the malignant œdema
bacillus (Vibrion septique of Pasteur). This organism, which is found
in many dirty yards, swampy soils, etc., on gaining entrance to the
system of almost any animal by means of a wound, rapidly increases
in numbers, producing gangrene, or death, of the part affected first,
and ultimately the death of the animal.
Curative treatment is practically useless.
Preventive measures. Destruction of the carcases of animals
which have succumbed to this disease by efficient burial or by fire.
Disinfection of surface soil of yards, etc., by quick-lime. Cleansing of
floors and walls of sheds with strong hot lime wash containing crude
carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 to 50. Disinfection of flesh cuts
made by the shears or the docking or castrating knife. Boiling of
docking and tailing knives before use. Observance of antiseptic
applications even when temporary yards are employed. Sheep and
lambs after operation to be kept in a paddock free from swampy
patches.

PIROPLASMOSIS.

Under the title piroplasmosis is included a group of diseases

caused by hæmosporidia, and found in animals of the bovine and
ovine species. These affections are far from having the same
importance in temperate as they have in tropical countries;
nevertheless, it is very important to be able to recognise them.

BOVINE PIROPLASMOSIS.

Bovine piroplasmosis has been described under different names,

such as hæmoglobinæmia, hæmoglobinuria, Texas fever (U.S.A.),
tick fever (Australia), tristeza (Argentine Republic), African coast
fever, East Coast fever, redwater, Rhodesian fever (Cape), and bovine
malaria.
Fig. 185.—Angora goats affected with takosis (photographed twenty-four hours
before death).

(Ann. Rep. U.S.A. Bur. An. Ind. 1902.)

Fig. 186.—Angora goat six days before death from takosis.

(Ann. Rep. U.S.A. Bur. An. Ind. 1902.)

Fig. 187.—Angora goat (photographed three days before death).

(Ann. Rep. U.S.A. Bur. An. Ind. 1902.)

Fig. 188.—The same goat as shown in Fig. 187. Position assumed after exhaustive
efforts to regain its feet. (Ann. Rep. U.S.A. Bur. An. Ind. 1902).