Module-4

Maxwell’s Equations and EM waves:

Maxwell’s Equations: Fundamentals of Vector Calculus. Divergence and Curl of Electric field and
Magnetic field (static), Gauss’ divergence theorem and Stoke’s theorem. Description of laws of
Electrostatics, Magnetism, Faraday’s laws of EMI, Current Density, Equation of Continuity,
Displacement Current (with derivation), Maxwell’s equations in vacuum, Numerical Problems EM
Waves: The wave equation in differential form in free space (Derivation of the equation using
Maxwell’s equations), Plane Electromagnetic Waves in vacuum, their transverse nature.

Vector:
A vector is a physical quantity having both magnitude and direction.
Ex: - Displacement, Velocity, Force, acceleration etc.

Scalar:
A physical quantity having only magnitude.
Ex: - mass, Temperature etc.

Magnitude of a vector:
The magnitude of a vector is the length of the vector. The magnitude of the vector is denoted as |R|. R
is the distance between A and B.

A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) B(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 )

Fundamentals of vector calculus.

Scalar product or Dot Product:

It is defined as the product of their magnitudes and the cosine of the smaller angle between them.

𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ are two vectors inclined at an angle θ.

⃗⃗ θ
𝑨

⃗⃗⃗
𝑩

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑩
∴𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗ = |𝑨
⃗⃗⃗| |𝑩
⃗⃗⃗| cos θ
Vector product: If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗ are vectors then their cross product is 𝐶⃗ whose magnitude is equal to
the product of magnitudes of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ multiplied by sine of angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ and unit vector
𝑎
̂.𝑟

Vector operator / Del operator (∇ ):

∇ (del) is a mathematical operator.

For Cartesian co-ordinate system,

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝑎
̂𝑥 + 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎
̂𝑧 where 𝑎
̂,𝑥 𝑎
̂𝑦 , 𝑎
̂𝑧 are base vectors .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Gradient & ∇ :

We know that always the electric field has some specified direction, but electric potential doesn’t have
any direction. If the electric potential is different between each points, then there exists a potential
difference. This results in en existence of electric field.

Actual direction of the electric field will be in the direction in which maximum decrease of potential is
established.
𝜕𝑉
𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝑎
̂𝑟
𝜕𝑟

The rate of change of potential decides the strength of the field.

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸⃗⃗ = − [ 𝑎
̂𝑥 + 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎
̂]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐸⃗⃗ = − [ 𝑎
̂𝑥 + 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎̂] 𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧

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 ⃗𝑬⃗ = −𝛁 𝐕

-ve sign indicates decreasing potential.

Divergence and curl:

𝐴⃗ . 𝐵
⃗⃗ ⇨ Divergence
𝐴⃗ x 𝐵⃗⃗ ⇨ Curl
∇ (del) operator have properties of vector.
∇.𝐴⃗ and ∇ x 𝐴⃗ . This can be carried out only in the regions of space in the presence of vector
field.

Direction of field:

Convention for directions of field in electrostatics:-

Field line diverges from +ve charge Field line diverges from +vely
charged plane

Field lines converges radially towards Field line converges radially

towards –ve charge -vely charged plane

The direction of the field line at any given point in the direction along which a positive charge
would experience the force when placed in the field at that point.

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 ⃗⃗⃗
Divergence: 𝛁.𝑨

Divergence of vector field at a given point P means it is an outward flux per unit volume as the
volume shrinks to zero about point P.

Considering a elementary volume around a point ∆v around a point P

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃

𝐷i𝑣𝑒r𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝐴 =∇.𝐴⃗ = lim
∆𝑉→0 ∆𝑉

Mathematically we can rewrite this as

𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑠
𝐷i𝑣𝑒r𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝐴 = lim ∮ ……………..(1)
∆𝑉→0 𝑑𝑉

Consider rectangular parallelopiped around the given point P. Elementary volume ∆𝑉 and total outward
flux from all six faces.

𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧

∵ lim ∮ =( + + ) at P ……………(2)
∆𝑉→0 𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Put (2) in (1)

⃗⃗ = ( 𝜕𝐴𝑥 + 𝜕𝐴𝑦 + 𝜕𝐴𝑧 )

𝐷i𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜ƒ ⃗𝑨 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⃗⃗= ( 𝜕 + 𝜕 + 𝜕 ) (𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 ,𝐴𝑧 )

𝐷i𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜ƒ ⃗𝑨 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗⃗⃗= ( + + ) 𝐴⃗
𝐷i𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝑨 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝐷i𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜ƒ ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗ =𝛁.𝑨
⃗⃗

Physical Significance of divergence: Physically the divergence of vector field 𝐴⃗ at a given

point is a measure of how much the field diverges (or) emerges from that point.

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If there are positive charges densely packed at a point then large number of field lines diverges
from that point. This implies more divergence.

Following figure showsdivergence at a point in an electric field.

“A vector field whose divergence is zero is called solenoidel field.” Both converge and diverge
at point P. Hence it is zero divergence.

Curl:( 𝛁 x ⃗𝑨⃗ ):

It is the maximum circulation of vector field A, per unit area as the area shrinks to zero about

point P.

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃

⃗⃗⃗ = lim
Curl 𝑜ƒ 𝑨
∆𝑆→0 ∆𝑆

𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑙
Mathematically, Curl 𝑜ƒ ⃗𝑨⃗= lim (∮ 𝑑𝑆
)𝑎
̂𝑟 …………..(1)
∆𝑆→0

∆S is elementary area , ∮ is closed contour integral. The elementary area ∆S is bounded bt curve
L= ∮ dl and âr is the unit vector normal to ∆S.

𝑎
̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑧
𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑙 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
lim (∮ )𝑎
̂𝑟 = | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|……………(2)
∆𝑆→0 𝑑𝑆
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

Substitute (2) in (1)

𝑎
̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎
̂𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗⃗ = |
Curl 𝑜ƒ 𝑨 |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

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 Curl 𝑜ƒ ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗ = ∇ x A ⃗

Physical Significance of Curl: The curl of a vector field ⃗A⃗ at a point P is a measure of how
much field curls(circulates) around P.

We see magnetic field ⃗H

⃗⃗ around the point P.

When a current is passed through a straight conductor, the magnetic field curls around the
conductor in the same way.

∇ x ⃗⃗⃗⃗
H turns out to be zero meaning is no curl (or) zero curl (or) Irrotational.

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Different types of integrations

Linear Integral:

The integral taken along a line of any function that has a continuously varying value along that
line.

⃗𝑨
⃗⃗

⃗⃗. The line consisting of a small

Consider linear path of length L from P to Q in a vector field 𝑨
elementary length ‘dl’.

Consider one such element at M. Let θ be the angle with 𝐴⃗.

𝐴⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑸
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∴ Line integral = ∫𝑷 ⃗𝑨 𝒅𝒍

⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
For closed path , Line integral = ∮𝑳 𝑨 𝒅𝒍

Surface Integral:

⃗⃗. The surface is assumed to be made up of number of

Consider surface of area S in vector field 𝑨
elementary surfaces with area ds.

Let 𝑎
̂𝑟 be the unit vector normal to ds at M.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔= ds 𝑎
̂𝑟 , ds acts as a vector.

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨. 𝒅𝒔 represents flux of a vector field ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨. Through the vector field ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨,

Ѱ = ∫𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨. 𝒅𝒔

The surface is closed one.

Ѱ = ∮𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨. 𝒅𝒔

Volume integral:

If the charges are distributed continuously in a volume then it is called volume charge
distribution.

Consider an elementary volume dv at M. Let 𝝆𝑣 be the charge density which is a scalar one.

Volume integral = ∮𝑣 𝝆𝑣 dv

Gauss Divergence theorem:

Statement:
The integral of normal component of the flux density over any surface in an electric field is equal
to the volume integral of the divergence of the flux throughout the space enclosed by surface.

i.e ⃗⃗⃗ .ds = ∮ 𝛁. 𝐃

∮𝒔 𝐃 ⃗⃗ dv
𝒗

Proof:
Consider a Gaussian surface in a region with certain charge density . Inside the surface consider
a differential volume element 𝚫V. let 𝚫Q be charge within the element.

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If 𝜌 is the charge density and since 𝜌 can vary continuously in volume we have
𝚫Q 𝑑𝑄
𝝆𝑣 = lim (𝚫𝐕 ) = ……(1)
𝚫𝐕→0 𝑑𝑉

dQ =𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑉

If Q is total charge enclosed by Gaussian surface then

𝑄 = ∫ 𝑑Q = ∫𝑣 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉

From Maxwell’s I equations ∇.𝐃

⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣

𝑄 = ∫𝒗 ∇ . ⃗𝐃⃗ dV ….(2)

Now applying Gauss law to the Gaussian surface

⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄…………… (3)
∮𝒔 𝐃

From equation 2 and 3

∮𝒔 ⃗𝐃⃗ . 𝑑𝑠=∫𝒗 ∇ . ⃗𝐃⃗ dV

This is the gauss divergence theorem.

Stoke’s theorem

This theory provides a way of relating a line integral to a surface integral in cases where curl of a
vector exists is a vector field which is given by,

∫𝒔 (𝛁 𝐱 ⃗𝑨⃗) ds = ∫𝑳 ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒍

Gauss flux theorem or Gauss law in electrostatics:

Consider electric charges (q) at O in a certain region. A closed surface of any shape can be
imagined surrounding those charges . Such a surface is called ‘Gaussian surface’. Consider

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Gaussian surface of any shape around the charges. We can assume that the closed surface is
made up of a number of elementary surfaces each of area ds. If D is flux density at ds, then total
electric flux over the entire surface is

Ѱ = ∮𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = q

For many numbers of charges,

Ѱ = ∮𝒔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 ….

Ѱ = ∮𝒔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫. 𝒅𝒔= ∑ 𝒒

Ѱ = ∮𝒔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫. 𝒅𝒔= Q

Gauss flux theorem (or) Gauss law in magneto statics:

Let us consider a closed surface of any shape in magnetic field. We know the property of
magnetic field that a magnetic flux line always follows a closed loop. For a closed path of a flux
line, Total outward flux = Total inward flux. "Total flux over the entire surface = 0 and
divergence of magnetic field = 0”

Fig: Divergence of magnetic field is Zero

i.e ∇ . ⃗𝐁
⃗⃗ = 0 Where B is magnetic flux density

Ampere's law:

Statement:- the line integral of magnetic field 𝐵 along a closed path due to current is equal to the
product of the permeability of free space and the current enclosed by the path.

⃗⃗⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
Mathematically ∮𝑙 𝐵

Or

In a current carrying conductor, curl of magnetic field (H) is

always equal to current density vector (J).
Mathematically, ∇ x ⃗H⃗⃗ = ⃗J

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Where H is magnetic field strength and J is Current density.

Biot -Savart's law:

The Biot-Savart's law gives both the magnitude and direction of magnetic field intensity at a
point due to current in a differential element of current carrying conductor.

In the figure, XY is conductor carrying current I.

dl is differential element 'O' on the conductor.
MN is tangent drawn at 'O'
Let 'P' be a point chosen arbitrarily.
Let distance OP be 'r' and angle between MN and OP is Ɵ.

Statement:
“Magnitude of the magnetic field intensity dH at a point, directly proportional to product of
current I , the magnitude of length of differential element (dl) and sin of angle between tangent
drawn to the element, and line joining the point and element and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the point and the element.”
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐻 𝛼
𝑟2
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐻 = 𝐾
𝜇𝑜
𝑟2
Where K = constant = 4𝜋
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝒅𝑯
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

Faraday's laws of Electromagnetic induction:

Faraday's First Law: The changing magnetic field linked with a conductor induces an
electromotive force in the conductor.
Faraday's Second Law: The induced electromotive force is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic field linked with the conductor.

Generally, "The magnitude of induced EMF in a circuit

is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux through it
and its direction opposes the flux change"

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 𝒅𝝓
𝒆 = − 𝒅𝒕

Where 𝜑 is the flux linkage with the circuit such as a turn in a conducting coil. For N turns
𝒅𝝓
𝒆 = −𝑵 𝒅𝒕

Maxwell – ampere’s law: Ampere’s law could applied only for static electric field ( or current),
but not for time varying fields, because in case of time varying fields ( or alternating currents or
voltages) the law failed. Hence Maxwell modified the Ampere’s law as follows,
Maxwell- Ampere’s Law can be stated as:
“The magnetic field created by an electric current is proportional to the size of that electric
current with a constant of proportionality equal to the permeability of free space.”

The equation explaining Ampere’s law which is the final Maxwell’s equation is given below:
𝝏𝑫
∇x𝐇
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐉⃗ +
𝝏𝒕

Continuity Equation:
Consider a closed surface enclosing certain amount of change. According to equation of
continuity, if there is any charge out flow through this surface, it must accompanied by
simultaneous reduction of charge within the surface.

The amperes law is expressed as.

(∇ x 𝐇⃗⃗⃗) = 𝑱⃗
Taking the divergence on both sides, we have
⃗⃗⃗) = (∇. 𝐉⃗)
∇ . (∇ x 𝐇
But, as per the vector analysis, divergence of the curl of any vector
field is always zero. i.e.,
⃗⃗⃗) = 0------(1)
∇ . (∇ x 𝐇

From Maxwell-Ampere’s law, we have

∇x𝐇 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐉⃗ + 𝝏𝑫 ----------- (2)
𝝏𝒕
From equation (1) and (2),

⃗⃗⃗)= ∇ .(𝝏𝑫 + 𝐉⃗) = 0

∇ . (∇ x 𝐇 𝝏𝒕

𝝏 ( 𝛁.𝑫)
= − ∇ .𝐉⃗
𝝏𝒕

If we apply Gauss' Law to rewrite the divergence of the Electric Flux Density (D), we have
derived the continuity equation :

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 𝝏𝛒𝐯
∇ .⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐉 =- ∵ ∇.𝐃
⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
𝝏𝒕

This is the equation of continuity.

Displacement current:

The displacement current can be defined as the current which comes into play in the region in
which the electric field and the electric flux change with time. It is an electric current created by
a time-varying electric field rather than by moving charges.

Expression for Displacement current:

Consider a parallel plate capacitor connected across an ac source. Let the area of each plate be A.
When ac current starts t to flow, then let the potential be 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 ------(1)
𝑉
can be defined as We know that 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸 and for parallel plate capacitor 𝐸 = 𝑑

𝑉 𝜀 𝜀
𝐷 = 𝜀𝑑 = 𝑉 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐷 = 𝑉 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 -----------(2)
𝑑 0 𝑑 0

𝐼
𝛿𝐷 𝛿 𝐴𝜀𝑉0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝐴
We know that displacement current density = ( )
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝑑

𝑗𝑤𝜀𝐴 𝑗𝑤𝑡
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 ------(3)
𝑑

This is the expression for displacement current.

Hence displacement current is the correction factor for

Ampere’s law by Maxwell for time varying condition but
does not describe any movement of charges, though it has an
associated magnetic filed.

Maxwell Equations:

a) For Time varying fields in Differential form or point form:

1. From Gauss law in electrostatics : ∇.𝐃

⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
⃗⃗
𝝏𝐁
2. From Faradays law: ∇ x 𝐄
⃗⃗ = −
𝝏𝒙
3. From Gauss law for magnetic fields: ∇ . ⃗𝐁
⃗⃗ = 0
𝝏𝑫
4. From Maxwell’s Ampere’s law: ∇ x 𝐇 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐉⃗ +
𝝏𝒕

b) For Static fields(vacuum) :

⃗⃗
𝝏𝐁 𝝏𝑫
For static field, 𝝏𝒙 and are zero in the above equations.
𝝏𝒕

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 1. ∇.𝐃
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
2. ∇ x 𝐄 ⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗⃗ = 0
3. ∇ . 𝐁
4. ∇ x 𝐇 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐉⃗

Electromagnetic waves:
Derive Electromagnetic wave equation in differential form infree space in terms of electric
field.

Let us consider two curl equations

Maxwell’s

𝝏𝑫
∇x𝐇
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐉⃗ +
𝝏𝒕

⃗⃗
𝝏𝐁
∇x𝐄
⃗⃗ = −
𝝏𝒙

We know that 𝐷 = 𝜀 𝐸⃗⃗ and B=μ 𝐻

⃗⃗

𝝏𝐸⃗⃗
Then, ∇ x 𝐇
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐉⃗ + 𝜀 ………….(1)
𝝏𝒕

⃗⃗
𝝏𝐻
∇x𝐄
⃗⃗ = −μ ……………(2)
𝝏𝒙

Apply curl on both side in equation(2)

⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗) = −μ 𝝏(𝛁 𝐱 𝐇) ………..(3)
∇ x(𝛁 𝐱 𝐄 𝝏𝒙

We know that As per Vector analysis

∇ x(𝛁 𝐱 𝐄
⃗⃗) = 𝛁(𝛁. 𝐄
⃗⃗) − 𝛁 𝟐 . 𝐄
⃗⃗

ρ
∇ x(𝛁 𝐱 𝐄
⃗⃗) = 𝛁 ( v ) − 𝛁 𝟐 . 𝐄
⃗⃗ ………..(4)
𝛆

Because ∇.𝐃
⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 and D= ε𝐄 ⃗⃗
Comparing (3) and (4),
ρ ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = −μ 𝝏(𝛁 𝐱 𝐇)
𝛁 ( v) − 𝛁𝟐 . 𝐄
𝛆 𝝏𝒙

From Eqn(1) ,

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 ρ ∂ 𝝏𝐸⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = −μ (𝐉⃗ + 𝜀
𝛁 ( 𝛆v ) − 𝛁 𝟐 . 𝐄 )
∂t 𝝏𝒕

∂2 𝐸⃗⃗ ∂𝐉⃗ ρ
⃗⃗ − μ𝜀 2 = μ + 𝛁 ( v )………….(5)
𝛁𝟐. 𝐄 ∂t ∂t 𝛆

Eqn(5) represents wave equation in 𝐄 ⃗⃗ for a medium with constant μ and 𝜀.

The left side of the above equation is characteristic wave equation. The solution of such an
equation represents a propagating wave. The right side represents the sources which are
responsible for the wave filed that is charges and currents.

If we consider free space, where there is no charges the J=0 and ρv = 0 .

Then
2 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ − μ𝜀 ∂ 𝐸2 = 0
𝛁𝟐. 𝐄 ∂t

𝜇𝜀 is replaced by 𝜇0 𝜀0 for free space.

∂2 𝐸⃗⃗
⃗⃗ − 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝛁𝟐. 𝐄 =0
∂t2

Plane electromagnetic waves in vacuum.

Plane E.M waves that possess variation only in the direction of propagation and their characteristics
remain constant across planes normal to the direction of propagation.

Consider the plane E.M wave of wavelength ‘λ’ propagation in vacuum along + ve X-direction.

Let the electric field associated with the wave be oriented parallel to Y-direction and it is denoted by⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 .
Let A is amplitude.
Magnetic field associated with the wave is oriented parallel to Z-direction .And it is denoted by⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑧 .

2𝜋
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 = A cos [ 𝜆 (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)] 𝑎̂𝑦

1 2𝜋
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑧 = cos [ 𝜆 (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)] 𝑎
̂𝑧
𝑐

Where ‘c’ is the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic wave in vacuum .

These two mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields in the electromagnetic waves
oscillates in unison, that is in phase.
By taking the ratio of magnitudes of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑧 in the above two equations.
𝐸𝑦
C= where 𝐸𝑦 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 | and 𝐵𝑧 = |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑧 |
𝐵𝑧
‘C’ in terms of 𝝁𝟎 and 𝜺𝟎 :
Classical wave equation for an oscillating physical quantity 𝐹⃗ is

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 1 ∂2 𝐹⃗
∇2 . ⃗F⃗ − 𝑉 2 ∂t2 = 0
Where V is the velocity of wave.
1
V= μ 𝜀 ∵ μ = 𝜇0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 = 𝜺𝟎
√
1
V=
√𝜇0 𝜀0

Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves.

In an electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic field vectors are perpendicular to each other
and at the same time are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave. This nature of electromagnetic
wave is known as Transverse nature.

Polarisation: Polarization is orientation of electric field.

There are three different polarized waves.

1. Linear polarization: Let us consider 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐸𝑦 components which are in identical phase. In
case of linear polarization, the magnitudes of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑥 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 may or may not be equal and they are
in phase. In linear polarization, the orientation of electric fields are along only one axis .Either
electric fields varies along x-axis (Fig 1) or varies along y-axis (Fig 2).

Fig 1: Linear polarization with respect to X-axis Fig 2: Linear polarization with respect to Y-axis.

2. Circular polarization: Let us consider 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐸𝑦 be of equal amplitudes.

In circular polarization, electric fields rotate with respect to time. In circular polarization
magnitude of electric fields are always constant. The phase difference is not equal to zero.i.e
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 ips ahead of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑥 by phase difference of 90 (δ=90). Basic formula for circular polarization is
𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 = 𝑅2 Where R is Magnitude of Electric field.

There are two types in Circular polarization. One is clockwise circular polarization and other

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 is anti clockwise circular polarization. If Electric field rotates in clockwise direction it is known
as clockwiseCircular polarization (Fig 3).
Fig 3: Clockwise circular polarization.

If Electric field rotates anticlockwise direction it is known as anticlockwise circular polarization

(Fig 4).

Fig 4: Anti clockwise circular polarization

3. Elliptical polarization: In elliptical polarization, the two components of electric field have
different amplitude value. The phase difference is not equal to zero (let us assume δ=90). Here
the electric field revolves with respect to time but magnitude of electric field is different on X-
Axis and Y-axis. Rotation of electric field with respect to time is shown in figure.

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 Fig 5 Elliptical polarization

Basic formula for elliptical polarization is

𝑬𝒙 𝟐 𝑬𝒚 𝟐
( ) +( ) =𝟏
𝒂 𝒃

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