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Trigonometry
LIAL | HORNSBY | SCHNEIDER | DANIELS

ELEVENTH EDITION
 Contents

Preface xi
Resources for Success xvi

1 Trigonometric Functions 1
1.1 Angles 2
Basic Terminology ■ Degree Measure ■ Standard Position ■
Coterminal Angles

1.2 Angle Relationships and Similar Triangles 10

Geometric Properties ■ Triangles

Chapter 1 Quiz (Sections 1.1–1.2) 21

1.3 Trigonometric Functions 22

The Pythagorean Theorem and the Distance Formula ■ Trigonometric
Functions ■ Quadrantal Angles

1.4 Using the Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions 30

Reciprocal Identities ■ Signs and Ranges of Function Values ■ Pythagorean
Identities ■ Quotient Identities

Test Prep 39 ■ Review Exercises 42 ■ Test 45

2 Acute Angles and Right Triangles 47

2.1 Trigonometric Functions of Acute Angles 48
Right-Triangle-Based Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions ■
Cofunctions ■ How Function Values Change as Angles Change ■
Trigonometric Function Values of Special Angles

2.2 Trigonometric Functions of Non-Acute Angles 56

Reference Angles ■ Special Angles as Reference Angles ■
Determination of Angle Measures with Special Reference Angles

2.3 Approximations of Trigonometric Function Values 64

Calculator Approximations of Trigonometric Function Values ■
Calculator Approximations of Angle Measures ■ An Application

Chapter 2 Quiz ( Sections 2.1–2.3) 71

2.4 Solutions and Applications of Right Triangles 72

Historical Background ■ Significant Digits ■ Solving Triangles ■ Angles of
Elevation or Depression

2.5 Further Applications of Right Triangles 82

Historical Background ■ Bearing ■ Further Applications

Test Prep 91 ■ Review Exercises 93 ■ Test 97

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 vi CONTENTS

Radian Measure and the Unit

3 Circle 99
3.1 Radian Measure 100
Radian Measure ■ Conversions between Degrees and Radians ■
Trigonometric Function Values of Angles in Radians

3.2 Applications of Radian Measure 106

Arc Length on a Circle ■ Area of a Sector of a Circle

3.3 The Unit Circle and Circular Functions 116

Circular Functions ■ Values of the Circular Functions ■ Determining a
Number with a Given Circular Function Value ■ Applications of Circular
Functions ■ Function Values as Lengths of Line Segments

Chapter 3 Quiz (Sections 3.1–3.3) 126

3.4 Linear and Angular Speed 127

Linear Speed ■ Angular Speed

Test Prep 133 ■ Review Exercises 135 ■ Test 138

4 Graphs of the Circular Functions 139

4.1 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions 140
Periodic Functions ■ Graph of the Sine Function ■ Graph of the Cosine
Function ■ Techniques for Graphing, Amplitude, and Period ■ Connecting
Graphs with Equations ■ A Trigonometric Model

4.2 Translations of the Graphs of the Sine and Cosine

Functions 153
Horizontal Translations ■ Vertical Translations ■ Combinations of
Translations ■ A Trigonometric Model

Chapter 4 Quiz ( Sections 4.1 –4.2) 164

4.3 Graphs of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions 164

Graph of the Tangent Function ■ Graph of the Cotangent Function ■
Techniques for Graphing ■ Connecting Graphs with Equations

4.4 Graphs of the Secant and Cosecant Functions 173

Graph of the Secant Function ■ Graph of the Cosecant Function ■ Techniques
for Graphing ■ Connecting Graphs with Equations ■ Addition of Ordinates

Summary Exercises on Graphing Circular Functions 181

4.5 Harmonic Motion 181

Simple Harmonic Motion ■ Damped Oscillatory Motion

Test Prep 187 ■ Review Exercises 189 ■ Test 193

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 CONTENTS vii

5 Trigonometric Identities 195

5.1 Fundamental Identities 196
Fundamental Identities ■ Uses of the Fundamental Identities

5.2 Verifying Trigonometric Identities 202

Strategies ■ Verifying Identities by Working with One Side ■ Verifying
Identities by Working with Both Sides

5.3 Sum and Difference Identities for Cosine 211

Difference Identity for Cosine ■ Sum Identity for Cosine ■ Cofunction
Identities ■ Applications of the Sum and Difference Identities ■
Verifying an Identity

5.4 Sum and Difference Identities for Sine and Tangent 221
Sum and Difference Identities for Sine ■ Sum and Difference Identities for
Tangent ■ Applications of the Sum and Difference Identities ■ Verifying
an Identity

Chapter 5 Quiz (Sections 5.1–5.4) 230

5.5 Double-Angle Identities 230

Double-Angle Identities ■ An Application ■ Product-to-Sum and
Sum-to-Product Identities

5.6 Half-Angle Identities 238

Half-Angle Identities ■ Applications of the Half-Angle Identities ■
Verifying an Identity

Summary Exercises on Verifying Trigonometric Identities 245

Test Prep 246 ■ Review Exercises 248 ■ Test 250

Inverse Circular Functions and

6 Trigonometric Equations 251
6.1 Inverse Circular Functions 252
Inverse Functions ■ Inverse Sine Function ■ Inverse Cosine
Function ■ Inverse Tangent Function ■ Other Inverse Circular Functions ■
Inverse Function Values

6.2 Trigonometric Equations I 268

Linear Methods ■ Zero-Factor Property Method ■ Quadratic Methods ■
Trigonometric Identity Substitutions ■ An Application

6.3 Trigonometric Equations II 275

Equations with Half-Angles ■ Equations with Multiple Angles ■
An Application

Chapter 6 Quiz ( Sections 6.1–6.3) 282

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 viii CONTENTS

6.4 Equations Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions 282

Solution for x in Terms of y Using Inverse Functions ■ Solution of Inverse
Trigonometric Equations

Test Prep 289 ■ Review Exercises 291 ■ Test 293

Applications of Trigonometry and

7 Vectors 295
7.1 Oblique Triangles and the Law of Sines 296
Congruency and Oblique Triangles ■ Derivation of the Law of Sines ■
Solutions of SAA and ASA Triangles (Case 1) ■ Area of a Triangle

7.2 The Ambiguous Case of the Law of Sines 306

Description of the Ambiguous Case ■ Solutions of SSA Triangles (Case 2) ■
Analyzing Data for Possible Number of Triangles

7.3 The Law of Cosines 312

Derivation of the Law of Cosines ■ Solutions of SAS and SSS Triangles
(Cases 3 and 4) ■ Heron’s Formula for the Area of a Triangle ■ Derivation
of Heron’s Formula

Chapter 7 Quiz ( Sections 7.1–7.3) 325

7.4 Geometrically Defined Vectors and Applications 326

Basic Terminology ■ The Equilibrant ■ Incline Applications ■
Navigation Applications

7.5 Algebraically Defined Vectors and the Dot Product 336

Algebraic Interpretation of Vectors ■ Operations with Vectors ■
The Dot Product and the Angle between Vectors

Summary Exercises on Applications of Trigonometry and Vectors 344

Test Prep 346 ■ Review Exercises 349 ■ Test 353

Complex Numbers, Polar Equations,

8 and Parametric Equations 355
8.1 Complex Numbers 356
Basic Concepts of Complex Numbers ■ Complex Solutions of Quadratic
Equations (Part 1) ■ Operations on Complex Numbers ■ Complex Solutions of
Quadratic Equations (Part 2) ■ Powers of i

8.2 Trigonometric (Polar) Form of Complex Numbers 366

The Complex Plane and Vector Representation ■ Trigonometric (Polar)
Form ■ Converting between Rectangular and Trigonometric
(Polar) Forms ■ An Application of Complex Numbers to Fractals

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 CONTENTS ix

8.3 The Product and Quotient Theorems 372

Products of Complex Numbers in Trigonometric Form ■ Quotients of Complex
Numbers in Trigonometric Form

8.4 De Moivre’s Theorem; Powers and Roots of Complex

Numbers 378
Powers of Complex Numbers (De Moivre’s Theorem) ■ Roots of Complex
Numbers

Chapter 8 Quiz (Sections 8.1–8.4) 385

8.5 Polar Equations and Graphs 385

Polar Coordinate System ■ Graphs of Polar Equations ■ Conversion from Polar
to Rectangular Equations ■ Classification of Polar Equations

8.6 Parametric Equations, Graphs, and Applications 398

Basic Concepts ■ Parametric Graphs and Their Rectangular Equivalents ■
The Cycloid ■ Applications of Parametric Equations

Test Prep 406 ■ Review Exercises 409 ■ Test 412

Appendices 413

Appendix A Equations and Inequalities 413

Basic Terminology of Equations ■ Linear Equations ■ Quadratic
Equations ■ Inequalities ■ Linear Inequalities and Interval Notation ■
Three-Part Inequalities

Appendix B Graphs of Equations 422

The Rectangular Coordinate System ■ Equations in Two Variables ■ Circles

Appendix C Functions 428

Relations and Functions ■ Domain and Range ■ Determining
Whether Relations Are Functions ■ Function Notation ■ Increasing,
Decreasing, and Constant Functions

Appendix D Graphing Techniques 438

Stretching and Shrinking ■ Reflecting ■ Symmetry ■ Translations

Answers to Selected Exercises A-1

Photo Credits C-1
Index I-1

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 This page intentionally left blank

561590_MILL_MICRO_FM_ppi-xxvi.indd 2 24/11/14 5:26 PM

 Preface

WELCOME TO THE 11TH EDITION

In the eleventh edition of Trigonometry, we continue our ongoing commitment to
providing the best possible text to help instructors teach and students succeed. In
this edition, we have remained true to the pedagogical style of the past while staying
focused on the needs of today’s students. Support for all classroom types (traditional,
hybrid, and online) may be found in this classic text and its supplements backed by
the power of Pearson’s MyMathLab.
In this edition, we have drawn upon the extensive teaching experience of the Lial
team, with special consideration given to reviewer suggestions. General updates include
enhanced readability with improved layout of examples, better use of color in displays,
and language written with students in mind. All calculator screenshots have been updated
and now provide color displays to enhance students’ conceptual understanding. Each
homework section now begins with a group of Concept Preview exercises, assignable in
MyMathLab, which may be used to ensure students’ understanding of vocabulary and
basic concepts prior to beginning the regular homework exercises.
Further enhancements include numerous current data examples and exercises
that have been updated to reflect current information. Additional real-life exercises
have been included to pique student interest; answers to writing exercises have been
provided; better consistency has been achieved between the directions that introduce
examples and those that introduce the corresponding exercises; and better guidance
for rounding of answers has been provided in the exercise sets.
The Lial team believes this to be our best Trigonometry edition yet, and we sin-
cerely hope that you enjoy using it as much as we have enjoyed writing it. Additional
textbooks in this series are as follows:
College Algebra, Twelfth Edition
College Algebra & Trigonometry, Sixth Edition
Precalculus, Sixth Edition

HIGHLIGHTS OF NEW CONTENT

■ Discussion of the Pythagorean theorem and the distance formula has been
moved from an appendix to Chapter 1.
■ In Chapter 2, the two sections devoted to applications of right triangles now
begin with short historical vignettes, to provide motivation and illustrate how
trigonometry developed as a tool for astronomers.
■ The example solutions of applications of angular speed in Chapter 3 have
been rewritten to illustrate the use of unit fractions.
■ In Chapter 4, we have included new applications of periodic functions. They
involve modeling monthly temperatures of regions in the southern hemisphere
and fractional part of the moon illuminated for each day of a particular month.
The example of addition of ordinates in Section 4.4 has been rewritten, and
a new example of analysis of damped oscillatory motion has been included in
Section 4.5.
■ Chapter 5 now presents a derivation of the product-to-sum identity for the
product sin A cos B.
■ In Chapter 6, we include several new screens of periodic function graphs that
differ in appearance from typical ones. They pertain to the music phenomena
of pressure of a plucked spring, beats, and upper harmonics.
xi

A01_LHSD7642_11_AIE_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 11 04/12/15 9:48 am

 xii PREFACE

■ The two sections in Chapter 7 on vectors have been reorganized but still
cover the same material as in the previous edition. Section 7.4 now introduces
geometrically defined vectors and applications, and Section 7.5 follows with
algebraically defined vectors and the dot product.
■ In Chapter 8, the examples in Section 8.1 have been reordered for a better
flow with respect to solving quadratic equations with complex solutions.
■ For visual learners, numbered Figure and Example references within the text
are set using the same typeface as the figure number itself and bold print for
the example. This makes it easier for the students to identify and connect
them. We also have increased our use of a “drop down” style, when appropri-
ate, to distinguish between simplifying expressions and solving equations,
and we have added many more explanatory side comments. Guided Visual-
izations, with accompanying exercises and explorations, are now available
and assignable in MyMathLab.
■ Trigonometry is widely recognized for the quality of its exercises. In the
eleventh edition, nearly 500 are new or modified, and many present updated
real-life data. Furthermore, the MyMathLab course has expanded coverage
of all exercise types appearing in the exercise sets, as well as the mid-chapter
Quizzes and Summary Exercises.

FEATURES OF THIS TEXT

SUPPORT FOR LEARNING CONCEPTS
We provide a variety of features to support students’ learning of the essential topics
of trigonometry. Explanations that are written in understandable terms, figures and
graphs that illustrate examples and concepts, graphing technology that supports and
enhances algebraic manipulations, and real-life applications that enrich the topics
with meaning all provide opportunities for students to deepen their understanding
of mathematics. These features help students make mathematical connections and
expand their own knowledge base.
■ Examples Numbered examples that illustrate the techniques for working
exercises are found in every section. We use traditional explanations, side
comments, and pointers to describe the steps taken—and to warn students
about common pitfalls. Some examples provide additional graphing calcula-
tor solutions, although these can be omitted if desired.
■ Now Try Exercises Following each numbered example, the student is
directed to try a corresponding odd-numbered exercise (or exercises). This
feature allows for quick feedback to determine whether the student has
understood the principles illustrated in the example.
■ Real-Life Applications We have included hundreds of real-life applica-
tions, many with data updated from the previous edition. They come from fields
such as sports, biology, astronomy, geology, music, and environmental studies.
■ Function Boxes Special function boxes offer a comprehensive, visual
introduction to each type of trigonometric function and also serve as an
excellent resource for reference and review. Each function box includes a
table of values, traditional and calculator-generated graphs, the domain, the
range, and other special information about the function. These boxes are
assignable in MyMathLab.
■ Figures and Photos Today’s students are more visually oriented than
ever before, and we have updated the figures and photos in this edition to

A01_LHSD7642_11_AIE_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 12 03/12/15 12:50 pm

 PREFACE xiii

promote visual appeal. Guided Visualizations with accompanying exercises

and explorations are now available and assignable in MyMathLab.
■ Use of Graphing Technology We have integrated the use of graphing
calculators where appropriate, although this technology is completely op-
tional and can be omitted without loss of continuity. We continue to stress
that graphing calculators support understanding but that students must first
master the underlying mathematical concepts. Exercises that require the use
of a graphing calculator are marked with the icon .
■ Cautions and Notes Text that is marked CAUTION warns students of
common errors, and NOTE comments point out explanations that should
receive particular attention.
■ Looking Ahead to Calculus These margin notes offer glimpses of how
the topics currently being studied are used in calculus.

SUPPORT FOR PRACTICING CONCEPTS

This text offers a wide variety of exercises to help students master trigonometry.
The extensive exercise sets provide ample opportunity for practice, and the exercise
problems generally increase in difficulty so that students at every level of under-
standing are challenged. The variety of exercise types promotes understanding of the
concepts and reduces the need for rote memorization.
■ NEW Concept Preview Each exercise set now begins with a group
of CONCEPT PREVIEW exercises designed to promote understanding of vo-
cabulary and basic concepts of each section. These new exercises are assign-
able in MyMathLab and will provide support especially for hybrid, online,
and flipped courses.
■ Exercise Sets In addition to traditional drill exercises, this text includes
writing exercises, optional graphing calculator problems , and multiple-
choice, matching, true/false, and completion exercises. Concept Check exer-
cises focus on conceptual thinking. Connecting Graphs with Equations
exercises challenge students to write equations that correspond to given graphs.
■ Relating Concepts Exercises Appearing at the end of selected exer-
cise sets, these groups of exercises are designed so that students who work
them in numerical order will follow a line of reasoning that leads to an un-
derstanding of how various topics and concepts are related. All answers to
these exercises appear in the student answer section, and these exercises are
assignable in MyMathLab.
■ Complete Solutions to Selected Exercises Complete solutions to
all exercises marked are available in the eText. These are often exercises
that extend the skills and concepts presented in the numbered examples.

SUPPORT FOR REVIEW AND TEST PREP

Ample opportunities for review are found within the chapters and at the ends of
chapters. Quizzes that are interspersed within chapters provide a quick assessment
of students’ understanding of the material presented up to that point in the chapter.
Chapter “Test Preps” provide comprehensive study aids to help students prepare
for tests.
■ Quizzes Students can periodically check their progress with in-chapter
quizzes that appear in all chapters. All answers, with corresponding section
references, appear in the student answer section. These quizzes are assign-
able in MyMathLab.

A01_LHSD7642_11_AIE_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 13 01/12/15 9:45 am

 xiv PREFACE

■ Summary Exercises These sets of in-chapter exercises give students

the all-important opportunity to work mixed review exercises, requiring them
to synthesize concepts and select appropriate solution methods.
■ End-of-Chapter Test Prep Following the final numbered section
in each chapter, the Test Prep provides a list of Key Terms, a list of New
Symbols (if applicable), and a two-column Quick Review that includes a
section-by-section summary of concepts and examples. This feature con-
cludes with a comprehensive set of Review Exercises and a Chapter
Test. The Test Prep, Review Exercises, and Chapter Test are assignable in
MyMathLab. Additional Cumulative Review homework assignments are
available in MyMathLab, following every chapter.

A01_LHSD7642_11_AIE_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 14 01/12/15 9:45 am

 Get the most out of
MyMathLab
®

MyMathLab is the world’s leading online resource for teaching and learning mathemat-
ics. MyMathLab helps students and instructors improve results, and it provides engag-
ing experiences and personalized learning for each student so learning can happen in
any environment. Plus, it offers flexible and time-saving course management features
to allow instructors to easily manage their classes while remaining in complete control,
regardless of course format.

Personalized Support for Students

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A01_LHSD7642_11_AIE_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 15 01/12/15 9:45 am

 3FTPVSDFT
GPS
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MyMathLab® Online Course for Trigonometry by Lial,
Hornsby, Schneider, and Daniels
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classroom formats (traditional, hybrid, and online).

Concept Preview
Exercises
Exercise sets now begin with a
group of Concept Preview Exer-
cises, assignable in MyMathLab and
also available in Learning
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student engagement and facilitate
assessment.

MyNotes and
MyClassroomExamples
MyNotes provide a note-taking
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they read the text or watch the
MyMathLab videos. MyClassroom
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taken during lecture and are for use
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A01_LHSD7642_11_AIE_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 16 01/12/15 9:45 am

 Resources for Success
Student Supplements
Student’s Solutions Manual
By Beverly Fusfield
t Provides detailed solutions to all odd-numbered text
exercises
ISBN: 0-13-431021-7 & 978-0-13-431021-3
Video Lectures with Optional
Captioning
t Feature Quick Reviews and Example Solutions:
Quick Reviews cover key definitions and
procedures from each section.
Example Solutions walk students through the
detailed solution process for every example in the
textbook.
t Ideal for distance learning or supplemental
instruction at home or on campus
t Include optional text captioning
t Available in MyMathLab®
MyNotes
t Available in MyMathLab and offer structure for
students as they watch videos or read the text
t Include textbook examples along with ample space
for students to write solutions and notes
t Include key concepts along with prompts for
students to read, write, and reflect on what they
have just learned
t Customizable so that instructors can add their
own examples or remove examples that are not
covered in their courses
MyClassroomExamples
t Available in MyMathLab and offer structure for
classroom lecture
t Include Classroom Examples along with ample space
for students to write solutions and notes
t Include key concepts along with fill in the blank
opportunities to keep students engaged
t Customizable so that instructors can add their
own examples or remove Classroom Examples that
are not covered in their courses
www.mymathlab.com
A01_LHSD7642_11_AIE_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 17
Instructor Supplements
Annotated Instructor’s Edition
t Provides answers in the margins to almost all text
exercises, as well as helpful Teaching Tips and
Classroom Examples
t Includes sample homework assignments indicated by
exercise numbers underlined in blue within each
end-of-section exercise set
t Sample homework exercises assignable in MyMathLab
ISBN: 0-13-421764-0 & 978-0-13-421764-2
Online Instructor’s Solutions Manual
By Beverly Fusfield
t Provides complete solutions to all text exercises
t Available in MyMathLab or downloadable from
Pearson Education’s online catalog
Online Instructor’s Testing Manual
By David Atwood
t Includes diagnostic pretests, chapter tests, final exams,
and additional test items, grouped by section, with
answers provided
t Available in MyMathLab or downloadable from
Pearson Education’s online catalog
TestGen®
t Enables instructors to build, edit, print, and administer
tests
t Features a computerized bank of questions developed
to cover all text objectives
t Available in MyMathLab or downloadable from
Pearson Education’s online catalog
Online PowerPoint Presentation and
Classroom Example PowerPoints
t Written and designed specifically for this text
t Include figures and examples from the text
t Provide Classroom Example PowerPoints that include
full worked-out solutions to all Classroom Examples
t Available in MyMathLab or downloadable from
Pearson Education’s online catalog
03/12/15 12:50 pm
 xviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank the following individuals who provided valuable input into this
edition of the text.

John E. Daniels – Central Michigan University

Mary Hill – College of DuPage
Rene Lumampao – Austin Community College
Randy Nichols – Delta College
Patty Schovanec – Texas Tech University
Deanna M. Welsch – Illinois Central College

Our sincere thanks to those individuals at Pearson Education who have sup-
ported us throughout this revision: Anne Kelly, Christine O’Brien, Joe Vetere, and
Danielle Simbajon. Terry McGinnis continues to provide behind-the-scenes guid-
ance for both content and production. We have come to rely on her expertise during
all phases of the revision process. Marilyn Dwyer of Cenveo® Publishing Services,
with the assistance of Carol Merrigan, provided excellent production work. Special
thanks go out to Paul Lorczak and Perian Herring for their excellent accuracy-
checking. We thank Lucie Haskins, who provided an accurate index, and Jack
Hornsby, who provided assistance in creating calculator screens, researching data
updates, and proofreading.
As an author team, we are committed to providing the best possible college
algebra course to help instructors teach and students succeed. As we continue to
work toward this goal, we welcome any comments or suggestions you might send,
via e-mail, to math@pearson.com.

Margaret L. Lial
John Hornsby
David I. Schneider
Callie J. Daniels

A01_LHSD7642_11_AIE_FM_ppi-xviii.indd 18 01/12/15 9:45 am

 1 Trigonometric Functions

A sequence of similar triangles, a topic

covered in this introductory chapter,
can be used to approximate the spiral
of the chambered nautilus.

1.1 Angles

1.2 Angle Relationships and

Similar Triangles

Chapter 1 Quiz

1.3 Trigonometric Functions

1.4 Using the Definitions

of the Trigonometric
Functions

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 2 CHAPTER 1 Trigonometric Functions

1.1 Angles

■ Basic Terminology
■ Degree Measure
■ Standard Position
■ Coterminal Angles
Line AB
A B
Segment AB
A B
Ray AB
A B
Figure 1
Basic Terminology Two distinct points A and B determine a line called
line AB. The portion of the line between A and B, including points A and B them-
selves, is line segment AB, or simply segment AB. The portion of line AB that
starts at A and continues through B, and on past B, is the ray AB. Point A is the
endpoint of the ray. See Figure 1.
In trigonometry, an angle consists of two rays in a plane with a common
endpoint, or two line segments with a common endpoint. These two rays (or
segments) are the sides of the angle, and the common endpoint is the vertex of the
angle. Associated with an angle is its measure, generated by a rotation about
the vertex. See Figure 2. This measure is determined by rotating a ray starting
at one side of the angle, the initial side, to the position of the other side, the
terminal side. A counterclockwise rotation generates a positive measure, and
a clockwise rotation generates a negative measure. The rotation can consist of
more than one complete revolution.
Figure 3 shows two angles, one positive and one negative.

Terminal side
A
C
Vertex A
Initial side
Angle A B

Figure 2
Positive angle Negative angle

Figure 3

An angle can be named by using the name of its vertex. For example, the
angle on the right in Figure 3 can be named angle C. Alternatively, an angle can
be named using three letters, with the vertex letter in the middle. Thus, the angle
on the right also could be named angle ACB or angle BCA.

A complete rotation of a ray
gives an angle whose measure
1
is 360°. 360 of a complete
rotation gives an angle whose
measure is 1°.
Figure 4
Degree Measure The most common unit for measuring angles is the
degree. Degree measure was developed by the Babylonians 4000 yr ago. To
use degree measure, we assign 360 degrees to a complete rotation of a ray.* In
Figure 4, notice that the terminal side of the angle corresponds to its initial side
when it makes a complete rotation.
1
One degree, written 1°, represents of a complete rotation.
360
90 1
Therefore, 90° represents 360 = 4 of a complete rotation, and 180° represents
180 1
360 = 2 of a complete rotation.
An angle measuring between 0° and 90° is an acute angle. An angle mea-
m
suring exactly 90° is a right angle. The symbol is often used at the vertex
of a right angle to denote the 90° measure. An angle measuring more than 90°
but less than 180° is an obtuse angle, and an angle of exactly 180° is a straight
angle.

*The Babylonians were the first to subdivide the circumference of a circle into 360 parts. There are
various theories about why the number 360 was chosen. One is that it is approximately the number of
days in a year, and it has many divisors, which makes it convenient to work with in computations.

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 1.1 Angles 3

The Greek Letters In Figure 5, we use the Greek letter U (theta)* to name each angle. The table
in the margin lists the upper- and lowercase Greek letters, which are often used
Α a alpha
Β b beta in trigonometry.
Γ g gamma
∆ d delta
Ε e epsilon u
u u
Ζ z zeta u
Η h eta
ϴ u theta Acute angle Right angle Obtuse angle Straight angle
Ι i iota 0° < u < 90° u = 90° 90° < u < 180° u = 180°
Κ k kappa Figure 5
Λ l lambda
Μ m mu
If the sum of the measures of two positive angles is 90°, the angles are comple-
Ν n nu
xi
mentary and the angles are complements of each other. Two positive angles with
Ξ j
Ο o omicron measures whose sum is 180° are supplementary, and the angles are supplements.
Π p pi
Ρ r rho EXAMPLE 1 Finding the Complement and the Supplement of an Angle
Σ s sigma
Τ t tau Find the measure of (a) the complement and (b) the supplement of an angle
Υ y upsilon measuring 40°.
Φ f phi
Χ chi SOLUTION
x
Ψ c psi (a) To find the measure of its complement, subtract the measure of the angle
Ω v omega
from 90°.
90° - 40° = 50° Complement of 40°
(b) To find the measure of its supplement, subtract the measure of the angle
from 180°.
180° - 40° = 140° Supplement of 40°
■
✔ Now Try Exercise 11.

EXAMPLE 2 Finding Measures of Complementary and

Supplementary Angles

Find the measure of each marked angle in Figure 6.

(6x)° SOLUTION
(3x)°
(a) Because the two angles in Figure 6(a) form a right angle, they are comple-
(a) mentary angles.
6x + 3x = 90 Complementary angles sum to 90°.
9x = 90 Combine like terms.
Don’t stop here.
(4x)° (6x)° x = 10 Divide by 9.
(b) Be sure to determine the measure of each angle by substituting 10 for x in 6x
Figure 6 and 3x. The two angles have measures of 61102 = 60° and 31102 = 30°.

(b) The angles in Figure 6(b) are supplementary, so their sum must be 180°.
4x + 6x = 180 Supplementary angles sum to 180°.

10x = 180 Combine like terms.

x = 18 Divide by 10.

The angle measures are 4x = 41182 = 72° and 6x = 61182 = 108°.

■
✔ Now Try Exercises 23 and 25.

* In addition to u (theta), other Greek letters such as a (alpha) and b (beta) are used to name angles.

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 4 CHAPTER 1 Trigonometric Functions

y The measure of angle A in Figure 7 is 35°. This measure is often expressed

by saying that m 1 angle A2 is 35°, where m1angle A2 is read “the measure of
angle A.” The symbolism m1angle A2 = 35° is abbreviated as A = 35°.
Traditionally, portions of a degree have been measured with minutes and
A = 35° 1
x seconds. One minute, written 1′, is 60 of a degree.
0
1°
1′ = or 60′ = 1°
60
1
One second, 1″, is 60 of a minute.
Figure 7
1′ 1 °
1″ = = or 60″ = 1′ and 3600″ = 1°
60 3600

The measure 12° 42′ 38″ represents 12 degrees, 42 minutes, 38 seconds.

EXAMPLE 3 Calculating with Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds

Perform each calculation.

(a) 51° 29′ + 32° 46′ (b) 90° - 73° 12′
SOLUTION

(a) 51° 29′ Add degrees and minutes

+ 32° 46′ separately.
83° 75′
The sum 83° 75′ can be rewritten as follows.

83° 75′
= 83° + 1° 15′ 75′ = 60′ + 15′ = 1° 15′

= 84° 15′ Add.

(b) 90° 89° 60′ Write 90° as 89° 60′.

- 73° 12′ can be written - 73° 12′
16° 48′
■
✔ Now Try Exercises 41 and 45.

An alternative way to measure angles involves decimal degrees. For example,

4238 °
12.4238° represents 12 .
10,000

EXAMPLE 4 Converting between Angle Measures

(a) Convert 74° 08′ 14″ to decimal degrees to the nearest thousandth.
(b) Convert 34.817° to degrees, minutes, and seconds to the nearest second.
SOLUTION

(a) 74° 08′ 14″

8° 14 ° # 60′ = 60° and 14″ # 3600″ = 3600°
1° 8 1° 14
= 74° + + 08′
60 3600
≈ 74° + 0.1333° + 0.0039° Divide to express the fractions as decimals.

≈ 74.137° Add and round to the nearest thousandth.

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 1.1 Angles 5

(b) 34.817°
= 34° + 0.817° Write as a sum.

= 34° + 0.817160′2 0.817° # 60′

1° = 0.817160′2

= 34° + 49.02′ Multiply.

= 34° + 49′ + 0.02′ Write 49.02′ as a sum.

0.02′ #
60″
= 34° + 49′ + 0.02160″2 1′ = 0.02160″2
This screen shows how the TI-84 Plus
performs the conversions in Example 4. = 34° + 49′ + 1.2″ Multiply.
The ▶DMS option is found in the
ANGLE Menu. ≈ 34° 49′ 01″ Approximate to the nearest second.

■
✔ Now Try Exercises 61 and 71.

Standard Position An angle is in standard position if its vertex is at the

origin and its initial side lies on the positive x-axis. The angles in Figures 8(a)
and 8(b) are in standard position. An angle in standard position is said to lie in the
quadrant in which its terminal side lies. An acute angle is in quadrant I (Figure 8(a))
and an obtuse angle is in quadrant II (Figure 8(b)). Figure 8(c) shows ranges of
angle measures for each quadrant when 0° 6 u 6 360°.
90°
y y
QI Q II
Q II QI
90° < u < 180° 0° < u < 90°
Terminal side 0°
180°
160° 360°
50° Q III Q IV
x x
Vertex 0 Initial side 0 180° < u < 270° 270° < u < 360°

Angles in standard position 270°

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8

Quadrantal Angles

Angles in standard position whose terminal sides lie on the x-axis or y-axis, such
as angles with measures 90°, 180°, 270°, and so on, are quadrantal angles.

Coterminal Angles A complete rotation of a ray results in an angle meas-

uring 360°. By continuing the rotation, angles of measure larger than 360° can
be produced. The angles in Figure 9 with measures 60° and 420° have the same
initial side and the same terminal side, but different amounts of rotation. Such
angles are coterminal angles. Their measures differ by a multiple of 360°. As
shown in Figure 10, angles with measures 110° and 830° are coterminal.
y y

830°
420° 110°
60°
x x
0 0

Coterminal
angles Coterminal
angles

Figure 9 Figure 10

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
THE FRATERNITY IDEA AMONG
COLLEGE WOMEN
WHAT DOES IT STAND FOR?

BY EDITH RICKERT
THE wide attention that lately has been attracted to the influence of the
fraternities in men’s colleges and universities, from the social and
democratic points of view, has suggested the treatment of the somewhat
similar societies in colleges for women. At our request, Miss Rickert has
made a comprehensive and impartial investigation, the results of which
are embodied in the present paper and in one to follow, entitled, “What
Can We Do About It?” Parents, college authorities, fraternity members,
and other students will be interested in the facts and conclusions here
presented.—THE EDITOR.

A TRIFLING device of Greek letters in gold and enamel is a potent

badge of social distinction in our democratic country, a hallmark
of a certain sort of aristocracy.
 The college fraternities are aristocratic in that they are self-
perpetuating. Their privileges are not to be won through the
conquest of adverse conditions and opposing forces; they are
handed down by the older generations. Theoretically, admittance
depends upon congeniality of spirit; virtually, clanship of race is
coming to count more than kinship of soul. The chapters to-day show
an increasing proportion of brothers, daughters, cousins, and friends.
“If we build a chapter-house, Mrs. Vangoelet will allow her two sisters
to come in with us; otherwise not,” expresses this attitude.
The Pan Hellenic Society is an organization of nearly fifty
thousand college women, which is spreading enormously. Sixty
chapters were established between 1890 and 1900, and two
hundred between 1900 and 1910. It has a foothold in seventy-five of
our leading coeducational institutions (that is, in all but about three),
and several of the large women’s colleges. It is elaborately inspected
and regulated by Pan-Hellenics, national and local.
The fraternities are aristocratic in that they are destructive to
freedom of intercourse. The fraternal spirit is the great modern
separator. It builds first a high wall between the Greeks and the
barbarians, and then a maze of social distinctions between fraternity
and fraternity. Are there not Attic Greeks and Doric, and Greeks from
the far Ionian Isles?
The women’s fraternities began as sororities, and the change of
name is significant. It means, they claim, that women as human
beings have as much right to be included in the word “fraternity” as
in the phrase “the brotherhood of man.” It means more than that.
Consciously or unconsciously they have been moved by the
aristocratic impulse to attach the early traditions, to create the social
atmosphere, of the men’s fraternities; in other words, to lengthen the
pedigree of their organization.
Is this unjust? The fraternity women have responded most
generously to my inquiries; they have heaped upon me a small
mountain of manuscript in explanation and defense of their theories
and their practice. How shall I get at the truth? It is almost impossible
to say anything that is not true of one fraternity or one chapter and at
the same time untrue of others; but I have tried to understand their
ideals and to follow up and judge the tendencies of their practice.
With college men the fraternity is frankly a social privilege which
may become an invaluable business asset in after life. With women it
is theoretically a means of completing individual development: “The
university endeavors to graduate a student; the fraternity a
significant, unselfish, gracious woman.”
The fraternity idea, however, reaches about one student in ten!
But forget for a time the nine tenths, the heterogeneous mass of
the “barbarians,” and look at the system as it develops the elect few;
and, to be just, consider it in its ideal form, toward which all the
chapters are striving. Here is a group of between fifteen and thirty
girls living in a dignified, well-appointed chapter-house near the
campus, with a “house mother,” or chaperon. They are good-looking,
well-dressed, all-round girls; athletic, dramatic, social-minded, rarely
given to overstudy, almost always popular with men. They are not all
rich, and not all of patrician family. One is a governor’s daughter, one
a milliner’s; one spends all her summers abroad, one earns next
year’s fees by teaching in a vacation school; one has always helped
with the housework at home, another has never touched a duster or
a broom until she takes her turn in polishing the chapter-house
floors. If they have one common quality, it is this, as an observant
college officer says, that they “do not have to be explained; they are
so instantaneously attractive as to make the reason for their
selection immediately evident.”
These girls make a happy family of elder and younger sisters, the
elder feeling strongly responsible for the physical, intellectual, and
spiritual welfare of the younger, the younger bound to heed the
precepts and to follow the examples of the elder. They are closely
linked by observance of a ritual which is said to be beautiful and
uplifting. One enthusiast writes me: “That mere girls could have
written our rituals, given expression and symbol to our creeds and
initiation ceremonies, seems almost impossible, yet a proof of the
divinity of clear-eyed womanhood.”
 They are said to be outspoken in criticizing one another in the
light of their ideals, meek in accepting criticism. One chapter even
went to the length of establishing after its service a special meeting
in which members were subjected to the fire of anonymous criticisms
from their fellows, and so set to cure dominant faults. They manage
their own household and business affairs with a precision and
technic alarming to read about. They learn independence and self-
reliance, on the one hand; self-control and a graceful yielding to the
will of the majority on the other.
Their friendships are more loyal than the outsider can well
imagine. Pushed to extremes, this loyalty even led, in one instance,
to a concealment of theft and a levying of contributions to make up
the loss; in two other cases cited, to expulsion from a chapter for
“loose morals,” with, however, a rigid silence in the presence of
outsiders as to the cause.
Indeed, life in the chapter-house seems to call out most of the
virtues—unselfishness, neatness, tidiness, promptness, and general
efficiency. In this college home, which to the fraternity girls is far
more the vital center of their college experience than the classroom
or the laboratory, there is much exchange of hospitality between
chapters and individuals. Members of the faculty and distinguished
guests are entertained. The girls are at the opposite pole from the
poor student who cooks her own breakfast in her room, from the
unfortunate “barb” who is left to the promiscuous friendships of the
cheap boarding-house. They learn to plan a successful dinner, to
pacify an enraged cook, to distinguish between porterhouse and
sirloin, to lay out money to the best advantage in entertainment, to
undertake without a quiver a reception for a thousand guests with
only an afternoon of actual preparation. They learn to preside and to
receive with grace and charm, to deal tactfully with many
temperaments, to shuffle guests. Briefly, they become skilled in the
complete art of the social game.
To sum up, according to the claims made for the fraternity girl in
the handbook of her organization; she develops individuality and the
power to lead; she acquires invaluable business training and
womanly charm. She is given a wider outlook over the field of
collegiate education than her less fortunate sisters; she is blessed
with congenial friendships that amount almost to a continuance of
family relationships, and “whatever the line of service to which she
may consecrate herself,” she “will always be a success.”
This is a composite picture, made up from scores of glowing
accounts of the benefits of the system. Is it true?
Certainly the shield has a reverse side. Over against the select
fraternity of the pillared porch, let us place that which, during a
severe winter, had to go outside the pale and take in new members
in order to pay the coal bill. Let us also remember the chaperon who
is also the cook, and does not appear at functions.
“Good-looking?” Yes, I have heard of a would-be chapter that
was almost excluded from the national organization because the
photograph sent on showed that they did not do their hair
becomingly; and they were solemnly admonished to this effect in a
type-written letter!
“Well-dressed?” One would scarcely believe the difference it
makes to a “rushee” whether she is wearing a smart fall hat or a
summer left-over; and if her belt pin should one day fail to do its duty,
her cause might as well be lost. One method of choosing likely
members is to send delegates to the station to observe the new girls
as they arrive. There is witnessed the triumph of the tailored suit
over the dowdy frills of the country dressmaker, of the suitcase that
has lived abroad over the bulging valise that is packed with home-
grown apples and home-made cookies.
“All-round?” Yes, with possibly a slight depression on the side of
scholarship. I have heard of a good many cases in which girls were
dragged out of the mire of conditions and hauled through their
college course by the zeal of fraternity sisters pulling all together for
the glory of the chapter. They have ideals of scholarship, indeed they
are trying to establish a standard for admission, and they even carry
off a share of the honors; but, on the whole, their social mind
interferes with the scholastic attitude, and prevents over-application
to mental effort.
 “Rich?” Not necessarily; yet would not the girl who drives her own
automobile have some advantage over the one who works her way
through college, and the girl whose parents have a delightful home
most suitable for “rushing” purposes near the campus be preferred to
any sweet madonna-of-the-boarding-house? I heard only the other
day how an initiation fee was raised to five times its original amount
on the plea, “The girls will appreciate it so much more if they have to
pay a lot!”
“Family?” Not at all, yet I know of a girl who was rushed hard and
as suddenly dropped because it was discovered that her father had
been a butcher; of another, who was regarded as eligible until it was
found out, what neither her name nor her features suggested, that
her really distinguished family was of Jewish strain.
These instances must be set over against the ideal picture of the
governor’s daughter and the milliner’s child, the mother’s helper and
the patrician of the South, scrubbing floors together.
Family jars, I am told, are beneath the dignity of the fraternities. It
is difficult not to be skeptical as to the power of the ritual or of the pin
to keep twenty healthy girls from splitting into factions over nothing at
all; but even if outer harmony is maintained, is it conceivable that
there should not very often be discomfort and even actual suffering
among the minority? Suppose a chapter one year includes twelve
students and eight butterflies, and the next year changes to three
students and seventeen butterflies? What of the occasional
“mistake”? I know a Theta girl whose mother was a Beta, but this
fact was not discovered by the Betas until she was pledged. “What a
pity!” they lamented; but “What an escape!” said she. As it
happened, she felt entirely at home with the Thetas and could not
bear the Betas; but suppose the situation had been reversed! She
would have had no remedy except to withdraw, which would have
made her painfully conspicuous and set everybody to wondering
about the reason, or to change her college. But a girl out of harmony
with a crowd and obliged to live with them in intimate association, is
greatly to be pitied, whether she conforms or holds her own. What is
to be said of the ethics of forcing an Episcopalian to dance in Lent
against her strong religious scruples? Can it be doubted that such a
minority often yields its own convictions to keep pace with the others,
or, not yielding, is painfully out of step?
As to the wonderful ritual devised by “clear-eyed womanhood,” I
have heard it also described as “childish,” “poppycock,” “bunk.” The
ideals are necessarily those of immaturity, and have all the
vagueness and some of the wrong-headedness of youth. “They are
not harmful,” writes a dean, a fraternity woman who is familiar also
with a college where no fraternities exist, “except that they are
sentimental.” I take this to mean that they are more suited to
discourses at fraternity banquets, as a kind of leaven to
reminiscences of good old times, than to practical application outside
the fraternity world.[3] That they may “have a dynamic force upon
character” is doubtless true of the persons who do not develop
beyond the stage at which they are propounded; that they lead to
much real kindness among fraternity sisters in time of illness and
trouble need not be doubted. But a loyalty which hides a thief and
turns her loose in the world without warning may be a dangerous
thing, and when it expels a girl for “loose morals,” and gives no
further explanation, it is cruel, if the term means cigarettes or slight
indiscretions with men, and dangerous if her character is such that
she ought not to be allowed to remain on the campus.
“Manage their own households and business affairs?” Yes, but a
peep behind the scenes reveals a case of cutting out breakfast to
save up for a tea, of giving a formal dinner and living on bread and
potatoes for a week to make up the expense. An inspector’s story
hints that this business management is not unlike the average
amateur performance. A dean, herself a fraternity woman of many
years’ experience, writes: “Usually ... the accounts of such an
organization are not so well looked after as those of the more
general women’s organizations in which less of the ‘family’ idea
prevails,” and “the business training of these undergraduates” ... is
“probably inferior to that gained by officers in such bodies as the
Women’s League, the Young Women’s Christian Association, the
Student Government Association, or the boards of college
publications.”
 Then are the conclusions quoted by the handbook as to the
influence of the fraternities on their members warranted by the facts?
Do they cultivate individuality? How is it possible? In the first place,
the fraternity girl is essentially “clubable”; and by the statute of
limitations in personality she is bound to be more conventional, yes,
even more superficial in her attractions, than the girl who is strongly
individual. The fraternities are admitted to be groups in which like
seeks like, and the whole flock aims to induce still greater likeness to
the pattern of the group. The girl with a streak of genius cannot
easily find her like, so she flocks not at all; the poor, proud girl fears
patronage, and will not; the awkward, ill-bred country girl can’t; the
dig dare not for fear of missing some intellectual good thing. All
these must develop more or less as individuals; but the fraternity girl,
unless she enters as an individual strong enough to dominate her
companions, must herself be dominated by them.
“Cultivate leadership?” Probably, in that they give to all their
members in some measure the poise that comes only from an
assured social position; and poise is the first requisite for leadership.
Again, the fraternity girl who takes a leading part in outside college
activities has always an advantage in that she does this with the
backing of her group, who are all prepared to do team-work when
occasion demands.
In the same way, it is only the few that from the first show
executive and business ability who get much training in these
directions through fraternity membership.
As to the wide outlook over the field of collegiate education, it is
limited in two ways: first, in that the fraternity women are more or
less segregated from the other students, and second, in that they do
not come into contact at all with the great women’s colleges, Vassar,
Wellesley, Smith, Radcliffe, and Bryn Mawr.[4]
 A GROUP OF WOMEN’S FRATERNITY
HOUSES (UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN)
Then is the fraternity woman bound to be a success? Few of
them, even while they claim inestimable benefits inexplicable to the
outsider, say this. Some of them think that when the admitted defects
in the system are removed, when rushing is prohibited, when pledge-
day is postponed until the new students have had time to find
themselves intellectually and socially and to make their friends, when
a uniform scholarship standard and uniform house-rules are
enforced, it will make for the finest type of womanhood.
 Drawn by J. Norman Lynd
“ONE METHOD OF CHOOSING LIKELY
MEMBERS IS TO SEND DELEGATES
TO THE STATION TO OBSERVE THE
NEW GIRLS AS THEY ARRIVE”
Doubtless there is need of these things. When rushing reaches
the point of tying a girl in the rooms of a fraternity house until she
puts on the fraternity-badge, it is time to take measures. When of two
girls who are intimate friends, one is pledged because she knows
better how to make use of her good points, while, with the breaking
up of their friendship, the other, made of equally fine stuff, is left
forlorn because she lacks an intangible something that attracts all
the girls in a chapter, or has an intangible something that repels one
member of it, a remedy should be found. When a popular girl has an
engagement for five nights in a single week, or averages from sixty
to eighty “dates” in a year, it almost looks as though scholarship
needs attention. When the chaperon exerts her influence from the
kitchen, and social events are untrammeled as to numbers and
hours and expense, it is almost time for a reform. In other words,
while there are chapters that are almost wholly admirable in their
constituency and conduct, there are also others that reflect in the
miniature college world the pace of the civilization about them.
But if all these reforms were accomplished,—and it is difficult to
see how enough pressure can be brought by the National Pan-
Hellenic to do this except sporadically,—the evils of the system
remain as before, inherent and ineradicable. As regards those within,
the fraternity idea means type; as regards those outside, it means
caste.
“You’d never think Caroline was a Chi Chi, would you? She ought
to have been a Tau Tau!” is overheard on the campus. What does
this mean but type?
“The girl who sits next to me is an Alpha; I knew it before I saw
her pin.” What does this mean but type?
 Drawn by J. Norman Lynd
A NOVEL METHOD OF EXTRACTING A
PROMISE TO WEAR A FRATERNITY-
BADGE
“I knew a chapter that was made up of three distinct types, digs,
butterflies, and Y. W. C. A.’s.... To be sure, it rather slumped for a
time.” Why?
When a shrewd member of the faculty can forecast that certain
freshmen will make Gamma Gamma, and certain others Omicron
Omega, it must be admitted that not only is there a general fraternity
type, but there is a tendency to type for each combination of Greek
letters that is worn on a pin.
 A TYPICAL SITTING-ROOM IN A GIRL’S WELL-APPOINTED FRATERNITY
HOUSE
No doubt in the leveling up to type, many individual faults, such
as selfishness, self-distrust, laziness, frivolity, lack of initiative, lack of
self-control, bad temper, bad manners, and so on, are corrected; but
in so far as the system is artificial, it is bound to develop
conventionality. It is artificial because it chooses and restricts
friendships. Close intimacy with outsiders is almost always made
impracticable by circumstances and the mutual attitude of the elect
and the non-elect; and in some cases it is held to be disloyal to the
chapter. It is artificial because it strives to eliminate from a girl’s
experience all incongruous and hostile elements, and these are often
conducive to growth. The fraternity girl’s position is comparable to
that of the child who is fed on soft foods.
That is, the trouble is that she is cultivated instead of being
allowed to grow freely. She is rushed, pledged, initiated; she is
studied, counseled, criticized, disciplined, drawn out, molded. Her
power of initiative is developed only in that she “is made to go out
and do things.” Even as an upper classman, when it is her turn to
uphold the fraternity ideals and to mold her younger sisters, she still
lives in the rarefied atmosphere of an artificially selected community,
where there is no chance for the free play of the individual. The
fraternity girl, with all her initiative, her poise, her charm, her
efficiency, is crippled by the fact that she is not allowed to come to
grips with all sort of conditions and people, by which alone is gained
the personal, as opposed to the group, attitude toward life.
Does the fraternity idea mean caste? Are fraternity girls
snobbish? This question brought an emphatic denial from fraternity
women on all sides. The existence of snobbery here and there, in
chapters and in individuals, is admitted; but the attitude of the
organization, I am told, is to root it out, and by all means to
encourage democracy. The only difficulty here is that snobbery is the
foundation-stone of the system, and when it goes, the system
topples. This is the way of it. If you and I have a secret, and we talk
together in the presence of a third person who does not know it, by
no means in our human power can we avoid a snobbish attitude
toward that third person. We ourselves may forget the secret; but the
person outside, by the very fact that he is shut out from it, magnifies
its importance, and no equality of dealing is possible between him
and ourselves. Extend the picture to a houseful of girls, linked
together by a common knowledge, a common family, and a common
social life, and give these girls the right to say who shall be privileged
to join them, what chance for equal dealing has the outsider, or even
a less closely organized group of outsiders, against their united
social attitude? The fraternity girl may not feel snobbish, but if the
barbarian is snubbed, the result is much the same. What though the
“frat” girl claims that the “barb” will not meet her half-way? As long as
there is consciousness of effort to bridge the gap, the gap is plainly
there.
 Drawn by J. Norman Lynd
MEETING DISTINGUISHED GUESTS AT A FRATERNITY
HOUSE, AND—
Where there is a gap, there is caste, and where caste is
recognized, snobbery is inevitable. When the fraternity woman
disclaims snobbery, she means that she is careful not to emphasize
the distinctions between herself and others. She is like the teacher
who, in order to preserve strict impartiality, takes off her fraternity-pin
when she goes to class. No, the fraternity woman, aware as she is of
the “greater blessings of her lot,” does not snub those less fortunate
than herself; she either ignores them or is kind to them. Sometimes
she manages both attitudes at the same time, as in the case of a
party given to all the students, in which the programs of the fraternity
members are filled weeks ahead. And if the outsiders who go feel
like parasites, it is surely their own fault. Admit, on the one hand, a
fund of common knowledge and common acquaintance, extensive
social experience, and the assurance of social standing, and, on the
other, instead of these things, the ever-present sense of having been
passed over as negligible, or, what is yet worse, of having been tried
and found wanting. Can the gap be bridged?
 PREPARING HER OWN DINNER
Nor do the attempts of the fraternities to bridge the gap bear out
their claims of democracy. In a recent report on social customs made
by a committee of the Pan-Hellenic, only three chapters mentioned
any effort to be “nice” to the whole student body. One spoke of a
spring picnic; two, of attempts at occasional “open houses,” in one
case dubbed a failure by some members; and the third, “prospects of
a party for all college women and a freshman scholarship”! I am
afraid it is impossible to deny that the fraternities live in a world by
themselves, shut off by an insuperable barrier from those who are
not “their sort.” And if this is not caste, what is?
The system, however, does create a sort of noblesse oblige,
which in some cases makes the fraternity girls leaders in the class
and student organizations, Young Women’s Christian Association,
and various other college activities, although in this they are
sometimes thwarted by inter-fraternal rivalries and jealousies, and by
the combined hostilities of the barbarians. Further, they are said to
coöperate earnestly and efficiently with deans and presidents in
coercing refractory members of their own body, and in helping put
through reforms and other measures for the good of the whole
student body. They are the most loyal part of the alumnæ, and
through their permanent connection with their chapters, continue to
come back and show interest in their alma mater long after other
students have broken the tie.
 Drawn by J. Norman Lynd
“THE UNFORTUNATE ‘BARB’ WHO IS LEFT TO THE PROMISCUOUS
FRIENDSHIPS OF THE CHEAP BOARDING-HOUSE”

So far I have said little about the girl who is left out. To many of
the fraternity women she seems the most deplorable feature of the
system. Except in the college where the societies contain all but a
very few of the students, her case does not seem to me serious. To
be sure, she misses a great deal of fun and social training; but if she
is worth saving, she saves herself in the end; and if she gives up in
despair and goes home because she does not “make a frat,” she is
not of the stuff that the college needs. Probably some sensitive girls
are embittered for a long time by the slight, but the finer ones
conquer, even though the sting lingers throughout their course. A
large number in the great mass of the students are unaffected by the
fraternity problems. They do not expect or wish to get in, and they
have virtually very little to do with the fraternity girls except as they
work in the same student organizations. They have their own sets,
their own social life, averaging more good times, perhaps, than they
are credited with by their pitying superior sisters. What the university
fails to do to counteract the effects of poverty, ill breeding, bad
preparation, and inexperience is another thing altogether. Individual
tragedies settle themselves, and those who win come out stronger,
finer women for their victory over adverse conditions than any
fraternity girl for whom the way has been made smooth.
But the fraternity idea must be judged not so much by those
whom it shuts out from special privilege as by the results that it
produces in those whom it fosters.
The Pan Hellenic Society believes itself specially chosen and
trained for service. And what has it done? Aside from a vague and
general interest in alumnæ activities, this service is reduced to
scholarships, some isolated attempts in education and philanthropy,
a certain “dynamic force” upon the character of its members,
scarcely apparent to outsiders, and continued perfection of
organization, thus far for no more evident purpose than the reform of
its own body.

“‘WORSHIPING AT THEIR OWN LITTLE SHRINE’”

In other words, the fraternity system seems grotesquely out of
proportion in the general scheme of things. Why should this one
feature of undergraduate life be magnified by means of publications,
council meetings, and conventions, if it is to fulfil no other purpose
than the perpetuation of itself? How does it stand in relation to the
many needs of the world? Is it not rather like a crystallization of an
immature stage of development? Why should a fraternity woman go
about the world seeking only her own kind, like the missionary to
China who wrote to her fraternity paper of the various social
advantages that came to her through her encounters there with
Greek sisters? It looks to me very much like an actual limitation of
growth. Take the case of the country girl whom college has unfitted
for her home environment. It was cited as one of the inestimable
blessings of the system that her sole interest now lies in her
fraternity literature and friends. To my mind this relationship is rather
a handicap that retards the shifting of focus that must take place in
her before she can make her life a success.
For these reasons I believe that the fraternities, notwithstanding
individual benefits, are hastening on our “French Revolution”; they
are creating a type that rules by habit rather than by individual power
and wisdom; and by their inflexible system of caste they are
emphasizing the gap, already more than sufficient for women as for
men, between privilege and the working world.
A college president recently said to me in substance: “I always
think of the fraternity men as in a circle, hand in hand, facing
outward; but of the women as turned the other way, worshiping at
their own little shrine, with their backs to the winds of the world.”

“‘WITH THEIR BACKS TO THE WINDS OF THE WORLD’”

[3] And yet I read in a belated answer from a broadminded

fraternity woman: “The vows of these childish secret societies are
regarded as just as binding as marriage-vows.”
[4] In Wellesley the societies are local, and in Smith they are
not properly fraternities at all.