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 Power Formula (West Virginia) and Ohm’s Law56
Common Electrician Calculations56
Sidebar 4.2: Practical Examples of Electrical Problems 56
Sidebar 4.3: Determination of Lamp Load 57
Fundamental Circuits 57
Series Circuits57
Parallel Circuits58
Direct Current Versus Alternating Current 58
Direct Current (DC)58
Alternating Current (AC) and Power Generation58
Transformers59
Power Distribution 60
Electrical Services61
Electrical Hardware 63
Wire63
Sidebar 4.4: Common Wire Gauges and Rated Capacities 64
Cables64
Data Cables66
Sidebar 4.5: Working with Cables 66
Switches67
Circuit Protection67
Dimmers68
Company Switches and Distribution Panels 68
Theatrical Distribution68
Sidebar 4.6: Tapping into Company Switches 69
Troubleshooting Electrical Problems 70
Sidebar 4.7: A Guide to Electrical Troubleshooting 70
Sidebar 4.8: Electrical Safety 71
For Further Reading 71
5 Lamps and Other Light Sources 73
Lumens, Watts, and Lamp Life 74
Lamps and Color 74
Incandescent Lamps 74
Filaments75
Bulbs76
Bases77
Tungsten-Halogen or Quartz Lamps 78
Sidebar 5.1: Light Center Length (LCL) 78
ANSI Codes 79
Arc Light Sources 79
Limelight79
Carbon-Arc80
Short-Arc and High-Intensity
Discharge (HID) Lamps80
Short-Arc Lamps80
High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps81
Gaseous Discharge Lamps 81
Fluorescent Lamps82
Low-Voltage Lamps 83
Solid-State Light Sources 83
LEDs84
Sidebar 5.2: Designer Profile: Robert (Rob) Gerlach 87
Plasma Lamps90
Non-Traditional Light Sources 90
Ballasted Fixtures90

Contents  vii
 Blacklight90
Strobes91
Neon92
Fiber Optics92
Lasers92
For Further Reading 93
6 Luminaire Fundamentals 95
Basic Principles of Optics 95
Reflection and Reflectors96
Transmission98
Refraction and Lenses98
An Essential Luminaire 100
Photometrics100
Sidebar 6.1: Luminaire Maintenance 100
Beam Angle and Field Angle101
Throw Distances101
Photometric Data and Cut Sheets102
Sidebar 6.2: Two Methods for Determination of
Beam Spread 104
Choosing Luminaires 104
Conventional Luminaires for the Stage (Traditional
and Enhanced) 105
Spotlights105
Followspots112
Sidebar 6.3: Followspot Pickup Techniques 113
Floodlights113
Accessories for Conventional Luminaires 115
Optical Accessories115
Hanging Accessories116
Automated Accessories for Conventional Luminaires 117
Scrollers117
Moving Yokes118
Moving Mirror Accessories119
Gobo Rotators119
Automated Lighting 119
Sidebar 6.4: Common Automated Lighting Effect Cues 120
Attributes and Addressing120
Moving Heads (Moving Yokes)121
Scanners (Moving Mirrors)122
LED Luminaires 123
Color Mixing With LEDs123
Wash and Strip or Linear Luminaires123
Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlights125
LEDs in Scenery and Costumes126
Sidebar 6.5: Designer Profile: Allen Lee Hughes 127
Practicals and Lighting Effects 129
Practicals129
Flame and Fire Effects129
Water Reflections130
Fog, Smoke, and Haze130
Lightning131
Sun, Moon, and Stars131
Explosions and Pyro Devices132
For Further Reading 132

viii  Contents
7 Control Fundamentals 133
Illuminance and Luminance—Five Metrics 133
Luminous Flux133
Illuminance134
Luminous Intensity134
Luminance135
Luminous Exitance135
Brightness Control and Dimming 135
Circuiting136
Sidebar 7.1: Dimmer Load Calculations 137
Mastering138
Mechanical Mastering138
Electrical Mastering138
Electronic Mastering139
Principles of Electronic Dimming 139
Gating140
Sidebar 7.2: Dimmer Curves and Trimming 142
Sine Wave Dimming142
Control Protocols 143
Analog Control143
Digital Control143
Primary Control of Advanced Lighting Gear 145
DMX Control146
Attributes and Addressing 146
Sidebar 7.3: Binary Code and Addressing 147
Sidebar 7.4: Practical Tips for Setting up DMX Networks 147
Sidebar 7.5: Programming Tips for Automated Lighting Gear 148
Lighting Networks, ACN, and RDM149
Lighting Control Consoles 150
Preset Control150
Sidebar 7.6: Common Control Functions of Preset Consoles 151
Sidebar 7.7: Rock and Roll Console Features 151
Memory Control151
Sidebar 7.8: Additional Controls in Computer Consoles 154
Automated Control Consoles154
Latest Generation Lighting Consoles155
Off-Line Editors 156
Visualization157
Show Control 159
State-of-the-Art Control 160
Sidebar 7.9: Designer Profile: Fred Foster 160
Dimmer-per-Circuit160
Multiplexing (Dimmer Doubling™)162
Distributed Dimming162
Wireless DMX and Wireless Dimming163
For Further Reading 165
8 Projections and Lighting 166
A Brief History of Projection 167
Projection Considerations 167
Sidebar 8.1: Considerations of Projection Design 168
Elements of Projection 168
Front or Rear Projection? 169
Traditional Projection Equipment 170
Lensless Projectors170

Contents  ix
 Lens Projectors171
The Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight (ERS)171
The 35mm Projector171
Sidebar 8.2: Calculations Regarding Projectors and Lenses 172
Scenic Projectors173
Slides and Source Materials 174
Projection Surfaces 174
Front-Projection Screens174
Rear-Projection Screens174
Other Materials/Projection Surfaces176
Practical Issues of Projection 176
Image Definition176
Two Critical Considerations: Path and Balance177
Spill and Ambient Light177
Image Size178
Distortion178
Sidebar 8.3: Keystone Correction 180
Sidebar 8.4: Mathematical Grid for Keystone Correction 180
Digital Projection 181
Media Servers181
Sidebar 8.5: Designer Profile: Wendall K. Harrington 182
Digital Projectors184
Digital Lights185
LCD and LED Displays186
Lasers and Effects Projection 186
Convergence188
For Further Reading 189

PART THREE—LIGHT: DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS 191

9 Essentials of Lighting Design 193

Special Considerations in Lighting Design 193
Directors and Collaboration 194
The Influences of Light 194
Controllable Qualities of Light (Reviewed)195
Functions of Lighting (Reviewed)195
Analysis for Lighting 195
Script Analysis196
Sidebar 9.1: Designer Profile: Brian MacDevitt 196
Sidebar 9.2: Scenic Breakdown of Arthur Miller’s The Crucible199
Analysis for Other Forms of Entertainment Design203
Style in Lighting 204
Conceptualization205
Additional Designer Preparation 205
Design Research205
Design and Production Meetings207
Rehearsals208
Developing Lighting Schemes and Concepts 211
Lighting Keys 211
Sidebar 9.3: Development of a Lighting Key 212
Communicating Design Ideas 212
Image Research212
Storyboards213
Lighting Scores213
Light Labs215

x  Contents
 Model Theatres217
Computer Design Analysis217
Digital Renderings218
Visualization219
For Further Reading 222
10 Basics of General Illumination 223
Lighting the Subject 223
Typical Theatrical Lighting Positions 224
Proscenium Theatre224
Sidebar 10.1: Proscenium Hanging Positions and
Lighting Distribution 225
Black Box Theatre227
Other Variations227
Floorplans and Sections 227
Basics of General Illumination or Area Lighting 227
Primary Formula Approaches for Area Lighting 231
Single Source System231
Wash System232
The McCandless System232
Double or Triple Hanging233
Area versus Color Control234
Alternative Systems for Area Lighting 234
Key and Fill234
The Washed Stage235
Zone Lighting235
Jewel Lighting235
Building on General Lighting 236
Special Areas237
Sculpting and Modeling Accents237
Sidebar 10.2: Focus Patterns for Common Wash Systems 238
Blending and Toning Accents238
Motivational Accents239
Additional Lighting Demands 239
Special Visibility239
Lighting for Costumes240
Lighting for Scenery240
Scrims243
Effects Lighting244
Sidebar 10.3: Designer Profile: Jeff Davis 244
For Further Reading 246
11 Plotting the Design 247
Translating Concepts and Lighting Keys Into Practical Design Choices 248
Working With Floorplans and Sections 248
Floorplans or Groundplans248
Sections250
An Approach to Plotting a Design 252
Preliminary Tasks/Preparation252
Advancing a Venue252
Rehearsals253
The Wish List253
Making a Design Practical254
The Tentative Hookup256
The Rough Light Plot256
Drafting and the Lighting Design 258
Drafting Light Plots259

Contents  xi
 Sidebar 11.1: Common Numbering Practices 264
Drafting the Section264
Lighting Schedules and Design Paperwork 264
Sidebar 11.2: Designer Profile: Steven Louis “Steve” Shelley 265
Hookup267
Instrument Schedule267
Magic Sheets267
Shop Orders271
CAD and Computers in Lighting Design 276
CAD and Drafting Applications276
Sidebar 11.3: AutoCAD versus Vectorworks Spotlight 278
Design Paperwork278
Control and Off-Line Editing279
Communication and Training280
Design Analysis and Visualization280
For Further Reading 282
12 Load-in Through Opening 283
Final Preparations for the Load-In 284
The Cue Synopsis 284
Sidebar 12.1: Cue Terminology 287
The Load-In 287
Sidebar 12.2: A Typical Academic Load-in Schedule 289
Sidebar 12.3: A Typical Commerical Production
Load-in Schedule 290
The Focus Call 290
The Level-Setting or Cue-Writing Session 293
Cueing Aids for Memory Consoles 297
Sidebar 12.4: Cueing Aids for Memory Consoles 298
Rehearsals in the Venue 299
Technical Rehearsals299
Dress Rehearsals, Previews, and Openings300
Running and Maintaining the Production 302
Sidebar 12.5: Designer Profile: Beverly Emmons 302
For Further Reading 305
13 Variations on Essential Theatrical Design 306
Designing for Specific Genre 306
Variations in the Audience/Performance Space 307
Thrust Productions309
General Lighting Techniques for Thrust Design310
Arena Productions312
Environmental Productions313
Outdoor Dramas and Festival Productions 314
Transfer Productions 315
Touring Productions 319
Repertory Productions 320
Sidebar 13.1: Designer Profile: F. Mitchell “Mitch” Dana 322
For Further Reading 324

PART FOUR—LIGHT DESIGN APPLICATIONS 325

14 The Practitioners 327

Theatrical and Live Performance Production 327
Design Professionals328

xii  Contents
 Sidebar 14.1: Designer Profile: Dawn Chiang 329
Theatrical Crews332
Sidebar 14.2: Designer Profile: Brad Schiller 334
Film and Video 336
Design Professionals336
Sidebar 14.3: Designer Profile: Patrick Cady 337
Production Crews338
Sidebar 14.4: Designer Profile: Derrick Kolus 339
Architectural Lighting 341
Unions and Certifications 342
Sidebar 14.5: Designer Profile: Gary Fails 343
Professional Organizations and Societies 345
For Further Reading 346
15 Traditional Areas of Theatrical Design (Drama, Dance,
Opera, and Musical Theatre) 347
Lighting for Drama 348
Performance Considerations348
Design Techniques349
Dance Lighting 350
Performance Considerations350
Design Techniques351
Sidebar 15.1: Designer Profile: Jennifer Tipton 354
Opera and Operetta Lighting 356
Performance Considerations356
Design Techniques358
Lighting Musical Theatre 360
Performance Considerations360
Design Techniques361
Sidebar 15.2: Common Musical Theatre Cueing Terminology 365
For Further Reading 366
16 Non-Traditional Lighting Design Applications 367
Branching Out Into Other Fields of Lighting 367
The Music Scene (Revues, Clubs, and Concert Lighting) 368
Musical Revues368
Nightclubs and Dance Club Lighting369
Concert Lighting369
Sidebar 16.1: Designer Profile: James L. “Jim” Moody 372
The Spectacle Performance 374
Headline Acts374
Arena Productions and Stadium Productions375
Sidebar 16.2: Designer Profile: Jeff Ravitz 376
Dedicated Venues378
Additional Areas of Spectacle378
Trade Shows, Industrials, and Corporate Events 379
Corporate Mentality379
Sidebar 16.3: Designer Profile: Betsy Adams 380
Corporate Production382
Film and Video Basics 382
Light and the Camera383
Key and Fill Light384
Control Elements385
Key Elements in Film/Video Illumination386
Sidebar 16.4: Designer Profile: William L. “Bill” Klages 387
Three-Point and Following Source Lighting389

Contents  xiii
 Retail and Museum Lighting 390
Lighting Layers390
Essentials of Retail and Museum/Gallery Lighting391
Sidebar 16.5: Designer Profile: Cindy Limauro 392
Architectural Lighting 394
Unique Qualities and Demands of Architectural Lighting394
Architectural Luminaire Classifications395
Key Elements in Architectural General Illumination396
The Architectural Lighting Design Process398
Sidebar 16.6: Lighting Design Questions 399
Sidebar 16.7: Designer Profile: Robert “Bob” Shook 399
Daylighting400
Lighting Green and Lighting Economics402
Landscape Lighting 402
Lighting Landscapes403
Essential Approaches to Lighting Landscapes403
Principles of Landscape Lighting404
Themed Design and Specialty Lighting 404
The Story405
Development of a Themed Project406
Considerations of Themed (Specialty) Lighting Design406
Sidebar 16.8: Designer Profile: Tom Ruzika 407
Virtual Lighting (Renderings, Virtual Reality, Gaming, etc.) 409
Sidebar 16.9: Designer Profile: Chris Wells 410
Virtual Design410
Virtual Light Sources411
Lighting Techniques for Virtual Lighting412
For Further Reading 412

Appendices415
A. Lighting Periodicals 416
B. Lighting Equipment Manufacturers 417
C. Professional Organizations and Unions 421
D. USITT Lighting Graphics Standard 422
E. IESNA Lighting Graphics 432
Glossary433
Bibliography483
Index487

xiv  Contents
 PREFACE

I T IS IMPORTANT to note that Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals is the first of a two-part companion set of
lighting design books, the second book being Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More. The chapters that form
the basis for the material presented in this book are based on the printed segment of the first edition (Stage Lighting:
Fundamentals and Applications) while the chapters on more specialized applications that were previously presented
online in the first edition are now in print in the second book (Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More). This
book, Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals, is focused primarily on materials typically found in introductory to inter-
mediate courses, while Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More is focused on a variety of specialized lighting
applications that are more characteristic of topics presented in more advanced lighting classes. That book may also
be used by more advanced readers as a personal reference. Both books have also been updated with new materials to
reflect current trends in the industry and are now printed in color. Regardless of the reader’s level of lighting expertise,
they will most likely find materials that speak to their interests and needs in both books.
Before going any further, I want to express my continued thanks to the many instructors and colleagues who
have made the first edition of the book so successful. More importantly, I’m thankful for the conversations and sug-
gestions we have had that aided me in making improvements in this second edition. Focal Press/Routledge–Taylor &
Francis Group reflects a new partnership that I feel will allow the book to continue to grow in both popularity and
usefulness to students and future lighting designers. In addition to updating, the most significant changes between
the first and second editions relate to moving the former online chapters into a second volume and printing both
books in color. This also allowed me to move Stage Lighting: The Fundamentals towards more introductory materials
while shifting some of the more advanced concepts to the applications topics in the second book. Several additional
upgrades and revisions provided in the second edition of both books include the following: printing the majority of
the images and figures in full color, updating a number of technology sections to reflect current trends and equipment
(especially in the area of LEDs, which are overtaking the lighting industry), updating several design processes (i.e.,
significant changes have been made in the recommended practices of architectural lighting since the printing of the
first edition), reorganization and consolidation of several topics to fit the manner in which instructors are using the
book, additions to the books’ resources (glossary, bibliography, manufacturer contacts, and periodical listings), and
the inclusion of nearly a dozen additional professional profiles that provide introductions to lighting professionals
who aren’t necessarily designers but who represent other avenues of employment for future lighting specialists (along
with updates to the majority of the designer profiles that appeared in the first edition).
Lighting design is one of the most influential design specializations existing in today’s society. Light gives us the
primary means by which we sense our environment. It plays a fundamental role in our perception of the world and
how we observe it. Light can hide or reveal an object and its features, modify the perceived shape of an object, suggest
motion, distort or enhance an object’s colors or texture, and can be used to create or alter moods. These are only a few
of the many ways that light can manipulate our perception of the world. This book has been written primarily for the
beginning to intermediate level student. While a certain amount of technology must be understood before moving
on to concepts involving design, the majority of this book is focused on the design process. Other topics presented
in this volume are based primarily on theatrical lighting and include the properties of light, effects of lighting, the
control and manipulation of light, theatrical lighting equipment, designing for traditional forms of entertainment,
projection, and a brief introduction to a variety of lighting applications beyond theatrical lighting. Although it is
assumed that this and its partner book will be used primarily in theatrical lighting classes, the books should also be
useful to those in the electrical engineering and architectural or interior design lighting fields as well. The books speak
to a broader audience—one that is seeking the fundamentals of lighting regardless of lighting discipline and where we
are encouraged to crossover between the many lighting specialties.
 I believe that the future of lighting design lies in a designer’s ability to understand and deliver designs in light—
period. Whether designing for an opera or a building, the basic principles of lighting hold true despite the differences
in equipment and specific design applications that exist between the disciplines. Many theatrical designers already
move naturally among any number of genres of entertainment lighting—and while most were trained predominantly
in theatrical design, there is immense potential for designing in a number of additional areas of lighting as well. Like-
wise, designers with an electrical engineering background are bringing more theatrical elements into their designs
as well. All you need to succeed can be found in a positive attitude in making the shift, becoming familiar with the
equipment and practices of the specialty, looking for opportunities to observe and learn a new discipline, and being
able to modify your techniques in order to suit the new avenue of design. Regardless of individual preferences, more
and more lighting designers are finding themselves crossing back and forth among a variety of lighting applications
as a means of maintaining a successful career. As an added benefit, these additional areas of lighting also frequently
offer larger design fees and other incentives for a project (such as permanence) that many theatrical organizations or
projects cannot provide.
The theme of both books lies in providing a link between many of these lighting disciplines. While there is a
solid introduction to theatrical lighting design (especially design process) in this book, it is my hope that you can use
both books as references that focus on lighting design and the design methodology that connects these fields rather
than simply focusing on the equipment and technological emphasis that are characteristic of many lighting books.
The topic of crossover to this degree had not really been attempted in a lighting text before the first edition of this
text. Additionally, a detailed discussion of the design process spans several chapters and forms another critical element
of this book. While the book outlines a reasonably specific process, it should not be thought of as the only process.
It is simply a place for the beginner to receive fairly detailed instructions that can then be tweaked as their skills and
processes evolve. In keeping with the more universal applications of lighting, a variety of specific lighting disciplines
are introduced in Chapter 16. Many of these are presented in considerable detail and as individual chapters in Stage
Lighting: Design Applications and More. Those chapters focus on essential design issues and equipment differences that
are unique to working in a variety of different areas of lighting design. Questions relating to special considerations,
luminaires, control and equipment needs, and design concerns that are characteristic of a particular lighting specialty
are also raised in those chapters. While technology cannot be avoided, it’s been my goal to present the technical mate-
rial as it becomes relevant and best pertains to the design needs of a “total” lighting designer. Because equipment is
constantly in a state of evolution, I have chosen to dedicate many figures to illustrations that present design concepts
rather than the traditional photographs of lighting equipment and production shots. Instead, in order to remain
current, I provide an appendix with a listing of lighting equipment manufacturers along with a link to their websites,
where up-to-date product information is always available.
Finally, the most important element of both books is to simply demonstrate the profound effect that light and a
lighting designer can have on our lives. My hope is that not only can I provide the spark of inspiration that will allow
readers to have a deeper appreciation of the art and tools of lighting, but also that these books will equip them with
enough information to use these tools to develop effective art while “painting with light.”

xvi  Preface
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A S WITH ANYTHING of this magnitude, there are many people who have provided help in producing this
project. You don’t have to work very long in this business to discover that many professionals in our line of work
are truly giving and willing to share their knowledge and experiences freely. This extends from the designers who have
worked on common projects with me, to fellow educators, to the Tony Award nominees and winners who form the
mainstay of Broadway lighting design. Colleagues who have been using the first edition of the book have also been
a great source of suggestions as we have worked on the second edition of this project. Additionally, our equipment
manufacturers and professional organizations are another group of contributors who are truly interested in sharing
their expertise and knowledge with us as well. It is impossible to mention every one of them here, but there are a
number of individuals that deserve a special mention and thank you. First, my editors and the rest of the staff at Focal
Press/Routledge and Taylor & Francis Group: Stacey Walker (acquisitions editor, who first approached me regarding
the second edition) and Meredith Darnell (editorial assistant) and Lucia Accorsi (editorial assistant) who have kept
this project on track since we first began to work on the second edition nearly three years ago. Also, to my initial
editors and staff at Pearson Education/Allyn & Bacon who brought the first edition of the book to life. I am most
appreciative of all of these individuals and their helpful suggestions as we have gone through the process of producing
both editions of the books. I also want to thank all of the designers and manufacturers who shared materials with me
or who were kind enough to be interviewed and let me feature them in the sidebars. These are among some of the
busiest people in the business and I appreciate their willingness to share their knowledge with the next generation
of lighting designers. Also, I want to thank the many students that I have had the pleasure of teaching, and in some
cases learning from, over the 30-plus years that I have been involved in lighting education. Nobody is an expert in all
areas, and the breadth of these books makes this an even more relevant issue. This is especially important for those
topics that are featured in Stage Lighting: Design Applications and More—and to that point I enlisted several colleagues
and friends who graciously read and offered comments and corrections on materials I have presented on various
specialty areas of the lighting industry. Many, but not all, of these individuals are featured in the sidebars, but to
make sure that none are missed I want to publicly acknowledge and thank the following individuals for their support
and comments: Marilyn Lowey, Jim Moody and Jeff Ravitz (concert and spectacle lighting), Bill Klages, (film and
television lighting), Bob Shook and the late Bill Warfel (display, landscape, and architectural lighting), Tom Ruzika
(themed/specialty design), and finally Mike Hussey and John Kundert-Gibbs (virtual lighting). These folks are all at
the top of their respective specialties. I also want to thank those colleagues who reviewed portions of the manuscript
as I went through the revision/updating process; I am appreciative of the comments and suggestions that came from
these individuals for both editions of the books. It’s difficult to be a sole writer on a project as large as this, and the
books are much improved through the comments and input that I received from all of these individuals. Finally, as
in the first edition, a very special thank you to my family (my very supportive wife, Joelle and our children, Chelsea,
and Richy) as well as our many friends and extended family who once again had to deal with the fact that “the books”
were always somewhere in my list of priorities over the last several years.
Richard Dunham, Spring 2018
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Richard E. Dunham, LC, IESNA (professor and head of design at the University of Georgia) has been involved
in lighting design for close to 40 years—more than 30 in lighting education. He has hundreds of design credits in
both academic and professional lighting/scenic design with credits in drama, dance, musical theatre, opera, concert/
music festivals, and various architectural projects. Several lighting credits include designing for the Brunswick Music
Theatre (Maine State Music Theatre), Music Theatre North, Springer Opera House, Atlanta Lyric Theatre, and many
New York metropolitan and Off/Off-Off Broadway productions with companies like Broadhollow Theatres, The
Circle Repertory Lab, and Jean Cocteau Repertory Theatres. He is a USITT Fellow, and has served on the board of
directors and has been active in the leadership of the lighting commission of USITT for many years—most notably
as lighting co-commissioner from 1998 to 2006. He is a frequent presenter at conferences and has authored articles
on theatre design and technology, edited the second edition of Practical Projects for Teaching Lighting Design: A Com-
pendium, was on the editorial committee of the second volume of the compendium that was published in 2016, and
has won two Herbert D. Greggs Honor Awards for his articles. He also coordinated the latest revision of the RP-2
Recommended Practice for Lighting Design Graphics (2006). In architectural lighting, he holds the LC certification
granted by the National Council for Qualifications for the Lighting Profession (NCQLP) and is a member of IESNA
and an associate member of IALD. He can be contacted through his website (rdunhamdesigns.com).
 PART ONE

LIGHT:
THE MEDIUM
 Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
 CHAPTER 1

THE NATURE OF LIGHT

B EFORE YOU CAN learn to design with light it is important to gain a basic under-
standing of the nature of light. Unlike other areas of design, light isn’t tangible: it appears
to be mysterious and can cause unpredictable results, yet it has an impact on everything it
touches. Light is controlled in ways that require at least some understanding of optics and
electricity—topics that easily intimidate many people. As lighting designers, light itself is our
medium, and we can usually convey our design ideas only through indirect methods such as
with pencils, paints, or computer simulations. This is very different when compared to other
artistic disciplines where the media are tangible. You can’t easily draw or render light as you
would in a rendering of a scenic or costume design or with a sketch of a building, where a
viewer can easily gain an understanding of a structure and color schemes that are created by
a designer. The effects of light are in many ways a mystery until the lights are turned on and
a subject is illuminated. Because of this, it is important to develop an understanding of the
actual medium of light. What is it? How does it behave? How might we control it? What is
its effect on other objects? With experience, you can predict many of the answers to these
questions, but even then, you can’t be completely sure of your design choices until you see
them actually revealed in light.
In this chapter I examine the physical properties of light, its makeup, and how it moves
through space. I will also provide you with several methods that we use to describe light.
Finally, I examine how light functions within our daily lives. These fundamental principles
hold true not only in lighting dramas and other entertainment programs, but also for lighting
buildings and natural settings where the sun and other light sources can be observed.

What is Light?
Quite simply, light is a form of energy. Specifically, it is a form of radiant energy that is
associated with a given portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radiant energy is a form
of energy given off by radiant bodies (heat/light sources) such as stars, like our sun. Radiant
energy moves away from its source at a constant speed while light is but one form of radiant
energy which has a speed of 186,000 miles/second. Most of us know this as the “speed of
light.”

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum represents all forms of radiant energy. Some researchers
identify the electromagnetic spectrum with a particle-based theory while others refer to a
wave-theory approach. Regardless of the theory, the general principles are the same. In each
case, energy is thought to pulsate outward from a source at the speed of light in oscillations
that create a wavelike effect and form patterns that can be measured. In fact, the variables
that we generally use to describe radiant energy are based on wave theory. Most commonly
we make distinctions between different forms of radiant energy through measurements of
either frequency (f) or wavelength (λ). Wavelength is the distance between similar points
in a waveform over the time that a wave completes one cycle, while frequency refers to the
number of oscillations or cycles that a waveform completes over a given time. These variables
are inversely proportional to one another: as frequency
increases, the wavelength gets shorter, or as frequency
decreases, the wavelength gets longer. The strength or
amplitude of the waves is commonly called the intensity
(I). In visible light we often refer to this as the bright-
ness of the light. Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationship
between intensity, frequency, and wavelength.
In lighting, we generally use a measurement of
wavelength to make a distinction between different types
of light. The range of wavelengths produced by radiant
sources is extreme. At one end of the electromagnetic
spectrum we find electrical waves with wavelengths
measured in miles. The 60-cycle electrical currents that
are used in our homes may have a wavelength of more
than 3,000 miles. Many other forms of electromag-
netic radiation (ER) are associated with wavelengths so
small that a special unit, the angstrom (Å), has been
introduced to measure them. One angstrom is equal to
1/254,000,000 of an inch. At the opposite end of the
electromagnetic spectrum from electricity are cosmic
rays, which may have wavelengths as small as 1/10,000
Å. The electromagnetic spectrum is a collection of differ-
ent types of radiant energy that can be specified through
their varied wavelengths.
The Visible Spectrum
What concerns us as lighting designers is a very limited
range of wavelengths contained within the electromagnetic
Figure 1.1a Wave relationships. a. Relationship of inten-
sity (I), wavelength (λ), and cycle or frequency (f)
Figure 1.1b Frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) are inversely
propor­tional
4  Light: The Medium
spectrum that we commonly refer to as the visible spec-
trum. This is a collection of wavelengths that can be
sensed by the human eye. Those energy forms that lie
outside of our perception with wavelengths that are lon-
ger than we can sense include infrared, radar, television
and radio waves (with increasingly longer wavelengths).
Energy forms with progressively shorter wavelengths that
also lie outside the realm of our visibility include ultravi-
olet, x-ray, gamma and cosmic rays. Figure 1.2 illustrates
the relationship between wavelength and the individual
classifications of energy that make up the electromagnetic
spectrum.
The visible spectrum can be further broken down
into smaller components representing individual
colors—each color representing a specific wavelength of
radiant energy. We have all witnessed the rainbow effect
produced through the refraction and separation of light
into these individual colors by a prism, a storm cloud,
or water spray from a hose or fountain. Every color rep-
resents light of a different wavelength or frequency. The
range of wavelengths generally found within the visi-
ble spectrum extends from approximately 400 (violet)
to 700 (red) nanometers. A nanometer is one-billionth
of a meter. A second manner of expressing wavelength
has already been introduced through the measure-
ment known as an angstrom. An angstrom is 1/10 of
a nanometer. In this case, the visible spectrum would
be expressed as having wavelengths in the approximate
range of 4,000–7,000 Å.
The Eye and Seeing
Our observation of the world around us is based solely
on the manner in which we sense our environment.
We can’t directly observe anything without the aid of
various senses. If you think back to a basic biology
class you will probably remember that the human
body is equipped with five sensory devices. The senses
that these manage include sound, touch, smell, taste,
and sight. Each sense consists of a series of sensory
organs that convert physical phenomena into nervous
impulses that our brains process in a way that helps us
to observe the world around us. Our skin allows us to
feel, our ears allow us to hear, and our eyes allow us to
see.
The visible spectrum represents the range of wave-
lengths to which the human eye can sense light. If
we were sensitive to light relating to a different range
of wavelengths, our visible spectrum would shift to a
different portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. An
infrared camera, such as the ones used in defense or
security systems, is sensitive to a different portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum than the human eye. Hence,
in a situation such as a dark night where we cannot see
the movements of people like prowlers or soldiers, the
camera is able to “see” for us.
Figure 1.2 The electromagnetic and visible spectrums
The Controllable Qualities of Light
It is important at this point to introduce a vocabulary
that enables us to define and describe light. One of the
most difficult tasks for a lighting designer is in describ-
ing the lighting envisioned for a project. Light is our
medium and it cannot be illustrated effectively through
an indirect means such as with a model or rendering.
A scenic designer can illustrate to a reasonable degree
of success a final design and color palette for a project
through the use of markers, pencils, or paints. Like-
wise, in addition to renderings, a costumer can present
swatches or scraps of fabric to indicate the materials
from which a costume will be created. This isn’t so with
a lighting design, where light itself is the medium and
where nobody can get a true sense of the outcome of a
design until the actual lights (luminaires) are placed in
the performance space, colored, and balanced through
setting specific brightness levels for each light. Because
of this, several descriptive qualities have been defined
to help us communicate with one another about light.
These are generally not thought of in terms of quanti-
tative elements but are used instead to help us set up a
comparison between various lights and lighting effects.
While absolutes may come into the discussion, most
of these qualities are used solely within a descriptive
or comparative basis. These qualities are also universal
and can be translated to any field of lighting, whether
working in traditional theatre or lighting an office tower,
garden, or the latest Rolling Stones tour. While there
may be slight variations in terminology between light-
ing disciplines, most designers have come to refer to
four primary qualities for describing light. Any light,
no matter how produced or modified can be described
through these four attributes. The variation of any one
of these qualities will make a distinction between any
given example of light. These qualities include intensity,
distribution, color, and movement. As a whole, these
are essentially the same qualities that Stanley McCand-
less described in 1932 when he first wrote A Method of
Lighting the Stage.
Intensity
The most easily described quality of light is intensity,
which refers to the brightness of the light. While it
might be described very specifically and can be evalu-
ated through measurements such as the candela or foot-
candle, it is more often described through a comparative
basis. “This light is brighter than that light,” “this light
is approximately half the intensity of another light,” or
“that light is as bright as the moon” are examples of this
type of comparison. The human eye can perceive light
at an extreme range of intensities. In World War II,
soldiers learned that a German scout plane nicknamed
“Bed Check Charlie” could see the tip of a lit cigarette
from several miles away. If they were spotted, soldiers
could anticipate a visit from a bomber sometime later
The Nature of Light   5
that night. At the other extreme, the intensity of a light
can be so bright that it becomes harmful and could
even cause damage to our eyes. Examples of this would
include looking directly into the sun or being exposed to
the bright light that accompanies welders as they strike
an arc. In most theatrical venues we are generally con-
cerned only with the relative appearance of the light and
whether there is enough visibility to see what has to be
seen at any given moment on the stage. In video and
film lighting, the intensity isn’t as flexible, and there is a
minimum threshold of intensity that a director of pho-
tography must provide to maintain a proper exposure
for a setting. We have all taken photographs of last Fri-
day night’s party or some other special event to find that
the results that our phone or camera captured produced
only shadowy silhouettes that we think we recognize as
our friends. Even with today’s mobile phone cameras we
often find that images can suffer from poor lighting and
are either under or overexposed. Architectural lighting
designers speak of a minimum amount of illumination
for a given visual task or job. These tasks require a mini-
mum number of footcandles or lumens of illumination.
For example, the lighting levels required for a personal
home are much lower than those needed at a retirement
home, where elderly residents often have trouble seeing,
while a meeting room requires higher intensity levels
than a restaurant seating area—although none of these
settings would require the illumination levels needed for
an assembly line producing high-tech products. Regard-
less of whether describing a specific level of illumination
(i.e., footcandles) or simply describing intensity on a
comparative basis, intensity becomes one of the most
important ways of helping us distinguish between dif-
ferent types of light and lighting.
Another important element of intensity relates to
the principle whereby the intensity of a light drops off
dramatically as the distance from the source is increased.
This is expressed through a concept/formula known as
the Inverse Square Law. This law will be presented in
more detail in Chapter 7, but simply states that the illu-
minance of a light source is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the source. A quick exam-
ination of this principle can be demonstrated by playing
a flashlight on a wall and noting the apparent brightness
and coverage of the light while varying the distance that
the flashlight is held from the wall.
Distribution
The second controllable quality of light is known as dis-
tribution. McCandless described this as “form.” Most
lighting designers relate distribution to two specific
properties of light: angle (or direction) and quality.
Angle refers to the direction from which the light is
coming. Where are you hanging the light source? How
does it play upon the subject? Where are the highlights?
6  Light: The Medium
Where do the shadows fall? A light coming from behind
the subject presents a completely different image and
associated mood than a light coming from in front of
the subject. A couple walking hand-in-hand into a sun-
set presents a much more dramatic image than if the sun
were directly overhead. Dracula would most likely not
appear so scary if we chose to light him in any other way
than through a silhouette. The angle of the light helps
to define or reveal the form of an object. Light directly
from the front tends to flatten a subject and will cause
the subject to appear two-dimensional, while from the
side it tends to sculpt and etch the subject away from its
background. Backlight tends to push objects forward,
while downlight tends to squash the subject. A light
from below generally appears unnatural and can be used
to create effects that clue audiences into peculiarities
within a production. Architects can use these principles
to make a room appear larger or smaller.
Quality refers to the texture and characteristic
features of the light. Some lighting may be harsh and
crisp—representing strong parallel rays—while other
lighting will reflect a soft diffuse quality. Are the edges
of the light and shadows sharp and well-defined or are
they soft and fuzzy? Compare a clear sunny day in sum-
mer with the cold gray light associated with a December
afternoon. Is the light even in distribution, or are there
patterns? A typical contemporary classroom lighting
scheme will most likely result in a soft, even wash of
light over the entire room with some form of fluorescent
fixtures. In comparison, a warehouse set in 1930 would
probably be lit with single-bulb fixtures with simple
shades that would produce cones of light throughout
the structure. A walk on a sunny day through an open
field exposes you to a very different kind of light than
the textured light that you would expect once you move
into a wooded area, where the trees create patches of
light and shadow along your path. Lighting designers
can create their own textured light by inserting patterns
known as gobos into the fixtures that illuminate a space.
While gobos were first utilized in entertainment designs,
they have now become elements of architectural and dis-
play lighting as well.
Color
The third controllable quality of light is color, which is
considered by many to be the most dynamic of the con-
trollable qualities of light. Light will have an associated
color that is determined through the specific collection
of wavelengths present within its makeup. Hence, you
might have a lavender light, a red light, or a blue light—
each one distinguished from the others by those wave-
lengths of light found within its composition. However,
color is actually a perception based on how specific wave-
lengths of the light stimulate the photo sensors in our
eyes. Light, more importantly, has a major impact on
the color of any objects that it falls on, and the resultant
color is a factor of both the object’s surface color and that
of the light that strikes the object. All objects selectively
absorb or reflect various wavelengths of light—which
becomes the means by which we determine the color of
any object. The use of a light containing some or all of
the wavelengths of light that are naturally reflected by
an object will generally result in enhancing that object’s
color. On the other hand, the use of a colored light
with limited or no common wavelengths with that of
an object will result in a distortion and graying of that
object’s color. Color is produced through the spectral
makeup of the light source itself, through the removal of
specific wavelengths of the light through filtering, or by
the selective absorption of a light’s wavelengths by a sur-
face. While it is generally agreed that color is the easiest
quality of light to observe, it is also commonly acknowl-
edged that due to the unpredictability of its results, it is
perhaps the hardest quality to master and control.
Movement
The final quality of light is movement, which refers to
changes in the light from moment to moment. This
might be represented in a number of different ways:
First, the actual movement of the light source. This is
quite common and can be illustrated by a candle or
flashlight carried across a room, where you actually see
the source move from one location to another. A sec-
ond form of movement involves observing the move-
ment of the light without actually observing the light
source directly. Two examples of this include watching
the effect of a followspot on a rock musician and the use
of a progression of lamps to light actors as they move
from one stage position to another. In the first exam-
ple, you see the effect of the light following the musi-
cian, but you can’t see the actual spotlight because it is
located somewhere behind you at the rear of the audi-
torium or arena. In the second example, lights slowly
come up along the path that the actors walk such that
Sidebar 1.1 DESIGNER PROFILE
A creative force in the New York theatre since the
mid-1970s, Ken Billington is one of Broadway’s most
successful lighting designers. He remembers his first
attraction to stage lighting from when he was in the
fourth grade. From that point on, all Ken “wanted
to do was lighting,” but it wasn’t until he was in
junior high school that he realized that there were
actual “lighting designers” in the world and that it
was a proper design discipline. Finishing high school,
the individual lights precede the arrival of the actors to
specific locations on the stage. For even more effect, the
individual lights could also slowly dim down once the
actors move beyond their positions to other locations
along the path. The last element of movement relates
simply to changes within the lighting over time. This is
the one that theatrical lighting designers deal with most
often as they create cues for a production. For all prac-
tical purposes this would come about through making
changes in any of the other three controllable qualities
of light. Lights suddenly getting brighter or dimmer,
shifting to another color, or slowly moving to a different
angle all form examples of this kind of movement. The
movement may be nearly instantaneous (i.e., flipping a
light switch on or off) or could involve long transitions
like sunset sequences that are so subtle that a viewer
isn’t aware of the lighting changes being made from one
moment to another. Movement can also be thought of as
a transition in lighting. While there are occasions where
the lighting for an environment may be static, most of
us consider transitions in lighting to be just as important
as the images that a designer creates for a given project.
In summary, all lighting conditions reflect the
manipulation of these four qualities. Whether you light
a building, a museum display, an opera, or any other
form of entertainment, each moment that a viewer
observes can be associated with a given combination of
intensity, color, and distribution in the lighting. Move-
ment can most often be directly related to the transi-
tions between different “moments” (also called “looks,”
“states,” or “cues”). Each of these terms refers to names
that a designer may use to refer to a static view of the
lighting. Movement provides the fluid, dynamic qual-
ity required in a lighting design—a quality that many
of us believe is just as important as the combination
of fixtures, colors, and intensities that one sees at any
given time. If mounted correctly, the lighting can greatly
enhance a production or project. If done incorrectly, it
can quickly become an interruption or distraction for
the viewers.
he went directly to Manhattan to study at The Lester
Polakov Studio and Forum of Stage Design, appren-
ticing with both Peggy Clark and Tharon Musser. In
fact, he often claims that he went to “Musser U”
and credits that legendary designer with his first big
break.
Ken has designed a hundred Broadway shows,
70 off-Broadway shows, and operas for compa-
nies worldwide, as well as for concerts, theme park
The Nature of Light   7
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Title: The Trouvelot astronomical drawings manual

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Language: English

Original publication: United States: C. Scribner's sons, 1882, 1882

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TROUVELOT

ASTRONOMICAL DRAWINGS MANUAL ***
 THE
TROUVELOT
ASTRONOMICAL DRAWINGS
MANUAL

BY
 E. L. TROUVELOT,

FORMERLY CONNECTED WITH THE OBSERVATORY OF

HARVARD COLLEGE; FELLOW OF THE
AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, AND
MEMBER OF THE SELENO-GRAPHICAL
SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN; IN CHARGE OF A
GOVERNMENT EXPEDITION TO OBSERVE THE
TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1878.

NEW YORK

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

1882

INTRODUCTION

During a study of the heavens, which has now been continued for more than
fifteen years, I have made a large number of observations pertaining to physical
astronomy, together with many original drawings representing the most
interesting celestial objects and phenomena.
With a view to making these observations more generally useful, I was led,
some years ago, to prepare, from this collection of drawings, a series of
astronomical pictures, which were intended to represent the celestial phenomena
as they appear to a trained eye and to an experienced draughtsman through the
great modern telescopes, provided with the most delicate instrumental
appliances. Over two years were spent in the preparation of this series, which
consisted of a number of large drawings executed in pastel. In 1876, these
drawings were displayed at the United States Centennial Exhibition at
Philadelphia, forming a part of the Massachusetts exhibit, in the Department of
Education and Science.
The drawings forming the present series comprise only a part of those
exhibited at Philadelphia; but, although fewer in number, they are quite sufficient
to illustrate the principal classes of celestial objects and phenomena.
While my aim in this work has been to combine scrupulous fidelity and
accuracy in the details, I have also endeavored to preserve the natural elegance
and the delicate outlines peculiar to the objects depicted; but in this, only a little
more than a suggestion is possible, since no human skill can reproduce upon
paper the majestic beauty and radiance of the celestial objects.
The plates were prepared under my supervision, from the original pastel
drawings, and great care has been taken to make the reproduction exact.
The instruments employed in the observations, and in the delineation of the
heavenly bodies represented in the series, have varied in aperture from 6 to 26
inches, according to circumstances, and to the nature of the object to be studied.
The great Washington refractor, kindly placed at my disposal by the late Admiral
C. H. Davis, has contributed to this work, as has also the 26 inch telescope of the
University of Virginia, while in the hands of its celebrated constructors, Alvan
Clark & Sons. The spectroscope used was made by Alvan Clark & Sons.
Attached to it is an excellent diffraction grating, by Mr. L. M. Rutherfurd, to whose
kindness I am indebted for it.
Those unacquainted with the use of optical instruments generally suppose
that all astronomical drawings are obtained by the photographic process, and are,
therefore, comparatively easy to procure; but this is not true. Although
photography renders valuable assistance to the astronomer in the case of the
Sun and Moon, as proved by the fine photographs of these objects taken by M.
Janssen and Mr. Rutherfurd; yet, for other subjects, its products are in general so
blurred and indistinct that no details of any great value can be secured. A well-
trained eye alone is capable of seizing the delicate details of structure and of
configuration of the heavenly bodies, which are liable to be affected, and even
rendered invisible, by the slightest changes in our atmosphere.
The method employed to secure correctness in the proportions of the original
drawings is simple, but well adapted to the purpose in view. It consists in placing
a fine reticule, cut on glass, at the common focus of the objective and the eye-
piece, so that in viewing an object, its telescopic image, appearing projected on
the reticule, can be drawn very accurately on a sheet of paper ruled with
corresponding squares. For a series of such reticules I am indebted to the
kindness of Professor William A. Rogers, of the Harvard College Observatory.
The drawings representing telescopic views are inverted, as they appear in a
refracting telescope—the South being upward, the North downward, the East on
the right, and the West on the left. The Comet, the Milky-Way, the Eclipse of the
Moon, the Aurora Borealis, the Zodiacal Light and the Meteors are represented
as seen directly in the sky with the naked eye. The Comet was, however, drawn
with the aid of the telescope, without which the delicate structure shown in the
drawing would not have been visible.
The plate representing the November Meteors, or so-called "Leonids," may be
called an ideal view, since the shooting stars delineated, were not observed at the
same moment of time, but during the same night. Over three thousand Meteors
were observed between midnight and five o'clock in the morning of the day on
which this shower occurred; a dozen being sometimes in sight at the same
instant. The paths of the Meteors, whether curved, wavy, or crooked, and also
their delicate colors, are in all cases depicted as they were actually observed.
In the Manual, I have endeavored to present a general outline of what is
known, or supposed, on the different subjects and phenomena illustrated in the
series. The statements made are derived either from the best authorities on
physical astronomy, or from my original observations, which are, for the most
part, yet unpublished.
The figures in the Manual relating to distance, size, volume, mass, etc., are
not intended to be strictly exact, being only round numbers, which can, therefore,
be more easily remembered.
It gives me pleasure to acknowledge that the experience acquired in making
the astronomical drawings published in Volume VIII. of the Annals of the Harvard
College Observatory, while I was connected with that institution, has been of
considerable assistance to me in preparing this work; although no drawings made
while I was so connected have been used for this series.
E. L. TROUVELOT.
Cambridge, March, 1882.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
LIST OF PLATES
 THE SUN

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUN

SUN-SPOTS AND VEILED SPOTS
SOLAR PROTUBERANCES
TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN

THE AURORAL AND ZODIACAL LIGHTS

THE AURORA BOREALIS

THE ZODIACAL LIGHT

THE MOON

THE MOON
ECLIPSES OF THE MOON

THE PLANETS

THE PLANET MARS

THE PLANET JUPITER
THE PLANET SATURN

COMETS AND METEORS

COMETS
SHOOTING-STARS AND METEORS

THE STELLAR SYSTEMS

THE MILKY-WAY OR GALAXY

THE STAR-CLUSTERS
THE NEBULÆ
APPENDIX

LIST OF PLATES[1]

PLATE
I. GROUP OF SUN-SPOTS AND VEILED SPOTS.
Observed June 17, 1875, at 7 h. 30m. A. M.
II. SOLAR PROTUBERANCES.
Observed May 5, 1873, at 9h. 40m. A. M.
III. TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN.
Observed July 29, 1878, at Creston, Wyoming Territory.
IV. AURORA BOREALIS.
As observed March 1, 1872, at 9h. 25m. P. M.
V. THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.
Observed February 20, 1876.
VI. MARE HUMORUM.
From a study made in 1875.
VII. PARTIAL ECLIPSE OF THE MOON.
Observed October 24, 1874.
VIII. THE PLANET MARS.
Observed September 3, 1877, at 11h. 55m. P. M.
IX. THE PLANET JUPITER.
Observed November 1, 1880, at 9h. 30m. P. M.
X. THE PLANET SATURN.
Observed November 30, 1874, at 5th. 50m. P. M.
XI. THE GREAT COMET OF 1881.
Observed on the night of June 25-26, at 1h. 30m. A. M.
XII. THE NOVEMBER METEORS.
As observed between midnight and 3 o'clock A. M., on the night
of November 13-14, 1868.
XIII. PART OF THE MILKY-WAY.
From a study made during the years 1874, 1875 and 1876.
XIV. STAR-CLUSTER IN HERCULES.
From a study made in June, 1877.
XV. THE GREAT NEBULA IN ORION.
From a study made in the years 1873-76.

[1]For Key to the Plates, see Appendix.

Reproduced from the Original Drawings, by Armstrong & Company,

Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass.
 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUN

The Sun, the centre of the system which bears its name, is a self-luminous
sphere, constantly radiating heat and light.
Its apparent diameter, as seen at its mean from the Earth, subtends an angle
of 32', or a little over half a degree. A dime, placed about six feet from the eye,
would appear of the same proportions, and cover the Sun's disk, if projected
upon it.
That the diameter of the Sun does not appear larger, is due to the great
distance which separates us from that body. Its distance from the Earth is no less
than 92,000,000 miles. To bridge this immense gap, would require 11,623 globes
like the Earth, placed side by side, like beads on a string.
The Sun is an enormous sphere whose diameter is over 108 times the
diameter of our globe, or very nearly 860,000 miles. Its radius is nearly double the
distance from the Earth to the Moon. If we suppose, for a moment, the Sun to be
hollow, and our globe to be placed at the centre of this immense spherical shell,
not only could our satellite revolve around us at its mean distance of 238,800
miles, as now, but another satellite, placed 190,000 miles farther than the Moon,
could freely revolve likewise, without ever coming in contact with the solar
envelope.
The circumference of this immense sphere measures 2,800,000 miles. While
a steamer, going at the rate of 300 miles a day, would circumnavigate the Earth in
83 days, it would take, at the same rate, nearly 25 years to travel around the Sun.
The surface of the Sun is nearly 12,000 times the surface of the Earth, and its
volume is equal to 1,300,000 globes like our own. If all the known planets and
satellites were united in a single mass, 600 such compound masses would be
needed to equal the volume of our luminary.
Although the density of the Sun is only one-quarter that of the Earth, yet the
bulk of this body is so enormous that, to counterpoise it, no less than 314,760
globes like our Earth would be required.
The Sun uniformly revolves around its axis in about 25½ days. Its equator is
inclined 7° 15' to the plane of the ecliptic, the axis of rotation forming, therefore,
an angle of 82° 45' with the same plane. As the Earth revolves about the Sun in
the same direction as that of the Sun's rotation, the apparent time of this rotation,
as seen by a terrestrial spectator, is prolonged from 25½ days to about 27 days
and 7 hours.
The rotation of the Sun on its axis, like that of the Earth and the other planets,
is direct, or accomplished from West to East. To an observer on the Earth, looking
directly at the Sun, the rotation of this body is from left to right, or from East to
West.
 The general appearance of the Sun is that of an intensely luminous disk,
whose limb, or border, is sharply defined on the heavens. When its telescopic
image is projected on a screen, or fixed on paper by photography, it is noticed
that its disk is not uniformly bright throughout, but is notably more luminous in its
central parts. This phenomenon is not accidental, but permanent, and is due in
reality to a very rare but extensive atmosphere which surrounds the Sun, and
absorbs the light which that body radiates, proportionally to its thickness, which,
of course, increases towards the limb, to an observer on the Earth.

THE ENVELOPING LAYERS OF THE SUN

The luminous surface of the Sun, or that part visible at all times, and which
forms its disk, is called the Photosphere, from the property it is supposed to
possess of generating light. The photosphere does not extend to a great depth
below the luminous surface, but forms a comparatively thin shell, 3,000 or 4,000
miles thick, which is distinct from the interior parts, above which it seems to be
kept in suspense by internal forces. From the observations of some astronomers
it would appear that the diameter of the photosphere is subject to slight
variations, and, therefore, that the solar diameter is not a constant quantity. From
the nature of this envelope, such a result does not seem at all impossible, but
rather probable.
Immediately above the photosphere lies a comparatively thin stratum, less
than a thousand miles in thickness, called the Reversing Layer. This stratum is
composed of metallic vapors, which, by absorbing the light of particular
refrangibilities emanating from the photosphere below, produces the dark
Fraunhofer lines of the solar spectrum.
Above the reversing layer, and resting immediately upon it, is a shallow, semi-
transparent gaseous layer, which has been called the Chromosphere, from the
fine tints which it exhibits during total eclipses of the Sun, in contrast with the
colorless white light radiated by the photosphere below. Although visible to a
certain extent on the disk, the chromosphere is totally invisible on the limb, except
with the spectroscope, and during eclipses, on account of the nature of its light,
which is mainly monochromatic, and too feeble, compared with that emitted by
the photosphere, to be seen.
The chromospheric layer, which has a thickness of from 3,000 to 4,000 miles,
is uneven, and is usually upheaved in certain regions, its matter being
transported to considerable elevations above its general surface, apparently by
some internal forces. The portions of the chromosphere thus lifted up, form
curious and complicated figures, which are known under the names of Solar
Protuberances, or Solar Flames.
 Above the chromosphere, and rising to an immense but unknown height, is
the solar atmosphere proper, which is only visible during total eclipses of the Sun,
and which then surrounds the dark body of the Moon with the beautiful rays and
glorious nimbus, called the Corona.
These four envelopes: the photosphere, the reversing layer, the
chromosphere, and the corona, constitute the outer portions of our luminary.
Below the photosphere little can be seen, although it is known, as will appear
below, that at certain depths cloud-like forms exist, and freely float in an interior
atmosphere of invisible gases. Beyond this all is mystery, and belongs to the
domain of hypothesis.

STRUCTURE OF THE PHOTOSPHERE AND CHROMOSPHERE

The apparent uniformity of the solar surface disappears when it is examined

with a telescope of sufficient aperture and magnifying powers. Seen under good
atmospheric conditions, the greater part of the solar surface appears mottled with
an infinite number of small, bright granules, irregularly distributed, and separated
from each other by a gray-tinted background.
These objects are known under different names. The terms granules and
granulations answer very well for the purpose, as they do not imply anything
positive as to their form and true nature. They have also been called Luculœ,
Rice Grains, Willow Leaves, etc., by different observers.
Although having different shapes, the granulations partake more or less of the
circular or slightly elongated form. Their diameter, which varies considerably, has
been estimated at from 0".5 to 3", or from 224 to 1,344 miles. The granulations
which attain the largest size appear, under good atmospheric conditions, to be
composed of several granules, closely united and forming an irregular mass, from
which short appendages protrude in various directions.
The number of granulations on the surface of the Sun varies considerably
under the action of unknown causes. Sometimes they are small and very
numerous, while at other times they are larger, less numerous, and more widely
separated. Other things being equal, the granulations are better seen in the
central regions of the Sun than they are near the limb.
Usually the granulations are very unstable; their relative position, form, and
size undergoing continual changes. Sometimes they are seen to congregate or to
disperse in an instant, as if acting under the influence of attractive and repulsive
forces; assembling in groups or files, and oftentimes forming capricious figures
which are very remarkable, but usually of short duration. In an area of great solar
disturbances, the granulations are often stretched to great distances, and form
into parallel lines, either straight, wavy, or curved, and they have then some
resemblance to the flowing of viscous liquids.
The granulations are usually terminated either by rounded or sharply pointed
summits, but they do not all rise to the same height, as can be ascertained with
the spectroscope when they are seen sidewise on the limb. In the regions where
they are most abundant, they usually attain greater elevations, and when
observed on the limb with the spectroscope, they appear as slender acute
flames.
The granulations terminated by sharply-pointed crests, although observed in
all latitudes, seem to be characteristic of certain regions. A daily study of the
chromosphere, extending over a period of ten years, has shown me that the polar
regions are rarely ever free from these objects, which are less frequent in other
parts of the Sun. In the polar regions they are sometimes so abundant that they
completely form the solar limb. These forms of granulation are comparatively rare
in the equatorial zones, and when seen there, they never have the permanency
which they exhibit in the polar regions. When observed in the equatorial regions,
they usually appear in small groups, in the vicinity of sun spots, or they are at
least enclosed in areas of disturbances where such spots are in process of
formation. In these regions they often attain greater elevations than those seen in
high latitudes.
As we are certain that in the equatorial zones these slender flames (i. e.,
granulations) are a sure sign of local disturbance, it may be reasonably supposed
that the same kind of energy producing them nearly always prevails in the polar
regions, although it is there much weaker, and never reaches beyond certain
narrow limits.
Studied with the spectroscope, the granulations are found to be composed in
the main of incandescent hydrogen gas, and of an unknown substance
provisionally called "helium." Among the most brilliant of them are found traces of
incandescent metallic vapors, belonging to various substances found on our
globe.
The chromosphere is not fixed, but varies considerably in thickness in its
different parts, from day to day. Its thickness is usually greater in the polar
regions, where it sometimes exceeds 6,700 miles. In the equatorial regions the
chromosphere very rarely attains this height, and when it does, the rising is local
and occupies only a small area. In these regions it is sometimes so shallow that
its depth is only a few seconds, and is then quite difficult to measure. These
numbers give, of course, the extreme limits of the variations of the chromosphere;
but, nearly always, it is more shallow in the equatorial regions; and, as far as my
observations go, the difference in thickness between the polar and equatorial
zones is greater in years of calm than it is in years of great solar activity. But ten
years of observation are not sufficient to warrant any definite conclusions on this
subject.
There is undoubtedly some relation between the greater thickness of the
chromosphere in the polar regions, and the abundance and permanence of the
sharply-pointed granulations observed in the same regions. This becomes more
evident when we know that the appearance of similarly-pointed flames in the
equatorial zones is always accompanied with a local thickening of the
chromosphere. The thickening in the polar regions may be only apparent, and not
due to a greater accumulation of chromospheric gases there; but may be caused
by some kind of repulsive action or polarity, which lifts up and extends the summit
of the granulations in a manner similar to the well-known mode of electric
repulsion and polarity.
As it seems very probable that the heat and light emanating from the Sun are
mainly generated at the base of the granulations, in the filamentary elements
composing the chromosphere and photosphere, it would follow that, as the size
and number of these objects constantly vary, the amount of heat and light emitted
by the Sun should also vary in the same proportion.
The granulations of the solar surface are represented on Plate I., and form the
general background to the group of Sun-spots forming the picture.

THE FACULÆ

Although the solar surface is mainly covered with the luminous granulations
and the grayish background above described, it is very rare that its appearance is
so simple and uniform as already represented. For the most part, on the contrary,
it is diversified by larger, brighter, and more complicated forms, which are
especially visible towards the border of the Sun. Owing to their extraordinary
brilliancy, these objects have been called Faculœ (torches).
Although the faculæ are very seldom seen well beyond 50 heliocentric
degrees from the limb, yet they exist, and are as numerous in the central parts of
the disk as they are towards the border; since they form a part of the solar
surface, and participate in its movement of rotation. Their appearance near the
limb has been attributed to the effect of absorption produced by the solar
atmosphere on the light from the photosphere; but this explanation seems
inadequate, and does not solve the problem. The well-known fact that the solar
protuberances—which are in a great measure identical with the faculæ—are
much brighter at the base than they are at the summit, perhaps gives a clue to
the explanation of the phenomenon; especially since we know that, in general,
the summit of the protuberances is considerably broader than their base. When
these objects are observed in the vicinity of the limb, they present their brightest
parts to the observer, since, in this position, they are seen more or less sidewise;
and, therefore, they appear bright and distinct. But as the faculæ recede from the
limb, their sides, being seen under a constantly decreasing angle, appear more
and more foreshortened; and, therefore, these objects grow less bright and less
distinct, until they finally become invisible, when their bases are covered over by
the broad, dusky summit generally terminating the protuberances.
The faculæ appear as bright and luminous masses or streaks on the granular
surface of the Sun, but they differ considerably in form and size. Two types at
least are distinguishable. In their simplest form they appear either as isolated
white spots, or as groups of such spots covering large surfaces, and somewhat
resembling large flakes of snow. In their most characteristic types they appear as
intensely luminous, heavy masses, from which, in most cases, issue intricate
ramifications, sometimes extending to great distances. Generally, the
ramifications issuing from the masses of faculæ have their largest branches
directed in the main towards the eastern limb of the Sun. Some of these branches
have gigantic proportions. Occasionally they extend over 60° and even 80° of the
solar surface, and, therefore, attain a length of from 450,000 to 600,000 miles.
Although the faculæ may be said to be seen everywhere on the surface of the
Sun, there is a vast difference in different regions, with regard to their size,
number, and brilliancy. They are largest, most abundant, and brightest on two
intermediate zones parallel to the solar equator, and extending 35° or 40° to the
north and to the south of this line. The breadth of these zones varies considerably
with the activity of the solar forces. When they are most active, the faculæ spread
on either side, but especially towards the equator, where they sometimes nearly
meet those of the other zone. In years of little solar activity the belts formed by
the faculæ are very narrow—the elements composing them being very few and
small, although they never entirely disappear.
The faculæ are very unstable, and are constantly changing: those of the small
types sometimes form and vanish in a few minutes. When an area of disturbance
of the solar surface is observed for some time, all seems in confusion; the
movements of the granulations become unusually violent; they congregate in all
sorts of ways, and thus frequently form temporary faculæ. Action of this kind is,
for the most part, peculiar to the polar regions of the Sun.
The larger faculæ have undoubtedly another origin, as they seem to be mainly
formed by the ejection of incandescent gases and metallic vapors from the
interior of the photosphere. In their process of development some of the heavy
masses of faculæ are swollen up to great heights, being torn in all sorts of ways,
showing large rents and fissures through which the sight can penetrate.
Very few faculæ are represented in Plate I.; several streaks are shown at the
upper left-hand corner, some appearing as whitish ramifications among the
granulations representing the general solar surface.
 SUN-SPOTS AND VEILED SPOTS

PLATE I

Besides the brilliant faculæ already described, much more conspicuous

markings, though of a totally different character, are very frequently observed on
the Sun. On account of their darkish appearance, which is in strong contrast with
the white envelope of our luminary, these markings were called Maculæ, or Sun-
spots, by their earlier observers.
The Sun-spots are not equally distributed on the solar surface; but like the
faculæ, to which they are closely related, they occupy two zones—one on each
side of the equator. These zones are comprised between 10° and 35° of north
latitude, and 10° and 35° of south latitude. Between these two zones is a belt 20°
in width, where the Sun-spots are rarely seen.
Above the latitudes 35° north and south, the Sun-spots are rare, and it is only
occasionally, and during years of great solar activity, that they appear in these
regions; in only a few cases have spots of considerable size been seen there. A
few observers, however, have seen spots as far as 40° and 50 from the equator;
and La Hire even observed one in 70° of north latitude; but these cases are
exceedingly rare. It is not uncommon, however, to see very small spots, or groups
of such spots, within 8° or 10° from the poles.
The activity of the Sun is subject to considerable fluctuation, and accordingly
the Sun-spots vary in size and number in different years. During some years they
are large, complicated, and very numerous; while in others they are small and
scarce, and are sometimes totally absent for weeks and months together. The
fluctuations in the frequency of Sun-spots are supposed to be periodical in their
character, although their periods do not always appear to recur at exactly regular
intervals. Sometimes the period is found to be only nine years, while at other
times it extends to twelve years. The period generally adopted now is 11 ⅒
years, nearly; but further investigations are needed to understand the true nature
of the phenomenon.
The number of Sun-spots does not symmetrically augment and diminish, but
the increase is more rapid than the diminution.
The period of increase is only about four years, while that of decrease is over
seven years; each period of Sun-spot maximum being nearer the preceding
period of Sun-spot minimum than it is to that next following.
 The cause of these fluctuations in the solar energy is at present wholly
unknown. Some astronomers, however, have attributed it to the influence of the
planets Venus and Jupiter, the period of revolution of the latter planet being not
much longer than the Sun-spot period; but this supposition lacks confirmation
from direct observations, which, so far, do not seem to be in favor of the
hypothesis. At the present time the solar activity is on the increase, and the Sun-
spots will probably reach their maximum in 1883. The last minimum occurred in
1879, when only sixteen small groups of spots were observed during the whole
year.
Sun-spots vary in size and appearance; but, unless they are very small, in
which case they appear as simple black dots, they generally consist of two
distinct and well-characterized parts, nearly always present. There is first, a
central part, much darker than the other, and sharply divided from it, called the
"Umbra;" second, a broad, irregular radiated fringe of lighter shade, completely
surrounding the first, and called the "Penumbra."
Reduced to its simplest expression, a Sun-spot is a funnel-shaped opening
through the chromosphere and the photosphere. The inner end of the funnel, or
opening, gives the form to the umbra, while its sloping sides form the penumbra.
The umbra of Sun-spots, whose outlines approximately follow the irregularities
of the penumbral fringe, has a diameter which generally exceeds the width of the
penumbral ring. Sometimes it appears uniformly black throughout; but it is only so
by contrast, as is proved when either Mercury or Venus passes near a spot
during a transit over the Sun's disk. The umbra then appears grayish, when
compared with the jet-black disk of the planet.
The umbra of spots is rarely so simple as just described; but it is frequently
occupied, either partly or wholly, by grayish and rosy forms, somewhat
resembling loosely-entangled muscular fibres. These forms have been called the
Gray and Rosy Veils. Frequently these veils appear as if perforated by roundish
black holes, improperly called Nuclei, which permit the sight to penetrate deeper
into the interior. To all appearance the gray and rosy veils are of the same nature
as the chromosphere and the faculæ, and are therefore mainly composed of
hydrogen gas.
Whatever can be known about the interior of the Sun, must be learned from
the observations of these openings, which are comparatively small. But whatever
this interior may be, we certainly know that it is not homogeneous. Apparently, the
Sun is a gigantic bubble, limited by a very thin shell. Below this shell exists a
large open space filled with invisible gases, in which, through the openings
constituting the Sun-spots, the gray and rosy veils described above are
occasionally seen floating.
The fringe forming the penumbra of spots is much more complicated than the
umbra. In its simpler form, it is composed of a multitude of bright, independent
filaments of different forms and sizes, partly projecting one above the other, on
the sloping wall of the penumbra, from which they seem to proceed. Seen from
the Earth, these filaments have somewhat the appearance of thatched straw,
converging towards the centre of the umbra. It is very rare, however, that the
convergence of the penumbral filaments is regular, and great confusion
sometimes arises from the entanglement of these filaments. Some of these
elements appear straight, others are curved or loop-shaped; while still others,
much larger and brighter than the rest, give a final touch to this chaos of
filaments, from which results the general thatched and radiating appearance of
the penumbra.
The extremities of the penumbral filaments, especially of those forming the
border of the umbra, are usually club-shaped and appear very brilliant, as if these
elements had been superheated by some forces escaping through the opening of
the spots.
Besides these characteristics, the Sun-spots have others, which, although not
always present, properly belong to them. Comparatively few spots are so simple
as the form just described. Very frequently a spot is accompanied by brilliant
faculæ, covering part of its umbra and penumbra, and appearing to form a part of
the spot itself.
When seen projected over Sun-spots, the faculæ appear intensely bright, and
from these peculiarities they have been called Luminous Bridges. They are, in
fact, bridges, but in most cases they are at considerable heights above the spots,
kept there by invisible forces. When such spots with luminous bridges approach
the Sun's limb, it is easy to see, by the rapid apparent displacement which they
undergo, that they are above the general level.
When the spots are closing up, the inverse effect is sometimes observed. On
several occasions, I have seen huge masses of faculæ advance slowly over the
penumbra of a spot and fall into the depths of the umbra, resembling gigantic
cataracts. I have seen narrow branches of faculæ, which, after having fallen to
great depths in the umbra, floated across it and disappeared under the
photosphere on the opposite side. I have also seen luminous bridges, resembling
cables, tightly stretched across the spots, slackening slowly, as if loosened at one
end, and gently curving into the umbra, where they formed immense loops, large
enough to receive our globe.
It is to be remarked that, in descending under the photospheric shell, the
bright faculæ and the luminous bridges gradually lose their brilliancy. At first they
appear grayish, but in descending farther they assume more and more the pink
color peculiar to the rosy veils. The pinkish color acquired by the faculæ when
they reach a certain depth under the photosphere, is precisely the color of the
chromosphere and of the solar protuberances, as seen during total eclipses of
the Sun—a fact which furnishes another proof that the faculæ are of the same
nature as the protuberances.
 I record here an observation which, at first sight, may appear paradoxical; but
which seems, however, to be of considerable importance, as it shows
unmistakably that the solar light is mainly, if not entirely, generated on its surface,
or at least very near to it. On May 26, 1878, I observed a large group of Sun-
spots at a little distance from the east limb of the Sun. The spot nearest to the
limb was partly covered over on its eastern and western sides by bright and
massive faculæ which concealed about two-thirds of the whole spot, only a
narrow opening, running from north to south, being left across the middle of the
spot. Owing to the rotundity of the Sun, the penumbra of this spot, although partly
covered by the faculæ, could, however, be seen on its eastern side, since the
sight of the observer could there penetrate sidewise under the faculæ. Upon that
part of the penumbra appeared a strong shadow, representing perfectly the
outline of the facular mass situated above it. The phenomenon was so apparent
that no error of observation was possible, and a good drawing of it was secured.
If this faculæ had been as bright beneath as it was above, it is evident that no
shadow could have been produced; hence the light of these faculæ must have
been mainly generated on or very near their exterior surfaces. This, with the well-
proved fact that the bright faculæ lose their light in falling into the interior of the
Sun, seems to suggest the idea that the bright light emitted by the faculæ, and
very probably all the solar light, can be generated only on its surface; the
presence of the coronal atmosphere being perhaps necessary to produce it.
Several times before this observation, I had suspected that some faculæ were
casting a shadow, but as this seemed so improbable, my attention was not
awakened until the phenomenon became so prominent that it could not escape
notice.
With due attention, some glimpses of the phenomenon can frequently be
observed through the openings of some of the faculæ projecting over the
penumbra of Sun-spots. It is very seldom that the structure of the penumbra is
seen through such openings, which usually appear as dark as the umbra of the
large spots, although they do not penetrate through the photosphere like the
latter. It is only when the rents in the faculæ are numerous and quite large, that
the penumbral structure is recognized through them. Since these superficial rents
in the faculæ do not extend through the photosphere, and appear black, it seems
evident that the penumbra seen through them cannot be as bright as it is when
no faculæ are projected upon it, and therefore that the faculæ intercept light from
the exterior surface, which would otherwise reach the penumbra.
While the matter forming the faculæ sometimes falls into the interior of the
Sun, the same kind of matter is frequently ejected in enormous quantities, and
with great force, from the interior, through the visible and invisible openings of the
photosphere, and form the protuberances described in the following section of
this manual (Solar protuberances) It is not only the incandescent hydrogen gas or
the metallic vapors which are thus ejected, but also cooler hydrogen gas, which
sometimes appears as dark clouds on the solar surface. On December 12, 1875,