1.

Caste in Indian Politics

o Caste refers to a group whose membership is birth-based, and which has

some specific 'socio-economic' characteristics such as bread-butter
relationship, stratification (high-low), occupational preferences etc.

❖ Politicization of castes

o It means that politicians try to secure more and more votes by promoting
'caste identity' to get power.

o 'First past the post' system was implemented with respect to elections in
India, under which the candidate with the majority votes was considered the
winner, it was easy to win the election by getting votes of one or two major
castes with more population, hence the politicization of inter castes got
stronger. Furthermore, since the basic structure of Indian society was caste-
based, and people valued their caste identity high, hence, it was also easy for
caste to be used as a vote bank. Historically, caste based exploitation of the
depressed classes also had ample scope for politicization of castes.

o Due to all these reasons, the decisive influence of caste on power was
established gradually.

❖ History of Politics-Caste Relations in India

o Many leaders of India believed that since a large section of the society has
been exploited on the basis of caste, their problems can be solved only by
organizing these castes and participating in politics. Among them Ambedkar,
Lohia, Jagjivan Ram etc. were prominent.

Although some people believe that caste based politics in India was started by
the upper castes first. (Reddy - Andhra Pradesh)

o The Republic Party of India (RPI) was established in 1957, which traces its
origins to the 'All India Scheduled Federation' founded by Dr. Ambedkar in
1942. The RPI kept Dalit interests at the centre.
 o In 1972, Namdev Dhasal and JV Pawar formed the 'Dalit Pathers' which
emerged as an aggressive 'anti-caste' political pressure group. On the other
hand, the word AJGAR (Ahir, Jat, Gujar, Rajput) came into existence to organize
the dominant castes. Later, DS-4 (Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti-1981)
and BMCEF (Backward and Minority Communities Employees Federation) 1978
were established.

o On January 1, 1979, the Janata Party government created the Mandal

Commission, whose basic task was to identify the socio-educationally backward
classes in India. On the basis of the population of 1931, this commission
decided to give 52 percent reservation to the backward castes. Since then, the
importance of caste in Indian politics has increased, which some political
analysts also call the politics of 'Kamandal versus Mandal'.

2. North Mandal Round (Current Round) :-

Even in the present times, the importance of castes remains in Indian democracy.
Although the importance of developmental issues has increased in elections in
the recent past, apart from this, the trend of division has also been seen among
the backward castes (Antyaj / Non-Antyaj), but in the near future there is less
chance of caste being completely eliminated from the political spectrum of India.

❖ Difference between caste and casteism

o According to Rajni Kothari, caste is getting weaker in India, but casteism is

getting stronger.

o It is noteworthy that caste is a social concept, under which adoption of one's

caste profession, belief in untouchability, endogamy etc. are included, whereas
casteism is a eco-political concept under which a person expects increased
participation of people belonging to his caste.

❖ Effects of caste politics -

Negative

a. Politics is polluted. Meaningful issues sidelined.

b. Internal conflict situation in society.

c. Incidents of caste violence come to the fore through provocative caste politics.

d. Casteist politics is against the basic values of the Constitution.

e. Eloquent people become successful in politics by raising the caste sentiments

of the people and qualified but non eloquent people are left behind.

f. The interests of minority castes are affected.

Positive

According to analysts like Rudolph, Rajni Kothari etc., casteist politics has played
an important role in strengthening democracy in India. Particularly the
politicization of the backward castes because the backward castes create pressure
on the governments in an organizational form and try to eliminate the
possibilities of their exploitation. In this way the transfer of power takes place to
the backward classes and this is the hallmark of real democracy.

o Measures to stop the misuse of caste in politics -

a. Effective implementation of section 123(3) of the Representation of the

People Act, 1951.

b. In this context, the recent judgment of the Supreme Court is relevant that
the word 'his' written in this section means the caste of the candidate, of his
agent, of his voter etc.

c. Judicial activism should also be seen in this matter.

d. Constitutional provisions like reservation should be stopped from becoming

an issue of caste politics.

e. Caste appeasement should not be adopted by the governments.

f. Political parties should avoid giving tickets to casteist candidates.

 g. Serious efforts should be made to bring the backward castes into the main
stream, so that the efforts should not be made to collect the votes in the name
of their backward conditions.

Religion
It is not bad to believe in any religion or follow a religious system, but considering
religious interests above national interests and promoting one's religious interests
at the cost of others' religious interests creates problems in the whole country.

o Gradually Indian politics has seen the politicization of religion and it has
influenced Indian politics in many ways-

❖ Due to politicization of religion -

o Economic backwardness of Muslims - After independence it was believed that

due to equality of opportunity for all, Muslims would also make full use of it, but
even today the number of Muslims in educational, health and other vocational
institutions is very less compared to their population. And they are economically
and educationally very backward from the Hindus. This disparity among
communities is increasing tremendously and increasing misunderstandings.

o Communal parties and institutions –

• Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim League, Akali Dal etc. are well known religious
communal parties and other non-political organizations like Bajrang Dal, Vishwa
Hindu Parishad, Islamic Sevak Sangh, Jamaat-e-Islam etc., which declared that
they have no political objectives. But these organizations are supported by parties
like BJP, Akali Dal and Muslim League. They encourage semi-educated and
religiously sensitive elements to indulge in communal conflicts in the name of
religion.

o Appeasement policy of the Congress party

• All parties have done the work of adding fuel to the fire in the greed of getting
votes. Congress's Muslim oriented policies are the reason behind the outright
voting to Congress by Muslims and Congress leaders neither took any action on
Muslim appeasement leaders nor tried to reform Muslim personal law.

o Election compulsions

• Today our politics is completely ballot-box based and election has become an
end in itself. The religious allegiance of the voters is directly or indirectly
expressed in the campaign campaigns. As BJP and Shiv Sena united in the 1989-90
Maharashtra elections, their theme was Hindutva and anti-Muslim propaganda. In
any electoral constituency, the candidate is selected on the basis of the strength
of the caste community residing in that area.

o Communal Media Literature and Books

• Open circulation of communal newspapers like Akali Patrika, Sobat and

Organizer is also responsible for the development of communal forces.

o Differences in Muslim and separatism

• The feeling of economic backwardness and the disappointment that the

benefits of modernization in the form of opportunities for government jobs,
business and education have not reached Muslims have encouraged the partiality
feelings among Muslims and they feel that the majority group in coordination
with the administration have subdued the interest of minorities.

• Shameful treatment of Urdu in Uttar Pradesh irked Muslim leaders and their
anti-Hindu bias did not changed. Muslim leaders' statements on Vande Mataram
and Aligarh Muslim University (Amendment) Act explain their traditional
separatist tendencies .

o Hindu blind nationality -

• After partition many people felt that they (Muslims) got their motherland and
India should now be for Hindus only. The Hindu Mahasabha is committed to make
a united India. The "Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh" formed in 1951 with the aim
 of the Jana Sangh Hindu revival always blames the Muslims for the communal
riots.

o Political opportunism -

• Despite its secular commitments, the Congress forged alliances with parties
such as the Muslim League and the Akali Dal, giving political respect to
communalism and politicization of religion.

❖ Consequences of the role of religion in politics

• It disrupts the pattern of coexistence in our multi-religious fraternity.

• It is against India's nationalist identity and is a blow to our emerging secular

culture.

• It undermines our democratic political stability.

• Murders and other shameful incidents in the name of religious politics also
destroyed our humanity and joint culture.

• It has become a disaster factor and stable development, national security can
weaken the patriotism and pride in the people.

• The introduction of politics in religion hinders the supply of important objectives

such as poverty alleviation, disease eradication, availability of education,
employment, housing.

❖ Measures to prevent negative influence of religion in politics -

• Banning communal gatherings and community fines in riot-affected areas can

be an important solution.

• The best hope of a united nationality depends on the balanced development of

all communities.

• Muslims and other groups should be brought on economic equality, so that a

sense of security is inculcated in them.
• Law and order machinery should be de-politicized.

• In areas where riots, loot and weapons are common, preventive measures
should be adopted after studying the past trends, so that group tension is
reduced, positive measures such as "education and such efforts, which will make
people respect and tolerance towards other religions as well." flourish'' that,
should go.

• TV, media, radio should be instructed to refrain from showing such news and
views that encourage religious prejudice or hatred.

• Send this message through educational institutions and establishments also.

5. Role of Class -

o Class is such a group of people, in which common characteristics are found and
on the basis of those characteristics, the feeling of 'we' is found in them. The
stronger this sentiment, the more likely the 'class' is to function as an organized
vote bank.

o Classes can be of many types, like Marx has considered exploiting class and
exploited class on the basis of economic system. Weber has considered 4 classes
on the basis of lifestyle, Dipankar Gupta has considered 3 classes (upper, middle
and low) on the basis of consumption, etc.

Difference between class and caste

o Although in many places one or more castes work together as a class. But there
is a difference between class and caste, like-

a. Class membership is merit based, caste based by birth.

b. Class is an open system, caste is a closed system.

c. Class is often a feature found abundantly in urban society and caste in rural
society.

d. There is competition among the members of the class, not in the caste.
 Role of class in politics

The role of economic and consumption based classes (low, middle, upper) is
visible in the current Indian politics.

o All sections want that in the election manifesto of political parties and in the
promises, there should be maximum discussion of their interests. For example,
the middle class wants governments to give them tax exemptions, ease
administrative rules, minimize barriers to their consumption, reduce license raj,
give subsidies, etc. Whereas the lower class decides its political likes/dislikes on
the basis of issues like running social welfare schemes, taking measures for
poverty alleviation etc., and for upper class levying less tax on imports, higher
consumption i.e. production of luxury goods, taking sanitary measures etc. is the
basis of voting.

❖ Issues related to ethnicity -

o The basis of ethnicity-

• A type of diversity in which an individual or community is separated on the basis

of appearance, body composition and that class demands autonomy on the basis
of its class characteristics and separation.

• This ethnocentrism is at times natural (difference between North-East castes,

South India-North India) and sometimes man-made (tendency to exaggerate
variations).

o The basis of ethnicity-

1. Language - North-South struggle, Dravidian movement, controversy over

trilingual formula, challenge to Hindi as a national language.

2. Ethnicity - Strategy/trends of separatism (Naga-Mizo) in North-Eastern tribal

areas, Khalsa and Khalistani demands in Punjab-Haryana region.

3. Religion - Form of Communion, Formation of Pakistan, Two Nation Theory.

 4. Region - Jammu and Kashmir Autonomy Struggle North East Struggle.

5. Caste - demand for reservation, caste conflict, important issue of election

(caste based)

❖ What problems arise -

o The demand for class interests is justified as long as the demand is not opposed
to other classes.

o Rather than individual or class, the state is supreme and since India is still in the
process of nation building, it is very important to combine diversity. And the
demand for separation on the basis of ethnic issues is not acceptable.

o On the basis of ethnic issues, the conflict has given rise to linguistic conflict,
violent separatist struggle, mentality like considering North-East as foreign which
is a hindrance and challenge in national integration.

o The concept of regionalism or Bhumiputra gave rise to the demand for the
creation of states over time and ethnic discrimination was made the basis of the
demand so that collective bargaining could be done in the field of resources and
power acquisition (Fazal Ali Commission-1956) State on the basis of language

Due to ethnicity, South India even today considers itself a separate entity and
feels separate from national politics.

o The politics being played on the basis of ethnicity saw the emergence of many
regional parties – AIDMK etc. which gave priority to interests.

❖ Arguments in favor of ethnicity -

o When ethnicity is tolerant of other classes, it promotes class interests – in the

form of autonomy, finance, etc.

o Ethnicity gives identity to a particular class at the national level, on the basis of
which collective bargaining can be done - special emphasis on North-East
o Preservation of the Indian society's characteristic or character of unity in
diversity is possible only when the voice of these sections is provided a platform.

o A diverse society responds more strongly to its challenges in times of crisis.

o Ethnicity is helpful in the preservation of culture, in the absence of which man

or society appears inanimate and lifeless - festivals, fairs, food, customs

o Not formed on ethnic basis, states have played an important role in economic
development, good governance, national politics - participation in coalition
politics, regional leaders.

o Schedule - 5 and 6 to be put into practice.

o Diversity, autonomy and culture should not be destroyed in the process of

nation building

o The spirit of 'We the people of India' mentioned in the Preamble should be
realized.

o Prohibition of polarization or appeasement tendencies.

❖ Ethnicity -

o Basically its three aspects –

1. Primitive 2. Mechanist 3. Combination of Primitive and Mechanist

1. Primitive - According to this belief, ethnic differences between people are

inherited.

2. Mechanists - Ethnic distinctions are not given, but they are created by the elite.
Which can be politicians, teachers, religious leaders etc.

In particular cases, ethnic differences culminate in the form of ethnic conflicts,

riots, autonomous movements and rebellions; the basic social rifts that are
created within ethnic groups are not always real. Some of these are invented or
created by the elites.
3. Combination of primitive and mechanistic - The belief that both these aspects
are unable to explain it, they divide it into "bi-polarity".

It is an advocate of both theories. Its proponents argue that the primitive notion
does not explain how people become infected in ethnic groups while maintaining
common belief. Similarly, the mechanistic concept does not explain why people
who adopt the universally accepted innate qualities respond to the call of that
elite class which camouflages them into ethnic groups. And the ethnic challenges
towards nation-building have taken the following form in India, which are as
follows-

1. Autonomous Movement

2. Demand for a separate nation

3. Rebellion

4. Conflict and disturbance on the basis of identification marks - tribe, caste,

language, religion etc.

o The first three phases/forms are also called the Self-Determination Movement.

❖ Main issues of ethnicity in India-

1. North – East India –

o Due to the geographical location and diverse ethnic combination, all the
northeastern states are beset by the problem of ethnicity i.e. they believe that
they are not Indian. Rather they have been merged into India by force. Similarly,
Nagaland did not accept Schedule-VI Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur (for
the benefit of the North-East) until the 1960s saw a movement for an
autonomous state in the Khasi, Jaintian and Garo inhabited areas of Assam, which
in 1972 saw Meghalaya transformed into a state.

o Other examples- 1. Opposition to representation of women by Nagas in urban

body elections
2. Manipur – ILPS (Inner Line Permit System)

2. Tamil Nadu –

o Dravidian Movement of Tamil Nadu - Born as Self-respect Movement and later

emerged as Justice Party DK and DMK, Dravidians questioned the desire for
nationalism in the country spread on three grounds-

• Religion, Language and Caste

• Hindi- protest movement

• Separated, demanding to leave

• To separate oneself from North India.

3. Punjab -

o Here ethnicity manifested itself in the form of autonomy, movement and

insurrection whose basis was regional religious and economic. Sometimes it took
the form of communal conflict between Hindu Muslims and Sikhs.

o Here the argument of the Akali leadership was that the mother tongue Punjabi
and those who follow Sikhism should be given autonomous provinces.

o An insurgency movement emerged for the establishment of Khalistan (Sikh

home land) based on the followers of Sikhism. (After the 1980s), violence
emerged during this period which led to the assassination of Indira Gandhi
(Operation Blue Star).

4. Jammu and Kashmir-

o Here the autonomy movement and rebellion are associated with geographical,
historical and religious factors. Some politicians wanted to merge it with India,
some did not, but when it was merged with India, Sheikh Abdullah became the
Prime Minister, he started raising the issue of handing over Jammu and Kashmir
to India and formed "Plebiscite Front".
o Pakistan's involvement in the insurgency has challenged the Indian nation state,
which has been seen in the violence and communalism of the last decades.

Indian Politics and Languages

Prof. Morris Jones -

o The questions of regionalism and language have been such burning questions of
Indian politics that there has been a deep connection with the events of political
history. Often it seems that this is a complete problem of national integration.

Initially, there were 14 languages in the Eighth Schedule of our Constitution, but
at present there are 22 languages.

Union language -

o Art of the Constitution. According to 343, 344, Hindi written in Devanagari

script, the official language of the Union, will be substituted in place of English
after 15 years, but so far this has not happened and this time period has been
extended.

Language And Politics

o Today the question of language is the question of politics. Political parties and
politicians have tried to incite the public on the basis of language. Sometimes it
seems that the question of language will break our national unity. Language and
politics in India are intertwined as follows.

1. Anti-Hindi Politics - South Indian states have adopted the politics of anti-Hindi
since the very beginning. There it is regional based on linguistic basis. Political
parties are successful in garnering mass base. The main aim of Kandangyan is
Hindi protest. The Bangla and Tamil members of the Language Commission (Dr.
Suniti Kumar Chatterjee and Dr. P. Subba Narayan) expressed their opinion in
these words - The result of the hurry to replace English with Hindi is to impose
Hindi on the Hindi speaking people. As a result, life will be disturbed.
2. Reorganization of states on linguistic basis - After attaining independence, the
demand for the formation of states on the basis of language started gaining
momentum. This demand gained momentum after the death of Telugu leader
Potti Sri Rammalu in a fast in 1952 AD. Gujarat and Maharashtra were formed
from Mumbai in 1960 on the basis of the State Reorganization Commission. In
1966, Haryana and Punjab were formed from Punjab. Even today, Punjab wants
the expansion of Punjab by merging the Punjabi regions located in Rajasthan and
Haryana.

3. Disputes in linguistic states - The problem of ownership of "Chandigarh" came

into existence only after the reorganization of the state on the basis of language.
There is a dispute about Belgaum in Karnataka and Maharashtra on the basis of
language. According to the 1961 census, 51.2% are Marathi here. So Maharashtra
lays its claim. In Assam also there is a dispute regarding Bengali and Assamese.

4. North vs South on the basis of language –

North South

Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Central Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

State, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telugu

Uttarakhand, Haryana (All Hindi)

This imaginary linguistic division has divided India into two opposing parts. This
has always been present like a huge problem and danger in the integration and
integrity of India.

5. Linguistic pressure groups- Linguistic pressure groups have emerged in Indian

politics, for example Maharashtrians and Gujaratis had their organizations
Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and Mahagujarat Parishad on the basis of
language, which played the role of pressure groups in politics.

6. Question of recognition of language- There have been 14 to 22 languages in

the 8th Schedule, even now the dispute of recognition of regional languages
keeps arising from time to time. Languages like Rajasthani, Braj, Chhattisgarhi etc.
continue to present their claim.

7. Urdu and Electoral Politics- Political parties have been trying to take advantage
of Urdu from time to time in elections. 1980 AD Congress-I tried to woo the
Muslim minority by talking about giving a respectable place to Urdu in its election
manifesto. In January 1980, before the elections, the Lok Dal Govt made Urdu a
compulsory language of study in schools in UP as a third language Nov. In the riots
of Badaun, more than 2 dozen people were killed over the decision to make Urdu
the second official language of the state in the 1989 Lok Sabha elections.

8. Problem of Linguistic Minorities- Even after the reorganization of the state on

the basis of language, the problem of linguistic minorities remains in those states
like - Marathi language in Karnataka, Hindi speaking in Punjab there is a linguistic
minority. There is now a sense of insecurity among Malayalis and Tamils settled in
Karnataka.

9. Language and Education - Even after 70 years, we have not been able to make
a universal education policy due to linguistic problem. When a general formula
comes up. So he also failed with the linguistic problem. The northern states
adopted Sanskrit as a third language in place of the southern languages, while
Hindi was expected in the south.
Tri Lingual Formula

for hindi region for other language

english
on north indian
for non hindi
language (hindi)
region

10. Linguistic Movement - From time to time there have been anti-language
movements. Anti-English movement in North India and anti-Hindi movement
 under the leadership of DMK in South India. On 1 December 1967, students
organized anti-Hindi agitations in Madras.

11. Rise of narrow sense of locality – As a result of linguistic politics, “Dhartiputra

concept” has emerged i.e. those who speak regional language should be
appointed in government and non-government jobs in that particular area. In
Maharashtra, Shiv Sena has harassed South Indians on this basis.

o Conclusion - Indian unity is threatened by language features. Today, the

political use of language for minority appeasement and linguistic acrimony poses
a challenge to Indian integrity. Therefore, we have to eliminate these vices and
explain the question of official language. To find a solution to the problem of
language in a peaceful environment by convening a round table conference of
representatives of various political parties, languages and regions on a broad
basis. The decision in this regard should be taken by consensus instead of
majority. For the interests of India's unity, integrity and education system, the
problem of language has to be separated from politics.

❖ Suggestion for solution –

1. To make Hindi as the official language, and non-Hindi speaking people should
be motivated to create a positive attitude towards it.

2. While avoiding language aggression, Hindi speakers should also pay attention
to the difficulty of non-Hindi speakers.

3. Mother tongue should be made the medium of primary education. For this, the
regional language should be promoted.

4. The English language should also be taught in line with the needs of the current
globalization.

5. The three language formula should be implemented faithfully.

6. To establish proximity in Indian languages through educational excursions,

lectures, cultural programs.
7. Language should be prevented from becoming a medium for the fulfillment of
political interests.

Role of gender –

o Although gender identity in India (especially related to women) does not have a
strong presence in the political arena and identities like family, caste, religion,
class, region etc. overpower it. But for some time now, the linkage of gender
issues with politics seems to be getting stronger.

At present, many feminist organizations in the form of pressure groups on the

leaders and the government inspire them to take steps in the interest of women.
In recent times, gender-political relations have been seen in the following forms:-

a. Constitutional Bill to give one-third reservation to women in Parliament.

b. The issue of 'women's equality' is also related to triple talaq and uniform civil
code.

c. Movement for temple-mosque entry (Women were given entry in Shani

Shingnapur temple and Haji Ali Dargah.)

d. Demand for prohibition of alcohol from the government by women in many

states.

o Third gender status to eunuchs/transgender -

• The Supreme Court, while giving third gender status to transgenders, has asked
the government to give them policy and constitutional protection, so that this
class is not forced to lead a neglected and miserable life.

Gender discrimination and women's rights issue

o The question of the status of women in modern India arose as a part of the class
social reform movement in the middle of the 19th century. These movements are
termed as middle class reform movements because these reforms were not from
the emerging western educated Indian middle class. They often took pride in the
democratic ideals of the modern West and the democratic traditions of their own
past while inspired by these reforms.

For example, like Raja Mohan Roy led the anti-sati campaign, Ranade launched a
movement for widows' remarriage, Jyotiba Phule and Savitri Bai Phule raised their
voice against caste and gender atrocities and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advocated
social reforms in Islam.

o The ideas of these reformers had a beautiful blend of Western logic and Indian
traditionalism.

o Women's rights were talked about by them on the basis of the principles of
humanistic and natural rights (being human) and Hindu scriptures.

Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda etc. gave special emphasis for women's
education so that women could not come out of the four walls of the house, be
aware of their values, ideas and their rights and fight for their rights themselves.

Due to the obvious biological and physiological differences between men and
women, it is often understood that gender inequality is a product of nature, but
despite this external appearance, scholars have also shown that inequalities
between men and women are not natural but social. .

In this regard, the statement of famous feminist writer "Simone de Bouvar"

"Woman is not born, she is made" is important because the patriarchal thinking
of our society does not look at women with equal eyes and treats women as
secondary. Human standard of status behaves accordingly. But in many societies,
the matriarchal family system (Khasi Sama of Meghalaya), appointments and
elections to important positions in the country (Indira Gandhi, Pratibha Patil),
social reform movements (Megha Patekar, Aruna Roy), space foreign policy etc.
Challenged the dominant thinking.

For women's rights, gender equality, socio-economic and political justice, the
struggle can be divided into two parts-

a. Before Independence (Before 1947)

b. After Independence

o After the arrival of Gandhiji in the freedom movement, there was a radical
change in the participation of women because the nature of the means of
struggle of Gandhiji, such as non-violence, non-cooperation, peaceful
demonstrations, provided an easy medium for women's participation.

o In the Karachi session of the Indian National Congress in 1931, under the
declaration regarding the fundamental rights of citizens, equality before the law,
public suffrage and the right of women in elections to various public posts were
recognized.

o After 1947, to give concrete shape to the struggle for rights, legal and
constitutional means were adopted, under which Hindu Marriage Act, Anti-Dowry
Act, Act for Prevention of Domestic Violence, Act for Protection of Sexual
Harassment at Workplace, and Property And for equal participation in succession,
provisions were given statutory status.

o Various Acts of the Indian Constitution like - 14, 16, 19, 23 (Human trafficking,
DPSP and various provisions for the dignity and equality of women in
Fundamental Duties, including equal pay maternity benefits for equal work, 73rd
and 74th Provisions such as one-third reservation for women in Panchayati Raj
institutions are important through the Constitutional Amendment Act. Along with
these, the concept of social, economic and political justice mentioned in the
Preamble of the Constitution is also directly related to women. In the Directive
Principles of the Act- 44 Uniform Civil Code also deals with women's rights as
most of the laws and practices appear to be anti-women or discriminatory.

o In order to give practical effect to the rights of women in the social context,
various legal provisions have been made, such as Equal Partnership in Succession,
Equal Share in Property Act (1956), Protection from Sexual Harassment Act
(2013), Domestic Act for the Prevention of Violence (2005), Act for the prohibition
of dowry system. (1961)

In this context, the judiciary of India also recognized many rights through judicial
activism, including the Visakha Guideline (1997), which is important for creating
 comfortable and respectful conditions for women at work, as well as the recent
decision related to the right to privacy has given women the right to take their
own decisions. The recent agitations regarding temple entry and the subsequent
right to admission have made the right of women's equality realized again.

It is pertinent to mention the Act related to increase of maternity leave to 26

weeks which is helpful in promoting women's health, nutrition and equal
participation. If seen from the political side, universal adult franchise, one-third
reservation in Panchayati Raj institutions, women have the right to be appointed
and elected in any public office, mainly to put their point on the national stage.
The issue of reservation in Parliament and State Legislatures has also been raised
from time to time in various forums. Due to which the participation of women in
politics will increase further only after supplementation.

o Women personalities like Sushma Swaraj, Nirmala Sitharaman are adorning

ministries like External Affairs and Defense, which are examples of women's
expression at the highest level.

o Dr. Ambedkar's statement “For any community to get political freedom and
fraternity and equal status in the society, it is necessary that it should be given
economic equality first” It shows that the lack of economic empowerment of
women In other political and social rights prove to be dishonest.

In this context, many provisions were also made by the Government of India,
which were also expanded by our judiciary. Like equal pay for equal work, various
schemes for women empowerment, incentives given to self-help groups, Visakha
guidelines related to sexual harassment at workplace, statutory status to National
Commission for Women, 26 weeks paid leave to pregnant women Schemes like
Stand Up India, Mahila Haat, Beti Bachao-Beti Padhao are important.

In this way, society can be strengthened only by increasing economic

participation, which will be helpful in strengthening the nation, despite these
various efforts, today's women's society is facing many discriminations and
challenges. eg:-

❖ In the political field -

1. Participation in various representative institutions is not commensurate with
the population

2. The concept of sarpanch husband - at all levels

3. The voice of women leaders is not raised in public forums

4. No right to decide to stand as a candidate to vote

5. Only word of mouth on issues related to women's rights

6. Lack of Consensus on Women's Reservation – Bill Pending

❖ Challenges in the social sector -

1. Patriarchal and male dominated mindset

2. Non-compliance of rights under various laws.

3. Huge backwardness from men on the standards of education, health, nutrition.

4. Dowry System, Domestic Violence, Sexual Harassment, Child/Girl foeticide, Acid

Attack

5. The responsibility of preserving values, ideals, values and culture rests on the
shoulders of women.

6. Restriction on the right to choose in respect of morals, family values, dress etc.
in the transition period of marketisation, westernisation.

❖ Challenges in the economic field -

o The ideal of equal pay for equal work limited to paper pages / Uncertain future
in formal and non-organizational economic areas / oppressive security system

o Low wages etc. Very little participation in the formal sector

o Sexual harassment, discrimination at work place

o Ignoring property and succession rights

o The status of women's participation at the highest level of decision making is
critical.

o Financial inclusion, access to credit, non-availability of bank accounts etc.

o Special problems faced by women in civil wars, communal riots and other
periods of conflict (refugees, migration etc.)

o Effect of anti-women remarks made by leaders (public representatives) from

public forums on the general public.

o Easy access to the Internet encourages the spread of pornography, sexual

violence, abusive remarks, anti-female attitudes

o Insensitive attitude of police, family, social media on issues related to women's

section (organizational structure)

o Necessary steps and responsible institutions to practice gender equality.

• Legislature- Law making (for security, reservation, equality etc.),

• Executive - ensure compliance of laws, regulations at the ground level

(Administration + Police)

• Society - Promote women's sensitive thinking, progressive mindset, ease to

adopt modern values

• Judiciary-

o Ensure the accountability of the government and society and administration

o Use tools of judicial activism

o Make the justice system easy, simple and accessible and quick.

• Media -

o Spreading of awareness

o Prohibition on content that is anti-female dignity

o become a forum for debate for rights

• Self Help Groups and NGOs

o Give voice to the issues of women empowerment.

o Develop the attitude of collective participation.

• Education-

o based on moral values

o sexually sensitive

o Universal education (emphasis on female literacy)

• By the woman herself-

o Strongly demanding rights

o Organizational Movement

• Statutory Provisions

o National Policy for the Upliftment of Women 2001

o Maternity Leave Benefit 1961

o Child Marriage Prohibition Act. 2006

o PCPNDT – 1994

o To prevent sexual harassment at work place. 2013

• International Participation-

o Convention on the resolution of all discrimination against women, 1993

o Mexico Action Plan- 1975

o Beijing Declaration - 1995

•Other Issue-
1. Triple Talaq - Muslim women's rights issue Shahbano case (1985) - Supreme
Court orders to give allowance to a divorced woman.

New Act to overturn the Supreme Court's decision Muslim Women Rights Related
to Divorce . 3 months Allowance only. Talaq-e-Vidvat Polygamy Nikah Halala
Challenge- Shayra Bano Case (2017) Instant Ban on triple talaq (instant triple
talaq).

S.No AIMPLAB S.No Women Rights

(All India Muslim Personal Law
Board)
1. The state emblem of hundreds 1.
of years old custom.
2. State has no right to intervene
in civil matters
3. The Muslim community itself is
striving for reforms.
4. Seeing each reform as an
imposition of the culture of the
majority.
5. Interference in religious issues
is like walking on the edge of
the sword
6. Logic and deliberation to each
tradition and be judged on the
basis of recognition.
7. The reforms should be initiated
by the intellectuals, ulema and
women of the minority
community themselves.
Antiquity of tradition is not a
means to justify any
malpractice.
2. To end DPSP$ discrimination,
the state can intervene.
3. Didn't see any improvement in
these years
4. Violation of Art 14
Violation of Art 19
5. Not an integral part of religion
therefore can be challenged.
6. Banning Taxes option was
adopted in Many Muslim
Countries
7. Steps towards Uniform Civil
Code under Article 44 - Helpful
in fulfilling the ideal of social
justice of the Preamble.

Political parties and voting behavior

Political parties, formed by people with similar political views, are organizations
through which those people try to obtain power through constitutional means.
❖ Political parties in India-

o Under the democratic system in India, citizens were given the freedom to
participate in electoral politics according to their own accord. In the Indian
democracy, the multi-party system continued to prevail, although gradually,
instead of multi-party, the bi-party system seems to be getting stronger.

The main features of political parties in India are as follows:-

a. Presence of multiple parties

Due to the large size of the country, religious, linguistic, caste and cultural
differences and economic inequalities, there are many parties in the country.
According to the data released by the Election Commission in May 2017, there are
1841 registered parties in the country, out of which 8 are national, 48 are state
level and the rest are without any such identity, whose number keeps on
increasing.

b. individual centric party

o Many political parties are based on the same person/family.

o Example- SP, TDP, AIDMK, DMK, Trinamool Congress etc.

c. Minority of ideological based political parties

o Communist Party of India, Marxist Communist Party (both communist

ideologies), Bharatiya Janata Party (Cultural Nationalism) etc. Barring some
parties, the remaining parties do not have any definite political ideology.

d. The dominance of regional parties

o About 95 percent of the parties are like this. Whose public opinion is limited to
the boundaries of a particular state. There are two types of regional parties. First,
those whose mass base is up to a particular area but whose issues are all India,
such as - Aam Aadmi Party, AIMIM, Bahujan Samajwadi Party etc., secondly those
whose support is also in a particular area and issues are also related to the same
 region. Example- Maharashtra Navnirman Sena, Assam Gana Parishad, Haryana
Janhit Congress etc.

e. Political parties based on traditional factors

o Modernization of politics in India has been done to a limited extent and the
influence of traditional factors like caste, religion, language, region etc. remains
more in the electoral issues and electoral strategy of political parties.

f. Long tradition of breaking up of parties

o Party splits have a long history in India. Congress split several times and became
independent party (1959), Congress (R), Congress (O), Congress (I), etc., JDCS,
JD(U), RJD etc., after the breakup of Janata Party, Akali Dal Broken many times,
MNS formed from Shiv Sena etc.

❖ The main national party of India and the advantages of being a national party-

o At present there are 8 parties having national party status:-

1. BJP

2. Congress

3. Bahujan Samaj Party

4. Marxist Communist Party

5. Communist Party of India,

6. All India Trinamool Congress

7. Nationalist Congress Party

8. National People's Party

(a) At least 6 per cent of the total votes polled in the elections to the Lok Sabha
have been received in four or more states, and have won at least 4 Lok Sabha
seats from 3 different states.
 b. Should have won at least 2% of the total seats in the Lok Sabha from at least
three different states.

c. The party should have state level party status in at least 4 states.

❖ Benefits of being a national party-

1. One political symbol for the whole country (Election Symbol)

2. Doordarshan / Akashvani gets time for broadcasting during elections.

3. The candidates of these parties need only 1 proposer at the time of

nomination. (10 proposers required for independent and unrecognized party)

4. Two free copies of Electoral Roll are given by the Election Commission

5. 40 star campaigners are allowed to use in elections whose travel expenses are
not included in their election expenses (of the candidate).

o Other unrecognized parties may use 20 star campaigners only.

o Necessary conditions for national party status

o It is necessary to fulfill one of the following conditions

a. Won 3% seats/3 seats (whichever is higher) in that State in the Vidhan Sabha
elections.

b. Should have secured at least 6% of the votes polled in that State and one Lok
Sabha seat in the Lok Sabha elections.

c. Should have secured at least 6 percent votes and 2 assembly seats in the state
in the assembly elections.

d. Obtained 8 percent of the total valid votes in the Lok Sabha/Assembly

elections.

o The first non-Congress government of a state in India was formed in 1957 in

Kerala by the CPM. (Chief Minister- Namboodiripad)
 o The first non-Congress government at the center was formed by the Janata
Party in 1977 (Prime Minister – Morarji Desai)

o Presently India's major political alliances:-

1. National Democratic Alliance (1998) - 48 parties (Congress, TDP, LJP, Akali Dal
etc.)

2. United Progressive Alliance (2004)-10 Parties (Congress, DMK, RLD, Mahan Dal
etc.)

3. Janata Parivar (2015)-4 Parties (RJD, INL, JD(S) Samajwadi Janata Party)

❖ Voting Behavior -

o It means voting by voters in favor/opposition of a candidate/party in an

election.

Factors Influencing Voting Behavior

short term long term

- Party manifesto - Caste

- immediate circumstances - Religion

- role of media - role of teacher

- gender

- category

- family background

(1) Party Manifesto-

o Before the elections, all the parties issue documents related to the work to be
done by them when they will come to power. On the basis of this people decide
whom to vote for. Proceedings on corruption, CBI of any case Issues like
investigation, loan waiver, free services etc. are visible in the manifesto of Indian
parties for some time now.

(2) Immediate circumstances—

o The immediate situation also affects the voting decision of the people. The
general elections of 1977 were held in the backdrop of emergency, so the Janata
Party got wide public support.

(3) Media -

o The type of news that the media shows prominently just before the election,
also affects the electoral attitude of the public.

(4) Caste -

o Caste mindset is strong in India, many conservative people vote for candidates
of their own caste or the party which has given more tickets to the people of their
caste.

(5) Religion-

On traditional grounds, people of the same denomination vote for a particular

party, or vote against a particular party, based on their religious interests.

(6) Teacher-

o The school background and the personal political views of the teachers have an
impact on the mind of the individual in the long run.

(7) Family background-

o Often people do voting behavior only after seeing their elders, superiors.

(8) Class-
o Lower class, middle class, upper class vote for the candidates who decide in
their favor.

(9) Gender-

o Although gender identity has not been so dominant in elections yet, this factor
is becoming important as women's awareness increases.

Civil Society
o The concept of civil society as knowledge and service has a long history in India.

o Voluntary organization, which is voluntary in nature and whose objective is not

to earn profit. Since medieval times, culture in India was active in the fields of
promotion, education, health, natural disaster relief etc.

o Their numbers increased during the British period and they worked for social
welfare, education and relief programs.

o In the second half of the 19th century, national consciousness spread in India
and self-help became the main focus of socio-political movements.

During this time, many organizations such as "Friends in Need Society (1858),
Prarthana Samaj (1864), Satyashodhak Samaj (1873), Arya Samaj (1875), National
Council for Women in India (1875) and Indian National Conference ( 1887) was
established.

The Societies Registration Act of 1860 gave statutory status to emerging NGOs.
The Societies Registration Act is still a relevant law for NGOs even today. Although
many states have amended the law initially.

o Christian missionaries focused efforts on poverty alleviation, building schools,

hospitals and roads, and NGOs worked on health, education, disaster relief and
social welfare.
 o The foundation of a secular voluntary effort in India was not laid until the
establishment of government development agencies such as "People's Action for
Development of India".

o Trained Indians from abroad came and commercialized this area. In response to
the national political landscape in India and growing concerns about poverty and
marginalization, NGOs. The region experienced rapid development and
diversification. An organization oriented both in the direction of forest welfare
and empowerment, came into existence and development became the focus of
civil liberties, education, environment, health and employment in the 1970s and
1980s, with community participation, NGOs were identified as development
partners of the government. The intervention of the common people and the
marginalization of the marginalized people for their rights were the main features
of their work.

o Structural adjustments began in the 1990s and in recent times, international

donors have flown funds through government NGOs and large corporate NGOs
and pushed the institutions of the general public into the background.

❖ Presently NGO-

o There are 1.5 million NGOs working in India today. These include temples,
mosques, gurudwaras, churches, sports institutions, hospitals, educational
institutions etc. Most of the NGOs in India are small and depend on volunteers.
Society for Participatory Research in India (PRIYA)

According to PRIYA, 73.4% of NGOs in India do not have any paid employees
although 19 million people are employed as volunteers or paid employees.

o PRIYA said that 26.5% NGOs are working in religious, 21.3% community sector,
20% in education, 17.9% in sports and culture sector and only 6.6% NGOs are
working in health sector Indian Center for Philanthropy, National Foundation for
India and the Society for Service to Voluntary Organizations, which provide
resource services and networking opportunities to other NGOs.
The Credibility Alliance is an initiative of a group of NGOs that seeks to ensure
transparency and accountability in the voluntary service sector through good
governance.

o In the 1990s, several platforms were formed to establish dialogue between the
government and the NGO. The Planning Commission started a series of
conferences for dialogue between NGOs and the government. In the late 1990s,
the CAPART (Counselling for Advancement of People's Action and Rural
Technology) was decentralized so that the benefits of the NGO's work could be
distributed among the poor and even in less accessible areas.

o CAPART was established in 1986 with the objective of implementing voluntary

service efforts in rural development. The objectives of government and non-
government organizations on topics such as community empowerment,
participatory promotion, strengthening democratic institutions and increasing
access to basic services such as health and education have converged.

o The government has established many institutions to provide funds to NGOs.

(eg Khadi & Vigel Industry Cooperative, Central Social Welfare, CAPART) This has
increased the dependency of the beneficiary on the government. Such financing
has also increased the risk that NGOs will lose their autonomy and become mere
implementers of public sector projects.

o The government made efforts in this area, while making policy in 2007, made
the National Policy on Voluntary Sector, whose objectives were as follows:-

(i) To create an environment that will make volunteer organizations that fuel the
enterprise, be effective and secure their autonomy.

(ii) To enable voluntary voluntary organizations to mobilize local and foreign

resources through legitimate means.

(iii) Identifying mechanisms with which government and non-government

organizations can work together on the principles of trust, respect and shared
responsibility.
 (iv) To encourage voluntary organizations to adopt transparent and accountable
governance and management system.

o In other efforts of the government, tax exemption is given to voluntary

organizations in the transfer of shares and stocks.

The provisions of the Foreign Contribution Regulation Act have been simplified.
The training modules are introduced for the government employees to form
creative relationships with voluntary service organizations and their good efforts
are recognized by the government for excellence.

❖ "Political Movement"

When various social groups feel that democratic politics is not able to fulfill their
needs and demands, they come together and raise their voice under the banner
of various organizations.

It is from such assertions that movements arise.

o These movements can be of some types.

❖ Party based movement

o A mass movement may take the form of a social or political movement and
often overlap. The national movement was primarily a political movement, but
we also know that efforts on social and economic issues gave impetus to
independent social movements during the British period like anti-caste
movement, trade union movement, etc. These movements raised issues related
to social struggle.

o Some of these issues persisted even after independence. Trade union

movements were strongly present in big cities like Mumbai, Kolkata and Kanpur.
All the political parties set up their trade unions for the mobilization of workers. In
Telangana, the farmers under the leadership of the communist parties made a big
movement to re-allocate/distribute the land to the cultivators. Farmers and
agricultural laborers in Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas started
the movement, along with Marxsist and Leninist workers (who were called
Naxalites). Peasants and workers' movements mainly focused on economic
injustice and inequality.

o These movements did not directly participate in the elections but were
associated with political parties. These contacts ensured better representation of
the demands of diverse social classes.

❖ Partyless Movement

In the 1970s and 1980s, many sections of the society became dissatisfied with the
work of political parties. The failure of the people's experiment and the resulting
political instability became the immediate cause of these movements.

o The model of plan development failed because poverty and inequality remained
the same even after two decades of growth in many sectors of the economy.

The already existing social inequalities (such as caste and gender) made the issue
of poverty more acute and complex. This developed a sense of injustice and
marginalization among different groups.

o This caused many politically active groups to lose faith in democratic institutions
and they distanced themselves from party politics and focused on mass
mobilization. Students and young politicians supported marginalized groups like
Dalits and Adivasis. Middle class youth activists started service organizations and
creative programs among the rural poor. In these, due to the voluntary service
nature of social work, these organizations were named voluntary service
organizations. They stayed away from party politics. They thought that the direct
and active participation of local civic groups would be more effective than
political parties in solving local problems.

o Such volunteer field organizations continued to work in rural and urban areas,
although their nature changed, later they started getting funds from external aid
(national and international). With the influx of this external funding, the ideal of
local initiative was weakened in these institutions.

❖ Dalit Movement
o In the early 1970s, the first generation of Dalit graduates (especially those living
in urban slums) came on several platforms. Under these allegations, an armed
organization called Dalit Panthers was formed. Dalit groups were fighting against
eternal caste based inequalities and fundamental injustice (which was happening
against them despite the constitutional guarantee of equality and justice).
Reservation and effective implementation of such policies were their main
demands.

o The Constitution of India had declared unconstitutional unconstitutional and for

this it became law in the 1960s and 1970s, yet discrimination and violence against
untouchable groups persisted. The legal machinery also proved insufficient in
preventing economic and social exploitation of Dalits and the political parties
supported by Dalits were also not very successful. (eg - Republican Party of India)

❖ Dalit Activities

o Dalit Panthers tried against the increasing cruelty against Dalits, and the
government passed the Scheduled Castes and Tribes (Prevention of Atrocity) Act,
1989. The agenda of the Dalit Panthers was to destroy the caste system and to
organize all the oppressed groups and in these the landless poor and urban
industrial workers also supported the Dalits.

o Dalit educated youth exercised their creativity and wrote many biographies and
did many literary works against the cruelty of the caste system.

After the emergency, organizations like Backward and Minority Community

Employees Federation (BAMCEF) were formed to solve the issue.

❖ Peasant Movement

o Social dissatisfaction was of various kinds since the 1970s. The agricultural
struggles of the 1980s are one such example where farmers protest against state
policies.

After the Green Revolution, the farmers made some demands – for wheat and
sugarcane, the government price should be high, the ban on inter-state
movement of farm-products, distribution of electricity guaranteed at regional
rates, loan waiver of farmers and provision of government pension to farmers. .

o Some organizations like Bharatiya Kisan Union came forward for them. The
Shetkari Sangathan of Maharashtra described the peasant movements as a war
between India (farmers) and the forces of India (industrial sector). The role of
agriculture and industries in India's development paradigm was also a burning
issue.

o The activities of the Indian Farmers' Union such as rallies, demonstrations, Jail-
Bharo Andolan etc. put pressure on the government. Thousands of lakhs of
farmers participated in these demonstrations. He also cooperated with the caste
panchayats and to an extent the peasant movement was also successful.

❖ Women's Movement

o Women also agitated against many such issues, which were affecting them and
the society.

o Happened in Andhra Pradesh which was anti-alcohol, Ark (locally made liquor)
was prevalent in Andhra Pradesh and was influencing women in common life.
Agitating on this, women openly discussed domestic violence as well. Initially
women's groups were working mainly in the urban middle class on domestic
violence, dowry, gender crimes (in workplace and public places) and their work
exposed that issues of injustice to women and issues of general inequalities are
complex in nature. They started campaigning for their solutions and as a result
the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments got women reservation in local
level politics. Women's movements can be credited for a series of laws like
Visakha Direction, Domestic Violence Against Women (Prohibition) Act - 2005,
Prevention of Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act 2013.

❖ Narmada Bachao Andolan

o An ambitious project in the form of Sardar Sarovar Dam was announced in the
early 1980s. Narmada Bachao Andolan Samiti opposed this, they raised questions
on the nature of construction of dams and ongoing development projects.
o The movement demanded that the cost-benefit analysis of the development
projects completed so far in the country should be carried out, and the larger
social cost should also be included in such analyses. The social cost also includes
the unintentional resettlement of project affected people, serious loss of means
of livelihood and degradation of cultural and ecological resources.

o Narmada Bachao Andolan Samiti stressed that the local community must have a
role to play in such decisions. And they should have effective control over natural
resources like water, land and forest. The movement also raised the question that
in a democracy, why do some people have to make sacrifices for the benefit of
others?

The movement and debates were strongly opposed in those states which were
benefiting from it, such as Gujarat, while the right to resettlement was recognized
by the government and the judiciary. The formulation of a comprehensive
national resettlement policy by the government in 2003 can be seen as an
achievement of this movement.

❖ RTI movement ("Right To Information" movement)

o RTI movement was one such movement of the past which was successful in
getting its demands from the state.

The movement began in 1990 when Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (Rajasthan),
a mass-based organization, sought information on records of famine relief work
and accounts of workers.

o The movement had little success with immediate effect when they could get
amendment copies of the Rajasthan Panchayati Raj Act.

In 1996, Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan established the National Council for
People's Right to Information in Delhi and gave TJP the status of a national
campaign. Finally in 2005 the Right to Information Act was passed and the
movement was successful.

❖ Effects of Political Movement

o These movements solved some of the problems of party politics and they are an
integral part of our democratic politics.

o They represented such new social groups whose economic and social grievances
could not be redressed in electoral politics.

o These movements made people aware of their rights.

o Yet the impact of these movements on the nature of public policies is limited.
Because most of the movements are centered on a single issue and can represent
only a particular section of the society. In such a situation, it becomes possible
that their legitimate demands are ignored.

Potential areas of conflict in the socio-political sphere

o In any issue, both social and political factors are present, then such issue is
socio-political issue and when that conflict is completed it becomes socio-political
conflict.

o The issue of environmental protection can be one such example in which there
is a social tendency towards pollution free and it is also influenced by political
policy-making.

o From India's point of view, we can see that India is not less than a miracle,
despite so many diversities and problems, the country is not only subsistence but
also progressing and has also achieved prosperity to an extent. But still these
problems do not end with this. These problems are huge and are getting bigger.
There are many reasons why, despite two decades of rapid growth and
development, the country has more poor people than sub-Saharan Africa and
more hungry and poor people than any other country. All these problems have
happened due to one or the other socio-political reasons and they include
elements of social system and political policies.

o According to many scholars in India, the following are the more extreme socio-
political conflict areas -

1. Religious extremism
2. Corruption in the Central Government

3. Collapse of Public Institutions

4. The growing gap between the poor and the rich

5. Environmental degradation

6. Fragmentation in the Indian Electoral System

7. Disgruntled Neighboring Countries

8. Temporary Neighboring Countries

9. Media Insensitivity

o Openly every issue in India is a socio-political issue. If any social event takes
place here, then the tendency to associate it with politics is present in India.

State Politics Of Rajasthan

• Party System

• Political Demography

• Different Stages of Political Competition in Rajasthan

The development of political consciousness in Rajasthan started with the

Prajamandal movements, the kings of Rajasthan had also tried to form many
representative organizations but they could not succeed due to lack of
representativeness in them.

o Bikaner Maharaja Ganga Singh had established Bikaner Praja Pratinidhi Sabha in
1913. Later on, similar efforts were made in Tonk, Udaipur and Jaipur.
o In 1945, a two-member legislature was formed in Jaipur (Dharasabha and
Pratinidhi Sabha).

o The first responsible government in Rajasthan was established in Shahpura and

Gokul Lal Asawa was its Prime Minister.

o After independence, where there was a single student rule of the Congress in
different states. But this could not happen due to the absence of Congress and
the hold of the feudal lords in Rajasthan before independence. The feudatories
extended their support to non-Congress parties. In which the Bharatiya Jana
Sangh and the Ram Rajya Parishad were prominent. The Congress was successful
in forming its government in the first three assembly elections due to the split of
the opposition, while the coming together of the opposition in the 1967 elections
posed a threat to the Congress and President's rule was imposed in the state for
the first time.

Due to the Janata Party wave in 1977, Bhairon Singh Shekhawat became the first
non-Congress Chief Minister, after that there was a transition period in the
politics of the state in the nineties and no party could get an absolute majority,
but from the coming of the twentieth century till now in the state. Two party
system has been established in which Congress and BJP are prominent.

o Where the Samants influenced the politics of the state, due to the land reforms
and other social reforms done by the Congress, the feudal class remained against
the Congress, while the various peasant castes of the state supported the
Congress like- Jat, Vaishnav, Servi, Gurjar

o With the recommendations of the Mandal Commission, now reservation was

given to the Other Backward Classes, then a strong vote bank emerged in the
form of OBC, due to which the influence of Congress was reduced.

o Caste has also played a major role in the politics of the state, not only votes are
cast on the basis of caste but candidates are also selected by the parties on the
basis of caste. Even the number of ministers in the Council of Ministers is also
decided on the basis of caste.
o Regionalism also played its main role in the politics of the state. Vote bank also
kept moving here and there due to very influential leaders of different fields.

o When the temporary bench of the High Court was abolished in Jaipur (in 1958),
the politics of the state was clearly divided between Jaipur and Jodhpur factions.
Finally a permanent bench of the HC was made at Jaipur in 1976.

o The percentage of rural population in the state's population was high,

therefore, the politics of the villages also influenced the politics of the state as the
peasant castes were initially associated with the Congress. Therefore, in the initial
phase, the Congress has been successful in forming its governments, that is why
in the initial phase, the policies of the government were more focused in the rural
areas, such as more attention was paid to agriculture, Jagdari was abolished,
reforms were done in the state.

o Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes also remained with the Congress in the
initial phase, but political consciousness could not develop much in them, so
never any major leadership emerged from them. Jagannath Pahadia was earlier
the Scheduled Caste CM of the state. (in 1980)

The politics of the present is also influenced by women and youth. Due to the
state's first woman Chief Minister Vasundhara Raje, women also got inclined
towards BJP. Therefore, at present, schemes related to youth and women are
made by various governments.

o Social engineering has also dominated the politics of the state at different times
such as: - "Python formula" given by Chaudhary Charan Singh during the fourth
assembly elections influenced the votes of the state and in 2003 elections by
Vasundhara Raje of different castes. Votes were diverted in favor of BJP by stating
his personal complainant ties with him.

o The Muslim and Dalit castes remained in favor of the Congress but now due to
the development of political consciousness, it acts as a major pressure group.

At the time of state integration after independence, Hilalal Shastri and Jaynarayan
Vyas were the contenders for the Chief Minister. But due to the support of
Vallabhai Patel, Hiralal Shastri became the first nominated Chief Minister of the
state. Due to constant opposition by the Vyas faction, Hiralal Shastri was replaced
by CS Venkatachari who was an ICS officer. He was made the nominated CM, a
few days later, after removing Venkatachari, Jaynarayan Vyas was made the CM.

❖ First Assembly (1952 to 57)

o At this time the number of assembly seats was 160, out of which a general
category and a scheduled caste member were made on 16 seats and in the same
4 seats, a general category and a ST member were made. Congress 82, Ram Rajya
Parishad 24, Jana Sangh 3, Independent 35, Krishikar Lok Party 7, Hindu
Mahasabha 2, Krishak Mazdoor Praja Party 2

o Congress did not get success in Marwar due to Jodhpur Maharaja Hanuwant
Singh and was successful in winning the Ram Rajya Parishad, Hiralal Shastri did
not contest the elections and Tikaram Paliwal became the first elected CM of the
state due to the loss of Jaynarayan Vyas. (March 3, 1952) But later Jai Narayan
Vyas came after winning Kishangarh by-elections and became CM in November
1952. Tikaram Paliwal was made the Deputy Chief Minister in the Vyas
government, within a few days, the Congress Legislature Party replaced Vyas and
made Mohan Lal Sukadia the CM (1954), who was the youngest CM of the state
and remained the CM continuously for the next 17 years. (Vyas was removed by 8
votes)

By-elections were held at 17 places in the first assembly, which is a record till
now. Due to the merger of Ajmer in 1956, the number of assembly seats
increased to 190. Kamala Beniwal was made a deputy minister in the Mohan Lal
Sukhadia government, which was the first woman minister of the state.

❖ Second Assembly (1957 to 62)

o In the first assembly seats were re-delimited and the number of seats was
increased to 176. Of these, 27 seats had members from both general and
scheduled castes and 12 seats had members from general and ST. In these
elections, Congress 119 Ramrajya Parishad 17, Bharatiya Jana Sangh 6 seats,
Mohan Lal Sukhadia became CM for the second time. CPI got 1, Praja Samajwadi
Dal 1 and Independent 32 seats.

❖ Third Assembly (1962–67)

o This time two member areas were abolished. A new party emerged in the state
in the form of the Swatantra Party, which was supported by the kings and feudal
lords of the state, the leadership of the Swatantra Party was in the hands of
Maharani Gayatri Devi of Jaipur, the influence of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh also
increased, which was led by Bhairon Singh Shekhawat. Was in Congress 38,
Swatantra Party 36, Bharatiya Jana Sangh 15, Mohanlal Sukhadia became CM for
the third time. RRP - 3 Independents 22, CPI, SPSD -2

❖ Fourth Assembly (1967–72)

o This time the number of seats was increased to 184, Swatantra Party and Jan
Sangh got more success in these elections. Congress could not gather majority for
the first time and got 89 seats. The Swatantra Party and the Jana Sangh, which got
49, 22 seats respectively, staked claim to form the government under the
leadership of Dungarpur Maharawal Laxman Singh, but the Central Government
imposed President's rule for the first time in the state. Due to President's rule,
Sukhadia was successful in getting majority and became the CM of the state for
the fourth time. For the first time, Minister of State and Parliamentary Secretary
were made in this assembly. Barkatullah Khan was made CM after resigning from
Sukhadia in 1971 (Python Formula)

❖ Fifth Legislative Assembly (1972–77)

Due to Bangladesh victory in 1971, there was a Congress wave in the country, so
Congress got 145 seats. Barkatullah Khan became the CM for the second time but
he died a few days later and Haridev Joshi was made the CM, in these elections
the Swatantra Party got 11 seats and the Jana Sangh got 8 seats.

In 1977, the Janata Party government came to the center and it dismissed the
Congress government of the state and imposed President's rule.

o ML Sukhadia (17 Years CM)

- 1954-57

- 1957-62

- 1962-67 (After this 44 days President's rule was imposed)

- 1967-71

❖ Sixth Assembly (1977-80)

o After the Emergency, there was a wave of Janata Party in the elections and the
Janata Party government came in both the Center and the State. Thus the politics
of the state merged with the mainstream of the country. This time the number of
assembly seats was 200, the Janata Party got 151 seats, Bhairon Singh Shekhawat
became the first non-Congress CM of Rajasthan. Among the legislators of the
Janata Party, elections were held for Bhairon Singh Shekhawat and Master
Adityaendra. In which Shekhawat was elected the leader of the legislature party.
(Janata Party -151, Congress:- 41, CPI 1, CPM 1, Independent – 6

In 1980, the Janata Party government at the center fell and the newly formed
Congress government at the center dismissed the state government and imposed
President's rule in Rajasthan.

❖ Seventh Assembly (1980–85)

o Mid-term elections were held for the first time in the state. Congress got 133
seats and newly formed Bharatiya Janata Party got 32 seats. Jagannath Pahadiyan
was made the CM who was the first SC CM of Rajasthan.

o After a few days, Shivcharan Mathur was made CM by removing Pahariya. After
this Hiralal Shastri Devpura was made CM.

Due to deteriorating law and order in Deeg, Raja Mansingh died in police firing,
after which Mathur was removed and Hiralal Devpura was made CM, who had
been CM for only 16 days.

❖ Eighth Legislative Assembly (1985–90)

o Congress 113 and BJP 37 seats, Haridev Joshi was made CM. After a few days,
Shivcharan Mathur was made the CM after removing Hardev Joshi and Haridev
Joshi was made the Governor of Assam-Meghalaya. After a few days, Mathur was
removed and again Hardev Joshi was made the CM.

❖ Ninth Assembly (1990–92)

This time BJP got 85 seats. But with the support of 54 members of Janata Dal
United, Bhairon Singh Shekhawat became the second CM. The Janata Dal
withdrew its support due to the Ram Mandir movement, but later split in the
Janata Dal itself and the Shekhawat government continued.

In 1992, after the Babri incident, the BJP government of Rajasthan was dismissed
and President's rule was imposed in the state for the fourth time.

The ministers of this government, Lalit Kishor-Chaturvedi, had given their consent
for participating in the "karseva" in Ayodhya.

❖ Tenth Legislative Assembly (1993–98)

o BJP got 95 seats but with the support of independent MLAs, Shekhawat became
CM for the third time.

❖ 11th Legislative Assembly (1998–2003)

Congress got immense success in these elections and Anshok Gehlot became CM
with 153 seats.

❖ 12th Assembly

Because of Bhairon Singh Shekhawat becoming the Vice President, Vansudhara

Raje was the new leader of the BJP. With 120 seats, Vansudhara Raje gave BJP an
absolute majority for the first time.

❖ 13th Assembly
o Congress got 96 seats but with the support of independent and BSP MLAs,
Ashok Gehlot became the CM of Rajasthan for the second time. In this assembly,
the maximum number of women members came by winning.

❖ 14th Assembly

o BJP won with 163 seats.

o Presently there are 27 female MLAs.

❖ Important facts

President's rule has been imposed in the state for 4 times till date.

o 1967 (shortest), 1977, 1980, 1992 - 93 (longest)

o The total number of assembly seats was 200, for the first time in the elections
to the Sixth Assembly.

o In the first assembly election, the first 3 chief ministers were made. Hiralal
Shastri, CS Venkatachari, Jaynarayan Vyas.

❖ 15th Assembly

o Speaker of the Assembly – CP Joshi

o Chief Minister - Ashok Gehlot

o Leader of the Opposition - Gulabchand Kataria

o Congress got 100 seats but 6 BSP MLAs merged with Congress.

Panchayati Raj and Urban Self-Government Institutions

o The concept of Panchayati Raj is an attempt to realize participatory democracy,
which means the common man has an important role in the administration of
matters of his own interest.

❖ History of Panchayati Raj

o In 1882, Lord Ripon proposed local self-government, which is called 'Magna
Carta' in the history of Indian self-government institutions.

o In 1919 Act (montague-chemsford) local self-government was kept in

transferred subjects, that is, the power to make laws on it was given to the
provincial legislatures.

After independence, under Article 40 of the Constitution, instructions were given

to the state to take steps to constitute village panchayats.

In the Constituent Assembly, local self-government was put in the 'State List'.

❖ Various committees constituted for Panchayati Raj

1. Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957)-. This committee considered the lack of
public participation as the main reason for the limited success of the Community
Development Program (CDP) and recommended the development of a three-tier
structure of Panchayati Raj. After this, on 2 October 1959, from the village of
Bagdari in Nagaur, Pt. Nahe Ru did Panchayati Raj. initiated. On 11 October,
Andhra Pradesh became the first state to implement Panchayati Raj in the entire
state.

2. Sadiq Ali Committee (1964)

3. Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) - It recommended to make a two-tier

Panchayat system, to increase the tenure of Panchayats to 4 years, to give
reservation to SC and ST, to give constitutional status to Panchayats, etc.

4. GVK Rao Committee (1985) - Recommended a four-tier Panchayati Raj

structure.

5. Laxmimal Singhvi Committee (1986) - To give constitutional status to

Panchayati Raj, for Panchayats, to constitute State Finance Commission, not to
conduct Panchayat elections on party basis, to settle disputes, to establish a
Panchayati Raj Tribunal, etc. Recommended. 73 in India The Act came into force
on April 24, 1993 and in Rajasthan on April 23, 1994. Out of 29, 23 subjects of
11th Schedule have been given to Panchayati Raj Institutions in Rajasthan.
Till 73, some provisions of constitutional amendment are binding on the states
and in some the states have been given the freedom to make many discretionary
provisions.

❖ Compulsory / Compulsory Provisions-

a. Formation of Gram Sabha

b. Reservation in proportion to the minimum population to contest elections

c. Reservation for SC and ST in proportion to their population

d. Tenure of 5 years, re-election within 6 months in case of dissolution.

e. Three-tier system, but if the population of the state is less than 20 lakhs, then
there is no intermediate level.

f. At least 1/3 reservation for women

g. Constitution of State Election Commission and State Finance Commission every

fifth year.

h. Direct election of members, and indirect election of presidents (intermediate

and district level) discretionary provisions (depending on the states)

i. In the context of giving/not giving reservation to OBC, in the context of giving

more than 1/3rd reservation to women.

j. Whether to conduct the elections of Gram Panchayats on party basis or not.

k. Regarding giving members to MLAs and MPs at intermediate and district level.

l. In connection with the election of Gram Panchayat head / direct protection.

m. With reference to allowing Panchayats to levy certain taxes.

n. On how much population the levels of Panchayat are to be formed.

73 Constitutional Amendments till 1992 (enforced in 1993)

Article 243 to 243(O).

243 - There are definitions of the words Gram Sabha, Panchayat, Intermediate
level etc.

243 C A - Describing the functions of the powers of the Gram Sabha. This is left to
the discretion of the state legislatures. In Rajasthan it has to have 4 meetings in a
year, the quorum is 1/10.

243 B - It is written that in the states with population up to 20 lakhs, there will be
a two-tier system and those with more population will have a three-tier system.

243 C - Provisions regarding composition of Panchayats

243 D - Reservation in Panchayats

- Reservation of places

- Reservation of posts

Reservation of seats for SC ST will be on the basis of their proportion to the

population of this particular panchayat area, while the reservation for posts will
be based on their ratio to the population of the entire state and the time limit will
be the same as in Article 334. Women's reservation will be minimum 1/3 and
there is no time limit in this.

243 E - Duration of Panchayats - Normally 5 years, if due to some reason has been
dissolved earlier and the tenure of more than 6 months is left, then new elections
will be held within 6 months and such Panchayat will not be elected for 5 years,
only the remaining period will be selected for

243 F – Disqualification – Applicable for becoming an MLA of the state. (Exception

21 years instead of 25 years) Which the State Legislature should implement by
making law.

243 G - Powers and Responsibilities of Panchayats

243(H),(I) and (J) and related to financial position

243(I) provides for the Finance Commission.

243 (K) - State Election Commission and provision for holding elections

243 (L) - These provisions will also apply to Union Territories (UTs).

243 (M) - In which areas will not apply.

244(I) - Panchayati Raj shall not apply to the Scheduled Areas referred to in
244(2), the tribal areas referred to in 244(2), Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
certain areas of Manipur, hilly areas of Darjeeling and SC reservation in Arunachal
Pradesh. Will be

Note- Two other exceptions:- Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir which are not
mentioned in 243 (M).

No. 243 (N) – 73 up to Provisions in respect of the system in force before it came
into force

243 (O) - 243 (K) The law made by the State Legislature in respect of elections,
delimitation etc. will not be questionable in the court.

Provisions with respect to Rajasthan

❖ Gram Panchayat-

o Formation on 3 thousand population (9 wards)

o 2 additional wards for every 1000 additional numbers

o Members- Sarpanch, Upsarpanch, Wardpanch, Gramsevak

o Meeting once in 15 days, quorum/quorum 1/3

❖ No confidence motion

o Cannot bring for 2 years, 1/3rd proposed by members and 3/4th majority and
passing is necessary / failing once, cannot bring for next 1 year.
 ❖ Panchayat Samiti

o Formation on 1 lakh population (15 wards)

o 2 additional wards for every 15 thousand additional population

o Number:- Member, BDO, Vice President, Head.

o Sarpanch of all gram panchayats of this Panchayat Samiti and MLAs of this area

o Meeting once in a month, quorum 1/3, the same for the no-confidence motion
which is in the context of the Gram Panchayat.

❖ Zilla Parishad

o Formation on 4 lakh population (17 wards)

o 2 additional wards for every 1 lakh

o Composition-Member, CEO, Sub-District Head, District Head

o Heads of all Panchayat Samitis of the district, all MLAs, Lok Sabha MP and Rajya
Sabha MP etc. are registered as voters in that area. The number of members of
that Zilla Parishad.

o Meeting:- 1 time in 3 months, quorum 1/3

o No-confidence motion - same procedure

Note: For the Scheduled Areas (which are mentioned in the 5th Schedule) of 10
states including Rajasthan, there is local self-government under such Act of 1996
(Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas).

In Rajasthan, Banswara, Dungarpur (fully) and Udaipur, Chittorgarh and Sirohi

(Partly) are operated under EESA.

❖ Challenges related to Panchayati Raj

1. Most of the states have forwarded very few subjects out of 29.

2. The responsibilities of Panchayats are not very clearly demarcated.

3. Lack of financial resources.

4. The concept of husband-cult.

5. Due to caste reservation, more situations have arisen in some villages.

6. Pressure Politics.

❖ Solution

1. More and more subjects were assigned to the Panchayats.

2. Clear division of workspaces between the three levels

3. Entities have the right to levy some tax at their own level.

4. To make women representatives aware of their rights.

5. Incentive to Panchayati Raj Institutions doing good work

6. To make the elected representatives aware about the rules and regulations of
Panchayati Raj, training programs should be run.

o Panchayat Empowerment Award, Zila Parishad, 2 Panchayat Samiti and Gram

Panchayats, Nagar-wise Fund Scheme, National Gram Panchayat Scheme, (2006-
2007) Rajiv Gandhi Panchayat Empowerment Campaign Scheme etc. have been
done for the empowerment of Panchayats in Rajasthan.

❖ Municipalities

o Part 9 (a) was added to the Constitution by the 74th Constitutional Amendment.
This includes in Article 243(P) from 243 to 2G.

The provisions related to the Finance Commission, the tenure of institutions, the
Election Commission and the reservation of justices are the same in the 73rd and
its constitutional amendment enactment.

❖ Major Provisions
o Article 243 (O) mentions three levels of municipalities and Nagar Panchayats, 3
Municipal Councils C Municipal Corporation.

o The election of the members will be direct and the power of how the Speaker
will be elected has been given to the state legislatures.

o There is no provision in the context of reservation of seats, which is for the

Panchayats, but the power has been given to the state legislatures in terms of
posts.

❖ District Planning Committee (DPC)

o It is mentioned in Article 243 (ZD). Under this, there will be a DPC power in all
the states at the district level, which will consolidate the plans prepared by the
panchayats and municipalities of the district and prepare the draft plan for the
development of the district.

o Not less than 4/5 of its total members shall be from amongst the members of
Zilla Parishad, Gram Panchayat and Panchayat Samiti) or Nagar Panchayat or
Municipal Council or Municipal Corporation.

o There will be 25 members of this committee in Rajasthan.

o 20 out of 25 (4/5) elected representatives, and in the remaining 5, 1 Collector, 1

Additional District Collector (ADM), 1 CEO of Zilla Parishad and 2 are nominated
by the government to the MP/MLA of that district. .

❖ Metropolitan Planning Committee

o It is mentioned in Article 243 (2E). This will be a committee to be formed for the
development of metropolitan areas. 2/3 of its members shall be elected from
amongst themselves by the elected members of the municipalities of the
metropolitan area and the presidents (not members) of the panchayats.