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INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
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10-3 Our Changing Immigration Mosaic 185
10-4 Dominant and Minority Groups 187
10-5 Some Sources of Racial-Ethnic Friction 189
10-6 Major U.S. Racial and Ethnic Groups 191
10-7 Sociological Explanations of Racial-Ethnic
Inequality 198
10-8 Interracial and Interethnic Relationships 202
11 The Economy and

Politics 204
11-1 Global Economic Systems 205
11-2 Corporations and the
Economy 207
11-3 Work in U.S. Society Today 208
11-4 Sociological Explanations of Work and the
Economy 214
11-5 Global Political Systems 217
11-6 Politics, Power, and Authority 219
11-7 Politics and Power in U.S. Society 221
11-8 Sociological Perspectives on Politics
and Power 225
Masterfile
12 Families and Aging 230
12-1 What Is a Family? 231
12-2 How U.S. Families Are
Changing 235
12-3 Family Conflict and Violence 242
Andrew Lichtenstein/Corbis News/Getty Images
12-4 Our Aging Society 245

12-5 Sociological Explanations of Family
and Aging 249
13 Education and Religion 254

13-1 Education and Society 255
13-2 Sociological Perspectives on Education 255
vi CONTENTS
13-3 Some Current Issues in U.S. Education 263
13-4 Religion and Society 268
13-5 Religious Organization and Major World
Religions 269
13-6 Religion in the United States 271
13-7 Sociological Perspectives on
US Army Photo/Alamy Stock Photo

Religion 275
14 Health and Medicine 282

14-1 Global Health and Illness 283
14-2 Health and Illness in the United States 283
14-3 Health Care: United States and Global 291
14-4 Sociological Perspectives on Health and
Medicine 293
15 Population, Urbanization,
and the Environment 302
15-1 Population Changes 303
15-2 Urbanization 310
15-3 The Environment 316
16 Social Change: Collective

Behavior, Social Movements,
and Technology 326
16-1 Collective Behavior 327
16-2 Social Movements 335
16-3 Technology and Social Change 340
Lisa S./Shutterstock.com
References 346
Name Index 387
Subject Index 400
CONTENTS vii
1 Thinking Like a Sociologist
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AGE Fotostock
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John Lund/Getty Images
© Photo Credit Here

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to…
1-1 Explain what sociology is and how it differs from other social
sciences and common sense.
1-2 Explain how and why a sociological imagination helps us After finishing
understand society. this chapter go to
1-3 Identify and illustrate why it’s worthwhile to study sociology. PAGE 19 for
1-4 Describe and explain the origins of sociology, why sociology
developed, and its most influential early theorists.
STUDY TOOLS
1-5 Compare, illustrate, and evaluate the four contemporary
sociological perspectives.
2 SOC
Texting and emailing are associated with the highest risk of car crashes, and headset
cell phones aren’t much safer than handheld cell phones. Almost 90 percent of U.S.
drivers say that distracted driving is a serious safety threat. However, 70 percent talk
on a cell phone, text, surf the Internet, and even video chat while driving. In 2014
alone, such distractions contributed to 18 percent of all crashes that resulted in death
or severe injury (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 2015; AT&T Newsroom, 2015;
National Center for Statistics and Analysis, 2016).
muttered, “Her name is Stupid,” and flung the doll into

W H AT D O YOU T H I N K ?
a corner.
Sociology is basically common sense. Despite some individual differences, identical twins,
you, and I are like other people in many ways. Around
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
strongly agree strongly disagree
True or False?
E V E R Y B O D Y K N O W S T H AT. . .
Why is there such a disconnection between many
Americans’ attitudes and behavior? This chapter exam- 1. The death penalty reduces crime.
ines these and other questions. Let’s begin by consider- 2. Women’s earnings are now similar to men’s,
ing what sociology is (and isn’t) and how a “sociological especially in high-income occupations.
imagination” can give us more control over our lives. 3. People age 65 and older make up the largest
We’ll then look at how sociologists grapple with com- group of those who are poor.
plex theoretical issues in explaining social life. Before 4. There are more married than unmarried U.S.
reading further, take the True or False? adults.
5. Divorce rates are higher today than in the past.
6. Latinos are the fastest-growing racial-ethic
1-1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? group in the United States.
7. The best way to get an accurate measure of pub-
Stated simply, sociology is the scientific study of human lic opinion is to poll as many people as possible.
behavior in society. Sociologists study behavior patterns 8. Illegal drugs are the biggest health hazard.
that occur between individuals, among small groups
The answers are at the end of 1-1.
(e.g., families), large organizations (e.g., Apple), and
entire societies (e.g., the United States). But, you might
protest, “I’m unique.”
the world, we experience grief when a loved one dies,

1-1a Are You Unique? participate in rituals that celebrate marriage or the birth
Yes and no. Each of us is unique in the sense that you of a child, and want to have healthy and happy lives.
and I are like no one else on earth. Even identical twins, Some actions, such as terrorist attacks, are unpredict-
who have the same physical characteristics and genetic able. For the most part, however, people conform to ex-
matter, often differ in personality and interests. One of pected and acceptable behavior. From the time that we
my colleagues likes to tell the story about his 3-year- get up until we go to bed,
old twin girls who received the same doll. One twin we follow a variety of rules
sociology the scientific study of
chattered that the doll’s name was Lori, that she loved and customs about what human behavior in society.
Lori, and would take good care of her. The second twin we eat, how we drive, how
CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 3
common sense notions about economic
success vary considerably across
Marriage without Love? No Way! countries.
When I ask my students, “Would you marry someone you’re not ▸▸ Much of our common sense is based
in love with?” most laugh, raise an eyebrow, or stare at me in dis- on myths and misconceptions. A
belief. “Of course not!” they exclaim. In fact, the “open” courtship common myth is that living together is
and dating systems common in Western nations, including the a good way to find out whether part-
United States, are foreign to much of the world. In many African, ners will get along after marriage.
Asian, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern countries, marriages Generally, however, couples who live
are arranged: They forge bonds between families rather than together before marriage have higher
individuals, and preserve family continuity along religious and divorce rates than those who don’t (see
socioeconomic lines. Love isn’t a prerequisite for marriage in so- Chapter 12).
cieties that value kin groups rather than individual choices (see Sociology, in contrast to conventional
Chapters 9 and 12). wisdom, examines claims and beliefs criti-
cally, considers many points of view, and
enables us to move beyond established ways
of thinking. The sociological perspective
we act in different social situations, and how we dress for analyzes how social context influences people’s lives. The
work, classes, and leisure activities. “sociological imagination” is at the center of the socio-
So what? you might shrug. Isn’t it “obvious” that we logical perspective.
dress differently for classes than for job interviews? Isn’t
all of this just plain old common sense?
1-1b Isn’t Sociology Just Common True or False?

Sense?
E V E R Y B O D Y K N O W S T H AT. . .
No. Sociology goes well beyond conventional wisdom,
what we call common sense, in several ways:
All of the answers are false.
▸▸ Common sense is subjective. If a woman 1. States without the death penalty have had con-
crashes into my car, I might conclude, according to sistently lower homicide rates than those with
conventional wisdom, statements that we’ve heard death penalties (see Chapter 7).
over the years, that “women are terrible drivers.” 2. Regardless of education or occupation, women’s
In fact, most drivers involved in crashes are men— earnings are lower than men’s (see Chapters 9
especially teenagers and those age 70 and older and 11).
(Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2013). Thus, 3. Children ages 5 and under make up the largest
objective data show that, overall, men are worse group of Americans who are poor (see Chapter 8).
drivers than women.
4. The number of unmarried U.S. adults outnum-
▸▸ Common sense ignores facts. Because common bers those who are married (see Chapter 12).
sense is subjective, it ignores facts that challenge 5. Divorce rates are lower today than they were
cherished beliefs. For example, many Americans between 1975 and 1990 (see Chapter 12).
are most concerned about street crimes, such as 6. Latinos are the largest ethnic group in the
robbery or homicide. FBI and sociological data United States, but Asian Americans are the fast-
show, however, that we’re much more likely to be est growing (see Chapter 10).
assaulted or murdered by someone we know or live 7. What matters in polling is not the number of
with (see Chapters 7 and 12). people polled, but their representativeness in
▸▸ Common sense varies across groups and the population studied (see Chapter 2).
cultures. Many Americans believe that working 8. In the United States and worldwide, tobacco use
harder decreases poverty. In contrast, Europeans is the leading cause of preventable death and
tend to think that poverty is due to forces outside disability (see Chapter 14).
people’s control (see Chapters 3 and 8). Thus,
4 SOC
1-2 WHAT IS A SOCIOLOGICAL
IMAGINATION?
According to sociologist C. Wright Mills (1916–1962),
social factors such as religion, ethnicity, and politics
Jessica Miglio/Netflix/Everett Collection

affect our behavior. Mills (1959) called this ability to
see the relationship between individual experiences and
larger social influences the sociological imagination.
The sociological imagination emphasizes the connection
between personal troubles (biography) and structural
(public and historical) issues.
Consider unemployment. If only a small group of
people can’t find a job, it’s a personal trouble that may Netflix’s Orange Is the New Black revolves around a
be due, in part, to an individual’s low educational at- white, upper-middle-class woman who’s in prison for
tainment, lack of specific skills that employers want, drug smuggling. For sociologists, the series illustrates
not searching for work, and so on. If unemployment is the connection between micro-level individual behavior
widespread, it’s a public issue because economic prob- (the inmates’ and prison guards’ experiences) and
lems are also the result of structural factors such as mass macro-level factors (social class, family structures, racial
layoffs, sending jobs overseas, technological changes, discrimination, corruption, and prison overcrowding).
and restrictive hiring policies (see Chapter 11). Thus,
people may be unemployed regardless of skills, a college
degree, and job searches. divorce. On a micro level, sociologists study factors like
A sociological imagination helps us understand extramarital affairs, substance abuse, arguments about
how larger social forces impact our everyday lives. It money, and other everyday interactions that fuel mari-
identifies why our personal troubles are often due to tal tension and unhappiness, leading to divorce. On a
larger public issues and policies over which we have lit- macro level, sociologists look at how the economy, laws,
tle, if any, control. A sociological imagination relies on cultural values, and technology affect divorce rates (see
both micro- and macro-level approaches to understand Chapter 12). Examining micro, macro, and micro–macro
our social world. forces is one of the reasons why sociology is a powerful
tool in understanding (and changing) our behavior and
society at large (Ritzer, 1992).
1-2a Microsociology: How People
Affect Our Everyday Lives
Microsociology examines the patterns of individuals’
1-3 WHY STUDY SOCIOLOGY?
social interaction in specific settings. In most of our rela-
tionships, we interact with others on a micro, or “small,” Sociology offers explanations that can greatly improve
level (e.g., members of a work group discussing who will the quality of your everyday life. These explanations can
perform which tasks). These everyday interactions in- influence choices that range from your personal deci-
volve what people think, say, or do on a daily basis. sions to expanding your ca-
reer opportunities.
sociological imagination
1-2b Macrosociology: How Social seeing the relationship between
Structure Affects Our Everyday Lives 1-3a Making individual experiences and larger
social influences.
Informed
Macrosociology focuses on large-scale patterns and microsociology examines
processes that characterize society as a whole. Macro, or
Decisions the patterns of individuals’ social
interaction in specific settings.
“large,” approaches are especially useful in understand- Sociology can help us
ing some of the constraints—such as economic forces make more informed de- macrosociology examines the
and public policies. cisions. We often hear large-scale patterns and processes
that characterize society as a
Microsociology and macrosociology differ concep- that grief counseling is
whole.
tually, but are interrelated. Consider the reasons for essential after the death
of a loved one. In fact, 4 in 10 Americans are better
off without it. Grief is normal, and most people work
through their losses on their own, whereas counseling
sometimes prolongs depression and anxiety (Stroebe
et al., 2000).
1-3b Understanding Diversity

The racial and ethnic composition of the United States is
changing. By 2025, only 58 percent of the U.S. popula-
tion is projected to be white, down from 76 percent in
1990 and 86 percent in 1950 (Passel et al., 2011; U.S.
Census Bureau, 2012). As you’ll see in later chapters,
this racial/ethnic shift has already affected interpersonal
relationships as well as education, politics, religion, and
Jason Love/Cartoonstock.com
other spheres of social life.
Recognizing and understanding diversity is one
of sociology’s central themes. Our gender, social class,
marital status, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and age—
among other factors—shape our beliefs, behavior, and
experiences. If, for example, you’re a white middle-class
male who attends a private college, your experiences
are very different from those of a female Vietnamese
immigrant who is struggling to pay expenses at a com-
emotional. In contrast, critical thinking involves knowl-
munity college.
edge and problem solving (Paul and Elder, 2007).
Increasingly, nations around the world are in-
Critical sociological thinking goes even further
tertwined through political and economic ties.
because we begin to understand how our indi-
What happens in other societies often has a di-
vidual lives, choices, and troubles are shaped by
rect or indirect impact on contemporary U.S.
race, gender, social class, and social institutions
life. Decisions in oil-producing countries, for
like the economy, politics, and education (Eck-
example, affect gas prices, spur the develop-
stein et al., 1995; Grauerholz and Bouma-
ment of hybrid cars that are less dependent
Holtrop, 2003). Table 1.1 summarizes
on oil, and stimulate research on alter-
some of the basic elements of critical
native sources of energy. Suzanne Tucker/Shutterstock.com
sociological thinking.
1-3c Shaping Social and Public Policies

and Practices
Sociology is valuable in applied, clinical, and policy set- Table 1.1 What Is Critical Sociological Thinking?
tings because many jobs require understanding soci-
ety and research to create social change. According to Critical sociological thinking requires a combination of
a director of a research institute, sociology increased skills. Some of the basic elements include the ability to:
her professional contributions: “I can look at problems ●● rely on reason rather than emotion
of concern to the National Institutes of Health and say
‘here’s a different way to solve this problem’” (Nyseth
●● ask questions, avoid snap judgments, and examine popular
and unpopular beliefs
et al., 2011: 48).
●● recognize one’s own and others’ assumptions, prejudices,
1-3d Thinking Critically and points of view
We develop a sociological imagination not only when we

●● remain open to alternative explanations and theories
understand and can apply the concepts, but also when ●● examine competing evidence (see Chapter 2)
we can think, speak, and write critically. Much of our
●● understand how public policies affect private troubles
thinking and decision making is often impulsive and
6 SOC
Some well-known people who were sociology majors: Rev. Martin Luther King, Ronald Reagan, Michelle
Obama, Robin Williams, and Joe Theismann. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division[Leffler, Warren K/ LC-DIG-ds-00836]; U.S. National Archives
and Records Administration (NARA); Official White House Photo; Everett Collection/Shutterstock.com; Nate Fine/Getty Images Sport/Getty Images; iStock.com/belterz
1-3e Expanding Your Career 1-4 SOME ORIGINS OF

Opportunities
A degree in sociology is a springboard for many jobs
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
and professions. A national survey of under-graduate During college, most of my classmates and I postponed
sociology majors found that 44 percent were in ad- taking theory courses (regardless of our major) as long as
ministrative or management positions, 22 percent possible. “This stuff is boring, boring, boring,” we’d grump,
were employed in social service and counseling, 18 “and has nothing to do with the real world.” In fact, theo-
percent were in sales and marketing, and 12 percent rizing is part of our everyday lives. Every time you try to
were teachers (Senter et al., 2014; see also Senter and explain why your family and friends behave as they do, for
Spalter-Roth, 2016). example, you’re theorizing.
What specific skills do sociology majors learn that As people struggle to understand human behavior,
are useful in their jobs? Some of the most important are they develop theories. A theory is a set of statements
being better able to work with people (71 percent), to that explains why a phenomenon occurs. Theories pro-
organize information (69 percent), to write reports that duce knowledge, guide our research, help us analyze our
nonsociologists understand (61 percent), and to inter- findings, and, ideally, offer solutions for social problems.
pret research findings (56 percent) (Van Vooren and Sociologist James White (2005: 170–171) describes
Spalter-Roth, 2010). theories as “tools” that don’t profess to know “the truth”
In other cases, students major in sociology because but “may need replacing” over time as our understand-
it provides a broad liberal arts foundation for professions ing of society becomes more sophisticated. In effect,
such as law, education, and social work. The Medical theories evolve over time because of cultural and tech-
College Admission Test (MCAT) now includes material nological changes. You’ll see shortly, for example, that
from sociology because “Being a good physician is about sociological theories changed considerably after the rise
more than scientific knowledge. It’s about understanding of feminist scholarship during the late 1960s.
people—how they think, interact, and make decisions” Sociological theories didn’t emerge overnight. Nine-
(Olsen, 2016: 72). teenth-century thinkers grappled with some of the same
Even if you don’t major in sociology, developing questions that sociologists try to answer today: Why do
your sociological imagination can enrich your job skills. people behave as they do? What holds society together?
Sociology courses help you learn to think abstractly What pulls it apart? Of the many early sociological theo-
and critically, formulate problems, ask incisive ques- rists, some of the most influential were Auguste Comte,
tions, search for data in the most reliable and up-to-date Harriet Martineau, Émile
sources, organize material, and improve your oral pre- Durkheim, Karl Marx, Max
sentations (ASA Research Department, 2013; Spalter- theory a set of statements that
Weber, Jane Addams, and explains why a phenomenon occurs.
Roth et al., 2013). W. E. B. Du Bois.
1-4a Auguste Comte Martineau, a feminist and strong opponent of
slavery, denounced many aspects of capitalism as
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined alienating and degrading, and criticized dangerous
the term sociology and is often de- workplaces that often led to injury and death. Mar-
scribed as the “father of sociology.” tineau promoted improving women’s positions in the
Comte maintained that the study workforce through education, nondiscriminatory
of society must be
employment, and training programs. She advocated
empirical. That is,
women’s admission into medical schools and empha-
information should
sized issues such as infant care, the rights of the aged,
be based on ob-
suicide prevention, and other social problems
servations, experi-
Theories = ments, or other data
(Hoecker-Drysdale, 1992).
After a long tour of the United States, Martineau
Tools collection rather
than on ideology,
described American women as being socialized to be
subservient and dependent rather than equal marriage
religion, intuition,
partners. She also criticized American and European re-
or conventional
ligious institutions for expecting women to be pious and
Creata s Image s/Jupi ter Image s wisdom.
passive rather than educating them in philosophy and
He saw
politics. Most scholars, including sociologists, ridi-
sociology as the scientific study of two aspects
culed and dismissed such ideas as too radical.
of society: social statics and social dynamics. So-
cial statics investigates how principles of social
order explain a particular society, as well as the 1-4c Émile Durkheim
interconnections between institutions. Social
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), a French
dynamics explores how individuals and
sociologist and writer, agreed with
societies change over time. Comte’s
Comte that societies are character-
emphasis on social order and change
ized by unity and cohesion because
within and across societies is still
their members are bound together
useful today because many sociolo-
by common interests and attitudes.
gists examine the relationships Hulton Archive/Getty Images
The Father of Sociology— Whereas Comte acknowledged
between education and politics
the importance of using scientific
(social statics), as well as how such Auguste Comte methods to study society, Dur-
interconnections change over time
kheim actually did so by poring over
(social dynamics).
official statistics to test a theory about suicide (Adams
and Sydie, 2001).
1-4b Harriet Martineau
Harriet Martineau (1802–1876), an English author, pub- SOCIAL FACTS
lished several dozen books on a wide range of topics in so- To be scientific, Durkheim maintained, sociology must
cial science, politics, literature, and history. Her translation study social facts—aspects of social life,
and condensation of Auguste Comte’s difficult material external to the individual, that can be
for popular consumption was largely responsible for the measured. Sociologists can determine
dissemination of Comte’s work. “We might say, then, that material facts by examining demo-
sociology had parents of both sexes” (Adams and Sydie, graphic characteristics such as age, place
2001: 32). She emphasized of residence, and population size.
empirical information that is the importance of system- They can gauge nonmaterial
Spencer Arnold/Hulton
based on observations, experiments, atic data collection through facts, like communication
Archive/Getty Images
or other data collection rather than observation and interviews, processes, by observing
on ideology, religion, intuition, or
conventional wisdom.
and an objective analysis everyday behavior and
of data to explain events how people relate to each
social facts aspects of social and behavior. She also pub- other (see Chapters 3
life, external to the individual, that
can be measured.
lished the first sociology re- to 6). For contemporary Harriet Martineau
search methods textbook. sociologists, social facts
8 SOC
also include collecting and analyzing data on
social currents such as collective behavior and
Figure 1.1 U.S. Suicide Rates, by Sex and Age
social movements (see Chapter 16). Suicide deaths per 100,000 population
38.8
DIVISION OF LABOR Male
One of Durkheim’s central questions was how 29.7

26.6
people can be autonomous and individualistic 24.3
while being integrated in society. Social soli-
darity, or social cohesiveness and harmony, 18.2
according to Durkheim, is maintained by a

division of labor—an interdependence of 9.8
7.2 4.0
different tasks and occupations, characteristic 4.6
5.9
Female
of industrialized societies, that produces social
unity and facilitates change.
15–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75 and over
As the division of labor becomes more
Age
specialized, people become increasingly de-
pendent on others for specific goods and ser- Source: Based on Curtin et al., 2016, Figures 2 and 3.
vices. Today, for example, many couples who
marry often contract “experts” (e.g., photographers, a complex interplay of depression, substance abuse, ac-
florists, deejays, caterers, bartenders, travel agents, and cess to guns, hopelessness because of terminal illnesses,
even “wedding planners”). and not being “connected” to family, friends, community
groups, and support systems that women tend to develop
SOCIAL INTEGRATION throughout their lives (American Association of Suicidol-
Durkheim was one of the first sociologists to test a the- ogy, 2009; see also Chapters 9 and 12).
ory using data. In his classic study, Suicide, Durkheim
(1897/1951) relied on extensive data collection to test 1-4d Karl Marx
his theory that suicide is associated with social integra- Karl Marx (1818–1883), a German social philosopher,
tion. He concluded that people who experience mean- is often described as the most influential social scientist
ingful social relationships in families, social groups, who ever lived. Marx, like Comte and Durkheim, tried to
and communities are less likely to commit suicide than explain the societal changes that were taking place dur-
those who feel alone, helpless, or hopeless. Thus, many ing the Industrial Revolution.
seemingly isolated individual acts, including suicide, The Industrial Revolution began in England around
are often the result of structural arrangements, such as 1780 and spread throughout Western Europe and the
weak social ties. United States during the nineteenth century. A number
We typically hear about high of technological inventions—like the spinning wheel,
teenage suicide rates, but the steam engine, and large weaving looms—enabled
they’re much higher at later the development of large-scale manufacturing and min-
ages. As in Durkheim’s day, ing industries over a relatively short period. The exten-
men have higher suicide rates sive mechanization shifted agricultural and home-based
than women across all age work to factories in cities. As masses of people migrated
groups (Figure 1.1), and white from small farms to factories to find jobs, urbanization
males age 85 and older are the and capitalism grew rapidly.
Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo
most likely to take their own lives

(National Center for Health Statis- CAPITALISM
tics, 2015). Unlike his predecessors social solidarity social
Durkheim’s connec- and contemporaries, Marx cohesiveness and harmony.
tion of social integration (1867/1967, 1964) main- division of labor an
to the suicide rate is still tained that economic issues interdependence of different tasks
relevant today. The high produce divisiveness rather and occupations, characteristic of
industrialized societies, that produces
Émile Durkheim suicide rates of older than social solidarity. For
social unity and facilitates change.
white men are due to Marx, the most important
social change was the development of capitalism, an of our humanness.” Instead of collaboration,
economic system in which the ownership of the means of a capitalistic society encourages competi-
production—such as land, factories, large sums of money, tion, backstabbing, and “looking out for
and machines—is private. As a result, Marx saw industrial number one.”
society as composed of three social classes: According to Marx, capitalists are also
▸▸ capitalists—the ruling elite who own the means of alienated. They regard goods and ser-
producing wealth (such as factories) vices as important simply because
they’re sources of profit. Capitalists
▸▸ petit bourgeoisie—small business owners and don’t care who buys or sells their
workers who still have their own means of production products, how the workers feel
but might end up in the proletariat because they’re about the products they make,
driven out by competition or their businesses fail or whether buyers value the
▸▸ proletariat—the masses of workers who depend on products. The major fo-
Roger Viollet Collection/Getty Images

wages to survive, have few resources, and make up cus, for capitalists,
the working class is on increasing
profits as much
CLASS CONFLICT as possible
Marx believed that society is divided into the haves rather than
(capitalists) and the have-nots (proletariat). For Marx, feeling “con- Comstock/Stockbyte/Getty Images
capitalism is a class system in which conflict between nected” to the

products or services Karl Marx
the classes is common and society is anything but cohe-
sive. Instead, class antagonisms revolve around struggles they sell. Every
between the capitalists, who increase their profits by year, for example, companies must recall cars, pharma-
exploiting workers, and workers, who resist but give in ceutical items, toys, and food that cause injuries, illness,
because they depend on capitalists for jobs. or death.
Marx argued that there’s a close relationship be-
tween inequality, social conflict, and social class.
History, he maintained, is a series of class struggles
between capitalists and workers. As wealth becomes
more concentrated in the hands of a few capital-
ists, Marx predicted, the ranks of an increasingly dis-
satisfied proletariat would swell, leading to bloody
revolution and eventually a classless society. The Occupy
Wall Street movement showed that thousands of
Americans are very unhappy about the growing inequal-
ity between the haves and the have-nots, but there hasn’t
Daryl Lang/Shutterstock.com
been a “bloody revolution” in the United States, unlike
some countries in the Middle East.
ALIENATION
In industrial capitalist systems, Marx (1844/1964) con-
tended, alienation—feeling separated from one’s Occupy Wall Street (OWS) was a protest movement
group or society—is common across all social classes. against corporate greed, corruption, and influence
Workers feel alienated because they don’t own or con- on government. It began in mid-September, 2011,
in New York City’s Wall Street financial district.
trol either the means of
The OWS slogan, “We are the 99%,” referred to
capitalism an economic system production or the prod-
U.S. income and wealth inequality between the
based on the private ownership uct. Because meaningful
of property and the means of wealthiest 1 percent and the rest of the population.
labor is what makes us OWS received global attention and spawned similar
production.
human, Marx maintained, movements worldwide but was short-lived (see
alienation feeling separated our workplace has alien- Chapter 16).
from one’s group or society.
ated us “from the essence
10 SOC
1-4e Max Weber SUBJECTIVE
UNDERSTANDING
Max Weber (pronounced VAY-ber; 1864–1920) was a
German sociologist, economist, legal scholar, historian, Weber posited that an
and politician. Unlike Marx’s emphasis on economics as a understanding of society
major factor in explaining society, Weber focused on so- requires a “subjective”
understanding of behav-
Hulton Archive/Getty Images

cial organization, a subjective understanding of behavior,
and a value-free sociology. ior. Such understanding,
or verstehen (pronounced
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION fer-SHTAY-en), involves
For Weber, economic factors were important, but ideas, knowing how people perceive
religious values, ideologies, and charismatic leaders the world in which they live.
were just as crucial in shaping and changing societies. Weber described two types
He maintained that a complete understanding of soci- of verstehen. In direct ob-
ety requires an analysis of the social organization and servational under-
interrelationships among economic, political, and cul- standing, the social Max Weber
tural institutions. In his Protestant Ethic and the Spirit scientist observes a
of Capitalism, for example, Weber (1920/1958) argued person’s facial ex-
that the self-denial fostered by Calvinism supported the pressions, gestures, and listens to his/her words. In
rise of capitalism and shaped many of our current values explanatory understanding, the social scientist tries to
about working hard (see Chapters 3 and 6). grasp the intention and context of the behavior.
Is It Possible to Be a Value-Free Sociologist?

Max Weber was concerned about popular professors
who took political positions that pleased many of their
students. He felt that these professors were behaving
Can sociologists
improperly because science, including sociology, must be value free—
be “value free.” Faculty must set their personal values
aside to make a contribution to society. According to a
especially when
sociologist who agrees with Weber, sociology’s weak- they have strong
ness is its tendency toward moralism and ideology:
Many people become sociologists out of an impulse to
feelings about many
reform society, fight injustice, and help people. Those societal issues?
sentiments are noble, but unless they are tempered by
skepticism, discipline, and scientific detachment, they
Should they be ?
can be destructive. Especially when you are morally
outraged and burning with a desire for action, you
need to be cautious (Massey, 2007: B12). shouldn’t apologize for being subjective in their
teaching and research. By staying silent, social scien-
Some argue that being value free is a myth be-
tists “cede the conversation to those with the loudest
cause it’s impossible for a scholar’s attitudes and
voices or deepest pockets . . . people with mega-
opinions to be totally divorced from her or his schol-
phones who spread sensational misinformation” that
arship (Gouldner, 1962). Many sociologists, after all,
deprives the public of the best available data (Wang,
do research on topics that they consider significant
2015: A48).
and about which they have strong views.
Can sociologists really be value free—especially
Others maintain that one’s values should be pas-
when they have strong feelings about many societal
sionately partisan, should frame research issues, and
issues? Should they be?
should improve society (Feagin, 2001). Sociologists
If a person bursts into tears (direct observational and scholarly journals, as well as many
understanding), the observer knows what the person books on the everyday life of urban
may be feeling (anger, sorrow, and so on). An explana- neighborhoods, especially the ef-
tory understanding goes a step further by spelling out fects of social disorganization
the reason for the behavior (rejection by a loved one, and immigration. Much of her
frustration if you lose your smartphone, humiliation if a work contributed to symbolic
boss yells at you in public). interaction, an emerging school
of thought that you’ll read about
Wallace Kirkland//Time Life Pictures/Getty Images

VALUE-FREE SOCIOLOGY shortly. One of Addams’ greatest
One of Weber’s most lasting and intellectual legacies was her em-
controversial views was the notion phasis on applying knowledge to
that sociologists must be as objec- everyday problems. Her pioneer-
tive, or “value free,” as possible ing work in criminology included
in analyzing society. A researcher ecological maps of Chicago
who is value free is one who sep- that were later credited to men
arates her or his personal values, (Moyer, 2003).
opinions, ideology, and beliefs
from scientific research.
Jane Addams with a child
1-4g W. E. B. Du Bois
During Weber’s time, the gov- W. E. B. Du Bois (pronounced
ernment and other organizations at Hull House Do-BOICE; 1868–1963) was a
demanded that university faculty prominent black sociologist, writer,
teach the “right” ideas. Weber encouraged everyone to editor, social reformer, and orator. The author of almost
be involved as citizens, but he maintained that educa- two dozen books on Africans and black Americans, Du
tors and scholars should be as dispassionate as possible Bois spent most of his life responding to the critics and
politically and ideologically. The task of the teacher, detractors of black life. He was the first African American
Weber argued, was to provide students with knowledge to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard University, but once re-
and scientific experience, not to “imprint” the teacher’s marked, “I was in Harvard but not of it.”
personal political views and value judgments (Gerth and Du Bois helped found the National Association for
Mills, 1946). “Is It Possible to Be a Value-Free Sociolo- the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and ed-
gist?” examines this issue further. ited its journal, Crisis. The problem of the twentieth cen-
tury, he wrote, is the problem of the color line. Du Bois
believed that the race problem was one of ignorance,
1-4f Jane Addams and advocated a “cure” for prejudice and discrimination.
Jane Addams (1860–1935) was a social worker who co- Such cures included promoting black political power and
founded Hull House, one of the first settlement houses civil rights and providing blacks with a higher education
in Chicago that served the neighborhood poor. An active rather than funneling them into techical schools.
reformer throughout her life, Jane Addams was a leader These and other writings were unpopular at a time
in the women’s suffrage movement and, in 1931, was the when Booker T. Washington, a well-known black educa-
first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace tor, encouraged black people to be patient instead of de-
Prize for her advocacy of negotiating, rather than waging manding equal rights. As a result, Du Bois was dismissed
war, to settle disputes. as a radical by his contemporaries but was rediscovered
Sociologist Mary Jo Deegan (1986) describes Jane by a new generation of black scholars during the 1970s
Addams as “the greatest woman sociologist of her day.” and 1980s. Among his many contributions, Du Bois ex-
However, she was ignored by her colleagues at the Univer- amined the oppressive effects of race and social class,
sity of Chicago (the first sociology department established advocated women’s rights, and played a key role in re-
in the United States in 1892) because discrimination shaping black–white relations in America (Du Bois, 1986;
against women sociologists Lewis, 1993).
value free separating one’s was “rampant” (p. 8). All of these and other early thinkers agreed that
personal values, opinions, Despite such discrimi- people are transformed by each other’s actions, social
ideology, and beliefs from
nation, Addams published patterns, and historical changes. They and other scholars
scientific research.
articles in many popular shaped contemporary sociological theories.
12 SOC
within which behavior occurs. Education
1-5 CONTEMPORARY structures like colleges, for instance, aren’t
only organized internally in terms of who
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES does what and when, but depend on other
structures like government (to provide fund-
How one defines “contemporary sociological ing), business (to produce textbooks and
theory” is somewhat arbitrary. The mid-twen- construct buildings), and medicine (to en-
tieth century is a good starting point because sure that students, staff, and faculty are
“the late 1950s and 1960s have, in historical healthy).
Hulton Archive/Hulton Archive /Getty Images

hindsight, been regarded as significant years of
momentous changes in the social and cultural life FUNCTIONS AND
of most Western societies” (Adams and Sydie, DYSFUNCTIONS
2001: 479). Some of the sociological per-
Each structure fulfills certain
spectives had earlier origins, but all ma-
functions, or purposes and ac-
tured during this period.
tivities, to meet different needs
Sociologists typically use more than
that contribute to a society’s
one theory to explain behavior. The
stability and survival (Merton,
theories view our social world some-
what differently, but all of them ana- W. E. B. Du Bois 1938). The purpose of education,
for instance, is to transmit knowl-
lyze why society is organized the way it
edge to the young, to teach them
is and why we behave as we do. Four of the most influ-
to be good citizens, and to prepare them for jobs (see
ential theoretical perspectives are functionalism, conflict
Chapter 13).
theory, feminist theories, and symbolic interaction.
Dysfunctions are social patterns that have a nega-
tive impact on a group or society. When one part of
1-5a Functionalism society isn’t working, it affects other parts, generating
Functionalism (also known as structural function- conflict, divisiveness, and social problems. Consider reli-
alism) maintains that society is a complex system of gion. In the United States, the Catholic Church’s stance
interdependent parts that work together to ensure a on issues such as not ordaining women to be priests and
society’s survival. Much of contemporary functional- denouncing abortion and homosexuality has produced
ism grew out of the work of Auguste Comte and Émile a rift between those who embrace or question papal
Durkheim, both of whom believed that human behav- edicts. In other countries, religious intolerance has led
ior is a result of social structures that promote order to wars and terrorism (see Chapter 13).
and integration in society.
One of their contemporaries, English philosopher MANIFEST AND LATENT FUNCTIONS
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), used an organic analogy There are two kinds of func-
to explain the evolution of societies. To survive, Spen- tions. Manifest functions functionalism (structural
cer (1862/1901) wrote, our vital organs—like the heart, are intended and recog- functionalism) maintains that
lungs, kidneys, liver, and so on—must function together. society is a complex system of
nized; they’re present and interdependent parts that work
Similarly, the parts of a society, like the parts of a body, clearly evident. Latent together to ensure a society’s
work together to maintain the whole structure. functions are unintended survival.
and unrecognized; they’re dysfunctions social patterns
SOCIETY IS A SOCIAL SYSTEM present but not immediately that have a negative impact on a
Prominent American sociologists, especially Talcott Par- obvious. group or society.
sons (1902–1979) and Robert K. Merton (1910–2003), Consider the mar- manifest functions purposes
developed the earlier ideas of structure and function. riage ceremony. Its primary and activities that are intended
For these and other functionalists, a society is a system manifest function is to pub- and recognized; they’re present
and clearly evident.
that is composed of major institutions such as govern- licize the formation of a
ment, religion, the economy, education, medicine, and new family unit and to le- latent functions purposes
the family. gitimize sexual intercourse and activities that are unintended
and unrecognized; they’re present
Each institution or other social group has structures, and childbirth (even though
but not immediately obvious.
or organized units, that are connected to each other and both might occur outside of
1-5b Conflict Theory
Sociology and Other Social Sciences: In contrast to functionalism—
which emphasizes order,
What’s the Difference? stability, cohesion, and con-
How would different social scien- sensus—conflict theory
tists study the same phenomenon, examines how and why
Mitchell Funk/Photographer’s Choice/

such as homelessness? Criminolo- groups disagree, struggle
gists might examine whether crime over power, and compete
rates are higher among homeless for scarce resources (like
people than in the general popula- property, wealth, and pres-
tion. Economists might measure the tige). Conflict theorists see
Getty Images
financial impact of programs for the disagreement and the re-
homeless. Political scientists might sulting changes in society as
study whether and how government natural, inevitable, and even
officials respond to homelessness. Psychologists might be interested in how desirable.
homelessness affects individuals’ emotional and mental health. Social workers
SOURCES OF
are most likely to try to provide needed services (e.g., food, shelter, medical care,
CONFLICT
and jobs). Sociologists have been most interested in examining homelessness
across gender, age, and social class, and explaining how this social problem dev- The conflict perspective has
astates families and communities. a long history. As you saw
According to sociologist Herbert Gans (2005), sociologists “study everything.” earlier, Karl Marx predicted
There are currently 43 different subfields in sociology, and the number contin- that conflict would result
ues to increase, because sociologists’ interests range across many areas. from widespread economic
inequality, and W. E. B. Du
Bois criticized U.S. soci-
ety for its ongoing and di-
visive racial discrimination.
marriage). The latent functions of a marriage ceremony
Since the 1960s, many sociologists—especially feminist
include communicating a “hands-off” message to suit-
and minority scholars—have emphasized that the key
ors, providing the new couple with household goods and
sources of economic inequity in any society include race,
products through bridal showers and wedding gifts, and
ethnicity, gender, age, and sexual orientation.
redefining family boundaries to include in-laws or step-
Conflict theorists agree with functionalists that
family members.
many societal arrangements are functional. But, conflict
CRITICAL EVALUATION theorists ask, who benefits? And who loses? When cor-
porations merge, workers in lower-end jobs are often laid
You’ll see in later chapters that functionalism is useful
off while the salaries and benefits of corporate execu-
in seeing the “big picture” of interrelated structures and
tives soar and the value of stocks (usually held by higher
functions. Its influence waned during the 1960s and
1970s, however, because functionalism was so focused
on order and stability that it often ignored social change.
For example, functionalism couldn’t explain the many Sociologists
rapid changes sparked by the civil rights, women’s, and
gay movements.
typically use more
A second and related criticism is that functional- than one theory to
ism often glosses over the widespread inequality that a
handful of powerful people create and maintain. Con-
explain behavior
flict theorists, especially, and why society is
conflict theory examines how have pointed out that what’s
and why groups disagree, struggle functional for some privi- organized the way
over power, and compete for
scarce resources.
leged groups is dysfunc- it is.
tional for many others.
14 SOC
Among other manifest functions, schools transmit
knowledge and prepare children for adult economic
roles. Among their latent functions, schools provide
matchmaking opportunities. What are some other
examples of education’s manifest and latent functions?
skynesher/E+/Getty Images
and 1970s, men—who dominated universities and schol-

arship—were largely “blind to the importance of gen-
der” (Kramer and Beutel, 2015: 17).
Feminist scholars agree with contemporary conflict
theorists that much of society is characterized by tension
social classes) rise. Thus, mergers might be functional
and struggle, but feminist theories go a step further
for people at the upper end of the socioeconomic ladder,
by focusing on women’s social, economic, and political
but dysfunctional for those on the lower rungs.
inequality. The theories maintain that women often suf-
SOCIAL INEQUALITY fer injustice primarily because of their gender, rather
than personal inadequacies like low educational levels
Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists see society not as
or not caring about success. Feminist scholars assert
cooperative and harmonious, but as a system of wide-
that people should be treated fairly and equally regard-
spread inequality. For conflict theorists, there’s a contin-
less not only of their sex but also of other characteristics
uous tension between the haves and the have-nots, most
such as their race, ethnicity, national origin, age, religion,
of whom are children, women, minorities, people with
class, sexual orientation, or disability. They emphasize
low incomes, and the poor.
that women should be freed from traditionally oppres-
Many conflict theorists focus on how those in
sive expectations, constraints, roles, and behavior (see
power—typically wealthy white Anglo-Saxon Protestant
Reger, 2012).
males (WASPs)—dominate political and economic deci-
sion making in U.S. society. This group controls a variety FOCUSING ON GENDER
of institutions—like education, criminal justice, and the Feminist scholars have documented women’s historical
media—and passes laws that benefit primarily people exclusion from most sociological analyses (see, for ex-
like themselves (see Chapters 8 and 11). ample, Smith, 1987, and Adams and
CRITICAL EVALUATION “Sometimes Sydie, 2001). Before the 1960s women’s
movement in the United States, very few
Conflict theory explains how societ-
ies create and cope with disagreements.
the best sociologists published anything about
gender roles, women’s sexuality, fathers,
However, some have criticized conflict man for the or intimate partner violence. According
theorists for overemphasizing competition
and coercion at the expense of order and
job isn’t.” to sociologist Myra Ferree (2005: B10),
during the 1970s, “the Harvard social-
stability. Inequality exists and struggles science library could fit all its books on
over scarce resources occur, critics agree, Author Unknown gender inequalities onto a single half-
but conflict theorists often ignore coop- shelf.” Because of feminist scholars, many
eration and harmony. Voters, for example, researchers—both women and men—now routinely
can boot dominant white males out of office and replace include gender as an important research variable on
them with women and minority group members. Critics both micro and macro levels.
also point out that the have-nots can increase their power Globally, except for some predominantly Muslim
through negotiation, bargaining, lawsuits, and strikes. countries, solid majorities of both women and men
support gender equality and agree that women should
1-5c Feminist Theories be able to work outside
You’ll recall that influential male theorists generally the home. When jobs are feminist theories examine
women’s social, economic, and
overlooked or marginalized early female sociologists’ scarce, however, many
political inequality.
contributions. Until the feminist activism of the 1960s women and men believe
that men should be given preferen- those women voted for him anyway
tial treatment (“Gender Equality. . .,” “I myself have (Hartig et al., 2016). At least 90 per-
2010). Thus, even equal rights propo-
nents place a higher priority on men’s
never been cent of people vote for their party’s
candidate, but Trump appealed to
economic rights. able to find many white women, particularly
those without a college degree and
LISTENING TO MANY VOICES
out precisely those living in rural areas (Table 1.2).
Feminist scholars contend that what feminism There are many reasons for a pres-
idential candidate’s victory, but some
gender inequality is central to all
behavior, ranging from everyday in-
is; I only know observers have attributed Clinton’s
defeat to many voters’—particularly
teractions to political and economic that people working-class white women’s—frus-
institutions, but feminist theories
encompass many perspectives. For call me a femi- trations about diminished possibili-
ties for their husbands and sons to
example, liberal feminism endorses
social and legal reform to create equal
nist whenever provide for their families, fears about
opportunities for women. Radical I express sen- downward mobility and poverty, con-
cerns about a growing number of
feminism sees male dominance in so-
cial institutions (e.g., as the economy
timents that immigrants, and a scarcity of jobs in
small towns and rural areas (Feath-
and politics) as the major cause of differenti- erstone, 2016; Morin, 2016; Roberts
women’s inequality. Global feminism
focuses on how the intersection of ate me from a and Ely, 2016). In contrast, Trump’s
slogan to “Make America Great
gender with race, social class, and col-
onization has exploited women in the
doormat.” Again” resonated with millions of
voters, especially those without col-
developing world (see Lengermann
and Niebrugge-Brantley, 1992). Most Rebecca West, British lege degrees, who feel economically
disenfranchised.
of us are feminists because we en- journalist
During the 2016 presiden-
dorse equal opportunities for women
tial race, a large majority of mil-
and men in the economy, politics,
lennials (people born after 1980) supported Bernie
education, and other institutions.
Sanders—a 73-year-old senator from Vermont—over
CRITICAL EVALUATION Clinton or Trump. Sanders’ platform called for the most
progressive and drastic changes to the U.S. political
Feminist scholars have challenged employment dis- and economic structures (e.g., free tuition, changes in
crimination, particularly practices that routinely ex- energy policies, and greater equality of wealth). Some
clude women who aren’t part of the “old boy network” analysts believe that millennial enthusiasm for Sanders
(Wenneras and Wold, 1997). One criticism, however,
is an example of a “feminist generation gap” that has
is that many feminists are part of an “old girl net- increased because younger and older feminists have
work” that hasn’t always welcomed different points of different values, convictions, and goals (Norman, 2016;
view from black, Asian American, American Indian, Rosen, 2016).
Muslim, Latina, lesbian, working-class, and disabled Some critics, including feminists, also question
women (Lynn and Todoroff, 1995; Jackson, 1998; whether feminist scholars have lost their bearings by
Sánchez, 2013). concentrating on personal issues like greater sexual
A second criticism is that feminist perspectives of- freedom rather than broader social issues, particu-
ten overlook gender, social class, and generational gaps. larly wage inequality (Chesler, 2006; Shteir, 2013;
Shortly before the 2016 Rosen, 2016).
presidential election, 69
symbolic interaction
theory (interactionism) percent of women voters
1-5d Symbolic Interaction
examines people’s everyday said that Donald Trump,
behavior through the the Republican nominee, Symbolic interaction theory (sometimes called in-
communication of knowledge,
didn’t respect women. teractionism) is a micro-level perspective that examines
ideas, beliefs, and attitudes.
However, 42 percent of people’s everyday behavior through the communication
16 SOC
Table 1.2 How Women Voted in the 2016 Presidential Election, by Selected Characteristics
PERCENTAGE WHO VOTED FOR…
HILLARY CLINTON DONALD TRUMP

(DEMOCRAT) (REPUBLICAN) OTHER/NO ANSWER
White women 42 53 5
Black women 94 4 2
Latinas 68 26 6
College-educated white women 51 45 4
White women without a college degree 34 62 4
Rural white women 34 62 4
Sources: Based on Huang et al., 2016; Levinson, 2016; Malone, 2016; Mohdin, 2016; Morin, 2016.
of knowledge, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes. Whereas a colleague in the hall, or addressing an audience at a
functionalists, conflict theorists, and some feminist theo- professional conference.
ries emphasize structures and large (macro) systems, For symbolic interactionists, society is socially con-
symbolic interactionists focus on process and keep the structed through human interpretation (O’Brien and
person at the center of their analysis. Kollock, 2001). That is, meanings aren’t inherent but are
There have been many influential symbolic inter- created and modified through interaction with others.
actionists, whom we’ll cover in later chapters. In brief, For example, a daughter who has batting practice with
George Herbert Mead’s (1863–1931) assertion that her dad will probably interpret her father’s behavior as
the human mind and self arise in the process of social loving and involved. In contrast, she’ll see batting prac-
communication became the foundation of the symbolic tice with her baseball coach as less personal and more
interaction schools of thought in sociology and social goal-oriented. In this sense, our interpretations of even
psychology. Herbert Blumer (1900–1987) coined the the same behavior, such as batting practice, vary across
term symbolic interactionism in 1937, developed Mead’s situations and depend on the people with whom we
ideas, and proposed that people interpret or “define” interact.
each other’s actions, especially through symbols, instead
of merely reacting to them. SYMBOLS AND SHARED MEANINGS
Erving Goffman (1922–1982) enriched these earlier
Symbolic interaction looks at subjective, interpersonal
theories by examining human interaction in everyday sit-
meanings and how we interact with and influence each
uations ranging from jobs to funerals. Among his other
other by communicating through symbols—words, ges-
contributions, Goffman used “dramaturgical analysis” to
tures, or pictures that stand for something and that can
compare everyday social interaction to a theatrical pre-
have different meanings for different individuals.
sentation (see Chapter 5).
After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, many Americans dis-
played the flag on buildings, bridges, homes, and cars to
CONSTRUCTING MEANING show their solidarity and pride in the United States. In
Our actions are based on social interaction in the contrast, some groups in the Middle East burned the U.S.
sense that people take each other into account in their flag to show their contempt for U.S. culture and policies.
own behavior. Thus, we act differently in different social Thus, symbols are powerful forms of communication that
settings and continuously adjust our behavior, includ- show how people feel and interpret a situation.
ing our body language, as we interact (Goffman, 1959; To interact effec-
Blumer, 1969). A woman’s interactions with her hus- tively, our symbols must social interaction a process
in which people take each other
band differ from those with her children. And she will have shared meanings, or
into account in their own behavior.
interact still differently when she is teaching, talking to agreed-on definitions. One
of the most important of these shared meanings is the arrangements and practices benefit those in power. For
definition of the situation, or the way we perceive real- instance, people are usually powerless when corpora-
ity and react to it. Relationships often end, for example, tions transfer jobs overseas or cut the pension funds of
because people view emotional closeness differently retired employees.
(“We broke up because my partner wanted more sex. Some also believe that interaction theory is flawed
I wanted more communication.”). We typically learn because it ignores the irrational and unconscious as-
our definitions of the situation through interaction with pects of human behavior (LaRossa and Reitzes, 1993).
significant others—especially parents, friends, relatives, People don’t always consider the meaning of their
and teachers—who play an important role in our social- actions or behave as reflectively as interactionists as-
ization (as you’ll see in Chapters 4 and 5). sume. Instead, we often act impulsively or say hurt-
ful things without weighing the consequences of our
CRITICAL EVALUATION actions or words.
Unlike other theorists, symbolic interactionists show
how people play an active role in shaping their lives on a 1-5e Other Theoretical Approaches
micro level. One of the most common criticisms is that Table 1.3 summarizes the major sociological perspec-
symbolic interaction overlooks the widespread impact of tives that you’ve just read about. However, new theoreti-
macro-level factors (e.g., economic forces, social move- cal perspectives arise because society is always changing.
ments, and public policies) on our everyday behavior and For example, postmodern theory analyzes contemporary
relationships. During economic downturns, for example, societies that are characterized by postindustrialization,
unemployment and ensuing financial problems create consumerism, and global communications.
considerable interpersonal conflict among couples and Sociology, like other social sciences, has subfields.
families (see Chapters 11 and 12). Symbolic interaction The subfields—such as socialization, deviance, and so-
rarely considers such macro-level changes in explaining cial stratification—offer specific theories that reinforce
everyday behavior. and illustrate functionalist, conflict, feminist, and inter-
A related criticism is that interactionists some- actionist approaches. No single theory explains social
times have an optimistic and unrealistic view of life completely. Each theory, however, provides differ-
people’s everyday choices. Most of us enjoy little flex- ent insights that guide sociological research, the topic
ibility in our daily lives because deeply embedded social of Chapter 2.
Lane Oatey/Blue Jean Images/Getty Images
José Nicolas/Sygma/Getty Images
For many people, a diamond, especially in an engagement ring, signifies love and commitment. For others,
diamonds represent Western exploitation of poor people in Africa who are paid next to nothing for their
backbreaking labor in mining these stones.
18 SOC
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Luna (D. Álvaro de), 351.
Luna (Pedro de), 273.
Lusitano (Cronicon), 127.
Luzón (Juan de), 509.
Llabia (Cancionero de Ramón de), 410.
Macías, 346.
Madalena (Historia de S. María), 539.
Madrigal (Alfonso de), 334.
Magos (Historia de los tres Reyes), 509.
Mahoma (La Alabanza de), 131.
Maimónides, 112.
Mainete (Gesta de), 147.
Mallorca (Rodrigo de), 257.

Manrique (Gómez), 374.
Manrique (Jorge), 401.
Manual de la Sancta Fe Católica, 453.
Manuel (D. Juan), 512.
Marbres (Juan), 400.
Marcial, 51.
Marineo Sículo (Lucio), 415.
Marquilles (Jaime de), 503.
Martí (Fr. Ramón), 221.
Martín (S.), 74.
Martín de León (D.), 180.
Martín de León (S.), 130.
Martínez (Μ. Ferrando), 220.
Martínez de Ampiés (Martín), 453.

Martínez de Bizcargui (Gonzalo), 509.
Martínez de Medina (Diego y Gonzalo), 346.
Martínez Siliceo (Juan), 539.
Martínez de Toledo (Alfonso), Arcipr. de Talavera,

315.
Máximo, 80.
Maynes (Noble Cuento del emperador Carlos), 460.
Mazuelo (Fr. Vicente de), 430.
Mela (Pomponio), 39.
Melosina (Historia de la linda), 425.
Mella (Juan de), 341.
Mena (Juan de), 322.
Menahem-ben-Saruk, 100.
Mencia de Cisneros (Cancioneiro de Dom), 204.

Mendoza (Fr. Íñigo de), 407.
Meneses de Silva (Juan), 387.
Μerobaudes, 72.
Mexía (Ferrand), 445.
Mexía (Hernán), 368.
Mieres (Tomás), 330.
Migir (Fray), 346.
Miravet (Juan de), 453.
Misterio de Elche, 440.
Moderato de Gades, 39.
Mohadjar, 114.
Mohamed-Ettemimy, 107.
Moisés-ben-Ezra, 114.
Moisés-ben-Hanoch, 100.
Moisés-ben-Shem-Tob, 231.
Moles Margarit (D. Juan), 410.
Molina (Fr. Bartolomé de), 506.
Molino (Miguel del), 544.
Moncayo (Mosén Juan de), 335.
Monja (Fr. Alonso de la), 346.
Μonserrat (Guillermo de), 330.
Monte (Fr. Lope del), 346.
Montesa (Fr. Bernardo), 376.
Montesdoca (D. Juan de), 506.
Montesino (Fr. Ambrosio), 478.
Montoro (Antón de), 366.
Montrava (Berenguer de), 299.

Morales (Fernando de), 541.
Motetes de canto d'organo (Libro de), 503.
Mujeres illustres de Boccaccio (De las), 450.
Narváez (Juan de), 511.
Nebridius, 75.
Nobleza ó Lealtat (Libro de la), 184.
Nola (Roberto de), 339.
Νoya (Vidal de), 449.
Núñez (Nicolás), 512.
Núñez Coronel (Luis), 507.
Núñez Delgado (Pero), 499.
Núñez de Toledo (Alfonso), 410.
Núñez de Toledo (Hernán), 427.

Núñez de Toledo (Juan), 503.
Obregón (Antonio de), 523.
Ocaña (Fr. Gonzalo de), 333.
Olid (Juan de), 372.
Oliueros de Castilla y Artus dalgarbe (Historia de

los nobles caualleros), 484.
Oliva (Monje), 110.
Oliver (Fr. Bernardo), 257.
Oller (Fr. Bernardo), 257.
Oropesa (Alfonso de), 376.
Orosio, 70.
Ortiz (Dr. Alonso), 449.
Osio, 57.
Osma (M. Pedro de), 406.
Osorio de Moscoso (D. Rodrigo), 512.
Ottas (Cuento muy fermoso del emperador), 460.
Pacensis, 88.
Paciano (S.), 63.
Padilla (Fr. Juan de), 446.
Páez de Ribera (Ruy), 346.
Palencia (Alfonso de), 372.
Palmerín de Oliva, 514.
Pardo (Jerónimo), 492.
Paris e Viana (Historia de los amores de), 131.
Partenoples (Historia del Conde; en catalán), 425.
Partinuples (Libro del esforçado cauallero conde),

535.
Pascual (S. Pedro), 217.
Patos (Juan Pedro de), 231.
Pedro (D.), Condestable de Portugal, 355.
Pedro (Diego de San), 512.
Pedro IV, 273.
Pelayo, 124.
Pentateuco hebraico, 426.
Peña (Fr. Antonio de la), 514.
Peñafort (S. Raimundo de), 220.
Peralta (Guillermo de), 484.
Pérdida de España (Gesta de la), 147.
Peregrina, 273 y 470.
Pérez de Guzmán (Fernán), 306.
Pérez de Olivano (Agustín), 506.

Pérez de Salanova (D. Ximen), 231.
Pérez de Valencia (Jaime), 415.
Perpiñano de Riu (Fr. Pedro), 231.
Pertusa (Martín de), 231.
Pinar, 512.
Pintor (Pedro), 484.
Plácidas (Estoria del cavallero), 460.
Polemar (Juan), 309.
Políglota de Alcalá, 539.
Poridad de las Poridades, 184.
Portocarrero (D. Luis), 512.
Potamio (S.), 61.
Pradilla (Bachiller de la), 514.

Primaleón y Polendos (Libro...), 544.
Prisciliano, 61.
Proaza (Alfonso de), 494.
Proverbios (Libro de los buenos), 184.
Proverbios en rimo de... Salomón, 207.
Prudencio, 65.
Prudencio Galindo, 94.
Puente (Fr. Ramón de la), 217.
Puerta (Fr. Sancho), 290.
Puerto (Diego del), 503.
Pulgar (Hernando del), 416.

(La Chronica de los Reyes Catolicos se imprimió
en Granada, 1545, 1550; Valladolid, 1565; Zaragoza,
1567).
Quintiliano, 53.
Quirós, 512.
Rabi-Jonas-ben-Ganaj, 104.
Raimundo de Peñafort (S.), 220.
Ramírez (D. Alfonso), 180.
Ramos de Pareja (Bartolomé), 413.
Rasis (Crónica del moro), 246.
Razón de Amor, 162.
Recemundo, 101.
Refranes glosados, 510.
Regimine Principum (De), 450.
Reinosa (Rodrigo), 533.
Renallo Gramático, 123.
Resende (Cancionero de), 357, 542.
Revelación de un ermitaño, 272.

Reyes (Crónica de Veinte), 245.
Reyes dorient (Libro dels), 159.
Reyes Magos (Auto de los), 149.
Ribelles (Mosén Juan), 335.
Ribera (Hernando), 522.
Ribera (Páez de), 511.
Ribera (Suero de), 335.
Ribot (Fr. Felipe), 273.
Rimada (Crónica), 252.
Río (Juan del), 231.
Roa (Fernando de), 539.
Roberto el Diablo (La vida de), 510.
Roderici Campidocti (Gesta), 128.

Rodrigo (Cantar de), 252.
Rodríguez de Almella (Diego), 377.
Rodríguez de la Cámara (Juan), 327.
Rodríguez de Lena (Pero), 310.
Rodríguez de Montalvo (Garci), 454.
Rodríguez de Tudela (Ldo. Alonso), 541.
Rodulfo, 123.
Rojas (Fernando de), 471.
Roldán (Maestre), 220.
Romancero, 486.
Romano, 98.
Rosell (Fr. Nicolás), 257.
Rosignol (Fr. Arnaldo de), 231.
Rubio (Fr. Guillermo), 231.

Ruiz (M. Jácome), 220.
Ruiz (Juan), Arc. de Hita, 237.
Ruiz de Corrella (Juan), 407.
Sabah (Rabí Abraham), 432.
Sabunde (Raimundo), 313.
Sahagún (Juan de), 360.
Said-ben-abd-Rabihi, 102.
Saktar, 105.
Salaya (Alonso de), 523.
Salaya (Juan de), 499.
Salinas (Lope), 387.
Salomón (Proverbios en rimo del sabio), 207.
Sampiro, 103.
Samson, 97.
Samuel de Israel (Las epístolas de Rabí), 514.
Samuel Naguid, 105.
San Cristóbal (Alfonso de), 333.
Sánchez de Arévalo (Rodrigo), 386.
Sánchez de Badajoz (Garci), 481.
Sánchez de Badajoz (Bach. Diego), 519.
Sánchez Ciruelo (M. Pedro), 493.
Sánchez Talavera (Fernán), 346.
Sánchez de Tovar ó de Valladolid (Fernando),

255.
(La Crónica de Alonso XI salió en Valladolid, 1551,
1563; Medina, 1563; Toledo, 1595).
Sánchez de Vercial (Dr. Clemente), 291.
Sancho II (Gesta de don), 147.

Santa María (Alonso de), 295.
Santa María (D. Gonzalo de), 298.
Santamaría (D. Pablo de), 279.
Santa María Egipciaqua (Vida de), 159.
Santafé (Pedro de), 335.
Santisteban (Cristóbal de), 502.
Savasorda, 115.
Sebastián, 98.
Segovia (Juan de), 309.
Seguí (Pedro), 535.
Segundo (Capítulo de las cosas que escribió por

rrespuestas el filósofo), 192.
Sem Tob, 259.
Sem-Tob (Joseph-ben-), 360.

Sem-Tob-Falaguera, 219.
Sendebar, 190.
Séneca (Las Epístolas de), 464.
Séneca el filósofo, 41.
Séneca el retórico, 37.
Sessé (Juan de), 335.
Severo (Aquilio), 63.
Severus, 75.
Sevilla (Juan de), 93.
Sextilius Ena, 31.
Silense (El), 126.
Silio Itálico, 49.
Silos (Códice de S. Domingo de), 131.
Sobrarias (Juan), 492.

Socarrats (Juan), 403.
Sorbés (Mauro Antonio), 409.
Soria, 512.
Sorio (Fr. Baltasar), 514.
Sosa (Lope de), 512.
Soto (Alfonso de), 430.
Spañon (Alonso), 485.
Stanyol (Fr. Ángel), 503.
Stúñiga (Cancionero de), 335.
Suertes (Libro de), 499.
Tablante de Ricamonte (Crónica de...), 535.
Tafur (Pero), 370.
Tajon, 80.
Talavera (Hernando de), 465.
Tapia, 512.
Tapia (Juan de), 335.
Taranta (Vasco de), 290.
Targum de Onkelos, 432.
Teodor (Historia de la doncella), 192.
Teodulfo, 90.
Terrena (Fr. Guido de), 236.
Tesoro (Libro del), 207.
Tiberiano, 63.
Tirant lo blanch (Libro del valeros e strenu

caualler), 430.
Tirante el Blanco, 514.
Toledo (Anónimo de), 131.

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9781337405218_CVR_hr.indd 1 12/6/17 9:09 PM

Back Cover (8.5") Front Cover (8.5")

11 The Economy and

12-4 Our Aging Society 245

13 Education and Religion 254

US Army Photo/Alamy Stock Photo

14 Health and Medicine 282

16 Social Change: Collective

Jim West/Alamy Stock

John Lund/Getty Images

© Photo Credit Here

muttered, “Her name is Stupid,” and flung the doll into

the world, we experience grief when a loved one dies,

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 3

1-1b Isn’t Sociology Just Common True or False?

Jessica Miglio/Netflix/Everett Collection

1-3b Understanding Diversity

1-3c Shaping Social and Public Policies

We develop a sociological imagination not only when we

1-3e Expanding Your Career 1-4 SOME ORIGINS OF

One of Durkheim’s central questions was how 29.7

according to Durkheim, is maintained by a

most likely to take their own lives

Roger Viollet Collection/Getty Images

capitalism is a class system in which conflict between nected” to the

Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Is It Possible to Be a Value-Free Sociologist?

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 11

Wallace Kirkland//Time Life Pictures/Getty Images

Hulton Archive/Hulton Archive /Getty Images

Mitchell Funk/Photographer’s Choice/

and 1970s, men—who dominated universities and schol-

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 15

HILLARY CLINTON DONALD TRUMP

College-educated white women 51 45 4

White women without a college degree 34 62 4

Rural white women 34 62 4

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 17

José Nicolas/Sygma/Getty Images

Luna (Pedro de), 273.

Lusitano (Cronicon), 127.

Luzón (Juan de), 509.

Llabia (Cancionero de Ramón de), 410.

Madalena (Historia de S. María), 539.

Madrigal (Alfonso de), 334.

Magos (Historia de los tres Reyes), 509.

Mahoma (La Alabanza de), 131.

Mainete (Gesta de), 147.

Mallorca (Rodrigo de), 257.

Manrique (Jorge), 401.

12-4 Our Aging Society 245