Introduction:

Dynamic increase factors (DIFs) play a crucial role in the design of structures subjected to dynamic
loading such as seismic events, wind gusts, and machinery vibrations. These factors quantify the
increase in the magnitude of dynamic loads compared to static loads and are essential for ensuring
structural safety and reliability.

Recent years have seen a surge in research dedicated to exploring the behavior of structures under
exceptional loadings such as blast, fire, and impact. These events can cause abnormal damage, leading
to local failures and potentially progressive collapse. To address this, efforts are focused on designing
robust structures capable of preventing or containing disproportionate damages. Understanding the
dynamic response of structures, especially under dynamic events, is crucial for ensuring safety and
resilience.

The Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) concept simplifies accounting for dynamic effects in structural
analysis, aiding in simplified static analyses. Finite Element (FE) analysis proves invaluable, particularly
when conducting extensive experimental campaigns is impractical. Analyzing structures under impact or
blast loading requires considering the mechanical nonlinear behavior and strain rate sensitivity of
materials, as these factors significantly affect system resistance and ductility.

Key Findings and Studies

 Material Behavior under Dynamic Loading

In a recent study, researchers investigated the dynamic response of simply supported steel beams under
drop weight impact tests. The study aimed to enhance understanding of failure mechanisms and
improve structural safety against dynamic events. Through an experimental campaign involving nine
specimens impacted with a drop weight impactor, the researchers explored the implications of strain
rate on material behavior and structural response. Several key findings emerged:

o The choice of constitutive material law in finite element analyses proved crucial, especially given
the pronounced strain rate effects.
o Three methods for incorporating strain rate effects were investigated, with semi-empirical
material laws showing better accuracy when properly calibrated.
o The developed finite element model successfully reproduced experimental observations,
providing valuable insights into material modeling under high strain rates.
o A preliminary attempt was made to estimate the Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) and assess the
dynamic behavior of the beam under impact loading, although based solely on the maximum
achieved displacement during the tests.
  Dynamic Response of Structures:

In another study , the investigation examined the dynamic impacts of abruptly removing a central
column from steel structures. Through a thorough analysis of the Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) across
different kinds of Moment Resisting Frames (MRFs), the goal was to offer insights into the conduct of
such structures under severe loading circumstances. The approach utilized nonlinear static and dynamic
analyses to determine DIF, concentrating specifically on assessing redistribution capacity and failure
mechanisms, encompassing column buckling effects.

The research employs OpenSees models to capture mechanical and geometrical nonlinearities, enabling
the assessment of DIF for different MRF configurations. Two Engineering Demand Parameters (EDPs),
displacement above the removed column (δ) and axial force in the adjacent column (N), are considered
to evaluate beam and column behavior, respectively. DIFs are evaluated for all loads acting on beams
(DIF) and specifically for those above the column removal zone (DIF*), aligning with UFC
recommendations.

The results indicated notable disparities between the calculated DIFs and the values recommended by
the Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC). Specifically, the UFC's estimations might have underestimated the
DIFs related to beam-type collapse mechanisms while overestimating those associated with force-
controlled mechanisms. This underscored the necessity for thorough and individualized assessments in
the analysis of progressive collapse.

Moreover, the study emphasized the importance of considering the collapse mode when deciding on
the suitable Engineering Demand Parameter (EDP) for analysis. Although both displacement (δ) and axial
force (N) DIFs held significance, the selection was recommended to align with the collapse mode of the
structure being studied.

 Connection Response under Dynamic Loading:

In the third investigation, researchers addressed a notable gap in understanding the response of steel
beam to column connections under impact and blast loading conditions. This area had received
relatively limited attention compared to static and seismic loading scenarios. Focusing on two common
connection types, partially depth end plate connections (PDEPCs) and flush plate connections (FPCs),
which represented simple and moment-resisting connections respectively, the aim was to
comprehensively assess their response.

Specimens underwent both quasi-static and impact loads at various locations to thoroughly evaluate
their response. A 3D finite element model was developed and validated against experimental results.
Full range analyses were conducted using these validated models to examine internal forces of the
connections under both loading regimes. Additionally, dynamic increase factors (DIF) were proposed to
predict the impact response of these connections using static analysis.
Results indicated that both partially depth end plate connections (PDEPCs) and flush plate connections
(FPCs) displayed similar failure modes under both quasi-static and lateral impact loading conditions,
though larger fractures were observed in PDEPCs during quasi-static loading. The concept of Dynamic
Increase Factor (DIF) was introduced, defining it as the ratio of dynamic strength to static strength of a
structural member. It was suggested that enhancing static strength by an appropriate DIF could predict
dynamic resistance capacity. Specifically, the force-based DIF was identified as more suitable for the
study, where impact force-displacement relationships were recorded and replicated under quasi-static
loads to determine DIF. The lateral impact response of end plate connections was categorized into three
stages: peak, plateau, and bounce, with the plateau stage considered most critical due to significant
energy dissipation and plastic deformation. Both connection types exhibited significant local plastic
deformations, with PDEPCs showing more tearing near the weld toe under quasi-static loading,
indicating increased connection stiffness under impact due to strain rate effects.

Conclusion
In conclusion, Dynamic Increase Factors (DIFs) play a crucial role in evaluating the response of steel
structures to various extreme loading scenarios, such as progressive collapse, impact, and blast loading
conditions. These factors provide invaluable insights into the dynamic behavior of structures, assisting in
the assessment of their capacity to resist sudden and severe loading events. By integrating DIFs into
assessments, a more comprehensive analysis is achieved, accounting for diverse collapse mechanisms
and Engineering Demand Parameters (EDPs), thereby enabling customized evaluations tailored to
specific structural configurations and loading conditions. Ultimately, the significance of Dynamic
Increase Factors lies in their contribution to ensuring the resilience and performance of steel structures
under dynamic loading conditions, highlighting their importance in structural analysis and design
processes.

References
1. Nassr, A.A., 2012. Experimental and analytical study of the dynamic response of steel beams and columns
to blast loading (Doctoral dissertation).
2. D'Antimo, M., Latour, M., Jaspart, J.P. and Demonceau, J.F., 2019. Numerical and experimental
investigation of simply supported steel beams under drop‐weight impact tests. ce/papers, 3(3-4), pp.803-
809.
3. Possidente, L., Freddi, F. and Tondini, N., 2023. Dynamic Increase Factors for progressive collapse anaylsis
of steel structures accounting for column buckling. ce/papers, 6(3-4), pp.358-363.
4. Al-Rifaie, A., Guan, Z.W., Jones, S.W. and Wang, Q., 2017. Lateral impact response of end-plate beam-
column connections. Engineering Structures, 151, pp.221-234.