Design of Machine

UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION TO METAL CUTTING
1 INTRODUCTION TO METAL CUTTING

 “Metal cutting commonly called Machining, is the removal of the unwanted metal from a
workpiece in the form of chips so as to obtained a finished product of desired shape, size
& finish”.
 Or
 “Metal cutting is a process of removing (cutting) a layer of material from a metal blank by
means of a tool, which is harder than the metal being cut”.
 During Stone Age, methods were first adopted for shaping materials by means of chipping
process.
 The development of civilization and the technological innovations made man to develop
new machines and methods for shaping materials.
 It was soon learnt that the metal cutting process is basically one of shearing the work
material.
 The layer of metal is removed in the form of a chip through the process of plastic
deformation or controlled fracture.
 The importance of machining operations is gaining new dimensions in the present
industrial age, in which the growing competition calls for all the efforts to be directed
towards the economical manufacture of machined parts.
Faculty of mechanical & Production Engg 1

 In this context, it is obviously of a vital importance to understand and practice the

principles of metal machining very thoroughly in order to achieve the following basic
objectives of efficient and economical machining practice:
1. Quick metal removal
2. High class surface finish
3. Economy in tool cost
4. Less power consumption
5. Economy in the cost of replacement or sharpening of tools and
6. Minimum idle time of machine tools
It is important for every individual involved in manufacturing to have a basic knowledge of the
fundamentals of machining of materials and also the theory/physics behind the metal cutting
process.
This knowledge helps one to understand and solve the various problems encountered in metal
cutting process
1.1 ELEMENTS OF MACHINING
The complete machining process is composed of five elements.

1. Prime mover
2. Workpiece -besides it includes work holding devices
3. Chip
4. Tool -besides it includes tool holding devices
5. Cutting fluids
1.2 METAL CUTTING

Cutting has been at the core of manufacturing throughout history. For metals many methods are
used and can be grouped by the physical phenomenon used.
1. Chip forming – sawing, drilling, milling, and turning etc
2. Shearing – Cutting, Blanking and Punching
3. Abrading – grinding, lapping, polishing; and water-jet etc.
4. Heat – flame cutting, plasma cutting, and laser cutting etc.
5. Electrochemical – etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM) etc.

2 FUNDAMENTALS ON SHEARING
SHEARING
 “Shearing is the process of cutting off of sheets using a die and punch, applying shear stress
along the thickness of the sheet”

 Shearing happens by severe plastic deformation locally followed by fracture which
propagates deeper into the thickness of the blank.
 For effective shearing, clearance between the die and punch is essential.
 Usually shearing begins with formation of cracks on both sides of the blank, which
propagates with application of shear force.

 A shiny, burnished surface forms at the sheared edge due to rubbing of the blank along the
shear edge with the punch or the die wall.
 Shear zone width depends on the speed of punch motion. Larger speed leads to narrow
shear zone, with smooth shear surface and vice-versa. A ductile material will have burr of
larger height.
 Materials commonly sheared include: Aluminum, Brass, Bronze, Mild steel, Stainless steel
SHEARING OPERATIONS:
Three principal operations in press working that shear the sheet metal are:
1. Cutting
2. Blanking
3. Punching (Piercing)
Cutting

Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two cutting edges. Typically used to
cut large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent operations
 Slitting is carried out with a pair of circular blades. The rotary cutters slit the sheet along
straight line or along a closed contour.
 Trimming is a finishing operation in which a previously formed part is finished in its
contour by shearing off of the burr and excess material.
 Shaving is a finishing operation in which shearing off of burrs from the cut edges is carried
out in order to make the edges smooth and also impart dimensional accuracy.
 Cut off: Removal of a blank from a sheet metal by cutting on opposites sides, sequentially.

 Perforating: Punching of holes of different contours.

 Slotting: Making elongated holes such as rectangular holes in sheet metal.
 Notching: Cutting off a small part from the edge of a sheet

Blanking and Punching
Blanking
 Sheet metal cutting to separate piece from surrounding stock
 Cut piece is the desired part, called a blank
Punching (Piercing)
Sheet metal cutting is similar to blanking except that cut piece is scrap, called a slug

Remaining stock is the desired part Secondary finishing operations are typically performed to
attain smoother edges.
3 MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

When a cutting tool is forced to move against rigidly held workpiece exerts a compressive force
on the workpiece. Refer figure.
The material of the workpiece stressed beyond its yield point causing it to deform plastically
and shear off.
The plastic flow takes place In the localized region called “shear plane”, while the sheared
portion of the metal begin to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of small pieces called
“chips". The advancing tool continues to remove the workpiece metal along the shear plane in

the form of chips. Work done by the cutting tool on the workpiece, and more than 90% of
energy is transferred into heat.
The heat is concentrated near the tip of the tool and as such raises the temperature of the tool,
workpiece and shearing chips. As a result, the workpiece and the tool soften in the localized
region, and in some cases, cause the chip to weld to the cutting tool thereby making it unsuitable
for machining. Hence, the cutting parameters, heat, and wear of the tool form the basic features
in the analysis of metal cutting process.
3.1 ORTHOGONAL & OBLIQUE CUTTING

The process of metal cutting is classified into two types:
1. Orthogonal cutting
2. Oblique Cutting

1. Orthogonal cutting
Orthogonal cutting is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the tool is straight
and perpendicular to the direction of work or tool travel. Refer figure. The chip flows over the
tool face, and the direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge. Only two
components of the cutting forces acts on the tool, and both of them are perpendicular to each
other and hence can be represented in a 2-D (Two-dimensional) plane. Hence, Orthogonal
cutting is also referred to as 2-D cutting operation. The drawback of this type of cutting is
shorter tool life. This is because for the same feed and depth of cut, the force which shears the
metal act on a smaller area thereby reducing the life of cutting tool. Orthogonal cutting is used
for parting off operation on lathe. broaching and slotting operation.

2. Oblique cutting
Oblique cutting is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the tool is straight and
inclined to the direction of work or tool travel. Refer figure. This inclination causes change in
the direction of the chip to flow across the tool face with a side ways movement producing a
helical form of chip. Three components of the cutting forces acts at the cutting edge and they
are mutually perpendicular to each other and can be represented in a 3-D (Three-dimensional)
plane. Hence, Oblique cutting is also referred to as 3-D cutting operation. The advantage of this
type of cutting is that, the cutting force which act on a larger area enhancing tool life. In general,
cutting operation are carried out through oblique cutting method.

3.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN ORTHOGONAL & OBLIQUE CUTTING

Sl. Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting
No
1 Cutting edge of the tool is Cutting edge of the tool is
straight and perpendicular to straight and inclined to the
the direction of work or tool direction of work or tool
travel. travel.
2 The chip flows over the tool chip flows over the tool face
face, and the direction of at an angle
chip flow velocity is normal
to the cutting edge
3 The chip coils in a tight flat Chip flows side-ways in a
spiral. long curl of helical form
4 Only two components of the Three components of the
cutting forces acts on the cutting forces acts at the
tool cutting edge
5 Orthogonal cutting is also Oblique cutting is also called
called as 2-D cutting as 3-D cutting operation.
operation.
6 For the same feed and depth The cutting force which act

of cut, the force which on a larger area enhancing

shears the metal act on a tool life
smaller area thereby
reducing the life of cutting
tool
7 Produces sharp corners Produces a chamfer at the
end of cut
8 Maximum chip thickness Maximum chip thickness
occurs at its middle. may or may not occur at the
middle.
9 Used for parting off Commonly in almost all
operation on lathe, machining operations
broaching & slotting
machines.
4 CHIP FORMATION PROCESS

 . When a cutting tool is forced to move against rigidly held workpiece exerts a
compressive force on the workpiece.

 Refer figure. The material of the workpiece stressed beyond its yield point causing it to
deform plastically and shear off.
 The plastic flow takes place. In the localized region called “shear plane”, while the
sheared portion of the metal begin to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of small
pieces called “chips".
 The advancing tool continues to remove the workpiece metal along the shear plane in the
form of chips.
However depending on the change in cutting conditions four different types of chips are formed.
They are:
a) Continuous chip
b) Continuous chip with Built Up-Edge (BUE)
c) Discontinuous chip

d) Inhomogeneous strain chip

a) Continuous chips
When the workpiece material is ductile (Example mild steel, copper, aluminium etc ) fracture
will not occur in the shear plane and the chip comes off in the form of a long string or ribbon
like with a smooth shining surface as shown in figure (a). This type of chip is called
“Continuous chips” and the primary reason for its formation is the fact that, ductile material has
a tendency to elongate or flow much more before it ruptures from the parent workpiece material.
The various conditions resulting in the formation of continuous chips include:
 Workpiece material is ductile.
 Fine feed and high cutting speeds imparted during cutting.
 Cutting tool provided with large rake angle
 Imparting low depth of cuts
 Use of efficient coolants
b) Continuous chip with Built Up-Edge (BUE)
During machining tough steels such as alloy steels, tool steels etc., larger cutting forces are
required and this in turn produces a lot of heat at the tool work interface. The high heat

generated causes the compressed metal adjacent to the tool nose to get welded to it in the form
of metal lumps. Refer figure(c). The extra metal welded to the nose or point of the cutting tool is
called “Built Up-Edge”. This metal is highly strain hardened and brittle in nature. As the chip
slides up the tool, a major part of the built up-edge is broken and carried away along the flowing
chip, while a small part of the built up-edge adhere to the surface of the workpiece resulting in
poor surface finish. Thus, the formation of BUE must be reduced. This is achieved by
circulating a proper cutting fluid at the cuttiing zone during machining.
The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of built up-edge type of chip include:
 Cutting tool provided with low rake angle
 Low cutting speeds imparted during cutting
 Imparting high depth of cuts
 Rough surface of cutting tool
 Insufficient circulation of cutting fluid
c) Discontinuous chips or Segmental chips
While cutting brittle materials like cast iron, brass, bronze etc., the workpiece material along
shear plane will periodically fracture producing a segment of the chip. This type of chip formed

called “discontinuous or segmental chip”. Refer Figure(d). The primary reason for the
formation of such chips in brittle materials is the fact that, the binding strength for metal grains
are not very strong .and as such. the metal easily shears before it elongates. They are also
sometimes produced while machining ductile materials, especially when low cutting speeds are
used and adequate coolant is not supplied during cutting operation. This results in poor surface
finish and excessive tool wear.
The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of discontinuous chip include:
 Workpiece material is brittle
 Small rake angle is provided on Cutting tool
 Imparting high depth of cuts
 Course Feed and Low cutting speeds imparted during cutting

(d) Inhomogeneous strain chip

This type of chips are produced while machining titanium alloys, which suffers a marked
decrease in yield strength with increase in cutting temperature. Refer figure (e).








5 IMPORTANT RELATION
5.1 Chip thickness ratio(r):
The ratio of uncut chip thickness before cutting (t 1) to chip thickness after cutting (t2) is known as chip thickness
ratio.
It is denoted by r.
The initial feed or depth of cut given during machining is taken as uncut chip thickness before cutting (t 1)
uncut chip thickness before cutting
Chip thickness ratio=r=
chip thickness after cutting
In orthogonal cutting, width of chip equal to width of cut. Assuming specific gravity of metal to be constant, the
volume of chip produced equal to volume of metal cut.
i.e t1L1 = t2L2

Where L1= Length of Metal cut and L2=Length of chip

chip length after cutting

Chip thickness ratio=r=
uncut chip length before cutting
Chip thickness ratio also be defined as ratio of chip length after cutting (L2) to uncut chip length before cutting (L1)
5.2 Chip reduction coefficient (k):
It is the inverse of Chip thickness ratio(r).
1
i.e k = r
5.3 Power and Energy Relationship

The energy consumed during cutting forces are primarily utilized at the shear plane, where plastic deformation
takes place and at the tool chip interface.
Where friction resist flow of chip. The total energy per unit volume is approximately equal to sum of the following:
Es = Shear energy per unit volume on shear plane
Ef = Friction energy per unit volume on tool face
Em = Momentum energy per unit volume due to associated momentum
Esu = Surface energy per unit volume due to formation of new surface
Of these Es and Ef are important one and Em and Esu can be neglected in computation

Fh∗V
Total energy per unit volume of metal removed =
V ∗b∗t
Fs∗Vs
Es=
V ∗b∗t
F𝟋∗Vs
E𝟋 =
V ∗b∗t
MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE

It is defined as amount of material removed from the workpiece per unit time.
MRR = v * f * d
 Roughing -removes large amounts of material, at high feeds and depths, low speeds
 Finishing -Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish, Low feeds and depths, high cutting speed
6 INTRODUCTION TO CUTTING TOOL

 “A cutting tool or cutter is any tool that is used to remove material from the workpiece by
means of shear deformation”.
 or
 In other words , “cutting tool is wedge shaped object of hard material used to remove
material from the workpiece ".

 Cutting may be accomplished by single point or multipoint tools.

 Single point tools are used in turning, shaping, planing and similar operation and remove
material by means of one cutting edge.
 Milling & drilling tools are often multi point tools. Grinding tools are multipoint tools..
 Cutting tool is usually made from HSS. Also made from High carbon steel, ceramic,
Diamond, Abrasive etc. Main requirement of tool material is hardness.it must hard enough
to resist the cutting forces applied on workpiece.
6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOL

Cutting tools are classified into two types based on the number of cutting edges they possess.
They are:
1. Single point cutting tool.
2. Multipoint cutting tool.
1. Single point cutting tool.

 A single point cutting tool is the simplest type consisting of a single effective cutting edge
that removes the excess material from the workpiece. Lathe tools (chamfering tool, parting
tool, facing tool etc.), shaper tools (tools used in shaping machine).
 planer tools, boring tools etc. are examples single point culling tools.
2. Multipoint cutting tool
Multipoint cutting tool has more than one cutting edge and includes milling cutters, drill bit,
reamers, broachers, grinding wheel etc.
6.2 SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL NOMENCLATURE
Cutting tool nomenclature designates the various elements or parts of a cutting tool.
Although the terminology used to designate the various elements remain same for both single
point and multipoint cutting tool, it is easier to understand the same in a single point cutting tool.
The important nomenclature for a single point turning tool is illustrated in figure and listed
below.

a) Tool Shank:

It is the main body of the cutting tool, and is also the part of the tool that is gripped in the tool
holder.
b) Face:
It is the top surface of the tool over which the chip (cut material) flows during cutting.
c) Cutting edge:
It is the portion of the face edge that separates the chip from the workpiece.
The tool cutting edge of the tool includes side cutting edge and end cutting edge.
 Side cutting edge is the primary or major culling edge formed on the side face of the tool.
 End cutting edge is the minor cutting edge formed at the end face of the tool.
d) Flank: It is the surface adjacent to and below the cutting edge when the tool lies in a
horizontal position.
e) Base:
It is actually a bearing surface of the tool when it is held in a tool holder and clamped directly in
a tool post.

f) Heel:
It is the tip of the cutting tool and is formed by the intersection of the side cutting edge and the
end cutting edge.
g)Nose:
It is the intersection of the flank and base of the tool. It is curved portion at the bottom of the
tool.
h) Nose radius:
 It is the radius of the nose of the cutting tool.
 It is a very important parameter, since it gives strength to the cutting tip, increases tool life,
and gives a fine surface finish on the workpiece.
 The value of the nose radius ranges from 0.4 -16 mm and depends on several factors like
depth of cut, amount of feed.
 type of tool (solid, or with insert) etc.
 As the .value of the nose radius increases, a higher cutting speed can be used resulting in
good surface finish, but the life of the tool will be reduced.

 Also, it may lead lo chatter and vibrations due to higher level of cutting forces generated
during cutting.
6.3 SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY

A cutting tool can perform its function efficiently, when it is ground to the correct shape and
with correct angles.
Tool geometry refers to the various angles provided on the cutting tool.
Figure shows a single point culling tool with various geometric elements marked on it.
a) Side cutting edge angl
It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the longitudinal axis (Z-axis) of the tool.
It avoids formation of built-up edge, controls the direction of chip flow and distributes the
cutting force and heat produced over a larger cutting edge.

b) End cutting edge angle

It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the tool shank.
It acts as a relief angle by allowing only a small section of the end cutting edge to participate in
the cutting action thereby preventing chatter and vibration.
c) Side relief angle

It is the angle made by the flank of the tool and a plane perpendicular to the base just under the
side cutting edge.
Side relief angle permits the tool to be fed side-ways into the job (workpiece), so that it can cut
without rubbing against the job.
d) End relief angle
It is the angle between a plane perpendicular to the base and the end flank of the tool.
End relief angle prevent the end of the cutting tool from rubbing against the job during
machining.
c) Lip angle
It is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of the flank.
Lip angle is maximum when clearance and rake angle are minimum.
The larger the lip angle, the stronger will be the cutting edge.

Hence for cutting hard metals, the rake angle is reduced and lip angle is increased, however the
cutting speeds must be kept low.
f) Rake angle
Rake angle is the inclination of the face (top surface) of the tool with respect to the horizontal
reference surface.
Rake angle facilitate wedge action in cutting and help the chips to flow away from the cutting
edge thereby reducing the pressure of the chip on the tool face. Rake angle can be zero
(neutral), positive or negative as shown in figure.
 Zero (Neutral) Rake angle

When the face of the cutting tool is flat or horizontal as shown in figure (a ), the tool is said
to contain a zero rake.

Zero rake increases the strength of the tool and prevents the cutting edge from digging into
the workpiece.
However, tools with zero rake have a larger crater wear due to the chip sliding over the
rake face.
 Positive Rake Angle
When the face of the tool is so ground that it slopes downwards from the tip of the tool as
shown in figure(b), the tool is said to contain a positive rake. Positive rake angle helps in
the formation of continuous chip in ductile material and contributes in avoiding the
formation of built-up-edge. Tools with positive rake angles are used for cutting non-ferrous
and low -tensile strength materials and also for materials, which work harden while being
machining.
 Negative rake angle
When the face of the cutting tool slopes upwards from the tip of the tool as shown in
figure(e), it is said to contain a negative rake. Cutting tools with negative rake angle are
stronger, making them suitable for machining high strength materials; for taking interrupted

cuts, and machining with high feeds. Negative rake angles are generally employed on
carbide tipped tools for machining extra-hard surfaces, hardened steel parts, cast steels etc.
Rake angle is a combination of back rake angle and side rake angle as discussed below:
 Back rake angle measures the downward slope of the top surface of the tool from the tip
of the tool (nose) to the rear along the longitudinal axis (z-axis). Back rake angle can be
positive or negative type.
 It allows the chip to flow smoothly when the material is cut by primary cutting edge.
 Side rake angle measures the slope of the top surface of the tool to the side in a direction
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis (z-axis). Side rake angle can positive or negative
type.
 It allows the chip to flow smoothly when the material is cut by side cutting edge.
7 CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL

o Metal cutting process involves high stresses, friction and considerable heat generation
during cutting.

o Technologies such as high speed machining, dry machining and continuing development
for machining tough workpiece materials place extreme demands on cutting tools.
o Emphasis has been laid on the development of heat-resistant tool materials that can be
perform at high speed and lost longer under increasingly rigorous opera ting conditions
o The result has been a progression from high-speed steel (HSS) tools to cemented carbides,
cermets, ceramics and super hard materials.
7.1 PROPERTIES / CHARACTERISTICS / REQUIREMENTS OF CUTTING TOOL
MATERIALS
The material selected for cutting tool should possess the following basic properties:
1. Hot or Red Hardness
o The ability of a material to resist softening at elevated temperature is known as “Hot or red
hardness”.
o A cutting tool material should have a high value of hardness to resist the temperature
generated during metal cutting.

o Else tool will loose shape making it unsuitable for use.
2. Wear resistance

A cutting tool wears gradually as the cutting operation progresses. Hence the material selected
for the tool should show high resistance to wear to ensure longer tool life.
3. Toughness .
Toughness describes a material 's resistance to fracture.
The tool material should be tough or strong enough to withstand the external sudden shocks or
impact forces without fracture
4. Thermal conductivity and specific heat
A tool material should have a high thermal conductivity and specific heats in order to readily
absorb the heat generated at the cutting zone and conduct it away
Chemical stability and inertness

The chemical stability and inertness with respect to the workpiece material should be high, so
that adverse reaction contributing to tool wear are avoided
5. Availability and cost

The material selected for the manufacture of cutting tool should be easily available & with low
cost
7.2 TYPES OF TOOL MATERIALS
 High Carbon Steel
 These contain 0.85 to 1% carbon and can be hardened up to 67 RC.
 The cutting speeds for carbon steel tools are about half the speeds used for high-speed steel.
 So, although cheaper, carbon steel tools are used only for cutting soft materials such as
aluminum, magnesium, and wood and hand tools.
 T70 (0.7% C) is convenient for cold working tools such as chisels, scissors, and knives.
 Metal cutting tools such as threading dies and taps, milling cutters, and planing tools, are
made from T118 (1.18% C).
1. Carbon Chromium Steel
Carbon-chromium steels T 105 Cr 1 and T 105 Cr 1 Mn 60 (1.05% C 1% Cr 0.6% Mn) have
excellent compressive strength and wear resistance, and are used for forming and knurling tools
and press tools.
2. High Carbon, High Chromium

High carbon (1.6-2.15%), high chromium (12%) [HCHC] steels make excellent material for
press tools and cold forming tools, subjected to impact load.
3. Non-Shrinking Tool Steels
Non-shrinking tool steels T 110 W 2 Cr 1 and T 90 Mn 2 W50 Cr 45 are convenient for making
parts which cannot be finished after heat-treatment. These steels are suitable for fine engraving
tools, slender punches, and un-ground taps.
4. High Speed Steel
High Speed Steels [IS: T 75 W 18 Co 6 Cr 4 V1 Mo 75 and T 83 Mo 600 W 6 Cr 4 V 2]. The
first is called 18–4–1 Tungsten tool while the later is called 6-6-2 Molybdenum tool.
5. Cast Cobalt (Stellite) Tool
Also called white bits, these contain costly materials like cobalt (50%), chromium (28%),
tungsten (20%), and (2%) carbon.
Although very hard and convenient for cutting forgings and castings, ‘Stellite’ can be shaped
only by casting, and is very difficult to machine and grind.
This limitation of workability has rendered cast cobalt tools un-economical and obsolete.

6. Carbides
Carbide tools are both, very hard and brittle, and have excellent wear resistance.
The addition of Tantalum and Niobium carbides improves their wear resistance, making the
tool more suitable for steel and other materials that produce long, continuous chips.
 Sintered Tungsten carbides
o First the straight or single carbide tools or inserts were powder
metallurgically produced by mixing, compacting and sintering 90 to 95%
WC powder with cobalt.
o The hot, hard and wear resistant WC grains are held by the binder Co
which provides the necessary strength and toughness. Such tools are
suitable for machining grey cast iron, brass, bronze etc. which produce
short discontinuous chips and at cutting velocities two to three times of
that possible for HSS tools
 Composite carbides
o The single carbide is not suitable for machining steels because of rapid growth of wear
,
particularly crater wear, by diffusion of Co and carbon from the tool to the chip under

the high stress and temperature bulk (plastic) contact between the continuous chip and
the tool surfaces.
o For machining steels successfully, another type called composite carbide have been
developed by adding (8 to 20%) a gamma phase to WC and Co mix. The gamma phas
e is
a mix of TiC, TiN, TaC, NiC etc. which are more diffusion resistant than WC due to t
heir moe stability and less wettability by steel.
7. Ceramics
Ceramic tips are cheaper than tungsten carbide tips. Although very brittle, ceramic tools can be
operated at twice the carbide speed for machining cast iron and hard iron steels
8. Diamond Tips
The strength of natural diamond can be increased two to three times, by sintering diamond
powder under high pressure, at a high temperature. Diamond inserts can be used for high- Speed
(800 m/min) machining of work materials, with high abrasion resistance, such as silicon-
aluminum pistons, and engine blocks
9. Borazon Tips

Also known as synthetic diamond, Borazon tips are used for machining non-ferrous alloys and
non-metals such as fibre, glass, and plastics. They are unsuitable for machining ferrous materials
8 CUTTING FLUID
 During metal cutting, as cutting tool slides on the workpiece, heat is generated due to the
friction between the tool & workpiece material.
 Also, as the chip slides up the tool face, heat is generated due to friction at the contact
points between the chip & tool face.
 The excessive heat thus generated can damage the microstructure of both the cutting tool &
workpiece.
 Also, the life of cutting tool reduces at higher temperature. In order to reduce the effects of
friction of heat generated, cutting fluids are used.
 “A cutting fluid is a liquid (coolant and/or lubricant), added to the cutting zone in order to
reduce the effects of friction between the tool-work & tool-chip interface by way of cooling
& lubrication”.

8.1 FUNCTIONS OF CUTTING FLUID

a) Controls the temperature at the cutting zone through cooling and lubrication, which in turn
helps in decreasing tool wear and extending tool life.
b) cooling and lubrication action of cutting fluid helps in achieving the desired size. shape and
finish of the workpiece. The removal of heat by the cutting fluid prevents the workpiece
from expanding during the machining operation, which would otherwise cause size
variation as well as damage to the materials microstructure. Also, proper use of coolants
can make higher metal removal rates possible.
c) cutting fluid helps to flush away the chips and metal fines from the cutting zone thereby
preventing the tool and the finish of the work surface from becoming marred and
occurrence of built-up-edge (BUE).
8.2 PROPERTIES OF CUTTING FLUID
A cutting fluid should possess the following properties for efficient machining of work parts:
1. High specific heat &. High thermal conductivity , so that maximum heat will be
absorbed and removed per unit of fluid volume circulated.
2. A good lubricating property, so that a strong protective film between the tool face and the
workpiece metal can exist.

3. Such a film assists the chip in sliding easily over the tool face. Besides reducing heat , a
good lubricating fluid lowers power requirements and reduces the rate of tool wear.
particularly in machining tough and ductile metals.
4. Non corrosive , in order to avoid damage to the workpiece and the machine parts.
5. Non-toxic and odourless, in order to provide better working conditions to human
operators.
6. A cutting fluid should have a high flash point• to avoid problems associated with heat
damage, production of smoke. or fluid ignition
7. Low viscosity for easy circulation. Lou• viscosity fluids also allow grit and dirt to settle out
suspension and helps for easy re-circulation through the machining system.
8. Highly stable, in order to resist its decomposition during its storage and use
9. In some operations, fluid transparency may be desired characteristics for a cutting fluid. It
allows operators to see the work are more clearly during machining operations
8.3 SELETION OF CUTTING FLUID
 Choosing a right cutting fluids for a particular operation is very difficult & time
consuming.
 For instances, in high-speed cutting operation such as turning, milling etc.

 The tool-work interface is small & extensive heat is generated due to friction between the
tool & the workpiece.
 In such operations. cooling characteristic of the cutting fluids is very important.
 Conversely in low speed operation such as broaching , threading & tapping etc..
 lubricity is more important, since it tends to reduce the formation of BUE & improve
surface finish of the workpiece. e workpiece.
 Also, the type of workpiece material plays a important role in selection of cutting fluid.
Following are few factors to be considered when selecting a cutting fluid :
1. Cutting speed. Feed and depth of cut selected
2. Type, Hardness & microstructure of the workpiece material being machined
3. Operating temperature range
4. Cost and life expectancy of fluid.
5. fluid capability with workpiece and machine components
6. Ease of storage and handling while in use.
7. Ease or fluid recycling or disposal
8.4 TYPES CUTTING FLUIDS
Cutting Fluids be categorized into two groups, based on their oil content as listed below:

1. Oil based fluid

a. Straight oil
b. Soluble oil
2. Chemical based fluid
a. Synthetic oil
b. Semi synthetic oil
OIL BASED CUTTING FLUID
Oil based cutting fluids consist of a diverse range of oil mixtures with various additives and
compounds to give the required properties the cutting fluids.
Oil-based fluids include straight oil and soluble oil.
a. STRAIGHT OIL
Straight oil or Neat oil so called because they do not contain water.
The cutting fluids is composed of 100% Petroleum oil or mineral oil along with some lubricant
such as fats, vegetable oil & esters. as well as Extreme Pressure (EP) additives in order to
improve specific properties .

Generally, additives are not required for light duty machining operations.
however, for severe machining operation. where heavy cuts are to be taken and machining hard
materials like titanium, stainless steel etc., EP additives such as sulphur, chlorine or
phosphorous compounds are often used.
These additives improve the lubricating and wettability property; that is the ability of the oil to
coat the cutting tool, workpiece and the chips.
Advantages
1. Provides excellent lubricating property between the workpiece and cutting tool.
2. Tool life can be increased
3. Good rust protection.
4. Easy maintenance.
5. Absence of water eliminates bacterial development and odour problems.
Disadvantages
1. Costlier.
2. Poor heal dissipating properties.

3. Increased life risk and hence its use is limited to low-temperature and low-pressure
operations
Applications
1. Used in severe cutting operation such as crush grinding, tapping, broaching, deep hole
drilling
2. Cutting difficult to cut hard materials like titanium, stainless steel etc.
b. SOLUBLE OIL
Soluble oil also referred as Emulsions, Emulsifiable oils or Water-soluble oils, are generally
comprised of 60 - 90 % Petroleum oil or mineral oil, Emulsifiers and other Extreme Pressure
(EP) additives.
Use of soluble oils for a particular application depends on the concentration containing more
water & less oil provide better cooling but less lubrication.
On the other hand, rich concentrations containing less water and more oil provide better
lubrication qualities. but poor cooling.

Advantages
1. Good lubrication capability.
2. Suitable for light and medium duty operations involving both ferrous and nonferrous
metals.
3. concentrations of oil can be varied for heavy duty applications
4. least expensive among all the cutting fluids
Disadvantages
1. Presence of water makes the oil more susceptible to corrosion, bacterial growth &
odourness.
2. High maintenance cost
3. Not suitable for high tensile & stainless steel alloys or nickel alloys
Applications
1. General purpose of cutting operations on low & medium tensile steels, free machining of
brass, bronze & cast iron.
2. It may also used as a grinding fluid in noncritical applications. However not suitable for
high tensile & stainless steel or nickel alloys

CHEMICAL BASED CUTTING FLUID

It contains little or no oil with pre concentrated emulsions and few extreme pressure (EP)
additives.
They have been widely accepted by the industry since its first introduction.
a. SYNTHETIC OIL
synthetic oil generally consists of chemical lubricant & rust inhibitors dissolved in water.
Emulsifiers can be added to create lubrication properties similar to soluble oils.
allowing the fluid to act as a lubricant and coolant in heavy duty machining operations.
The various chemicals found in this type of oil include:
a. Amines and nitrates for rust prevention
b. Phosphates and borates for water softening
c. Soaps and wetting agents for lubrication
d. Glycols to act as blending agents.

e. Biocides to control bacterial growth

Advantages
1. Good corrosion control.
2. Superior cooling properties.
3. Greater stability when mixed with hard water
4. can be stored for long periods of time without any problems
5. Easy maintenance
Disadvantages
1. Synthetic coolants have a tendency to foam. If the rate of the coolant flow for particular
application high, excessive foaming can be ceased, resulting in poor surface finish &
reduced tool life.
2. Lubricating property is not satisfactory.
3. Ingredients added to enhance the lubricating property can result in component rusting and
leave gummy residues on the machine System
4. Synthetic fluids are easily contaminated by other machine fluids like lubricating oils and
hence need to be monitored and maintained so that it can be used effectively.

Applications
Used in grinding carbide tools with diamond wheels, ordinary commercial grinding where finish
is not very critical, in some CNC machines where stock removal is low etc
b. SEMI SYNTHETIC OIL
Semi-synthetic oils also referred to as semi-chemical fluids are a combination of mineral oil in
small amount varying from 20-30% in water dilutable concentration and certain synthetic
chemicals.
The synthetic chemicals mainly consists of emulsifier & water : wetting agents, corrosion
inhibitors & biocide additives.
Since this type of oil include both constituents of synthetic & soluble oils , they possess
properties common to both the types of oils
Advantages
1. Better cooling & wettability properties.
2. Can be used for heavy duty applications
3. Low viscosity

4. Less smoke & provide better control over bacterial growth

5. Good corrosion protection
Disadvantages
1. Water hardness effects the stability
2. They easily foam
3. Lubricating property is not satisfactory.
Applications
1. General purpose of machining operations,
2. Cylindrical & centreless grinding operations where very high surface finish is not required.
9 INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE FINISH

 Machining process generates a wide variety of irregularities on the surface of he
workpiece .
 these irregularities are in the form of finely spaced markings (pattern)left by the cutting tool
on he workpiece surface.

 In simple words, the finish obtained on the workpiece surface after machining is not
perfectly smooth.
 The term surface finish or texture or surface roughness is used to indicate the local
deviations of a work surface from perfectly flat ideal face (a true plane).
The nature of surface is defined by three characteristics as listed below & illustrated in figure
a) Roughness : small, finely spaced surface irregularities(micro irregularities)
b) Waviness : surface irregularities of greater spacing(macro irregularities)
c) Lay : predominant direction of surface pattern
9.1 EFFECT OF MACHINING PARAMETER ON SURFACE FINISH

Surface finish is primarily influenced by three machining parameters: speed, feed & depth of
cut.
Cutting speed
Low cutting speed tend to form build up edge on the rake face of the cutting tool causing the
tool edge to become blunt and thereby producing a rough surface on work parts.
Friction also increases at the tool chip interface and in turn forces and power consumption will
also increase during machining operation.
On other hand increasing cutting speed during machining improves surface finish due to
continuous reduction in the formation of built up edge.
Feed
Increasing feed rate during machining deteriorates surface finish.
The height of irregularities formed by the cutting tool on the work surface varies to a large
extent with high feed rates.
On other hand slow feed rate gives a good finish, however up to a certain value and thereafter
the surface finish deteriorates.

A proper feed rate has to selected based on the depth of cut.

Depth of cut
 Increasing depth of cut rate during machining deteriorates surface finish.
 Hifh depth of cut implies higher cutting forces leading to chatter & vibrations in in machine
tool that impact surface finish.
 Increasing depth of cut tends to increase waviness height As a general rule of thumb, depth
of cut should be slightly greater than nose radius of the cutting edge.
 Apart from the above machining parameters, there are other parameters influencing the
surface finish of machined parts.
These parameters include:
a) Tool geometry : nose radius, rake angle, relief angles, side cutting edge angle & cutting
edge
b) Mechanical properties of tool & work materials
c) Type of cutting fluid used
d) Machine tool rigidity & accuracy
10 TOOL LIFE

 Tool life is the time duration of a tool can be reliably used for cutting before it must be
discarded or re-ground.
 The life of the cutting tool is one of the most important economical considerations in metal
culling.
 Hence the tool must be utilized efficiently to the maximum possible extent before it can be
ground or discarded, because tool grinding or replacement costs are very high.
 The life of the cool is affected by various parameters as listed below:
1. Machining variables like feed, speed and depth of cut
With increasing cutting speed, feed. and depth of cut, tool wear rate also increases, thereby
reducing the life of the cutting tool.
However, feed and depth of cut does not impact tool life as much as an increasing cutting
speed.
2. Tool Geometry that includes various angles
An increase in rake angle increases tool life by reducing cutting force, however large rake angles
weaken the cutting edge.

Similarly, higher relief or clearance angle increases tool life by reducing heat generation at the
work-tool interface, however higher angles results in weaker tool.
Further, higher nose radius increases the strength of the tool. but reduces tool life.
3. Type of tool material
The material selected for cutting tool must possess favourable properties like high hot hardness,
wear resistance, toughness, thermal conductivity & specific heat.
Further, it must be capable enough to remove maximum volume of material at all cutting
condition.
Any reduction in the properties due to high temperature and cutting forces will impair the tool
there by reducing life.
4. Type of workpiece material
 Work material with greater hardness require greater cutting forces leading to greater power
consumption, toll wear increases with greater cutting forces there by reducing the life of the
cutting tool.
 On the other hand , the reverse happens for work material with increasing ductility.

 Since ductile material have tendency to deform easily, low cutting forces are sufficient to
remove material.
 Thus the tool wear decreases with increasing ductility there by increasing the life of the
tool. The various properties of work material depend on its microstructure
5. Use of suitable cutting fluids
Higher cutting forces generate higher temperatures at the cutting zone resulting in adverse
effects on the cutting tool, Work material and the flowing chips.
Use of suitable cutting fluids and effectively supplying it into the cutting zone reduces the
coefficient of friction between the sliding elements and hence the temperature , through ways of
cooling and lubrication functions.
Tool wear can be minimized to a greater extent thereby increasing the life of the cutting tool.
6. Nature of cutting
Tool life is more in case of continuous cutting when compared to intermittent type of cutting
where the cutting edge of the tool will not be in continuous contact with the work surface.
Intermittent cutting causes regular impacts on the tool resulting in failure of the tool in a short
span.

It must be ensured through all means to have continuous type of cutting in order to enhance tool
life
7. Rigidity of tool and work
Both the tool and workpiece must be secured rigidly during machining operation.
If not vibrations may develop cause the tool to have Intermittent cutting instead of continuous
cutting resulting in decrease in the life of the cutting tool.
10.1 TAYLOR 'S TOOL LIFE EQUATION
 Of all the variables like feed, speed, depth of cut, type or workpiece material, coolant etc.,
that affect the tool life, the cutting speed forms the most significant parameter.
 F.W. Taylor, an American engineer developed a standardized test to determine the
relationship between the cutting speed and the time the tool remains useful.
 The test was carried out for different combinations of tool and workpiece material; and the
flank wear of the tool under test was measured.
 It was found that a practical amount of wear to measure before breakage was 0.75 mm
(VB ) for solid and brazed tips, and 1.25 mm (VB )for ceramic tools.

 Tests were carried out to determine the time taken to reach this amount of wear at different
cutting speeds.
 The results were plotted on a graph showing that a logarithmic relationship existed between
the cutting speed and the tool life (cutting time).
An empirical relation for tool life with cutting speed was given by Taylor and is known as
Taylor’s tool life equation
n
VT = C
where V = cutting speed in m/min
T= tool life in minutes.
C =A constant called Machining constant. which is numerically equal to the cutting speed
in m/min would give a tool life of 1 min

n = an exponential index for a particular combination of tool & workpiece material.

The value of index n for most combinations of tool and workpiece material can be found in a
tabular form machining handbooks..
Table shows the range of values of n for different combinations of tool-workpiece materials.
The value of n increases with increase in the refractoriness of the tool material
Sl Tool Material Value
No of n
1 HSS tools 0.1-
0.18
2 Uncoated Tunsten 0.2-
Carbide(WC) 0.25
3 Ti-C or Ti-N Coated 0.3
WC tools
4 Al2O3 Coated WC 0.4
tools
5 Ceramic tools 0.4-0.7
10.2 EFFECT OF CUTTING PARAMETERS ON TOOL LIFE

For all metal cutting operations, cutting speed, Feed and depth of cut form the critical
parameters because they affect the productivity of the machining operation, surface finish, heat
generated during cutting, power consumption and in particular, the life of the cutting tool.
Cutting Speed
 Cutting speed refers to the relative surface speed between the tool and the workpiece.
 The life of the tool varies inversely as the cutting speed.
 As the cutting speed is increased, wear rate increases, so the same wear criterion is reached
in less time
 i.e. tool life decreases with increasing cutting speeds shown in figure.
 The relation between the cutting speed(V) & tool life(T) is given by Taylor 's tool life
equation in the form VTn= C where n is the exponential term and C is the machining
constant

Feed
Feed is the amount of material removed for each revolution or per pass of the tool over the
workpiece.
increasing feed rate increases cutting temperature and flank wear thereby shortening the life of
cutting tool.
However, effort on the tool life is minimal when compared to cutting speed. The rate of feed
given depend on the depth of cut
Depth of cut
 Depth of cut relates to the depth the cutting edge of the tool engages the work.
 Small depths of cut results in friction when cutting the hardened layer of a work metal.

 Increasing the depth of cut increases the tool life over an increases in feed rate.
 But, as long as it is practical and chip formation is satisfactory.
 it is better to choose a heavy feed rate.
 Deeper cut is more advantageous than a heavy feed, especially where longer tool life is
needed.
11 MACHINABILITY
Machinability is a term that describes the ease with which a material can be cut with a
satisfactory surface finish, long tool life, low force and power requirements and with low cost.
For example, low alloyed carbon steel is easier to cut compared to austenitic stainless steels.
Hence, the low alloy carbon steel is said to have a comparatively better machinability.
Machinability depends on various factors (parameters) as listed below:
1. Physical properties of work material like tensile strength, hardness etc. More the strength
and hardness of the work material, more difficult to cut
2. Chemical composition of work material. For example, higher the carbon content in steel,
more difficult to cut
3. Microstructure of work material.

4. Cutting condition like tool geometry, use of cutting fluid, selecting proper speed, feed and
depth of cut affects machinability.
5. Rigidity of tool and work holding devices indirectly affects machinability
Machinabilty index
Machinability index or Machinability rating is a factor that attempts to qualify the machinability of various
materials.
In other words , machinability of different materilas is compared in terms of their machinability indexes.it is
expresse d as a percentage and given by the equation.
Cutting speed of metal investigated for 20 min tool life
Machinability Index=
Cutting speed of a standard steel for 20 min tool life
12 TOOL FAILURE
A properly designed and ground cutting tool is expected to perform the metal cutting operations in an effective
smooth manner.
If, however, it is not giving a satisfactory performance it is indicative of the tool failure and the same is reflected by
the following adverse effects observed during the operation.
1. Extremely poor surface finish on the workpiece
2. Higher consumption of power

3. Work dimensions not being produced as specified

4. Overheating of cutting tool
5. Appearance of a burnishing band on the work surface.
During the operation tool ay fail due to one or more of the following reasons:
1. Thermal cracking and softening
2. Mechanical chipping
3. Gradual wear
a) Crater wear
b) Flank wear
13 TOOL WEAR
• Wear is the damaging, gradual removal or deformation of material at solid surfaces.
• Causes of wear can be mechanical (e.g., erosion) or chemical (e.g., corrosion).
• The study of wear and related processes is referred to as “Tribology”.
• Wear in machine elements, together with other processes such as fatigue and creep, causes functional surfaces to
degrade, eventually leading to material failure or loss of functionality. Thus, wear has large economic relevance.
• Wear of metals occurs by plastic displacement of surface and near-surface material and by detachment of
particles that form wear debris.

• The particle size may vary from millimeters to nanometers.
• This process may occur by contact with other metals, nonmetallic solids, flowing liquids, solid particles or liquid
droplets entrained in flowing gasses.
• The wear rate is affected by factors such as type of loading (e.g., impact, static, dynamic), type of motion
(e.g., sliding, rolling), and temperature. Depending on the tribosystem, different wear types and wear
mechanisms can be observed.
13.1 TYPES OF TOOL WEAR

They include
1. Crater wear
2. Flank wear
Crater wear
1. The principal region where wear takes places in a cutting tool is its face at a small distance (say a) from its
cutting edge.
2. This type of wear generally takes places while machining ductile materials like steel and steel alloys in which
continuous chip is produced.
3. The resultant feature of this type of wear of a crater or a depression at the tool chip interface

Flank wear
 Another region where an appreciable amount of wear occurs is the flank below the cutting edge.
 It occurs due to abrasion between the tool flank and the work piece and excessive heat generated heat
generated as a result of the same.
 The abrasive action is aided by the hard micro constituents of the cut material provide a lot of abrasive
material readily


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UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION TO METAL CUTTING

1 INTRODUCTION TO METAL CUTTING

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 In this context, it is obviously of a vital importance to understand and practice the

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1.2 METAL CUTTING

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 Perforating: Punching of holes of different contours.

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3 MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

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3.1 ORTHOGONAL & OBLIQUE CUTTING

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3.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN ORTHOGONAL & OBLIQUE CUTTING

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of cut, the force which on a larger area enhancing

4 CHIP FORMATION PROCESS

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d) Inhomogeneous strain chip

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(d) Inhomogeneous strain chip

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i.e t1L1 = t2L2

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chip length after cutting

5.3 Power and Energy Relationship

Es = Shear energy per unit volume on shear plane

Ef = Friction energy per unit volume on tool face

Em = Momentum energy per unit volume due to associated momentum

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MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE

6 INTRODUCTION TO CUTTING TOOL

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 Cutting may be accomplished by single point or multipoint tools.

6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOL

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6.3 SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY

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b) End cutting edge angle

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