UNIT. INTRODUCTION To MEASUREMENTS INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENTS: Physical measurement ~ Forms and methods of measurements Measurement errors Statistical analysts of messsrement dat, Probability of erors, Limiting erers- Standards - Definition of standard units, International standards, Primary standards, Secondary standards, Working standards - Voltage standard! Resistance standard (Current standard, Capacitance standard, Time and frequency standards LEARNING OBJECTIVES Methods of measurements Meosurement error Stondards uni, primary and secondary standards Voltage and current stondards Reslstance and capacitance stondards c cs ig c cs c Time and frequency stondards ? ; > INTRODUCTION The conversion of physical porameters into corresponding numerical valves Is termed + Measurement. Measurement system Includes all the components in a chain of hardware ond software that leads from the measured variable to processed data. ‘The main alm of measuring system (or) measuring Instrument Isto provide numerical values propertional to the quantity of vorlables being measured. Without measurement, It is all guess work! ‘An Instrument Is necessary to carry out the process of measurement. The Instruments which are used to measure the basic lectrcal quantities such a+ current, voltage, power and energy are called besle measuring Instruments. These instruments ore categorized Into two types namely, analog Instruments and digital instruments. The principle ond different types of cenalog and digital Instruments Le,, voltmeters ond ammeters are discussed.in ths unit: The measurement process cannot be made with perfect accuracy Le., there are some errors in Instruments. These errors are also discussed In this unit Depending upen the various Instruments, measurement finds Wide applications in automatic control system, quality control, ‘experimental studies, simulation, blomedicol Industrles, radar tracking systems, power plants, avtomotion etc.. ” ade eit | SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE VOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS-" ok2 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAp) TT PART-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS Q1. What are the various important functional elements of a typical measurement system? Ans: Model Popers, ai ‘The various important functional elements of a typical measurement system are as follows. 1. Primary sensing element 2. © Variable conversion element : 3. Variable manipulation element 4. Data transmission element 5. Data presentation element 6,___ Data storage and playback element, 2. Show the block diagram indicating functional elements of measurement system. The block diagram indicating functional elements of measurement system is shown in figure. Data storage] and playback ‘element Data conditioning element art Physical Primary ‘Variable Variable Data Data parameter to__1 sensing conversion|—>| manipulation transmission} > presentation| aay clement clement element ‘clement clement Figure: Block Diagram of Measurement System Q3. Name the static characteristics of a measurement system. Ans: G ‘The static characteristics of a measurement system are, 1. Accuracy 2. Precision 3. Sensitivity 4. | Linearity 5. Threshold = 6, ——“Hysteresis 7. Resolution «8. Stability 9-. Reproducibility 10. Dead zone —1.—-Range and span. 12, Drift 13._Static error. = G4. Define the terms accuracy and precision. Ans: : Accuracy . ‘Accuracy can be defined as the degree of closeness with which the ‘output ofthe instrument indicates the true value oft ‘quantity being measured, : . Son nthe, It is defined as the ratio of the difference between the measured value and true value to the true value. : "Measured value - True value , 199 Fe ye value TOO” ° True value Generally, this ratio fs expressed in terms of percentage of full ale output value, “| The accuracy of the measuring system is also expressed as, —_— ° " Measured value - True value : heey Fullscale value 1° - same output values among several independent measureme®4 ‘same input under specified conditions is referred to as precision and is expressed in terms of deviation in ‘ueasurement. WARNING XeroxiPhotocopying ofthis book is 0 CRIMAINAL vt. Ajo fund ply it UBL aac LEGAL precenonsUNIT-1 (Introduction to Measurements) Q5. Define static sensitivity, Ans: Sensitivity or static sensitivity is the ratio of magnitude of change in the output to the magnitude of the change in input quantity being fneasured, In simple words its the transfer ratio of increment in output signal to the increment in input signal and it can be expressed as, Sensitivity = Change in output signal (Change in input signal = Ade 5 SEE; ‘ Where, K= Sensitivity : 4,~ Value of ouput signal =~ ‘Value of input signal. Q6, Define resolution. Ans: : .__ Resolution of a measuring instrument can be stated as ‘any smallest change in the meastied variable that can be noticed or detected by the instrument with certainty’. __!f an instrument has high resolution then it can detect vvery’small changes in the input quantity. Q7.. Name the dynamic characteristics of measurement systems. Ans: : The following are the dynamic characteristics of measurement systems. 1. Speed of response 2.--Measurement lag 3. Fidelity _ 4. Dynamic error 5. Dynamic range 6 Bandwidth 7.___ Settling timé 8,_‘Time constant, Q8." Define static error. Classify the types of static Ans: Mode! Papert, a) Static Error Static error is defined as the numerical difference between the value obtained by measurement of the quantity and the true value of the same quantity. I is also known as absolute static error of quantity A. Mathematically, it is expressed as, BA=Ay- A, : Where, 5A = Static error ~ A, = Measured value of quantity A,= True value of same quantity. ‘Types of Static Exror Static errots are classified as, (2) "Gross errors () Systematic errors (©) Random errors. _SPECTRUM ALLN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS . be . pale 3 Q9. Define limiting error and relative limiting error. Ans: Modol Papers, 1(a) Limiting Error Limiting error is the specification of an instrument that guarantees its accuracy. It specifies the accuracy of an instrument within somt percentage of full scale reading. It is also known as guarantee error. For example, that accuracy of 0 -100 V voltmeter, specified by the manufacturer is + 2% with full scale deflection. This specification implies limiting error within + 2% of full scale deflection, Relative Limiting Error ‘The relative error is defined as the ratio of the static error to the true value of the quantity. Relative limiting error is also known as fractional error or relative error. Relative limiting error, €, i Where, A= Measured value (4,,) ~ True value (4,) = Static error A,=Trve value. Q10. What is percentage error? Ans: Percentage error is given as, Percentage error =% € ,=€ ,*100 Where, , is the relative error and is equal to the ratio of | absolute error to the true value. ‘The percentage error represents the amount of error with respect to true value of the measurand Q11, Whats relative accuracy? Al Relative accuracy (4) is given as, Relative accuracy = 4 = 1 - fe,| Where, 7 , is the relative error and is equal to the ratio of absolute error to the true value hen € = St etna aera Hence, Relative accuracy, A @ I~ F* ‘The relative accuracy represents percentage error a& sacduracy, rather than ervor, .4 12. Whatis average deviation? What does it indicate ‘on a measuring instrument? Ans: ‘The average deviation of a set of readings is defined as the ratio of sum of absolute values of individual deviations to the total number of readings. i.e, Average deviation, D + Where, Ih Jel» [da are absolute values of deviations d,, d, 1d, and n isthe total number of readings. ‘The precision of a measuring device may be determined from the average deviation of a set of readings. The precision of the instrument is inversely related to average deviation ic. low value of average deviation indicates that the instrument is highly prec Q13. Write down the di instrument. Ja, +d, [+14 14+ 1 | n An: es, 110) ‘The different standards of an instrument based on its functions and applications are as follows. (@_Internatiorial standards (i) Primary standards ‘Secondary standards (iv)__ Working standards. "Q14. Give the international standards of instruments. Ans: Model Papers, a1(b) International standards are described based on international ‘agreement. They express some units of measurement whose accuracy is close to that attainable by using present day technologies and scientific methods. International standards are verified periodically in terms of the fundamental units and are ‘maintained at International Bureau of weights and measures. For example, Intemational Ohms is defined as the resistance that is provided to the flow of constant current by # mercury column ‘with a mass of 14.4521 gms, having uniform cross-sectional area ‘and 106.300 em length atthe ice melting point, Q15, What is callbration? OR: : Whats meant by callbratin of an instrument? Ans: Calibration is stated as a process of comparing the output Of test instrument simultancously With the output of standard instrument of known accuracy when the input applied to both the instruments is same. The purpose of calibration isto ensure the accuracy of test instrument over its entire measurement range, MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] 16. What is the sign Ans: Catfbration is a necessary process that is to be one for provides an assurance to the instrument ircumstances, the: instrument that under any environmental circumst vould operate ata desired accuracy. Calibration isan important Mopect, which describes the performance characteristics ofan iaerument in order to find errors and accuracy over the whole measurement range. Calibration also shows some of the built Jpdofeets present inelectromechanical instruments made of elastic ‘elements. Thus, the proces$ of calibration guarantees that the grade of performance ofan instrument matches with its specifications G17. What are the sources of errors in D.C yoltage measurement?. i \ce of calibration? every instrument. It | “The various sources oferors in D.C voltage measurement ar, ‘Temperature Error ‘This type of error occurs due to heating, of coil when operating current flows through the e Friction Error This type of error occurs due to friction present in the pivot of jewel bearings. Observational Error This type of error occurs due to improper reading of seale and parallax error. Q16. Explain the following terms, () Speed of response (ii) Time constant w ai ins. (ii) Dead zone (iv) Dead time. Ans: () Speed of Response: It is the quickness of an instrument with which it responds. to the sudden changes in amplitude of the input signal. . Speed of fesponse can also be stated as the total time taken by the system to come closer to steady state condition. Speed of response of a system can be evahuated by knowing the measurement lag of that system. “Time Constant: Time constant is specified as the time taken by the system to reach 63.2% of its final outpat signal amplitude, It is related with the performance of first order system and also it is associated to the Parameters of the system, Dead Zone: The change of input quantity upto tht * maximum extent for which there is no output of instrument is known as dead OR . ‘The change of input quantity upto the maximum extent! ‘which the measuring system does not respond is know" as dead space or deud zone-or dead band. Dend Time: The time required by instrument to start to re is called as Dead time, © ay space. wy measuring ‘spond to a variation in the inp! WARNING: XeroxiPhotecopying of thir book ts a CRIMINAL it, Ano wy LE fe LEGAL rc .UNIT-1 (Introduction to Measurements) Fens ; Q19. Define resistance and resistivity of the material, Ans: Resistance isthe property ofa substance which causes opposition othe flow of current when passing through it Itis equal to the ratio of voltage (¥) across the conductor tothe flow of current, (D. It is measured in ohms (Q). v R= ohms (Q) Rat a rao @ ‘Where p is the resistivity constant of the substance, Resistivity Jo unit cube of a material, the resistance offered between two opposite sides is called as resistivity It is denoted by symbol p and measured in ohm-meter (Q-m). Q20. Classify types of resistors. Ans: Classification of Resistors ator Pretion Wie wound Groen! Preciion ype Gower purpese 1 iors - 2 Thermiton « mane : m4 3. Vatisors . ‘Trimmers Caton Wie Meol Metal Potentonsters ‘Rheostss fim wound film onde ‘oan Gmype) : ' ‘cuton Wee wound Q21. Write the specifications of resistor. Ans: . ‘Specifications of Resistor The following are the specifications of resistor that can be taken into consideration while selecting a resistor, 1. Resistance value 2. Power rating : 3. Tolerance 4, Tempeature coefficient of resistance 5. Voltage coefficient of resistance 7 6 Stability 2 Frequency response. . ‘ . ] y. SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS... ~,MENTS [JNTU-HYDE} ABAD) 6 MEASURING INSTRU! 022. Classify the types of capacitors. Ans: Classification of Capacitors P es as shown below. Based on different parameters, capacitors are broadly classifed into various types as. capacitor $ dielectric used construction polarization - ; Ex: Mica, paper, Ceramic, ar, electrolytic capacitors . yoluge High voltage Fixe Variable Polarized Non Low tr than BM Pap, Tig ExAonium plied (estan 0) (eater tan 10) . Pape, Ceramic, EX: Mica, Glass, ceramie, Electrolytic Capacitors & and Tantalum cap Trimming Eletelytic Eleewoltic Capacitors Q23. List the specifications of capacitors. Ans: Specifications of Capacitors : i ‘The specifications of capacitors are as follows, 1. Capacitorvatue Sahn 2. Tolerance 3. Dielectric strength 4, Power factor 5S. Temperature - coefficient 6. Voltage rating 7. Equivalent series resistance : 8. Leakage current. : Q24. List out the characteristics depending upon which the cholce of a capacitor for any application depends. ‘The various characteristics depending upon which the choice ofa capacitcr for any application dépends are listed bebx 1. . Voltage roting 2. Tolerance 3. Temperature range - : ; 4. Insulation resistances J 5S. Power factor 6. Capacitor aging and storage 7. Dielectric absorption 8. Capacitance - temperature character 9. Capacitance - voltage characteristics : 10. Capacitance - frequency characteristics, » (WARNING xenon lc OU Aid ay Lt Ec pciUNIT-1 (Introduction to Mé surements) 2 Inthe early ‘Years of invention of capacitors, they were available with colour codes on them. Later for the ease of capacitor selection, capacitors were then available with written markings on them. Capacitor marking is different for different types of capacitors. The most commonly used method of marking is resin dipped polyster and other types of capacitors involves quoting the values i.e. uF or aF or pF and the tolerance ie., 5% ot 10% or 20%. And also the working voltage using symbol ‘—" for DC and symbol" for AC is marked. Most ofthe manufacturer uses two separate lines forthe capacitor marking, The fs line indicates the value of the capacitance (pF, nF or uF) and tolerance (J = 5% or K = 10% or M= 20%). The second line is used fo mark the rated voltage and code for the dielectric material. Q26. Write about voltage rating of a capacitor. Ans: ‘Voltage rating or working voltage ofa capacitor is defined asthe maximum amount ‘of voltage or potential difference that can be applied across the capacitor without puncturing its dielectric layer. Voltage ratings for capacitors ae given upto a temperature of 60°C and beyond this temperature a the temperature increases, voltage rating decreases. Voltage ratings of 200 - 500 V de'are available for general purpose paper, mica and ceramic capacitors whereas vollage ratings of 25, 150 and 450 V are commonly used for electrolytic capacitors - 27. List out the applications of capacitors. « An: Applications of Capacitors 2 The following are the applications of capacitors. 1, Capacitor blocks d.c and allows a.c. It stores electric charge. Iti used in filter circuits. its, | 2 3 4, Itis also used in a. ci 5. It is used in oscillator circuits 6. Itis used in tuning and tracking circuits. . .” SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTSUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABpp, 8 MEASURING INSTR UTIONS PART-B ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOL! TS MEASUREMEN 4.10 Paysicar Measurements, Forms ano MeTHops oe ae sy Q28. Define measurement. Draw the block diagram of measuremen' various blocks, Model Papers ny Ans: Measurement id explain the functions oy : g numerical values. In the measuring Measurement is the conversion of physical parameters into their correspondin: ou aie Sa eeae nye Particular pre There are two requirements which are to be satisfied to get 2 oses. J. «An accurately defined and accepted standard should be used for the coe es Ferenc ael and also the meas " 2. The components or apparatus which are used for measurement Ps ‘The main objective of a measuring instrument or measurement system isto provide a numerical value Which is proportions to the quantity of the variable being measured. ma storage/ply back : element J L Data Pi Varabe Varable Dat Mesum) Neng, cenvesin | —>| manputton |e transmission |] presentation element element ‘cement element clement Figure: Block Diagram of Measurement System (or Instrumentation System Funictional Elements : ‘The instrumentation system contains followin; Primary sensing elements 5 Variables conversion clement Variables manipulation element Data transmission element Data storage and presentation element. 1. Primary Sensing Elements ig functional elements. They are as follows, or voltage. The output from the primary s for variable conversion element. The vari For example, suppose the output is in digital form and th form and therefore, D/A converter is to be used for conve 3» Varlables Manipulation Element: To perform the intended task, an inst by some physical variable be manipulate in some way Manipulation here 5 value according to some definite rue but preservation of here " : amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces mp 3° fs algae: For example an electost times the input. tis not necessary that a varble manipulation clones Should follow te ev oL aE buts some const fundamental process is o prevent signal low which may interfere with the original output _ WARNING: XeroslPhitocopying ths bookUNIT-1 (Introduction to Measurements) ‘quipment. The signal after being sensed cannot be directly transmitted to the next stage without removing the interfering sources as otherwise highly distorted results may be obtained which are far from true, It becomes necessary to perform certain operations on the signal before itis transmitted. These operations may be linear or nonlinear. The linear operations performed on the signals may be amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation, chopping ete. are also performed on the Signal to bring it to the desired form to be accepted by the next stage of measurement system. This process of conversion is called signal conditioning. The signal conditioning includes Amplification, Signal filtration, Signal compensation/Signal linearization, Signal averaging and Signal sampling. Amplification: The term amplification means increasing the amplitude’ of the signal without affecting its waveform. The reverse phenomenon of attenuation is reduction of the signal amplitude while retaining its original waveform, Mechanical amplifying elements such as levers, gears, or a combination of the two designed to have multiplying effect on the input transducer signal hydraulic pneumatic amplifying elements employing various types of values or constructions, such as, Venturimeter/orificemeter. ‘Signal Filtration: The term signal filtration means the removal of unwanted noise signals that tend to obscure the transducer signal. The signal filtration element could be mechanical filters, pneumatic filters, electrical filters, Data Transmission Element: When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated, it becomes necessary to transmit data from one to another. The element that performs this flinctions is called a Data Transmission Element. The transmission element can be as simple as a shaft and bearing assembly or as complicated as a telemetry system for transmitting signals from satellites to ground equipment by radio. Data Storage and Presentation Element: The storage in the form of peniink recording is often employed. Some applications require a distinct data storage/play ‘back function which can easily reereate the stored data, upon command. The magnetic tape recorder/reproducer is the classical example. Moder instruments digitize the electric signals and store them in a computer like digital memory, The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system monitoring, control, or analysis purpose. The information conveyed must be in {form intelligible to the personal or to the intelligent instrumentation system. This function is done by data presentation clement. In case data is 10 be monitored, visual display devices are needed. These devices may be | analog or digital indicating instrunients like ammeters, voltmeters ete, In case the data is'to’be recorded, ot . SPECTRUM ALLAN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS... 9 recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera and ‘LY. equipment storage type CRT, printers, analog and digital computers or microprocessors may be used. For control and analysis purpose microprocessors OF ‘computers may be used, Q29. Classify measuring instruments. An: Classification of Measurement Systems: Based on the factors like mode of operation, type of energy conversion principles used, type of input they accept and the nature of output they provide, their use in different fields, the measurement systems are classified into the following types, 3 Manual and Automatic Instruments: The instruments which require the services of human operator are referred as manual instruments. For example, resistance thermometer used for the measurement of temperature, Because, itis required to incorporate the thermometer in Wheatstone bridge circuit and needs a human operator {o adjust forthe balance condition of the bridge. ‘The instruments which do not require the services of hhuman operator are referred as automatic instruments. ‘The automatic instruments incorporated with an auxiliary device, which performs the manual operation thereby avoids the services of human operator. For example, liquid-in-glass thermometer used for the measurement of temperature, because it indicates the temperature sensed by it without the need of any manual assistance. Self Generating (Active) and Power Operated (Passive) Instruments: The instruments which do not require any external energy source for their operation are referred as self generating (active) instruments. The ‘energy required for their operation is taken from the supplied to it, For example, tachogenerator used for the measurement of angular velocity. The instruments which require an auxiliary power soutce (uch as electric supply, compressed air, hydraulic supply «tc.,) for their operation are referred as power operated (passive) instruments. For example, LVDT used for the measurement of pressure, force, displacement. Deflection and Null Output Instruments: The instruments in which the physical effect produced by * the measured (the quantity being measured) is noted and correlated to the measurand are called as deflecting. instruments. For example, spring balance type weight ‘measuring instrument. ‘The instruments in which the physical effect produced by the measured is nullified (deflection is made equal to zero) by generating an equivalent and opposing effect . are called as null type instruments. In this ease,-the equivalent and opposing effect required to mafntain the deflection at zero gives the measure of the measurand. For example, measurement of weight using equal arm beam balance: ¢7 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (JNTU-HYDERABAD, ‘Analog aed Digital lstroments: The anane which roves Deir out analog form WHEN 8 cosinang Sanction of time ae called as analog istnamees Fer example, speedometer of x aomobils, “The instruments which provide thet oup in iil foe in the form of discrete eps poles) ae calles dis ‘msrumens. For example, aibrated balance ofa platform scale Contacting and Non-contactng Instrumente: The istncot which is Ley the measuring medium is refered ay ‘contacting instrument. Fr example, clinical thermometer, ‘The instruments which ae located at distance fom the measuring pedium ie. ot in eloie contact withthe messurng medium ate called as non-contacing instruments. For exarple optical pyronctee. ‘G30. What do you mean by functional elements? Explain one such scheme of dividing an Instrument ints functional eloments with example, Anat Functional Elements: The various component of meaning system or instrument tha fe wid to cay Out cman defn, "required funtion nthe mesvarement proces at called a funcuonal elements A perraired measremen! sem (Bi fom ‘of any instrumentation sytem) divided ito varios fimconal elements slatted figure given below, For emaining answer refer Unit, 028, Topic: Functional Emer. Fxamples of Various Functional Element Fanctonal Fewrat Teamph T-] Primany sensing element T] Any sear sich a dapivagi Bellow 6 2.| Varableconversion element. | 2, | Transducer such a¢ LVDT. 3.| Variable maipulaionclement. | 3 amplifier, eteruator te 4. | Dats wanton element 4 S| Duta presentation clement. & ‘Any signal conditioning ystems suchas clerical ‘Cable. tlemety systems with endo signals, Movement of psster over a ealibated sale, cording of movement f poiser onthe graph sheet. Digi! dipoy and storage devi. Daa storage ud playback element. | 6, ne ee oh, tan =e ee ee oa ——— : —— 2 peep oop irgr eee eee a ees Rae {In direct comparison method of measurement, the physical quantity to be measured (measurand) is directly compared wit) ryt reas nh re ml ree See genre ieee ee Ifthe measurand is too small it is not possible to make direct comparison accurately. Also itis not le to distinguish ne ray ar tt pen ey Ae aon es =m : ee Be as ea a ate ‘ee eee rue nl ety ur it nny cnr et uni amp Ness wihother aie whee Sece “ eagth is already known) measurement he ouet ed nad od of Smee! peers ie Soc Example: Meseutement of temp ‘thermosoopl. (Hee to metue the tunknown fempeaee Iss ern 7 sion fo force or pucasute ito eR nts meh ease ine by two edevetsions of the re osing cerca he lage then center i gh G32. Explain the w Instruments ‘Ans: Meret pe teeming ese ‘an unknown quantity ee on Measure ce ie ops of ig 1 qunlinave empuea teen pee Sunt ine of ree pen Teearyeu de pos of heen neta tgnzeny, Tene wcheednoeineloons opal eich ee meme awonce The aow pense mentite, 1. Mesverenea Diet Pome of» Pree Matasay mens oe ak uae et ‘einen pees ened espe ors prose ‘Rms arora rosy ened ‘nna omelet ‘ontoring deren ane eer 2. Automate Contre Sem Ameena _ appt pe oe inanlg barnett ed ee 8 parton pare us conrad ipl Ecirinnaleeponestonna eon sa, scetiomit e p e sei ceria le ‘po rh em bese ee _mills to control humidity, pressure. viscosity die 3. Quality Cota nen nose ‘the quality of the material, trainin saadais aod + specifications ofthe pris ainda ond gony pe at cet performing quality contol vets 99 mat Tzu product Ths a8 seme instr. speerau Lone JOU oUNIT-1 (Introduction to Measurements) 2. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Meavuremeat Primary Measurements: In this method, the measurement of an unknown quantity is made by direct observation, i.e. a physical quantity is measured by comparing directly with reference standard. Example: Measuring the len eth of acable by comparing with other cable (whose lenzth is already known). Secondary Measurements: In this method of measurement the output (Final result) is obtained by one Conversion of the measurand Example: Conve displacement. rsion for force or pressure into Tertiary Measurements: In this method of measurement the output is obtained by two conversions of the measurand. Example: Measurement of temperature using thermocouple. (Here to measure the temperature ‘the wn temperature is first converted into voltage. This voltage is then converted into length). - 32. Explain the applications of m instruments. suring Measurement is the process of determining the value of an unknown quantity oR Measurement can be stated as a process of obtaining ‘4 quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and magnitude of unknown parameter. To carryout the process of measurement, an instrument is necessary. The instrument which is uscd to measure unknown physical variable is called measuring instrument. The various applications of a measuring instrument are, 1, Measurement of Different Parameters of a Process: Measuring instruments are used to measure different unknown parameters related to a system of a process, ‘A measuring instrument also provides the measured information in the form of display, recording, registering, monitoring depending on the requirement. 2. Automatic Control Systems: A measuring instrument . isan integral part of an automatic control system. Here a measuring instrument is not only used to measure a particular parameter but also controls and manipulates in order to make the process to nun ata predefined set point. ‘Therefore, it is used in all types of automatic control systems such as chemical plants, oil refineries, textile mills to control humidity, pressure, viscosity, low rate, temperature and other relevant parameters. 3. Quality Control: Measuring instruments are used to test the quality of the inaterial, to maintain the standards and + specifications of the products in industries. ‘A good quality product is made by continuously performing quality contro! tests on mass produced industrial products. This act is accomplished by measuring instruments. i Experimental Studies: To gather information and to form certain empirical relations where sufficient theory is not available, and to develop new theories, to innovate new phenomena and new products, measuring instruments are'necessary. They can be used to verify the already existing physical phenomena and scientific theories ete. §. S{malation of Conditions of a Process: In order to reveal the actual behaviour of the process under different working conditions, itis necessary to simulate truc conditions of complex situations in a process experimentally. To convert this experimental results into prototype, analytical tools are required. 6. Measuring instrument is an essential tool of any measurement hence no measurement is carried out ‘without it. Thus iti used in all measurement processes and industries such as process industries, power plants, automatic production machines, automatic landing of aircraft, radar tracking systems, missile guidance, autopilots et. Q33. Whatare the types of performance characteristics of an instrument? Write a brief note on static characteristics. ‘of an instrumentation system is concluded by how accurately the system measures the required input and how absolutely it ‘ejects the undesirable inputs. For choosing the most suitable instrument for specific measuring task the performance characteristics of instruments are necessary. Itcan be generally divided into two distinct categories. (a) Static characteristics (b). Dynamic characteristics. (a) Statle Characteristies: When the measurand does not vary with time, static characteristics are determined, The static characteristics ofan instrument are determined by a process called static calibration in which the relationship between the output signal and the quantity under study is experimentally determined, The important terms which specify the static characteristics are as follows, @ ) Gil) (iv) Ww) wi) (vii) Threshold (iti) Resolution (ix) Hysteresis (%)" Dead space : (xi) Range and span (xii) Reproducibility. ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS ‘ a12 ay «au The closeness of the measured valae with Fespect to the true value is called as accuracy. Accuracy is influenced by the affects of disturbing inputs such as temperature, hurpidity and also by the limits of intrinsic errors and instability of natural zero. Under certain operating conditions accuracy can also be determined by calibrating The accuracy of the whole system depends upon the ‘Sccuracies of each individual instruments in that system. Generally, the accuracy ofthe instrument depends upon ‘the natural limitations ofthe instrument as well as on the shortcomings in the measurement process. Precision: The instrument ability to reprpduce 2 certain ‘group of readings within a given accuracy is known as Precision i.e, if a number of measurements are made on the same true value, then the degree of closeness of these measurements is called precision, Precision of an instrument depends upon the random errors. It refers to the ability ofan instrument to give its readings again and again in same manner for constant input signals. Instruments having high accuracy should also be highly precise. Sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of change in ‘uiput to that of change in the quantity being measured. Sensitivity is also known as incremental sensitivity o linear sensitivity. Change in out AC, Change ini ac, The sensitivity differs for different valucs of input as shown in figure (a) but when the calibration curve is straight line, then the sensitivity remains constant over the entire range and is given as the slope of calibration ‘curve as shown in figure (b). For better performance of ‘the system the sensitivity of an instrument should be high. Sensitivity = 0 c Figure (bk: Linear Sonsitivity WARNING: Xerox Photocopying ofthis books a CRIMINAL set. Anyone found guilty is LABLE to face LEGAL proceedings, MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD) acd as a percertiagy Of Wevintion © wi) (wit) (vttiy (ix) «& ay (ati iT O34, Topic: Reproducibility. Q34, Explain the important static characteristics. Tris expressed as a'percentiags of Weviation finear value. fe aly terete Sind at om ‘signal The calibration curve is said to Be linear, Gihen the sensitivity is constant f9¢ all values froin lower. Seale to upper scale of the measuring system. ‘The linear characteristics of the calibration curve are shown in fieure (c+ Figare (e: Linear and Nonlinear Calibration Characteristics ‘Stability: It is the ability of the instrument to have the ‘same standard of performance over a prolonged period of time. The need for calibrating the instrament frequently is less fora instrament having high stability, Error: In any device, when the measured value of indicated value of measurand differs from its trve value then this difference between the measured value and true value is referred as error. In an ideal device the error is zero ive., the outpuit is always equal to the true value of the measurand. When the measured value exceeds the true value of meastrand the error is said to be positive. By minimizing the ertor ‘of the device, its accuracy can be increased, Threshold For answer refer Unit-, Q34, Topic: Threshold, Resolution For answer refer Unit-, Q34, Topic: Resolution, Hysteresis For answer refer Unit-l, Dead Space For answer refer Unit-l, Q18, Topic: Dead Zone. Range and Span : For answer refer Un Q34, Topic: Hysteresi 4, Q34, Topie: R ize and Span oR. Define the following static characteristics. ()) Threshold (li) Resolution : (lil) Hysteresis (lv) Range and span () Reproducibility (vi) Drift.13 UNIT-1 (Introduction to Meastirements) an (| Threshold: Its defined as the minimum input quantity required for a detectable change in the output signal from the zero indication ie., when the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, then the input must reach to a certain minimum valve, so that the change in the output can be detected. This minimum value of the input refers to threshold Resolution: It is defined as the increment in the input of the instrument for which the ootput remains constant ic, when the input given to the instrument is slowly increased for which the output remains same until the increment exceeds a definite value Hysteresis: Hysteresis can be defined as the maximum variation ofthe output due to the change in applied input. ‘The hysteresis characteristics are shown in the figure, where it can be observed that output for increasing and decreasing value of input is not same. a, » Gi) Range and Span: The region between the lifmits within which an instrument is designed to operate for measuring 1 quantity is called the range of the instrument. Span represents the algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values of the instrument. Reproduelbility: Ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when the same input is measured under different conditions is called reproducibility. Drift: The slow variation of the output signal of a measuring instrument is known as drift. The variation in the output signal is not due to any changes in the input quantity, but itis due to the changes in the working conditions of components inside the measuring instrument Q35. Explain various dynamic characteristics with sketches. Ans: : Dynamic Characteristics Kae “The characteristics of an instrument which are considered while measuring a quantity that varies with time (i.¢, measurand is time-variant) are known as dynamic characteristics. The dynamic characteristics are determined from the mathematical model of the system i.e, a differential equation of first order or second order with constant coefficients. “The dynamic characteristics ofan instrument areas follows, (wy) o Ww TH Speed of Response (iy aii) (wy) |. SPECTRUM ALLIN-OWE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS - 1 Itisthe quickness of an instrument with which itresponds to the sudden changes in amplitude of the input signal. peed of response can also be stated as the total time taken by the system to come closer to steady state condition Speed ofresponse ofa system can be evaluated by knowing the measurement lag of that system. ‘Measurement Lag It is the time delay in response of the output signal fo the changes in the input signal. ‘Measurement lag is dependent on the characteristics of the system only: For different types of input signal, measurement lag can be specified in different ways: 1 : - Tae aa g.4 —— Tire (0 Figure (1) Fidelity Some of thé input quantities undergo changes with respect to time. The characteristic of a measuring instrument to respond to the changes in the measured quantity at every instant of time is known as fidelity. Excellent fidelity of a system refers to an error-free response of the system (ie, at all instants under steady state condition, the output signal waveform is exactly similar to the input signal waveform). Dynamic Error ‘The difference between the value indicated by the measurement system and the true value of the quantity (which is a function of time) is known as dynamic error. As the dynamic response of a system consists of steady ‘state response and transient state response, the dynamic ‘error also comprises of transient error and steady state error. Input and uit oF — Tae (0 Figure (2) Wee14 () Dynamic Range ei ‘The range of values of a cenain quantity (for example, temperature, pressure, voltage, .., etc.) for which the measuring instrument can produce a faithful response under dynamic conditions is known as dynamic range of the instrument. Dynamic range is represented as the ratio of the maximum value to the minimum valve for ‘which the system can respond effectively. Bandwidth ‘The range of frequencies, within which the dynamic sensitivity of the system lies within a specified band (For cxample, + 2% band) of static sensitivity of the system is known as ‘bandwidth’ of the system. The amplitude versus frequency characteristics of a system are flat within the bandwidth of the system. w Ovtputtepet ti — Frequency () J a (vil) Settling Time ‘The time required by the response of the system (after the application of a step input to it), to reach and stay ‘Within the close range of the steady state output value isknown as ‘settling time’. The settling time depicts the ‘speed of response of the system. If the settling time is ‘small it can be inferred thatthe speed of response of the system is high. - Time Constant ; ‘Time constant is defined as the time required forthe output, ‘of the system to reach 63.2% of the final output value. It is preferred to have a Jow time constant in, order to have high speed of response, Time constant depends on the parameters of the system. (WARNING: : ot Eis r * XeroxlPhotoéapiing of this book is CRIMINAL aét’ Anyona {ound gity is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceesings, MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD) 4.2 Measurements Errors, Statistica, Anatysis oF Measurement Data, Prosasitity of Errors, Limiting Errors Explain in detail the types of errors and sources ee a retzors in measurement techniques.” Model Papert 0 OR What are the different types of errors? Explain how to eliminate errors in Instruments. Ans: ‘The errors are generally classified into three types. They are, 1. Gross errors 2. Systematic errors 3. Random or accidental errors. 1. Gross Errors ‘These errors are caused due to observer's insufficient knowledge to select the proper measuring technique, Mainly these errors occur due to human mistakes in reading instrument, recording observations and calculating measurement results. These errors may also ‘occur due to incorrect adjustment of instrument. Its not possible to eliminate these ‘errors completely but they can be minimized by the following precautions. (i) Special attention should be taken when reading and recording the data. (ii) The experimenter should not be dependent on one reading only, atleast three or even more readings must be taken, Before starting the experiment, zero adjuistment of the instrument must be done. A 2. Systematic Errors : vt ‘These errors are mainly involved with the instrument components used in measurement. These errots affect al méasurements of a quantity in a similar way so, they are referred to as bias. A constant deviation in the Working of an instrument is called as systeinatic error, This type ofcrrors are further divided into three categories. They ar, (a) Instrumental errors (b) Environmental errors and (©) Observational errors. : (@) Instrumental Errors These errors are caused in measuring instruments due to their mechanical structure, ‘because of which the instrument reads too high or too low along its entire scale. For example, friction in bearings of different ‘moving parts of instrument possibly leads to incorrect. readings. Ifthe spring of the instrument becomes weak then the reading ofthe instrument will always be high. ‘These errors are also caused when the instrument usage is inconsistent with manufacturer's instructions and specifications. Ti,. other cause of systematic errors is loading effects of instruments on the circuit in which the | __ Instrument is placed. These errors cam be minimized by using the following methods. ~ wee4 (introduction to Measurements) ‘Choosing apprope ‘measurement application. trument for the specific After determinin, ' ining the instrumental error: ‘correction factors should be applied. me (iii) Careful re-calibration of the instrument. Environmental Errors ‘Thess errors are caused due o changes inthe environmental conditions in the area surrounding the instrument that may affect the instrument characteristics such as the changes in temperature, humidity, pressure, external smagnetic field ot electrostatic fel : ‘These undesirable fe rable errors can be reduced by the following (Arrangement such as air conditioning or magnetic shielding must be made to keep the environmental conditions approximately constant. 5) Employing hemeticasalingtocenain components in the instrument, elimina e seen tes the effects of th (iii), Employing computed corrections wherever necessary. Observational Errors ‘These errors are caused by the experimenter. The 1ost frequent error is the parallax ero introduced in reading a meter scale, Parallax error occurs when the pointer and scale are notin the same plane. To eliminate parallax error the observer's eye should be directly in line with pointer, Observational errors are also caused due to the habits of individual observers. For example, an observer may tend to predict the signal and take the reading 100 carly which introduces error. The other cause of observational errors is the difference in the sensing powers and physical responses of individual observers. For example, when sound and light measurements are involved no two observers take the same readings. To minimize such errors modem electrical instruments have digital display of output. Random or Accidental Errors Errors caused due to the unpredictable variations in the parameters or in the system of measurement are called random or precision errors. These errors vary in ‘magnitude and may be either positive or negative, These ertors follow laws of probability. The following are some of the main contributing factors to the random errors. Certain Human Errors These errors occur due to inconsistency in estimating successive readings from the instrument by an experimenter, To reduce these,erzors it.is necessary to exercise extreme care with mature and considered judgement in recording the observations. Eo —specTAUM ALLAN-QNE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS , 15 ees to the Errors Caused due to, the Distur! Equipment Precision errors in the instrument may arise from the ‘outside disturbances to the measuring system. These disturbances may be variations or mechanical vibrations. Pootly controlled processes also lead to random errors. Errors Caused by Fluctuating Experimental Conditions These errors are caused due to some uncontrolled disturbances which influence the instrument output. Line voltage fluctuations, vibrations of the instrument supports ete, are common examples of this type. Random error can be eliminated by taking the same measurement a number of times and arriving at value by caleulating the average value orby using other statistical technique. This value can be considered as the most probable value GGT. How is the statistical analysis of data performed? ay Gi) surement ‘Model Papers, 23, OR Describe the various modes of statistical evaluation of measurement data. Ans: Statistical Analysts of Measurement Da Random errors can be analyzed anid minimized by performing statistical analysis of the measurement data. It requires large number of readings (measurements) of the measurand, all taken undet same conditions. One more requirement of statistical analysis is that the systematic errors should be eliminated or they should be smaller than the random errors. Statistical analysis of random errors involves the talcula~ tion of the following. 1, Arithmetic mean 2. Deviation 3. Standard deviation 4. Variance. 1. Arithmetic Mean ‘The arithmetic mean of a certain group of readings of the measured quantity can be defined as the most probable value of the measured quantity. The arithmetic mean of infinite numbe¥ of readings would provide aclose estimate of the true value of the measured quantity. Arithmetic ‘mean of n number of readings (x,y +3) is given as, Atay tay tet hy Arithmetic mean, ¥ = 2. Deviation Deviation of a reading is defined as the difference between the reading and arithmetic mean. If x, is the #* reading then deviation of x, from the mean can be ‘expressed as, ‘ 4 d= x7k 4 4 Since mean is the close approximate of true value of the “'measurand, the deviation of the reading from the mean indicates the amount of random error in the measure value (reading). he16 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD) Average Deviation : For answer refer Unit-1, Q12. 3. Standard Deviation ‘Standard deviation is another,important term in the statistical analysis. It represents the measure of extent of random error in the measurement. It is also known as root mean square deviation. Standard deviation of infinite number (Le. for n> 20) of readings is the square root of sum of squares tions divided by the number of readings. It is denoted by the symbol ‘o" and expressed as, Ry padiad? 2 2 o = [itd tdi edd taade = JEP Gorn >20) Standard deviation of finite number (ie., for n < 20) of readings is given as, Ty gtadiacd? z Jai tap tds tends | [EL ion 20) nt 7 4. Variance Square of siandard deviation is known as variance and it is denoted by the symbol *¥”. Low value of variance indicates improvement in measurement. ; ie eh V=o?= —— (forn> 20) of individual devia. (for n<20) : Example of Statistical Analysis of Measurement Data ‘Consider that from a set of measurements of resistance of a resistor, the following values are obtained. 125.9,,125.2, 125.4, 126.1, 125.6, 125.6, 125.1, 125.5 : There are 8 readings i. ‘These readings are denoted as, x, = 125.9, x, = 125.2, x, = 125.4, x, = 126.1, x, = 125.6, x,= 125.6, x, = 125s1,x, = 125.5. Arithmetic mean of the above readings is given by, petty ta tiytagtay ta n=8 7” = 125.9 + 125.2 + 125.4 + 126.1 + 125.6 + 125.6 + 125.1 + 125.5, 8 F= 125.55 : r Deviation of each reading from mean is given by, 4 = 1259-12555 = +035 d, = X,-F = 125.2-125.85 =-035 4, = Xy-F= 1254-12555 =-0.15 : 4, 26.1 ~ 125.55 =+0.55 4, 25.6 ~ 125.55 = + 0.05 d, = Xg-¥ = 1256-12555 =+ 0.05 d, = X)-F= 1251-12555 =-0.45 , 4, = -F = 1255-12555=-005 . : veton. Be Hct Mal él lel +l +f + a : i ~ Average deviation, D = = - ma ; ; _ (2351+[-035]+[-0.15| + [0.55]+Jo.05|+0.05]+|-0.45]+|-0.05| . 2.00" : 8 ay D=025° "WARNING: xerecPotecepig oh ok tw CRONINAL at Aiyoe fund uly ABLE to fac LEGAL proceedingsUNIT (introduction to Measurements) 7 Ta eotteded inbuibs sine einc uN ee 38. Ans: Standard deviation of the above reading given by, Jai} 20 oxarve TOSS OO HOOF HEU +E OG jeasiTeco 7 o=o3s ‘Variance of the above readings is, © V = (Standard deviation)? =(6) = (033) F< 010%9 Explain about probable error. Probable Error: The error whosé chances of occurrence are more is known as probable error. The precision of the measurement system can be well determined in terms of probable error. In the Gaussian error distribution graph in the figure above, the area under the Gaussian curve between the limits (-e» io +=) is considered as unity because this area represents the total number of observations of multi-sample test. In ordet to detérmine the most probable ero. itis considered that the area bounded by the curve between the limits rand ris equal to half of the total area under the curve, hf ge 1 ies Fe fet east + Let the total area be unity] |. We get the value of *r" as, ‘ris known as probable error because as per the above consideration half of the observations are present between the limits + r. Hence, the shaded portion in the figure above represents the region of probable error. Probable error can also be expressed in terms of standard deviation and average deviation as follows, 1 = 0.6785 0+ r= 08453 D Where, o = Standard deviation D = Average devi Root Sum Squares Formula: In statistical analysis of estimating errors, probable errors are associated by considering * the number of readings of the same parameters and drawing graphs. The formula used to estimate the probable error by considering a single set of readings is called as root sum squares formula (or RSS formula). Example: Let, Parameter N is a function of other parameters Say ty ty. 1, N= fltty ty In order to calculate X, it is required to measure the parameters t,t, 1, «=» ty For each measurement of ty tly ty wn ‘certain degree of error occurs. The possibility of total eror that may take place in the calculation of parameter Vis expressed as, ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS |18 {G36, A circult was tuned for resonance by ent atten kHz were recorded as 532, 548, 543, 535, 546 (0 Arithmetic mean (i) Deviation (iil) Average deviation * (ly) Standard deviation. Ans: Given that, Number of readings. n= § The given readings are denoted as, es3ngn, = TE “ y= 532, x, = 548, x, = S43. 3, = 53554, 7 546.47 90D Required to determine, (@ Avithmetic mean (ii). Deviation ii). Average deviation (iv). Standard deviation. © Arithmetic Mean “Arithmetic mean ofthe readings is given by. ‘ Htmentrt yt xt __ S324 548 + 543 + 535-4 546+ 5314 543° 536 | 559.25 KH 3 (i) Deviation Deviation of each reading from mean is given by, d,#x,~ ¥ =$32- 530.25 =~ 7.25 kHz d,=.x,~ 3 ~ $48 -$39.25 = 8.75 kHz ¥ = $43 — $39.25 = 3.75 kil ¥ = 535 - $39.25 =—4.25 kHz = $46 ~ $39.25 = 6.75 kit i = 531 ~ $39.25 =-8.25 kHz = $43 — $39.25 = 3.75 kHz, $36 ~ $30.25 = -3.25 kl (lll) Average Deviation fe tla] + fal + heal + [dal + hdel + Led +1 ‘average Deviation, 75 = 1@l+ esl +1aul +1 I+ L _ 225} +f5-75] +f3.75] +425] + 6.75]+ [825] +f.73] +325 = 8 = T2S+8.15+3,75+4.25 + 6,75 + 8.25 43.75 +3.25 : az 8 8 = 5.75 kHz (iv) Standard Deviation Standard deviation of the readings is given by, ra Redes hs div dtd nt WARNING: XeroxiPhotocopying of this book is # CRIMINAL act: Anyone found guilty is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedings. n< 20)19 UNIT-1 (Introduction to Measurements) 8-1 = {fe Q 7 = 6.54 kHe Q40. Aset of ten readings were recorded while measuring the readings were 52.4, 55.1, 56, 55.4, 57, 54, 53.7, 51.7, 54.9, () The standard deviation (il) The probable error of one reading and : (ii) The probable error of mean. Ans: Given that, Number of readings, ‘The given readings are denoted as, 1,7 S2.4,.x, = 55.14, = 56,4, = 55.4, x, = 8755, = 54,4 = 53.758 = SUT y= 54.99 = 53.7 Required to determine, (The standard deviation, a =?» (i) The probable error of one reading, r, (ii) The probable error of mean, r, =? () The Standard Deviation Arithmetic mean of the readings is given by, y= Mtaa tay t tat ast xg tt tant 9 t 0 = S2A+S5.14 56+55.4 457454 +53.7+ 51.7 +54.9+53.7 10 “stator temperature of an electric machine. The 53.7 degree celsius. Calculate : = 54.39 degree celsius Deviation of each reading from the mean is given by, d,=x,- ¥ = 52.4-5439=-1.99 ‘ d,ax,- 2-551 ~5439-0.71 d,=x,- ¥ =56-$439=161 + # = 55.4-5439= 1.01 57-5439=2.61 54-5439 =-0.39 = 537-5439 =-0.69 = 8 =51.7-5439=-2.69 =549-5439=-051 di+dh Cy 2 ye 99)? + (0.71)? + (1.61) ara = 1.62 degree celsius - SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS. + (1.01)? + (2.61)? + 0.39)? + € 0.69) + 2.69)? + (0.51)? + (0. 10-1 .= 1.09 degree celsius ‘The Probable Error of Mean co) n “The probable eror of mean is given PY Yemperature is meas he results are: 397, Gat, Inatest, the corrections, tt Temp°C, of occurrent Frequency. Calculate, () Arithmetic mean (li) Mean deviation (ii) Standard Deviation. Ans: iven that, ‘Number of readings, n= 100° ‘404 | 405 ‘The given readings are as follows. Temp °C sor [am [399 | 400 T 401 | 402 403 tn [3 for | ed 2 | 2 “Frequency ofioccurrence Required to determine, ‘The computations are tabulated as follows. Temper: ene ja waa [ewe] rer [acer | ft | # 397 1 397 -3.78 -3.78 14.29 a ea 7 ee -2.78 -8.34 1.73 * me : es ae - 21.36 3.17 | -0.78 - 17.94 0.61 401 37 14837 0.22 8.14 “0.05 en 7 6432 1.22 19.52 . 149 it : 1612 2.22 8.88 493 405 ; 808 3.22 6.44 10.37 wal "oD 810 4.22 8.44 17.81 , ETx f= 40078 ZF |= 102.84 WARNING: Xerox!Phatacopying ofthis book is a CRIMINAL act, Anyé guilty is face L 98. i: 7 . Anyone found guilty is LIABLE to face LEG/ AL proceedin(introduction to Measurements) A —— ‘mean of the readings is given by, Fells = 400.78°C ‘ (i) Mean Deviation Mean deviation, D = 21L*4l 7 = 102.84 100 =1.03¢C (i) Sta8dard Deviation ~ ‘The standard deviation of the readings is given by, = [eee : on (EE pcan ~ /iTsz. : 100 = 138 4.3 eee Deriution of STANDARD Units, INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS, PRIMARY TANDARDS, SECONDARY ‘Stanvarps, Workinc STANDARDS 242. What Is measurement standard? Explain classifigations of standard. Model Papert, 03 OR ans: at! standard? Explain the different types of standards. Standard seclht physical representation of unit of measurement is termed as standard. Iti also defined as a precise measure of physical quantity. By using comparison technique, the standards are used to calculate the values of other physical quantities. ‘Types of Standards Based on the functions and applications the standards are classified as follows. i) Intemational standards Primary standards Secondary standards Working standards, (International Standards For answer refer Unit-1, Q14. (i) Primary Standards Primary standards are the absolute standards with very high accuracy. They are governed at National standards laboratories in various parts of the world. The main purpose of primary standards is to verify and calibrate the secondary standards. The primary standards which describe the fundamental and derived units are calibrated independently at every National laboratory by using absolute measurements. (it) Secondary Standards They are the basic reference standards used for measurement and calibration in industria laboratories. The maintenance of a secondary standard is undertaken by the particular industry which belongs to that secondary standard, Later these secondary standards are calibrated and compared with the primary standards at National standard laboratory. The National standards laboratory issues a certification for secondary standards in terms of primary standards based on the measuring accuracy. * + SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNALFOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS ; o(iv) Working Standards ‘They are the main tools of a measurement laboratory fo examine the performance and accuracy of the laboratory instruments, they are analyzed and calibrated with the help of working standards. For example, the ‘manufacturers of precision resistance uses a standard resistance which acts as working standard to validate the values of manufactured resistors. 43. Explain in detail the calibration technique. An: Calibration It can be stated as a process of comparing the output of test instrument simultaneously with the output of standard instrument of known accuracy when the input applied to both instruments is same. This procedure is carried out for entire ‘measurement range of test instrument in order to, ensur accuracy. It includes making a set of operations to establish a relationship between the values indicated by the measuring system and the corresponding known value of the physical quantity (or measurand), Itis the phenomenon in which the values ofan instrument should be acceptable with standard values made by the adjust- ‘ments. For calibration of an instrument, a device is compared with the other device, either a primary or secondary standards whose accuracy is high. Hence, null type instruments are widely used for calibration as the need for a human operator can be avoided. Calibration provides an assurance to the instrument that under any environmental circumstances, the instrument + would operate at a desired accuracy. Calibration is an important aspect, which describes the performance characteristics of an instrument. . “The measuring instrument behaviours are calibrated in terms of specific measuring jobs. This measurement employs the determination of the value of a variable of an instrument either by direct means or by an indirect means. ‘The general steps involved in the calibration procedure are as follows. 1. Visual Inspection ‘The instruments are inspected visually for the various physical defects. Installation ‘According to the specifications of the instrument, the device should be properly installed. RUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERpg, 22 MEASURING INST! AD, : cots 3 Zero Adjust ‘The indicators of-ins setting. 3 Levelling 22. device should be cared by pro Wing. necesny rument ATE SdjUsted to the a cite levellings. in 5, Standard Test standard tests are 10 be employed forthe detecting major defects. 6. Hysteresis Test -The instrument should be calibrated in ascending ay descending order by applying the same input values, both the cases. This detects the errors caused duetoiy friction ofthe instrument. 7. Traceability ‘An instrument is calibrated against more accurateinsn, ment. The knowledge of instruments involved inte calibration is known as traceability. The traceabily fy calibration instrument must be greater than the calibra . instrument. Calibration Procedure Steps To calibrate an instrument, intially adjust the instrunet such that it produces mull output when an input is applied. Tha apply an accurately known value of measurand and adjust instrument again until its scale exactly indicates the valved measurand. This process of adjusting the instrument is cl calibration. After calibrating an instrument, it should be used unit ‘those environmental conditions which are identical to theo ditions prevailing during calibration. Otherwise the instru itself becomes a source of error and cannot provide an accu®® ‘Value of the measurand ic., the changes in environmental coo tions affect the characteristics of instrument. . Calibration is very important especially in t* cases where the sensing system and measuring system of instrument are different, In this éase the calibration is do0t* ‘considering the two different systems as a whole. ___ The process of calibration should be repeated al ®&™ {ime intervals as the instrument characteristics vanyovet Aue to environmental changes, WARNING: Xerox/Photocopying ofthis book js CRIMINAL eet. Anyone found guilty is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceadings. iteUNIT-1 (introduction to Measurements) 4A Vowtace Stanvaro, Resistance eeewoane! Current Stanparn, ‘APACITANCE StaNparD, TIME AND FREQUENCY Stanparps 44. Describe the standard coll us standards for voltage m mention its advantages. Anst ‘The practical unit of electromotive ‘Tre intemational system of units (SI) defines a volt using ong ormore groups of electrochemical cells called standard cells. Such cells are used as reference standards against which the emt of other cells or the electric potential difference of systems are compared, ‘The most widely used standard cell is weston cell. It is used to produce a specific value of voltage as reference ive, {.018 volt DC. The construction of weston cell is as shown in figure. 5 ed as laboratory surement. Also Mod Papers,.a2(0) force (emf) is volt. The weston cell consists of H-shaped glass vessel containing'cadmium sulfate solution. This solution acts as, electrolyte «Any cell consists of anode and cathode terminals. ‘Anode is positive electrode and cathode is negative electrode. Jn weston cell anode is an amalgum of cadmium and mercury. The anode is placed at the bottom of one leg of H-shaped glass vessel. While cathode is pure mercury over which a paste of ‘mercurous sulphate is placed. The cathode is placed at the bottom ofthe other leg of H-shaped glass vessel. The electrical connections to anode and cathode are made by platinum wires. Based on the concentration of cadmium sulfate in the clectrolyte weston cells are classified as ie., saturated and un- Saturated, Saturated type weston cell has crystals of cadmium Sulphate above the electrodes where as un-saturated type ‘weston cell does not have crystals of cadmium sulphate above the electrodes, The saturated type cell is used as voltage standard and it ‘is used only for very accurate work. It is not used for common Work because itis not portable, The un-saturated type cell is \wed for ordinary work and it is most common because it is Portable, i ‘The advantages of using weston cell are, (The emf of an ordinary cell depends upon the materials employed and changes with the HI variations in temperature where asin a weston ce the emf remains constant for a longer period. 23 ‘The weston cell are used when high accuracy is required. Fj Q45, Classify the resistors based on composition. An: i) Generally the resistors are classified into two groups. They are, 1. Fixed resistors 2. > Variable resistors. Fixed Resistors Fixed resistors are the resistors whose value is fixed or constant. These are further classified into, (@) Carbon type resistors (b) Metal film type resistors and (©) Wire wound type resistors. Carbon Type Resistors Carbon resistors are made of carbon mixed with some binding material for the required resistance value. These Aire of two types, (0 Carbon Film Resistors (CFR) (i), Carbon Composition Resistors Carbon Film Resistors Carbon film resistors are made by depositing a carbon film on a cerainic rod: The value of these resistors ranges between 10 to 20 MQ. Depending, : ‘upon the thickness of film, these are classified as thin film (<5 um) carbon resistors and thick film (© 5 um) carbon resistors. Carbon Composition Resistors ‘These are made of carbon graphite mixed with a Proportion of roundered insulating m terial for the requited resistance value. The Valuc of these resistors ranges between | 10 10 MQ. These are ¢lassified moulded resistors and insulated moulded resistors. ‘Metal Film Type Resistors The construction of these resistots is similar to the carbon film type resistors. But in these resistors, resistive material is used instead of carbon. These ‘are more stable under the temperature and vibration conditions with 0.5 percent tolerance, ‘These are of two types: @ Gi) Thick film resistors ‘Thin Film Resistor _ Generally, these resistors are made by depositing the metals like nickel and chromium on a ceramic substrate under a high vacuum. In this type of tesistors, the thickness of the film is about one millionth of an inch, Its value ranges between 10.9 to 1 MQ with a power rating upto $0, L @ o ay ) Thin film resistors and ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS24 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD, (i) Thick Film Resistor <__Imthis type of resistors, the thickness ofthe film is greater than one millionth of an inch. The different types of ig, film resistors are tin oxide type, metal glaze type, bulk film type and cerme! tyPe- (©) Wire Wound Type Resistors . For answer refer Unit-l, Q48, 2. Variable Resistors Variable resistors are the resistors whose resistance can be varied or changed. They are used in the circuits to control thy voltages and currents. They are classified as, (®, Rheostats (ji) Potentiometers. @ — Rheostats Rheostat is a device with two connections, one fixed and the other movable. Generally, these are wire resistors used for speed control of motors. (i) Potentiometers Potentiometer is also a variable resistor wit three terminals. The two terminals are connected tothe opposite sides of ke resistive clement ice, at the ends and one acts as a movable contact. It is also known as ‘POT’. Q46. List the specifications of a resistor. Ans: : ‘The following specifications are taken into consideration, while selecting a resistor. 1. Resistance Value 1k specifies the numerical value of a resistor based on the type of resistor. The resistance value is the body or printed. : 2. Tolerance The variations in the actual resistance value of a resistor is called tolerance. Its represented in percentage and typicslly ranges from + 1% to+ 20%. Resi ly preferable in real time application. Bample : A the resistance value of a resistor is R «10? sermon 2218 0 rewasiie Thus, the resistance must be within the range 20-1 kA to 20k+ 1k (or) 19410 21 kA PowerRating — . omer ratings defined as th capacity of esto to dispute he power inthe fom of est witout forming the e"™* Sve temperature, Power rating of esi sR (ox) ‘The physical size of a resistor is direetly proportional to the power ratin power ratings, 4. ‘Temperature Co-efficient ; ‘The resistance of any material ces according tothe temperature. For metal and lle res a ier " ‘ es °¥S Tesistance will increase wil tease in temperature whereas fr carbon graphite resistance wire dccrese with qe oes oY symbol ‘a’, ierense in temperature, {tis denot 2 WARNING: HerouPietacrtin of ibook a CRIMINAL et. Ayo tun pty, 3. '8of that resistor, Langer size resistors have ltUNIT-1 (Introduction to Measurements) 5 Voltage Coefficient ‘The tesistarice ofa resistor changes with change in applied voltage. 6. Stability : Arresistor is more stable when it is used for long period and its value at room temperature is approximately equal to the Value. The stability of earbon, metal firm and wire Wound resistor is bette than earbon composition resistor. 7. Frequency Response The existance of any resistor changes with equene: For high fequene, resists desteases whereas fr low frequency its value equal to D.C resistance. 47. Compare the features of carbon and wire wound resistors, Ans: Features. Carbon Resistor Wire Wound Resistor Size Power rati avail smaller sizes The power rat ngs of these resistors are low. These resistors are made with high alue of tolerances, “These resistors are available in larger The power ratings of these istors are high “These resistors are made with low value of tolerances, These res These resistors find appli tors find applications in power supply io, T.V ete. Carbon film resist _ Applications control circuits ete, Precision types are used in volimeters, bridges ete. are used in telephone eircvits, computers ete. Q48. Write about wire wound resistors and its type. Ans: ‘ n Wire Wound Type Resistors Wire wouind resistors are made by winding a high resistance wire like nickel chromium on an insulating core. The ends of the wire are welded to two caps connected to the core ends. The value of these resistors lies between less than 1 2 to several thousand otims. : Thete are two types of wire wound resistors. They are, (Power resistors and (il) Procisi () Power Resistors his made by winding a single layered high resistance wire around an insulating core, These type of resistors are available in the range of less than | £2 to several thousand ohms. Precision Resistors “This resistor is made by winding a multilayered high resistance wi range of fraction ofan obm to 10 MQ with a power rating of 2 We Explain how current balance is used to measure the unknown current. resistor. (iy ¢ around a ceramic rod. These are available in the ag. ; Ans: : Model Papers, 3 ‘Current balance is an electromechanical apparatus used for the precise measurement of the St unit of electric eurrent ic. ampere, This instrument ninkes use of the force between two current carrying conductors to measure an unknown current in lerms af mass and dimensions of coil. TWwo conductors carrying current in same digection experience foree of attraction and wo ceonduciors carrying current in opposite direction experfenee foree of repulsion The magnitude of force (F) between two conductors cairying current 1 is given as, Ho L Ine Where j, is permeability of free space, ‘ping length of current carrying conductors, Fis the length of separati Lisoves 3 : wo) between the two conductors, Beak Where Fis constant dependent on je SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS sometey of conductors,as MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABap) ‘The construction of current balance is as shown in igure. . + Balance beam Mass (m)— »f Fixed slab —>f Fixed Movable Figure itis made of conductor C placed between two conductors A and B. The conductors A and B are fixed where as conductor is movable. The same current is passed through all three conductors. The direction of eurent in conductor B is io same direction as that of current in conductor C where as current in conductor A is in opposite direction to current in conductor C. Therefor there exists a force of attraction between conductor B and C where as there exists a force of repulsion between conductor A and . ‘Therefore both A and B exert an upward force on conductor C. As the conductor C is connected to balance beam, Hence Capacitor + A capacitor or condenser is a two terminal passive component tha stores electric charges. It comprises of two conduct plates separated by an insulating medium knownas dielectric. The conducting plates may have like or unlike charges on them hence a potential difference exists between the plates. Capacitors provide very low impedance to A.C and very high impedat 1 D.C. Thus, these are used to couple alternating voltage from one circuit to other and block the D.C voltage. The circuit sym™" ‘of capacitor is shown in figure. 7. — k- Flqure : WARNING: xerou!Photoconig of. bic sw CRNAL vet, Anjo dan pty i BLE to fee LEGAL proceedingsLUNIT-1 (Introduction to Measurements) Capacitance Capacitance can be defined asthe capacity ofa capacitor to bold - Onis — pe = potential difference. It is The charge ‘Q" on the plates is direct! the potential difference of the capacitorie QaV o-cv eB Where, C= Capacitance = Charge on plates V = Potential difference Capacitance can also be defined asthe ratio of charge (Q) ‘on the capacitor to its potential (7). In practice, the unit farad is very large. Thus sub-multiples are used as follows. 1 micto farad (1 pF)= 104 F | pico farad (1 pF) =10-" F | nano farad (1 nF) = 10 F O51. Classify the different types of capacitors, Ans: : For answer refer Unit-I, Q22. According to the type of dielectric used the capacitors ‘can be classified as, (@) | Mica capacitors i) Paper capacitors iii) (iv) Air capacitors (¥) Electrolytic capacitors. ‘Mica capacitors are the capacitors is which mica is used as dielectric materials. These capacitors consist of series of foils separated by very thin layers of mica sheets. The value of ‘capacitance of these capacitors ranges between 50 pF to 500 pF and voltage between 100 V to 500 V. These capacitors have ‘ow losses, high stability, good temperature and frequency characteristics. These are mainly used in radio receivers and transmitters. Paper capacitors are the capacitors-in which paper is sed as dielectric material. These capacitors consists of two ‘metal foils separated by layers of paper. The range of these ‘Apacitors from 0.0005 j1F fo several oF and can be operated ‘thigh voltages ie., greater than 100 V. These are used in both ACand D.C circuits. _ Ceramic capacitors are the capacitors in which ceramic ‘sted as a dielectric material. These consist of ceramic dises bose opposite faces are coated with metallic silver. These are ‘allable in the range of 1 pF to2 uF and operates at low voltages. These are used as decoupling or by and pass capacitors. Ceramic capacitors SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS | “Air capacitors are the capacitors in which dielectric medium. These capacitors consist oftwo sets of metal plates, one fixed and the other movable. These are available in the range of few LF to 500 AF and voltage range of 100 V to 3000 V. Electrolytic capacitors are the capacitors in which electrode is used as the dielectric material, These capacitors ‘consist of aluminum foils as electrodes. These capacitors can have the capacitance value upto thousands of microfarads . ‘These are used in D.C audio frequency circuits. Based on Construction ‘According to the type of construction capacitors are classified as, (Fixed capacitors _ Gi) Variable capacitors (Fixed Capacitors Fixed capacitors are the capacitors whose value remains fixed (unchanged) except for small variations. caused by temperature these capacitors use dielectric materials ‘other than air. The various examples of fixed cay are paper capacitors, mica capacitors, ceramic capacitors and electrolytic eapacitors. (Variable Capacitors Variable capacitors are the capacitors whose value can be varied continuously within fixed limits. These capacitors may use aif as dielectric material and have very small capacitance values. These are used in radio tuning circuits and are sometimes called as tuning capacitors. Based on Polarization According to polarisation, capacitors are classified as, (Polarized capacitors Non-polarized capacitors. @ Polarized Capacitors ‘These capacitors have terminals marked on them ‘namely positive terminal and negative terminal. While connecting these capacitors care must be taken ie., positive terminal of the capacitor must be connected to the positive terminal of the battery and negative terminal of the capacitor to the negative termainal of the battery. These capacitors have larger capacitance values used in D.C circuits. The examples of these capacitors are electrolytic capacitor and tantalum capacitor, Non-polarized Capacitors ® “These capacitors do not have positive and ne; terminals marked on them. The value of these capacitors is very small and used in A.C circuits. The examples are Ceramic, Mica and Paper capacitors,1G INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAp) 28 MEASURIN je Current Based on Voltage Rating Depending upon the voltage‘ratings capacitors are classified as, ae (Low voltage capacitors Gi) High voltage capacitors. (Low Voltage Capacitors Capacitors with voltage rating tess than $0 V are low voltage capacitors. These are used in power factor correction, High Voltage Capacitors a Capacitors with voltage rating greater than 100 V are high voltage capacitors. These are used in circuit breakers, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Capacitive Voltage ‘Transformers (CVT) et Q52. Write about the following specifications of a capacitor: (i) Temperature coefficient (ii) Voltage rating (ili) Equivalent series resistance (iv) Leakage resistance. Ans: . (i) Temperature Coefficient Temperature coefficient indicates the change in capacitance with respect to temperature. Temperature coefficient ofa capacitors expressed in parts per million per degree centigrade (PPM/°C) or as a percentage variation over the working range of temperature. Temperature coefficient may either be a positive or a negative. The capacitance of a'eapacitor increases with an increase in temperature ifthe capacitor has a Positive ‘Temperature Coefficient (PTC) and the capacitance of a capacitor decreases with an increas in temperature if the capacitor has a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC), Some capacitors have a zero (emperattre coefficient e., thei capacitance want change with variations in tenaperature. Capacitors can be made to have zero ‘temperature coefficient by combination of PTC and NTC in series or parallel to cancel out each other. (i) Voltage Rating For answer refer Unit-1, Q26. (iil). ” Equivalent Series Resistance Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) is the equivatent resistance of the dielectric plate and the terminal leads in seties. It has a very Jow value whieh is less than 0.1 in series with the capacitor and does not cause hi power losses when large Value of current are flowing, ESR plays an important role of radio frequencies and in supply decoutping carrying high ripple currents. As the {ife time of capacitor increases, ESR also increases i.c., when the electrolyte dries out, out the following specifications of; Capacitor leaks certain 2 Capacitor value @ (ii) Tolerance (ii) Dielectric strength. Ans: () , Capacitor Value Iue isthe value of eapacitance and ii Capacitor expressed in Farads. (il) Tolerance ‘The ditlerence between the preferred value and the actual manufactured value of a capacitor is known as tolerance fof that capacitor and is expressed as the percentage the available colour bands or letters on a capacitor, Dielectric Strength Dielectric strength is the Strength of the dielectric of a capacitor by whieh we can determine the maxinium voltage which a capacitor can withstand per mm thickness of its dielectric. Dicleetrié strength of a capacitor depends upon the thickness of dielecti, temperature and frequency of the supply. Dielectic strength is expressed in kV/mm 54. What is capacitor marking? Explain different markings on the following capacitors. Electrolytic capacitors i) Ceramic capacitors (ili) Plastic capacitors. Ans: Capacitor Marking iy, For answer refer Units, Q25, (Electrolytic Capacitors Electrolytic Capacitors can be used for large volumes. ‘The capacitor narking available in electrolytic capacitor is mostly is UF along with maximum voltage amb ‘maximum temperature, If maximum temperature is 0 ‘marked, then 85°C should be considered as the maxims temperature. In electrolytic capacitor, electrons a Polarised and the negative terminals are marked oi the case, (i) Ceram Capacitors Ceramic capacitors are used for low values. whieh Fange from 1. pF 10 100 nF, But most common capil! ‘markings of ceramic capacitors are in pF. Such as OW means 100 pF to plus one zex WARNING: XerouPotacioin oN Hkis« CROUINAL at. Anjan ound uit UABLE tae LEGAL proceedingsNIT-1 (Introduction to Measurements) 7 Gm Plastic Capacttors and are present apacitor, hence tes the number Plastic capacitors dre available in many different materials among which polyster is most commonly used in predictable sizes especially with MKT type and have and performance. Let us consider a 47 nF MKT c: the capacitor marking can be done as 473 k oF 473 k 63 of 47 n, Here the third digit is a multiplier and indica of zer0s to give the value in pF 63 means the working voltage is 63 V and k is the tolerance of 10%. ‘55. Explain the working voltage of a capacitor. Ans: Working voltage ofa capacitor, is defined as the maximum amount of voltage or potential difference that ean be applied across the capacitor without any damage to its dielectric material, Working Voltage is denoted as WV or WVDC i, D.C working Collage. Commonly these working voltages or voltage rating ofa capacitor are matked for D.C voltages because in ease of A.C yollages, for less amount of voltage more amount of internal heat will be produced by continuous charge and discharge, However, ifacapacitor is required to operate at 100 volts then its working voltage should be of 200 volts. practically capacitor selection is made such that the working voltage (A.C or D.C) is 50% greater than the voltage applied to the capaci (or, First factor is the dielectric material used and ‘markings. Higher Working voltage of a capacitor depends upon two factors of that eapacit ihe second factor is the thickness of the dielectric material used. Working voltages are present on capacitor ‘working voltages can be achieved by combining capacitors in series. 056. Explain why the time and frequency standards are based on atomic clock? Time and frequency are among the fundamental physical parameters that must be measured with accuracy. Precise time/ frequency measurement is essential for telecommunications, broadcasting, military, navigation and other scientific experiments. ina space shuttle travelling at a speed of 7860 m/sec, a small time error of one second will miss the target by about Ani For example, 8 kilometers. ‘The time can be measured in two ways ie, the instant at which an event occurs. Example: the date of an event might be 15 Janvary 1961, 8h, 30 m, 20 sec where h, m, s denote hours, minutes and seconds respectively. The second way to measure time is to consider the time interval. Time interval is the duration or elapsed tinie between two events. The standard unit of time or time interval is second. : ‘Time and frequency are quantities are related to each other. Frequency is the rate of occurrence of a repetitive event. If ive event then the frequency ‘fis reciprocal to period ie. = + ‘The standard unit of frequency is “T isthe period of a repet Herz, - Measurement of time is difficult as compared to measurement of several other physical parameters such as length, temperature and mass because we can see distance and we can feel weight and temperature but time cannot be realized by any of the physical senses, Algo the distance between two points is fixed and the mass of an obje we think of time we have to think of “o0w”, “before now” and “after no inore complex. Hence all time and freqdency measurenients Fequire a reference (ic. a standard), preferably one having higher Suabiliy and greater accuracy than the source under test since the ancient times the time reference were based on observations a physical phenomenon which are periodic in nature. Example: The earth’s rotation about its axis with respect to sun. Second Sway Pat of oa ime taken for earth to revolve around the sun. Later, this definition of second was found inadequate because the fundamental unit of time is related to rotation of earth which is non-uniform. me needs to be developed. The standard must be a periodic process, generating a sequence of identca phenomenon and being highly sabe. Therefore for physical measurements, the unit of time interval has now been defined in teens of atomic standard. Itis very easy to construct atomic clocks and they have great precision. ‘ons between two energy levels ofan atom there is an emission of radiation. By calculating the vayal which is reciprocal of Frequency can also be determined, The international committee in terms of transitions in cesium atom. Cesium is highly stable hence it is ideal for tis fixed, But time is constantly changing ie., when This unstable nature of time makes its measurement was defined as Hence another standard for tit During the quantum transit fequency of emission, the tim of weights and measures defines the second i the selection of time reference. ‘SPECTRUM ‘ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS. StatesMEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAp, 30 Qt. Define measurement. Draw the block dlagram of measurem various blocks. Sh Important Quetie, Ans: Refer Q28, dividing an Instrument jn, 2. What do you mean by functional elements? Explain one such scheme of rument ing functional elements with exampl Ae Be rere Q3. What are the different measurement methods? Explain briefly. vibXecm Ans: Refer Q31. a4. a the types of performance characteristics of an instrument? Write a brief note’on stay, characteristics. . eo Ans: Refer Q33. Qs. Explain In detail the types of errors and sources of errors in measurement techniques, Ans: Refer Q36. i Q6. How is the statistical analysis of measurement data performed? Ans? Refer Q37, Wroerent ot Q7. Asetoften readings were recorded while measuring the stator temperature of an electric machine. Thy readings were 52.4, 55.1, 56, 55.4, 57, 54, 53.7, 51.7, 54.9, 53.7 degree celsius. Calculate : () The standard deviation (li) The probable error of one reading and (ii) The probable error of mean. Ans: Refer Q40. Important Cunt, : Important Gute 8. What is measurement standard? Explain classifications of standard. Ans: Refer Q42. * Important Gute Q9.~ List the specifications of a resistor, ; Ans: Refer Q46. ‘ Important Queta Q10. Explain how current balance Is used to measure the unknown curreni: 5 Ans: Refer Q49, Inport 911. Explain why the time and frequency standards are based on atomic clock? Ans: Refer Q56, | pide WARNING: xerouPhoteorying ofthis books a CRIA ct Ayo yr UARLE eg a se proceedings