Fiow, Density AND 5 Viscosity MEASUREMENTS - FLOW, DENSITY AND VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS: Flow Meters - Head type, Area type (Rota meter) electromagnetic type, Positive displacement type, Density measurements ~ Strait Gauge load cell method - Buoyancy method. Units of Viscosity, ‘Two lat viscorator- Industral consistency meter : LEARNING OBJECTIVES ‘Measurement of Flow TF Head type flow meter T Area type flow meter Electromagnetic and positive displacement type Measurement of Density . & , Load cell method TF Buoyancy method iscosity Measurement of TF Two Float viscorator INTRODUCTION Flow measurements Include measuring of Flow rate of solids, iquids and gases. Flow meter is @ device used to measure the rate of flow. The common types of flow meters used In industrial applications ore, Differential pressure, Inferential, Anemomete, Ultrasonic. et. similerly the demsity measurements Includes measuring of density by using strain gaugs load call ond buoyaricy methods; measurement of viscosity is done by using two float vicorator and viscometers, SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTSY 126 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD) ART-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS 1. Distinguish between orifice meter and verituri mete Model Papers. yp) Orifice Meter Venturi Meter 1 Tis usually employed for measuring the flow | 1. | Wisusually employed for measuring the low rates of rates of liquids. liquids as well as gases. : ie 2, Itis placed on the side walls ofthe container or, | 2. | It is placed inside the pipetine, in onder to measure tank, in order to measure the flow rate of fluid flow rate of incompressible fluids 3,| The working principle is that, the total potential | 3. | It works on Bemoullis principle, which states that, energy is converted into kinetic energy of a jet, piezometric head decreases with increase in Velocity head, which discharges freely through an orifice. 5 What is flow nozzle? Explain it with neat sketch. . Flow nozzle is a device which is used for measuring discharge through pipes. It has a convergent nozzle through which Muid gets accelerated. Its almost similar to venturimeter. But, the divergent portion is eliminated in flow nozzle. Coefficient of discharge does not depend on the portion after throat area, thus ¢, for flow nozzle is same as that ofthe Venturimeter. a In the flow nozzle, greater dissipation of energy takes place due to absence of divergent portion. The Following figure shows the representation of flow nozzle, Figure: Flow Nozale G3. Write the advantages and disadvantages of electromagnetic flow meter. Ans: Model Papers, aX ‘Advantages, ; ‘This method does not cause any obstruction to the flow of fluid, hence pressure will not drop, It can be used with pipes of any size. : Accuracy is good. The relatin between output voltage and flow rate is linear. Effectively measures the flow rates of slurries, conducting fluids, sludge etc.” . The output is independent of variations in temperature, viscosity, density and so on, Disadvantages 1. Highly expensive o 2. The presence of gas and air bubbles in the fluid leads to errors. 3.__The fluid undet measurement must be conductive in nature, Q4.~ List out the important of calibration of flow measuring instruments, aeons F Model Papers, 010) The flow measurements are requited to be carried out in various types of applications in various fields ech arp ces industries, laboratories, iriation and domestic areas etc In almost all he applications itis desied to obtain set rs ‘ments of flow of ids in ode to implement proper contol of fow and hence achieve the requiremeno at gees For example, in industrial procese, the flow of various quant need tobe messed accumtly tears eal error in measurement of flow wil affect the quay and efceney ofthe process and thereby incura financing eee ae to obtain accurate measurement of flow, the flow measuring devices should be calibrated, ial boss, Thus, in : WARNING: XerxPtecopyn of tis books CRIMINAL act. Anyone fondly is ABLE fee Lega, proceedings, (b) An Un UniUNIT'S (Flow, Density and Viscosity Measurements) ae ‘Also, a flow measuring device = —_ : - scaton (industal process) has diffe: ote alibrated when iti used for various measuring applications because every wl environm oe 3 @& Wihat is flow visualization? ental conditions (ie. operating temperature and pressure). " £. aK Flow Visualization : Model Papers, Q1U) Flow visualization is a technique used to make the qualitati tat sible f ; qualitative and stitative flow patterns more clear and visible for corples and dificult Hows It gives the information of the ow suchas irae Flow visualizations widely sed in eng ehithe escoe of whit winds tase odynamic elds like changing the ow from lamiar to rurbulent, separation ofthe flow ‘are several methods of risualizatic i ake method, liquid film * sretho, tf method, hydrogen bulb method sed eptecl og f flow visualization technique such as smoke m G6. Define viscosity and state its formulae and the terms An: pert, 1) Viscosity is a property of fala that offers resistance to motion of one layer over the other. tis expressed as, = = (5 dy Where, 1 ~ Viscosity ‘~ Shear stress between two layer’s of uid ‘ dv ~ Difference in velocity of two layers dy ~ Distance between the two layers. 7. Write short notes on, (a) Dynamic viscosity (b) Kinematic viscosity. Anse . Mode! Papert, a1) (a) Dynamic Viscosity Dynamic viscosity is defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of angular deformation. Iti represented by the symbol “". Dynamic viscosity is generally expressed in N.S/m? or kg/m.s. Mathematically, the dynamic viscosity 1. nme : Tae] ay (>) Kinematic Viscosity Kinematic viscosity is defined a8 the ratio between the dynamic viscosity ‘n’ and density of uid ‘p'. The kinematic viscosity is generally represented by the symbol ¥. ‘Mathematically, kinematic viscosity is written as, __ Dynamic viscosity _ jt vo Density P Itis generally expressed in m’/s.*y'is a function of temperature for liquids and gases at a specified pressure, GB State the limits of viscosity and kinematic viscosity. Ans: Units of Viscosity SA units NSim? MK-Sunits Kef.see/m* dyne ~See CGS units — Poise 1 em | poise = 7g N.S/m* : The viscosity of water at 20° Cis oq Poise. Units of Kinematic Viscosity Siunits mils MKSunits mils : so CGS units Stoke = cm/sec 10+ m/s. I stoke SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTSv TRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD, 128 MEASURING INS’ PART-B_ ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS 5.1 Fiow Merens - Heao Tyre, Arca Tyee (Rota METER), ELECTROMAGNETIC TyPe, Positive DispLacement TYPE a0. 0 on 20. Discuss the type of fom meter Mode Papert on ‘The low meters are the devices used o measure the Mud stream hat bated upon ter principle of operation and cr career, TY 1. Head Type Flow Meters Head type flow meters are based on differential pressure measurements. In head. which are inserted ina pipe containing fd. When te uid obstructs that evi, Om both sides of he device. It eases the att increase andthe pressure gt de type of flow meters are orifice plate, venturi tube, flow nozzle, flow tube and pitot tube. 2. Variable area Meters ser refer Unie¥, O10. tromagnetic Flow Meters For answer refer UnitV, O1. 4. Mechanteal Flow Meters Mechanical lw meter rates mechanical motion nth path ofthe uid stream. This mechanical motion proportion tothe fluid rate or volume. The common configuration wed in mechanical flow mers are postive displacement mete in which the flow path is obstructed and prevents the leakage and turbine flow meters in which turbine is used in the path of the Mud steam, 5. Anemometer ‘Anemomet Bonbeatt 6 Uitrasonte Flow Meter Ultrason Now meters are based onthe principe that the velocity of propaga Changed when the velocity ofthe flow ofuid changes, i0~ Explain construction and the working principle of@ Rotameter with a neat dlagram, tows through the meter. Basically, low meters are ype flow meters, some deviees ar use, ‘he differences in pressure is develope eases. The devices used for this e the devices usd for measurement of velocity of fluid steam. The common method adopted in anemometer nsfer principles used in hot-wire anemometers. of ultrasonic sound waves in a fluid is ‘Model Papers, ati) oR With neat sketch describe the principle of operation, construction, advantages and limitations of Ro- tameter. Ans: Rotameter/Variable Area Meter/Area Meter: In this, the area of flow is measured in uch a way thatthe head differential is constant. Hence rotameter is called variable area meter or area meter. * ple: Rotameter consists of a vertical, slightly tapered, transparent tube, which consists ofa plummet or float. The float is free to rise or fall in a tapered glass tube due to the variation in the flow of fluid. “The variation of flow rate through an area between annular space of the tube and plummet generates a variable pressute drop, which is related tothe flow rate. Design Figure: Rotameter WARNING: Xerox Photocopying ofthis books a CRIMINAL act. Anyone fund pity it ABLE to face LEGAL proceedings, Metion Mel ph ometey Midis at) of Ro stat UNIT-5 (Flow, Density and Viscosity Measurements) ‘Kotameter consists of ak i ‘ sts of a long, vertical, slightly i anparen ube costing da plummet ufos Tre been of te tube is narrow. The tube is generally constructed with iglass to know the progress of the fuid. To measure the flow faa eae is made om tis las ube Flot or plummet may temade of lead, aluminium, glass and ee lass and plastic and are available Working: In rotameters the pressure drop remains constant wile the uid flows through the ube. When the fail flow is increased or deéreased, the plummet rises and falls freely depending on the rate of flow of the fluid. The area of the * annular space between the plummet and the tube varies in such ‘a way thatthe head loss across the annular space is equal t0 the weight ofthe plummet. The upper edge ofthe plummet indicates, the flow rate. With the help of calibration curve the observed scale reading can be converted to flow rate. The rotameters are available with electric and electronic transmitters for recording. Applications (a) The rotameters are used in bulk drug industries (b) The rotameters are used in fermenters to control the supply of ait (0) Used for gasesand liquids at low pressure and high conditions. Merits (Go) Ingivesa direct visual index of low rates. (b) Permanent pressure loss is relatively very low. (©) Simple in construction and is inexpensive. (©) Itrequires no straight pipe running before and after the meter (which is compulsory in orifice and venturi meter). Demerit, —* & Accurate readings cannot be obtained due to the continuous movement of plummet Git, Describe the principle of operation, construc tlon details and limitations of an electromag- netic flow meter. Ans: Model Papers, ti) Prineiple: The measurement of flow rate using an electromag- “netic flow meter depends on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, When a pipe or tube carrying electrically conducting fuid is placed in a transverse magnetic field an e.m.f. will be induced across the electrodes connected tit. This voltage gives the measure of the velocity ofthe uid or low rate of the fluid Construction ad ree Figure: Flow Measurement Using Electromagnetic Flow Mete 129 “An electromagnetic flow meter consists of anonmagnetic ‘and nonconducting pipé to carry the flow whose velocity or low rate isto be determined, To the opposite sides of this pipe a pait of insulated electrodes which are in contact with the fluid flow inside the pipe are connected. Now this pipe is placed between the two poles of an electromagnet of permanent magnet that produces magnetic field ‘Working: When the conducting fuid whose flow rate is to be ncavured {5 made to low through the pipe, it cuts the magnetic field causing some e.m. to be induced across the electrodes. ‘This induced voltage is given by, er Bl Where, B Flux density 1 Conductor length (this is equal to diameter of the pipe) ¥- Velocity of the luid (conductor) From the above equation it is clear that the voltage induced across the electrodes is directly proportional to-the diameter of pipe, average velocity of fluid and hence gives the volume flow rate ofthe Mud, Limitations 1. Its use is limited to conductive fluids only. 2. Itsflow range is limited to 10 g pm to 10' gpmi-e.,0.5 10 4.95-10 m'fhr.” Q12. Derive an equation for the rate of fluid flow in head type flowmeters. Ans: Model Papers, a11(b) In the head type of flowmeters, flow rate is generally measured by introducing a restriction into the pipe or flow line. This restriction causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate. The value of flow rate can be known as by measuring this pressure drop. Consider a unidimensional flow system as shown in Figure: One Dimensional Flow System with a Restriction SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS :130 Section 1 is posit of upstream top of pressure and section 2 is position downstream top of pressure whee, 7 = Temperature ie A # Area | = Density + ¥-Stream veldcity P = Pressure Z = Central line elevation Consider the elevation is quite small such that z, ~z, is igible, then the volume flow tate, q is given by, Where, = Acceleration due to gravity. bbe present. Also the minimum of the flow channel occurs at 4 point called vena contracta. This point is located slighty to down stream which effects the flow rate. So the actual rate of uid is given by the equation. 47K Ay igh 1 Discharge coefficient / V b= LCDR ~ itil pee | Dati te oe tal Now a, on! lose wl where, K = 2+ The flow rate is given by, 9 = KA, 2h If. the differential pressure head is measured by monometer, the flow rate is given by, ye@,—P/) °, 4 =KA i. Where, ,, = Monometer fluid density , = Density of fluid over the monometer p, = Density of the fluid. WARNING: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYOERABAD} i Gia. Wilts a short note on bridge-circult flowmeter with necessary expressions. Ans: The figure below shows the flowmeter for liquids using bridge circuit. The pressure drop of a fluid across orifice is proportional to pQ*. From the above figure 1, 2,3 and 4 are the identical orifices. A pump is utilized in a bridge-circuit flowmeter which positive displacement type. The pump runs at constant speed land its volume flow rate is q,. 5P,y is the pressure rise across the pump. Due to symmetry 5P,,is given by Where, G= Mass flow rate rifice discharge coefficient (constant) ‘The mass flow rate of bridge-circuit flowmeter and §P,7 are linearily related. : Q14. What ai tty) displacement flowmeters? Bris two positive displacement flowmeters. Ans: Model Papers, a1) In these type of meters, measurement is done direct in terms of quantity which isyr ynlT-§ (Flow, Density and Viscosity Measurements)” ‘Nutating dise type 2. Oscillating piston type Sliding vane, retracting vane or, vane type : Lobed impeller type Oval-shaped gear type Reciprocating piston type. * Fluted rotér type spring loaded rotary Bellows, gas meter ete, Nutating Dise (ND) Meter ‘The nutating disc meters schemati i "matically shown in figure (1) Figure (1): Nutating Dise Flowmeter The dise is eccentrically mounted. Water enters from the left side of the disc which is pivoted at the geometric centre and is allowed to nutate or wobble in a specially ‘designed chamber. A cone with the apex at the geometric centre is generated when the disc wobbles. The disc is set in motion by the liquid pressure. Due to this motion of the disc the quantity of liquid that enters the left chamber will be rolled out through the outlet. A counter is used to count each cycle of nutation of the disc. The number of counts is directly calibrated interms of the volume of the liquid received. This method is widely applied in ‘commercial and domestic water supply. 2 Sliding Vane ‘The schematic diagram of a sliding vane meter is shown in figure (2), Vanes ing Vane Flowmeter SPECTRUM ALL-I 131 The sliding vane meter consists of an eccentric drum rotating inside the meter casing and spring-loaded vanes. These spring-loaded vanes also rotate duc to the differential pressure across the meter. While rotating, these vanes make a contact with the meter casing and form separate chamber inside in which a fixed quantity of fluid is trapped. The trapped fluid is pushed out through the outlet. A counter is connected through the shaft of the eccentric drum and flow quantity is registered using this counter. This type of flowmeter is applied in fluids including gases and also for viscous fluids and slurries. Q15. List the devices which are indirect means of ‘measurement of flow'and describe any one in detall. Ans: ‘Mode! Papers, 10 ‘The sensing devices of indirect measurement of flow are, 1. Orifice pla of ecifice meter > 2. Venturimeter 3. Pitot tube 4, Rotameter, Orifice Plate of Orifice Meter Principle : (Orifice meter is a thin plate with a Gentral narrow aperture which is introduced in a pipe line: Thus, when a fluid stream passes through the narrow constriction of the orifice, the velocity (i.e. kifetic energy) of the fluid at the orifice plate increases in comparison with its velocity atthe entry of the pipe. Thus, the corresponding pressure energy decreases. The reduction in pressure can be measured by the manometer. According to Bernoulli's theorem, the increase in the velocity head with the decrease in pressure head can be correlated between the two points je., where the manometer is arranged in a pipeline. The velocity of the fid atthe point (before entering the orifice) can be neglected due to the smaller diameter of the orifice than pipe diameter. In such a case, the velocity of the fluid is directly read from the manometer. The velocity of the fluid at the orifice can bbe calculated from the following formula. ¥2g..AH i . %= ¢ Where, Fluid velocity at the point of orifice in m/s C, = Constant of orifice metet AH = Difference in pressure in meter. IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS © Wes132 Pid Fw Figure: Orifice Meter. sr ‘This isthe simplest and widely used pressure differential flow meter, 1 consists of a thin plate with a central narcow aperture, which is smaller in diameter than the pipeline in which itis introduced, To measure the pressure difference the ‘manometer is connected to the pipe. The orifice meter can be placed in the side or bottom of the pipeline. Working ‘When the fluid is introduced in the pipe, itpasses through the narrow constriction of the orifice meter. Two points and B are chosen in the orifice meter to demonstrate the velocity of the uid flowing through the orifice. The fluid leaves the constriction of the orifice meter at point B with a velocity higher than the at point 4. Thus, the corresponding pressure head at point B is less than the pressure head at point A. The pressure difference (A) is read from the manometer which is arranged to the points 4 and 2. ‘The Bemoulli’s equation is applied for the two points A and B in the orifice meter as follows, Vita = c, /2g,8T (1) Where, ; 1u, = Fluid velocity atthe point of orifice meter in m/s 1,2 Fluid velocity at the point A in m/s > C, = Constant . AH = Pressure difference in m. As the diameter of the ofifice.is very less compared to the diameter of the pipe, the velocity of the fluid at point A (w,) is less compared to the velocity of the fluid at the constriction (u,). Hence, u, is ignored. ‘Thus equation (1) becomes, Vig = ¢qV/2¢,.4H uy = Cy ¥2e,AH 2) The value of ‘AH’ is read from the manometer and ‘substituted in equation (2) to calculate the velocity of the fluid flowing through the orifice meter, provided that the cross section ‘of the pipe is known, Therefore, the volume ofthe fluid flowing per hour is calculated, eo MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAp, je above stated expe fal conditions aig Bemoulli’s theorem is applied as follows, 2 P, xh Sere oe Ot 2g Eg Pp In the above equation, the following assumptions may ‘be made to the orifice meter. (i) X,=X, because the heights of the points 4 and p are same and hence the terms get cancelled, Gi). R= 0, friction losses are.not-appreciable ang considered negligible... .. ii), - because the Muid flowing through the ‘orifice is the same. (Gv) I= 0, no work is done by the liquid. The equation (3) is reduced 10, 7 3 ay Pa ty Po 2g, gp 28. 8P Pas Pn ep "ep cur) 8. To nullify the differences between the velocities at orifice and at vena contract (point B), a constant, C, is included. Vig 4 = 928,811 ‘The velocity through the orifice is uy, ” aa 1, is negligible as the orifice diameter is Fthorthe pipe {| diameter or less. CoV2g.AH « Applications 1. The velocity of the fluid at the two points A and B can be calculated, |] 2 The volume of the fluid flowing per hour can be determined provided that the velocity ofthe fluid a point / ‘A (u,) and cross-section of the pipes are known. Merits It is simple instrument with low cost. 2. Itneeds less space. 3. Easily installed. 4. Easy to interchange. 5. Adjustable orifices are available. wagoo a Unt T-5 (Flow, Density and Viscosity Measurements) pemerts ee permanent 1s of pressure, went ratio of orifice o pipe diameter is above 0.75, + the sesulis are not accurate, ; Ifthe fluid contains solid particles, it may obstruct the orifice. ‘The orifice meter is not recommended above 1000 psi at 800°F. Describe surement of flow using, _, (0) Venturimeter ' (b) Pitot tube. Ans: (o Venturimeter Principle ‘The venturimeter consists of two smooth ‘gradually tapered sections with.a central gradual constriction. ‘When the venturimeter is inserted in a pipeline through which the fluid i introduced, the velocity ofthe uid at the constriction increases in comparison withthe velocity atthe point 4. This does not allow great energy losses because of the central gradual constriction. tthe narrow constriction, the velocity ofthe fluid is as follows, + u,=°¢, 2g, 0H sad) ‘Where, uu; = Velocity at the constriction of the venturi in v/s C, = Coefficient of the venturimeter ‘AH = Pressure head in m. Design i | Original Diameter Outlet Section > Downstream V5 of Diamstar Figure (1): Venturimeter The venturi meter has special construction features. It Consists of two tapered sections, the inlet and outlet sections The throat is formed by joining the two sections. A manometer islocated along the points A and B to measure the rate of ov. Itisalso known as variable head meter because its used ‘ocalculate the variable differential pressures. ° SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FC 133 Working As the fluid stream flows through the throat, the velocity of the fluid increases in downstream compared to the velocity of the upstream, which results in corresponding decrease in the pressure heads, The flow rate can be measured from the pressure drop between the upstream and downstream of the ‘Venturimeter with thé help of the manometer. Venturi flow rate can be determined by using equation. * = C,y2g,AH ‘The same equations are used for calculations with venturimeter as used for orifice meter. ©) Pitot Tube Principle It works on the principle of measuring the pressure differential ofa uid flowing through a channel. Design ‘The pitot tube is a U-shaped tube, containing a sensing clement like mercury. One of the limbs of the pitot tube which is perpendicular tothe fluid flow, measures the pressure head only. ‘The other limb which is parallel tothe fluid flow, measures both the pressure head and velocity head. The manometer reading, “R’ measures the velocity head. ‘The velocity héad of the fluid can be calculated according to the Bemoull’s equation as follows, Howe ‘ (on) 2 =2g.AH, (Theoretical velocity) ¢,V2gAH (Actual velocity) jelocity ofthe flow atthe point of insertion in m/s AH, = Manometer difference in head in m C, = Coefficient of pitot tube. GEE «—Diectonot = few — tetera Sr rhe bk Figure (2): Pitot Tut Working “The ptot tube is inserted into the pipeline through which ‘te lid is lowing. The sensing element senses the changes in velocity. The velocity of flow is increased at point 4, with a corresponding decrease in pressure. This limb which is parallel tothe flow of th fluid measures both pressure head and velocity head. The limb which is perpendicular to the flow of the fluid, ‘measures only the pressure head, Thus, the manometer measures the velocity head, as per the equation (which can be derived from Bernoulli’s equation). ‘OR ENGINEERING STUDENTS134 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (JNTU-HYDERABAD) Q17._ Explain the optical methods of flow visualization. Ans? ‘The optical methods of flow visialization are based upon one of the two prieipl ' which the density ofa flowing Mud varies with the variation in lw characteristics and the refract the flowing fluid changes with the change in density ofthe laid. \When lights passed through a flowing fui, the light rays get defected when they ‘ in the fluid. Based on this principle, the flow characteristics of a fluid can be ‘vistialized by passing a fluid and then observing the irtensity pattern ofthe deflected light ona display ereen. ‘There ae thee iypes of optical methods of flow visualization. They aes i 1, Schlieren method rpnitieaihs 0 2. Shadow graph method ‘ 3. Interferometric method, “ ian 1, Sehileren Method: The schematic ofa flow visualizing device employing schlieren method is shown in gure (1) , (foal plane of L les of flow visualization, atcording ty ve index (optical property of Test section, " Disply seréen LensLy ) Lens-L Krife edge Figure (1: Schlieren Method of Flow Visualization In this method, the light rays emitted by a light source are converted into a parallel beam of light by a collimating lens L, and then passed through the test section. (The test section consists of two transparent windows mounted over the pipe ca- rying the fluid). As the light beam passes through the test section, some of the light rays undergo deflection by the density “The deflection depends on the amount of density gradient and thus the light rays undergo gzadients of the flowing fi different amount of deflections. ‘The deflected light pattern is then observed by implementing the schlieren effect with the help of lenses Z, and L, anda knife edge placed after the test section. The light beam emerging out of the test section is focused on the focal plane P, swith the help of lens L, and a knife edge. With the insertion of knife edge in the plane P,, the deflected rays get obstructed (cut-off) depending on their magnitude of deflection. Due to this, an image of non-uniform intensity distribution is formed con the display screen which is located at the focal plane P, of the lens L,. This effect is known as schlieren effect. the flow field and thus the characteristics ‘This non-uniform iftensity distribution pattern represents the density gradient 2. Shadow Graph Method: Shadow graph is the simplest optical method of flow visualization. Figure (2) represents the shadow graph method of flow visualization. Display sereen, Dark + i Bright = : Dark Light Bright source: Dark Flow Testisection Figure (2i: Shadow Graph Method of Flow Visualization, WARNING: XeroxPhotocopying of this book i CRIMINAL act, Anyone found guilty is LIABLE to fate LEGAL proceedings.sin (lem, Density and Viscosty Measurements 135 rnethod, the light ays emerging from a ight a c i mete scion Th iptne “ania L0uee ae collimated by a lens. Thus the esling parallel beam of we ; eract with the region of density gradient, undergo deflection. AS a ight beam emerging out of the low field, forms non oe en ae on She This pater represents the ow cher ifm intensity disibution pate (dark and bright spats) on we *haracteristics of the flow under test. Leto be the deflection of ight ray and Ay be the displacement ofthe light ray fom is actual image onthe sereen. Then, Ay=lo Where, 1 Distance between test section and display scrcen, ‘The intensity ofthe image at any point on the screen isthe function ofthe frst detivative of deflection i i derivative of reftactive index (i) or density (p) ofthe Pare of the first derivative of deflection (8) which in turn igbeseoond ee a ity « = (or Int ae Se SP . sever 3 By Inert wm = 4, _ Interferometric Method: The schematic of interferometric technique of flow visualization is shown in figure (3). : Beam spliter (BS,) b : Miror M, Light Lens Ly source . 7 Test ~ysection Lens Ly > : Display Mirror M, . screen Beam : Flow spliter (BS,) ; Figure (3): Interferometric Method of Flow Visualization one This technique makes use of the principle of interference for flow visualization ic. two light waves having different opti- alpaths or different phases exhibit interference phenomena when they are combined,” ; In this method, light rays from a light source are collimated by a collimating lens and then this collimated beam is splitted ‘lo wo beams b, and b, by a beam splitter BS,. The beam splitter is a half silvered mirror which transmits one half of the beam ‘edreflects the other half of the beam. The reflected beam (b,) is reflected'by the mirror M, so as to make it o'pass through the ‘ssection and thereafter reach the beam splitter BS, as shown in figure (3). The transmitted beam (b,) is not subjected to test section and is just directed towards the beam splitter BS, with the help tnimor M, AtBS,, beam b, and beam b, are combined and a resultant beam is produced. The image ofthe resultant beam is obtained ‘a display screen with the help of a lens L, placed after BS,. 7 ‘The beam b, passing through the test section will undergo deflection by the density gradients in the flow field. Due to this 5, will be out of phase with beam 5, and thus when 6, and , are combined at BS, an interference phenomena takes place, ‘Stinterference pattem (fringes) are formed on the display screen. The density gradients inthe flow field and thus the flow char- “Series. canbe studied from the interference pattern ths formed. ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS FEaes MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] S.2_ Densrry Measurement — Strain Gauce Loan Cau. Menon - Buoyancy MeTH0D Q18. Whats a strain gauge? Explain the strain gauge load cell method of measuring density. a Mode! Papers, 10, Ani Strain gauge is a resistive transducer. Itis used forthe measurement of strain and stress. Forthe measurement of dimensi ghange on the surface ofa body under est, strain gauges are uilised. The resistance strain gauge i based on the following relation i: ' aot =) Where, R= Resistance of a conductor p= Resistivity I= Length A™ Cross-sectional area ‘The basic relation between resistance change and strain is shown in figure (1). . R+OR’ OR i Applying log on both sides, ot) log R= tog ("4 Jon R= og (4 {og R= log (01) ~ log A log R= log p+ log/—log A Differentiating on both sides, Rab For square cross-section of diameter, K=1 Rg p* ht Peer | ‘The cross-sectional area of the conductor and it's diameter is related as, t | ATKD = a2 “ . : ale) Where, : j D-= Diameter of the conductor 7 i = Constant | WARNING: xeroxPotoonin of hs bok CRIMINAL at Ano aid sty is LBL i ea LEGAL proceeds@ UNIT-5 (Flow, Donsity and r 137 ‘osily Moasuroments) {equations (2) and (2), We get, dR dy, dt 2a Roop tp (“") J. bio), | 2ap1D) 0 a (URI Ry (4b!) cali) 12 Cir ( " - Loto... ’ 74 I+2p+ (ili, a (ahs Ry (dl (an. ‘1 _ “aii, ~ Shee in resistance due to change in length. : In the above equation G. is the gauge factor and G.F.= 2) = Change in resistance due to change in area (ai7h, = Chines in resistance duet piezo resistive effet. Microcontroller-based density measurement system is developed to measire density of solids. A strain gauge and a thermocouple sensor are used to measure the mass and temperature ofthe sample. three layer neural network is used to train the data for atomic number, temperature and density of sample using back propagation algorithm. After training the neural network, itis used to compute the density ait various temperatures, Density is an important property used to identify elements, compounds: and minerals. Block diagram of density measurement system is shown in figure (2). Sian Tastrveratn, com LCD ses amplfise Po] AN “key pic 16F877, board : Wax : Sigal condoning). 2 Thermocouple end aN PC Figure 2 ‘The decrease of unit cost and increase of on-chip capabilities has made possible the widespread use of single-chip microcontrollers in instrumentation and measurement technology. This development system enabled the use of compensation, Calibration and linearization techniques and te application of miro controllers in system control, data acquisition and processing. The above shown system consists ofa strain giuge with cantilever arrangement, instrumentation amplifier, K-type thermocouple ‘nd signal conditioning circuits for temperature measurement snd PIC 16F877 micro controller. Atwo-row 16 characters Liquid Crystal Display is interfaced with micro controller to allow user communications and to display the results. The user enters experimental variables and modes of operation into the system through a keyboard. “The principle of density measurement is the Weight ofa given volume ofa solid/Muid i proportional to density. The strain gauge is used asa sensor to measure the mass and hence the density ofthe substance. The basic principle is thatthe resistance of aa mage changes duet weight of given mas. In the experimental arrangement of stain gauge, the sensors attached to ne end ofa rectangular stainless steel metal strip of uniform cross section, which i fixed firmly toa metallic stand. The other end {attached to the sample. Four sain gauges are posted jn strategic positions on the fixed end of the cantilever beam, while the ther and is free to move up and down by suspension of weights, The resistance of each strain elements is of 350 ©. The output af bs tate network i ively proportional othe applied mass, The instrumentation amplifier amplifies the analog voltage iignal from the bridge network and then it is given to the one of the analog input (AN,) of the microcontroller. For various known: The tesa of the substance is compute a room temperature by employing Archimedes principle. ; SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS138 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] Q19. Explain Buoyancy method of density measurement with the help of a neat sketch. Ans: Figure (1) shows the buoyancy effect densitometer. ‘To Bridge cicut ancy Affect Densitomater i ich is used for the measurement of density/specific gravity. With the help of overflow tube the level inside the hydrometer tube is maintained constant. From figure (I) it can be noted that the transmitter is of reluctance type and the stem of the hydrometer are easly coupled. For different densities the buoyant action of the hydrometer is varied Therefore, through the inductance coil an electrical signal is passed. This technique is also widely used for the measurement of gas density. Two dumbbell shaped spheres are arranged in an enclosed chamber, which are suspended by a quartz fibre. The tuoyancy characteristics ofthese spheres are designed unequally. For conduction of the spheres, one of the spheres is sputtered ‘with rhodium. In this case o obtain an electrostatic field two electrodes are arranged around the spheres. Figure (2) shows the dumbbell method which is used to obtain electrical output. In this figure P, and P, are the photocells, D, and D, are the dumbbell shaped spheres. rin Be B Figure (2) WARNING: XeroxPhtocopyngof his bok «CRIMINAL ge. Anone fund pity LABLE to face LEGAL proce proceedings. rea \G \a @ in e th of m139 (Flow, Density and Viscosity Measurements) From the above figure it fs noted that, with the help ofa stable source, mirror receives light and is fixed tothe van fibre. ‘This ioe reflects the light toa prism, Therefore, the prism splits the beam nto two pars andthe Beam falls on two photocell tnd P, The balance condition ofthe dumbbell i achieved when the photocell ouput difference is amplified. In this ease density js also measured for unbalanced potentials 020. Bien ecoleln Buoyancy method of density measurement and give its advantages, disadvantages and Ans: For answer refer Unit-V, Q19. Advantages Direct measurement ofall density measurement points with & minimum amount of time, Reduction of measurement points and thus no need for interpolation. ‘Scaling mistakes are prevented. z Outliers are detected immediately. \ ‘ Extensive automation of measurement process. ‘Test time considerably reduced. Disadvantage ‘Turbulence is a problem for buoyancy which makes the system performance down. Applications | 1, Density measurement. Model Papert, 118) 2, __Applications involving high temperatures. Q21. Explain briefly about vibrating probe method of measuring density. Ans: Wk Mass per unit volume ofa liquid is called as density. Generally density is measured in terms of kg/m? or grams/iter. fe Different types of methods ae available for density seasurement, One ofthe method used for measuring density is vibrating raid | __ probe method. ri) Vibrating Probe Method = ‘Vibrating probe liquid densitometer is shown in figure given below. As from the name, this instrument consists of a probe. i ‘This probe is also known as paddle, Pickup Cok ch Probe (Pada) Figure «vibrated in the driver coil, Vibrations of paddie ae sensed by pickup coils andis placed ‘ With the help of a magnet, paddle c ; ip of a magnet Pat at driver coil is $0 Hz and it produces 100 cycle vibrations inthe pipe. The end of pick-up in the vessel. The A.C. input appli ! p coil consists of a permanent magnet. In these type of instruments the output signal generated by the pick-up coils proportional to the amplitude of vibration of the probe. When the probe is placed in aliquid whose density has to be measured, then the position af the probe changes. Therefore, the amplitude of the ‘vibration of probe also changed, hence the output also changes. For the of instruments are frequently used. measurement of gas density, this type SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS140 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD) 022. What's vibrating U-tube density sensor? Briefly explain about vibrating single tube fluid density sensor, Ans: Vibrating U-tube Density Sensor, . [This typeof device is based on te effect of density onthe natural frequency of vibrating system. This Pe hibairert is quently used fr liquid and gas density measuremens U-tube density sensors shown in gue) The U-tube continously vibrates by using amplitude limited feedback system. ff = beam (ee laid whose density has to be measured is passed through the tube continuously ‘beam formulas the first bending of vibration of tube is approximated. 8 ith the help of standard cantilever- Motion transducer Figure (2) Figure (3) shows the amplitude limited feedback control system. % F Let Density Ample 7 Changs o, + KS [om ae Ki a Less Fetteleeal ™ se aE ge ee Magnetic force Voluge : fi a Maton Tube displacement teanedcer Figure (3) WARNING: Xerox/Photocopying ofthis bok is CRIMINAL ect. Anyone found guy is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedings. mai this¢ close chan resol dens then 23‘Y UNIT- (Flow, Density and Viscosity Measurements) >The liquid which flows through the U-tube does not effect “the stiffness of the beam. In this case as liquid density varies, ‘the mass per unit length also varies, ‘The natural frequency is given by, : LF P (Rat (Ray R i) Length of the tube 1 =Tube-area moment of inertia , = Mass density of tube-material R,, = Tube inside radii Rj. = Tube outside radii ‘ ‘The continuous oscillations at a limiting frequency is maintained by amplitude limited feedback control system. In this case the density of the tube and limiting frequency are very close. So, when the density changes the natural fréquency also changes. The density measured is read out by using standard electronic frequency measuring schemes. It's accuracy and resolution is very high. In this case for linearizing the frequency, deisity relation microprocessors are widely used.’ From the ‘equation (1) itis clear that when the tube inside radii is high then natural frequency is also high. i, 23. Explain with a neat diagram the radiation type of measuring density. OR Explain with a neat schematic Gamma ray method of measuring density. Ans: ‘The figure shows the schematic diagram of density meter which uses y-ray method. Few Detector > Tomcasurng esd Shiling Radio Figure Shuter Few In this method cesium-137 is used as radio active source, Itemits gamma rays, These rays are passed through the flowing material in a pipe. In this method intensities of radiation ean be measured with the help of detector before and after the materia low. ‘SPECTRUM ALt 141 evo Vy {4 (lel, D = Diameter of the pipe Where, = Mass absorption coefficient 1,= Intensity of radiation before the material flow 1,= Intensity of radiation after the material flow This instrument is most frequently used for the measurement of density of a solution or slurries. This is the most accurate method for the measurement of density. 3 Units oF Viscosity, Two FLOAT ‘Viscorator — INDUSTRIAL CONSISTENCY Maren, ea Q24. Enumerate Newton’s law of viscosity. Explain the importance of viscosity in fluid motion. Figure Consider n elemental fluid layer entrapped between two plates as shown in figure. Let the top plate move with a veloc ity ‘Vand the bottom plate is stationary. There is a velocity profile generated within the uid. The elemental fluid layer gets deformed with respect to time. The rate of deformation is given by. : Let, F—Force applied on moving plate. V— Uniform velocity of the moving plate, J’ Distance between two plates. A~ Surface area of moving plate. During the motion, the top layer of the fluid exerts shear stress on the layer below it. This continuously develops till the bottom layer. Hence, the rate of deformation is related to shear stress. AS shear stress inereases, rate of deformation increases. ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING ‘STUDENTS142 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD] From the experiment. i Forer 2 Sufice area of plate x Velocity of plate Distance between two plates re FY ew yA yt a by (rate of shear stain). fei oot A] Hence, the law states that, at any point within the fluid element, shear stress is directly proportional to rate of deformation” ‘or rate of shear strain, Importance of Viscosity Viscosity is a property of fluid that offers resistance to motion of one layer over the other. It primarily arises due to co- hesion among molecules and also due to momentum exchange between the molecular fluid layers. Viscosity is responsible for : | shear stress Being generated within the uid results inflow. Incase the viscous force among the fluid layers accounts to zer0 slip | condition arises and there would never be a relative flow occurring between the layers which leads to partial flow or no-flow. F tec of Teniperature on Viscosity Viscosity of fds changes with the change in temperature. In gases, the intermolecular distance i large and with the crease in temperature, agitation increases and the intermolecular momentum transfer exceeds the cohesive forces among, mal- cules which inte inreases the viscosity. The relation i given by, wn, +0r-Be Where and are constants, is desired temperature, pi the value of viscosity at °C. In case of liquids, the intermolecular distance is very small the increase in temperature causes the cohesive forces to pre- dominate the inermolecular momentum transfer and thus tend to reduce the iseous effects. The elation is given by, mae wale Fart pe Q25. Explain the working of Viscometers. Ans: Viscometers Every liquid has the intemal propery to resist the motion This propery is called viscosity, The devices wheih measure the visocisity are called viscometers or viscosity meters and the science of determining the viscosity is ealledviscometry. The inci Seied fx maracas 1. Coaxial cylinder viscometer 2. — Capillary tube viscometer and 3. Paling sphere viscometer Cylinder Viscometer , Itsalto called concentre-ylindr viscometer. This viscometer works onthe Newon's lw of viseosty. This viscometer consis of wo coal or concent cinders Ones fad ree inher of ad, The space betwee the pnd filled with liquid whose viscosity isto be determined. The inner cylinder is held atthe top by torsion wire. When outer eylinder rotates the torque is produced, This torque is transmitted to the inner cylinder by a film of liquid and then to torsion wire because of which itrottes, The torque on the inner cylinder is measured and then shear sess xis determined, This torque must be equal ‘and opposite to the torque on outer cylinder. Viscosity of liquid is determined in the following way, WARNING: Coaxi (ren!Potacopyng ofthis book i @ CRIMINAL act. Anyone found guy is LIABLE to face LEGAL proceedings |er se al Stationary inner eylinder Rotating outside eylinder Liquid : Figure La, ‘o = Angular speed of outer cylinder. : : h=Depth of liquid in the eylinder. ‘aClearance between two cylinders at the bottom. ‘The torque on outer cylinder is because of viscous force provided by liquid. ‘Tangential speed of the outer eylinder =r, Velocity of liquid layer in contact with outer cylinder = «ry This layer moves with outer cylinder). Velocity of liquid layer in contact with inner cylinder = 0 (ce-Inner eylinder is stationary). + ‘over annular space (r,~7,) on-0 oF ‘Torque on inner cylinder, 7, = shear force on cylinder * radius : or, =px 2 x dmrixr, ah ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS144 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD} 1€ ais the clearance between two elindes athe bottom, ten the torque on ner einer (BOOM) * eye 7 0g NN Bre 600 60a e 2 " = HO, oa Total torque acting on inner eylnde is, rer+r, 2m nok | niors Gn —2e="ir nro (nah +r, —7)] ‘Viscosity of liquid can be obtained by above equation. Q26. Explain the two float vi Ans: rator used for measurement of viscosity. Model Paper, a) ‘The two float viscorator measures viscosity of fd. It incorporates (io floats i. upper Moat and lower float. The forces acting onthe float are dependent on low rate and viscosity ofthe fu, In two float viscoraor, upper float is designed such that the viscous drag area is relatively small and the float is viscosity insensitive. Thus upper float is Sensitive only to flow rate. Where | 8 the lower float is designed such that flow rate is held constant so thatthe lower float is Sensitive to Viscosity. | ‘The schematic arrangement of two float viscoratot is as shown in figure. Main pie kine wong vate or erin Bypass ire —>| , PE hoting ave }<—two tat viscoator meter ow rate fat Pp vices tse Insrment r] thermometer) ot vale Figure ‘The two float viscorator consists of a main pipe line. The amount of liquid through main pi ‘a bypass connection with the help of Bypass line, In order to produce a differet line: The restriction to the flow is obtained using a throttling valve or an orifice plate, ‘An instrument such as thermometers installed in the bypass line, and accurate flow rate adjustment, ‘The two float viscorator meter consists of flow rate setting float or upper float and viscosit , ty measuring float or lower float. A constant reference low rae is mained in the upper oat. Then the position ofthe lower oat indieats the vies ote fluid on a direct scale in the two float viscorator meter. WARNING: XeroxPhotcpying of his books CRIMINAL wt. Anyone ond uty UABLE eae LEGAL procotings. ~y ipe line ean be reduced by taking al pressure for the flow is placed in the main pipe ‘Aneedle valve is used in bypass line to provide sensitive is fi inf com¥s" ting vane consistency meter, a rotating wheel (vane) is In rotating measured. The shaft of the wheel is connected sency bas 10 to an electric motor as shown in figure, oi Potential transformer Current transformer nr) «cy Placed in flow box. The flow box consists of liquid whose 3-ph power Fluid Figure ‘The consistency is a general term which indicates the viscosity of fluid. The motor is connected to 3-phase supply the ato whee rotate which intur roates the wheel placed inthe fluid. Whenever the fluid changes then the speed of olation Fluid —> Ininer cylinder > Outer cylinder Transducer Smeaton Mechanical drive rod Figure ‘The magnitude of force will depend on the consistency of fluid flowing between the two cylinders. — ‘There are two transducers connected t0 inner cylinder and outer cylinder. The magnitude of both transducer readings are lo measure the consistency. _ SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS:important Question o working principle of ster wit Q1. Explain construction and the working principle of a Rotamet . Ans: Refer Q10. * ith necessary expressions. = aneat diagram. Q2. Write a short note on bridge-circuit flowmeter wit ee Ans: Refer Q13 fly explain any tw motors? Briefly explain any two 3. What are the different types of positive displacement flowmoters - displacenient flowmeters. Important Ans: Refer Q14. Ee wes AON Q4. Describe the measurement of flow using, (a) Venturimeter (b) Pitot tube. Ans: Refer QU6. Important tg Q5. Briefly explain Buoyancy method of density measurement and give its advantages, disadvantages ang applications. : Ans: Refer Q20. potato, Q6. Explain the working of Viscometers. Ans: Refer Q25. Imports ua Q7. Explain the two float viscorator used for measurement of viscosity. Ans: Refer Q26. Important user WARNING: Xerox/Photocopying ofthis bock is & CRIMINAL set,