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‘Femininity’ and
the History of
Women’s Education
Shifting the Frame

Edited by
Tim Allender · Stephanie Spencer
‘Femininity’ and the History of Women’s Education
 Tim Allender • Stephanie Spencer
Editors

‘Femininity’ and the

History of Women’s
Education
Shifting the Frame
Editors
Tim Allender Stephanie Spencer
University of Sydney University of Winchester
Sydney, NSW, Australia Winchester, UK

ISBN 978-3-030-54232-0    ISBN 978-3-030-54233-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54233-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
­publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
­institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Westend61 / GettyImages Cover Caption: The image on the cover of the
book is used as a visual metaphor. It shows three young scholarly women of different cultural
backgrounds. They have walked through a non-Western historical gateway. We hope our
book will be read in this way, where the respective contributions, drawing on various cultural
histories and other analytical frames, help build a deeper understanding of women’s
education today.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 About This Book

This book explores the different theoretical and epistemological constitu-

encies that are engaged in the field of women’s history as these relate to
aspects of education within broader social settings. As our theme, shifting
conceptions of femininity are interrogated in a range of historical sites in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Chapter 1, written by Tim Allender and Stephanie Spencer, is divided
into three parts. Firstly, it briefly sets out the conceptual and theoretical
framework regarding femininity and women’s history as we see it, espe-
cially as these relate to education and the chapters in the book. It then
considers the necessary engagement any study of femininity needs to have
with the usually more dominant and distinctive boundaries created by dif-
ferent academic traditions of historical investigation, including transna-
tional approaches. And lastly there is a discussion of how shifting frames of
femininity take the researcher into more intimate domains of personal
experience, where studies about feminine bodies, their educative sur-
roundings, their ageing, their aesthetic and their religiosity provide fasci-
nating sites of study for scholars of women’s history.
Then follows eight chapters, each analysing shifting frames of feminin-
ity in some of the sub-fields, it might be argued, of histories of women’s
history.
Chapter 2, by Ruth Watts, examines the positionality of women who
engaged with the emerging discipline of science in the nineteenth century.
She argues that by their very participation, these women were subversive
in pressing against broader assumptions about their feminine psychology
and even rationality. Critically, though usually excluded from being

v
vi About This Book

scientists, this feminine agency led these women (including illustrator and
painter Marianne North, whose work this chapter focuses upon) to use
permitted feminine skills and occupations in new and shifting intellectual
fields of imaginative endeavour that had connection especially with bot-
any. It was permissible for them to be teachers, but in creating these rich
connections with other fields, they also established new ways to think
about science: including later scholarship that has revealed the limiting
gendered associations and language embedded in the discipline itself.
In Chap. 3, Linda M. Perkins takes the reader to the United States of
America and explores the shifting juxtapositions of race and femininity in
women’s physical education and sport in the early to mid-twentieth cen-
tury. The chapter sees strong precursors that relate to the emancipation of
slaves in the previous century where former female slaves were forced to
conform to White notions of morality and beauty. Sexual assaults by slave
owners against female slaves fed into widely held narratives that Black
women were promiscuous. Some are enduring constraints for many Black
sportswomen to this day. However, in the 1920s, when college-level phys-
ical education and sport began to see Black female participants participat-
ing with White women, some of these constraints were reconfigured,
revealing differing White attitudes on the issue of race, femininity and
sport. Key institutions in this period such as the YWCA, though encourag-
ing Black participation, reinforced racial segregation in sport. Yet, sport
also led to new marginalities around their putative femininity. Drawing on
the life stories of several key athletes and administrators, this chapter
explores an emerging distinction within sports, where basketball, in par-
ticular, was identified in US colleges as a masculine pursuit or one only for
the working-class and Black women. This stereotype was then replaced by
a stronger sporting relegation for them which was track and field. This
sport eroticised Black women athletes and conveyed new anxieties about
their possible homosexuality.
Chapter 4, by Joyce Goodman, focuses predominantly on the year
1931 in the life and career of feminist Suzanne Karpelès. From a wealthy
Hungarian Jewish family, and educated in Paris, Karpelès was an outstand-
ing linguist of Eastern languages. She was appointed the founding director
of the Royal Library and later also of the Buddhist Institute in Phnom
Penh, Cambodia, which was part of Indochina, then under French colo-
nial rule. Drawing on a rich variety of sources, including photographs,
personal letters, journal and newspaper articles, this chapter uses Karpelès’
fascinating travels to illustrate the fluidity of femininities within spaces of
 ABOUT THIS BOOK   vii

circulation: embracing the intimacies of empire and shifting international

mentalities of the era, including fascism. There are four levels of inquiry
that engage femininities as they related to Karpelès in her colonial locale
and in spaces of circulation in Europe: religion and colonialism; interna-
tionalism and emerging feminine expertise within international organisa-
tions; Karpelès’ countervailing configurations of the “native woman”
which were in tension with her views on indigenous schooling in empire;
and, finally, where Karpelès encountered new educational cinematography
in the context of fascism that re-shaped ascriptions of femininity in respect
of women. This chapter’s approach to the dynamic frames of femininity in
which both Karpelès and her world are engaged is brought together by
articulating processes of encounter and negotiation, underpinned by
Judith Butler’s performative account of gender and Karen Barad’s posthu-
manist extension of Butler’s performativity.
In Chap. 5, Kay Whitehead traces gender relations around the appoint-
ment of women in authority, most notably as female school inspectors in
post-suffrage South Australia in the 1890s. She analyses the career trajec-
tories of seven white-­settler women teachers where their professional iden-
tity, authorised by men, entangled their femininity and relegated their
authority by gender-specific assignations around their ‘modest’ and ‘kind’
natures. Broader and rapid shifts in educational policy and offerings moved
women teachers into secular classrooms as the state tookover responsibil-
ity for educating many school children in the 1870s. The appointment of
Blanche McNamara as the first Lady Inspector two decades later in 1897
resulted in a new level of male anxiety about “petticoat government”,
prompting satirical cartoons that stereotyped women as inadequate disci-
plinarians, mannish and not worthy to hold authority over the teachers of
boys. However, upon McNamara’s premature death, her portrait in the
local press conveyed conventional white-settler femininity, yet also a
woman of intensity and intellect.
Chapter 6, by Stella Meng Wang, explores the dynamic that the Girl
Guide Movement created within both colonial and public spaces in inter-
war Hong Kong. The shifting frame of feminine identity, particularly in
urban English medium schools for middle-class girls (most of whom were
at least part-Chinese descent), revolved around the transformative agency
of Girl Guiding that directed these girls into sporting and philanthropic
spaces as they moved into higher education. Guiding promoted work in
prisons, teaching female inmates needlework and raffia work as well as
gardening and basic literacy. Guiding also engaged the feminine physique,
viii ABOUT THIS BOOK

encouraging drills, marching and sport while simultaneously emphasising

a cultured and theatre-going school girl. On both levels, Guiding pro-
vided an entrée into the upper echelons of Hong Kong colonial society.
Yet, the sponsors of this movement, to keep it strong, also provided
bridges into rural and working-class domains that embraced social service
but cut across the colonial class agendas of the British.
In Chap. 7, Stephanie Spencer reflects upon shifting frames of feminin-
ity created by the ageing process in mid-twentieth-century Britain, specifi-
cally in the 1960s, typically considered to be a decade when the old social
order relaxed. An analysis of fiction in three publications aimed at a teen-
age audience is informed by a symbolic interactionist approach that
explores the role that leisure reading played in the informal education of
girls into an age-appropriate performance of femininity. The closer the
reader came to adulthood, the more clearly the advantages of youth and
the problems of old age were articulated. In Honey, marriage, presented as
the ultimate goal in the numerous romance narratives, also heralded a
seismic shift of femininity towards the invisibility of middle and old ages.
Early teen readers of Diana, however, encountered a greater variety of
older role models, and the emphasis in the fiction for a younger audience
was not on the older girls’ teleological search for Mr Right but on a per-
formance of prepubescent femininity that was fearless, independent, and
girl centred.
Chapter 8, by Deirdre Raftery and Deirdre Bennett, frames femininity
within the habitus of religious life. Though dressed in habit and veil, there
was an underlying and distinctive professional feminine characteristic of
women religious (nuns), where they negotiated the traditional male spaces
of architecture and engineering. The chapter concerns the nineteenth cen-
tury, where Church femininity, as enshrined by nuns, could also be shifted
by them in practical and professional pursuits that encompassed both male
and female agency. Focusing mostly on one such sister, Honora (Nano)
Nagle, Foundress of the Presentation Sisters, the chapter analyses her
building of two convent houses with ambitions for further expansion. This
work reflected the expansion ambitions of several other orders, also based
in Ireland at this time. Though there is little evidence that any nuns were
trained in engineering and design, foundresses of nineteenth-­century con-
vents were deeply concerned with the actual building of them. Sometimes
as wealthy women with the power of the purse, their views influenced
leading architects such as Augustus Welby Pugin and George Ashlin. This
chapter considers the shifts in the femininity of these women religious as
 ABOUT THIS BOOK   ix

they embraced these male domains to achieve their religious-building pro-

grams. And it reveals the critical place such women have in the fields of
women’s history and history of education.
In Chap. 9, Tim Allender examines shifting frames of femininity in
colonial India between 1785 and 1922. While making brief contrasts with
traditional Indian constructions of femininity and their intersection with
household and nationalist politics, the chapter’s main concern is the colo-
nial side of the ledger and those Indian females who interacted with it.
Passing through several key periods of variable interaction with colonial
state constructions of preferred feminine outcomes, the chapter looks at
the European female body in India. In the early British colonial era, femi-
ninity was connected to sex, emotional realms of domesticity and mascu-
line decrepitude. As the nineteenth century progressed and Western
demographers took hold, it was the femininity of mix-race females
(Eurasians) who became more formally the focus of emerging state agen-
das. In the 1870s feminine professional codas emerged for this same racial
grouping (and for some expatriate European females) in teaching and
nursing that, in turn, connected with transnational currents regarding
pedagogical innovation and tropical medicine protocols. In the early
twentieth century new geographies of female medical missionary interac-
tion with some Indian females (with publicly accountable statistical report-
age around treatment and cure) began contributing to the breakdown of
the rigid racial barriers of colonial India. This was well before the fierce
Nationalist struggles for Independence from the British of the later 1920s
and the1930s.
Chapter 10 explores the theoretical implications of the preceding chap-
ters in the book and interprets these implications through an established
academic approach of frame analysis. The chapter sees two dimensions
that are apparent across the book’s chapters: an analytical frame and a
metaphorical frame. Shifting femininities reveal new conceptual interac-
tions as well as newly identified, yet often unconscious, metaphorical iden-
tity formation.
The book is the product of a rich collaboration between chapter
authors. The project began its life as an all-day workshop where all chapter
authors and other scholar specialists participated. It was hosted by
Humboldt University, Berlin, and the International Standing Committee
of History of Education (ISCHE) in September 2018.
 Contents

1 Shifting ‘Femininities’: Multifaceted Realms of Historical

Educational Inquiry  1
Tim Allender and Stephanie Spencer

2 ‘Unnatural’ Women and Natural Science: Changing

Femininity and Expanding Educational Sites Through
Women’s Pursuit of Natural Science 11
Ruth Watts

3 African American Women, Femininity and Their History

in Physical Education and Sports in American Higher
Education: From World War I Through the Mid-century 37
Linda M. Perkins

4 Suzanne Karpelès’ Encounters in Indochina and Europe

in 1931: Multiple Femininities, Colonial Relations and
Educative Sites 63
Joyce Goodman

5 Troubling Gender Relations with the Appointment of

‘That Lady Inspector’ in Post-suffrage South Australia 89
Kay Whitehead

xi
xii Contents

6 Shifting Spaces of Femininity: Everyday Life of Girl

Guides in Hong Kong 1921–1941119
Stella Meng Wang

7 ‘I turned into the boorish, stiff, unpleasant teenager…

That was what he expected, and that was what I
immediately therefore became’: Negotiating the ‘Risk’ of
Femininity in Teenage Girls’ Reading in 1960s’ Britain149
Stephanie Spencer

8 ‘A Great Builder’: Female Enterprise, Architectural

Ambition and the Construction of Convents175
Deirdre Raftery and Deirdre Bennett

9 Reconfiguring Women and Empire: Sex, Race and

Femininity in British India, 1785–1922201
Tim Allender

10 Histories of Women’s Education and Shifting Frames of

‘Femininity’231
Stephanie Spencer and Tim Allender

Index237
 Notes on Contributors

Tim Allender is Professor and Chair of History and Curriculum at the

University of Sydney. He has published extensively on colonial India over
the past 20 years. His most recent monograph Learning Femininity in
Colonial India, 1820–1932, is part of ‘Studies in Imperialism’ series
published with Manchester University Press. This book won the Anne
Bloomfield Book Prize, awarded by the HES (UK), for the best history of
education book written in English and published between 2014 and 2017.
Allender has also since published edited works on History Didactics, and
he is co-editor of two book series specialising in transnational history and
in visual educational history. He is working on projects including Roman
Catholic religiosity in colonial and independent India, as well as studies
into the use of visual imagery in colonial settings. Allender has recently
held visiting professorships at Jawaharlal Nehru University, India; at
Birmingham University, UK; and at the Nanyang Technical University,
Singapore.
Deirdre Bennett is a PhD scholar at University College Dublin and a
second-level school teacher. Her doctoral work examines the economics of
convents in nineteenth-century Ireland, and she has carried out research
at convent archives all over the country. Her work has been published
in History of Education, and she has been awarded bursaries from the
International Standing Conference for the History of Education and
the History of Education Society (UK). Bennett has presented her
work in Germany, Portugal and the UK, and she has twice been the
recipient of a graduate research award from University College Dublin.

xiii
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Joyce Goodman is Professor of History of Education at the University of

Winchester and chercheure associée at CERLIS.eu. Her research explores
women’s work in and for education during the interwar period in relation
to internationalism, empire and comparative methodologies.
Goodman is an honorary member of ISCHE and of Network 17 of
EERA. Her books include Girls’ Secondary Education in the Western
World (Palgrave, 2014 pbk), with James Albisetti and Rebecca Rogers,
and Women and Education: Major Themes in Education (2011, 4 vol-
umes), with Jane Martin.
Linda M. Perkins is Associate University Professor and Director of
Applied Gender Studies at Claremont Graduate University, California
(USA). She holds an interdisciplinary university appointment in the
departments of Applied Gender Studies and Educational Studies. Her pri-
mary areas of research are on the history of African-American women’s
higher education, the education of African Americans in elite institutions,
and the history of talent identification programs for African-­American stu-
dents. She has served as vice president of Division F (History and
Historiography) of the American Educational Research Association
(AERA) and has served as a member of the Executive Council of AERA.
Deirdre Raftery is a historian of education at University College Dublin.
She has thirteen book publications and most recently co-authored three
books on aspects of the history of nuns and education, published by
Routledge and Irish Academic Press. She is completing a book entitled
Irish Nuns and Transnational Education, 1800–1900 (Palgrave Macmillan),
and her new book of Teresa Ball and Loreto Education (Four Courts
Press) is to be published in 2021.
Stephanie Spencer is a professor of History of Women’s Education and
convenor of the Centre for the History of Women’s Education at the
University of Winchester. Her research focuses on the development of
both formal and informal education for girls in the twentieth century. She
has a particular interest in adolescent leisure reading, and her most recent
publication is co-authored with Nancy G. Rosoff, British and American
School Stories, 1910–1960: Fiction, Femininity, and Friendship
(Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

Stella Meng Wang is a PhD candidate at Sydney School of Education

and Social Work, University of Sydney. Her research explores the everyday
life of children in colonial Hong Kong. Meng’s research interests include
the architecture of childhood, gender and youth movements, and wom-
en’s education.
Ruth Watts is Emeritus Professor of History of Education at the
University of Birmingham. She has published much on the history of edu-
cation and gender, her books including Gender, Power and the Unitarians
in England, 1760–1860 (1997), and Women in Science: A Social and
Cultural History (2007) for which she won the History of Education
Society Book Prize in 2010. She is ex-president of the British History
of Education Society and an honorary life member of both the latter
and the International Standing Conference for the History of
Education. Recent publications include historical work on women
and environmental sciences.
Kay Whitehead is Adjunct Professor of History of Education at the
University of South Australia and a co-convenor of the Gender Standing
Working Group for the International Standing Conference in the History
of Education. She has published widely on the lives, work and transna-
tional travel of Australian, Canadian and British women educators
from the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. Her publica-
tions include Lillian de Lissa, Women Teachers and Teacher Education in
the Twentieth Century: A Transnational History (2016).
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Nepenthes northiana (Sarawak) plant collected by, painted by,
and named after Marianne North. Board of Trustees of the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, reproduced with permission 21
Fig. 2.2 Marianne North Gallery, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Board of
Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, reproduced with
permission23
Fig. 2.3 Interdependence of plants, insects and animal life, ‘tangled’ and
carnivorous plants. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, reproduced with permission 26
Fig. 3.1 Alice Coachman 57
Fig. 5.1 That Lady Inspector, Quiz and the Lantern, January 28 1897, 9 107
Fig. 5.2 The late Miss Blanche McNamara: First Lady Inspector of State
Schools, Herald, April 28, 1900, 3 113
Fig. 8.1 Mother John Byrne PBVM, Australia (By kind permission of
the Presentation Archives, George’s Hill, Dublin, Ireland) 178
Fig. 8.2 Floor plan by the nuns of the Benedictine Monastery, Ypres
(By kind permission of the Kylemore Abbey Archives, Ireland) 186

xvii
 CHAPTER 1

Shifting ‘Femininities’: Multifaceted Realms

of Historical Educational Inquiry

Tim Allender and Stephanie Spencer

(i)
Recently, deconstructions around the notion of femininity have been
revealing in determining the diversity of educational spaces. These spaces
range from institutional contexts to family, to professional outlooks, to
racial identity, to defining community and religious groupings. For the
historian, each of these avenues opens up considerable scope for new aca-
demic research. This new research could explore some of the associated
historical contexts to examine the deeper question of the variable and
shifting interplay of feminine identity and its challenges within different
socio-cultural settings: particularly those occupied by educators and their
students. Driven by systematic archival research, this approach can give
rich and vivid insights about femininity. The approach can also provide

T. Allender (*)
University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
e-mail: tim.allender@sydney.edu.au
S. Spencer
University of Winchester, Winchester, UK
e-mail: Stephanie.Spencer@winchester.ac.uk

© The Author(s) 2021 1

T. Allender, S. Spencer (eds.), ‘Femininity’ and the History of
Women’s Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54233-7_1
2 T. ALLENDER AND S. SPENCER

the reader with interesting accounts of how these historical contexts

shaped the agency of females and their identity. In doing this, new direc-
tions in feminist and gender history emerge that interrogate the dynamic
nature of femininity. This is ‘femininity’ as both a conceptual tool and as
part of the personal projects of actors immersed in their respective histori-
cal contexts.
New research suggests ‘femininity’ should not be seen as an analytical
category by itself, but rather being mostly determined within the academic
spaces created by the paradigms of race, feminism, gender and class. Much
academic travel about femininity is authorised by this phenomenon. And,
tantalisingly, the entanglement of feminine identity formation within these
broader paradigmatic categories creates a fluidity that reveals different
educational outcomes for those females who shared their respective learn-
ing spaces. Furthermore, there is also some perversity to notice as authors
seek to engage with this shifting frame to better understand how the ideal
of femininity was referenced by the practicalities of female agency. One
such circumstance was when women negotiated rather than disregarded
the constraints of their historical context by paradoxically continuing to
enshrine a time-specific ideal of femininity, even when their later circum-
stances demanded that they move away from it.
Additionally, there are new academic horizons to consider. Historians
of gender and feminism, in particular, are seeking alternatives to linear
analysis and they are resisting disciplinary boundaries around their
research. For example, Kathryn Gleadle, in her influential The Imagined
Communities of Women’s History, is responsive to the seeming slowing in
progress of women’s history in the last 15 years or so. She disagrees with
this view. Instead she sees an active field, still, but one that now cuts across
many traditional binaries of inquiry and occupies, rhizome-like, imagina-
tive intellectual alliances with other disciplinary fields. These create unex-
pected theoretical juxtapositions and complicated chronologies, while
maintaining women’s history’s edge in broader feminist politics.1 In
another direction, Mia Liinason and Claire Meijer argue that the mythol-
ogy of homogeneous societies obscures the marginalisation of women of
colour, as well as migrants and other ethnic minorities of women, where
the historicity of their femininity reveals deep roots of gender-based

1
Kathryn Gleadle. 2013. ‘The Imagined Communities of Women’s History: current
debates and emerging themes, a rhizomatic approach’ in Women’s History Review. 22: 4,
524–540.
 1 SHIFTING ‘FEMININITIES’: MULTIFACETED REALMS OF HISTORICAL… 3

oppression.2 It is within these shifting intellectual frames, and others like

them, that new research locates its analysis around femininity using a
diverse range of historical contexts through which interesting individual
and collective personal stories are told.

(ii)
The book is also sensitive to the important relational aspects of key areas
of research that distinctively associate broader academic traditions with the
dominant paradigms of feminism, gender, race and class. This sensitivity is
important because these traditions have a direct impact on academic con-
structions of femininity within educational settings and contextualise fem-
ininity in quite different ways.
For example, in the colonial world, feminism was generally internal to
the colonial project, as shown by Antoinette Burton. She asserts that femi-
nist writers, in fact, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
created images of needy women in the non-white empire mostly only to
project their part in an imperial mission to their audiences ‘at home’ in
England.3 There is also a cross over between gender and feminism, pecu-
liar to empire. For example, Claire Midgely argues, women involved in the
anti-slavery movement not only located feminism within prevailing impe-
rial ideologies but also gendered these ideologies.4 While Raewyn Connell,
(largely taking the discussion outside the feminist discourse) sees colonial
masculinity and femininity in highly relational sociological terms.5 Central
to understanding the construction of femininity is the significance of its
relation to the construction of masculinity and the consequent ­recognition
of how power is dispersed, and gendered ideas disseminated, in formal and
informal education settings within any society.6 How then do European
hegemonic mentalities around femininity in the non-white colonial world

2
Mia Liinason and Clara Meijer. 2017. ‘Challenging constructions of nationhood and
nostalgia: exploring the role of gender, race and age in struggles for women’s rights in
Scandinavia’ in Women’s History Review. 27:5, 729–753.
3
Antoinette Burton. 1994. Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women and
Imperial Culture, 1865–1915. Chapel Hill: North Carolina, 8, 82–3.
4
Claire Midgely. 1998. ‘Anti-slavery ang the Roots of “Imperial Feminism”’ in Claire
Midgely, (ed.), Gender and Imperialism. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 161–9.
5
Raewyn Connell. 2009. Gender in World Perspective, Cambridge: Polity.
6
Joan Scott. 1986. ‘Gender a Useful Category of Historical Analysis’ American Historical
Review, 91: 5, 1053–1075.
4 T. ALLENDER AND S. SPENCER

play out, notwithstanding the more visible clash of cultures that is usually
the dominant topic of postcolonial scrutiny?
On the other hand, in mostly white European contexts, the overarch-
ing category of feminism is dominant in the analysis in another way, where
other national and cultural determinants are in play. For example, Rebecca
Rodgers, drawing on the work of Jo Burr Margadant as well as that of
Isabelle Ernot, makes the case for strongly contrasting academic traditions
in the English-speaking world compared to those to be found in France.
In the former domain, feminist biographies have flourished and been
given new robustness by postmodern scholarship, while in France there
has been less of a commitment to creating a ‘pantheon of foremothers’.7
These variable legacies in feminist scholarship, then, naturally create a dif-
ferent set of academic lenses, within which ‘femininity’ can be scrutinised.
In the USA the interplay of race and gender has a different historicity.
Angel David Nieves’ work examines African American women educators
in the nineteenth century who helped to memorialise the struggle of Black
Americans. Using biography, Nieves examines how these educators con-
tributed by combining social and political ideology as these related to
racial uplift and gendered agency.8 Yet, mostly male-constructed para-
digms of racial separateness and female respectability could also intervene
to create newly marginalised and shifting spaces of feminine educational
interaction.
Transnational enquiry is also significant in the pursuit of new research
on this theme. This is where the likes of Joan Scott’s well-established
framework of gender as a useful category of historical analysis is extended
to embrace new theorisations that encapsulate the global transferral of
some feminine mentalities.9 More deeply, opportunities arise where trans-
national perspectives bring to history of education, research that

7
Jo Burr Margadant. 2000. ‘The New Biography: Performing Femininity in Nineteenth-
Century France’. Berkeley: University of California Press; Isabelle Ernot. 2007. ‘L’histoire
des femmes et ses premières historiennes (XIXe-debut XXe siècle)’, Revue D’Histoire de
Sciences Humanities 16: 1: 165–94 cited in Rebecca Rodgers. 2013. A Frenchwoman’s
Imperial Story: Madame Luce in Nineteenth-Century Algeria, 11–12.
8
Angel David Nieves. 2018. An Architecture of Education: African American Women
Design the New South, New York: University of Rochester Press.
9
Joan Scott. 1986. ‘Gender a Useful Category of Historical Analysis’ American Historical
Review… op cit., 1053–1075.
 1 SHIFTING ‘FEMININITIES’: MULTIFACETED REALMS OF HISTORICAL… 5

highlights analysis of connecting spatial and temporal educational frame-

works.10 And as interest in transnational frameworks has also grown to
include cultural and social histories, so the history of women’s education
has enriched the discussion and extended it to include changing con-
ceptions of femininity. In this way Kay Whitehead has tracked the flow of
ideas and individuals as women educators crossed and re-crossed borders
between what was once seen as merely one-way travel between a putative
centre and its peripheries.11 Furthermore, women, and their perfor-
mance of femininity, becomes central to what Chris Bayly has identi-
fied as the production of nation as a result of transnational flows.12 At this
macro history level, women’s experience has frequently been seen as a
marginal enterprise, and to counter this predilection, work such as that of
Pierre Yves Saunier has identified the need to “recover individuals, groups,
concepts … that have often been invisible or at best peripheral to histori-
ans because [these historians] have thrived in between, across and through
polities and societies”.13 More sophisticated research into the changing
nature of femininity within transnational flows of both formal and infor-
mal educational ideas is now possible.

(iii)
There are more intimate spaces of inquiry that take the discussion into the
personal domain of historical actors where their femininity is discernible
by objects, visual representations and their surroundings: research that
invites a different kind of abstraction and theorisation. For example, there
are studies to consider around sensory perceptions in the classroom that
define feminine sensibilities and form. Additionally, visual representations
of school settings that assume feminine identity, engage scholarship that

10
Barnita Bagchi. 2014. Eckhardt Fuchs & Kate Rousmaiere, (eds.) Connecting Histories’
of Education: transnational and cross-cultural exchanges in (post) colonial education.
New York, Oxford: Berghan.
11
Kay Whitehead. 2014. ‘Mary Gutteridge (1887–1962): Transnational careering in the
field of early childhood education’ in Tanya Fitzgerald and Elizabeth Smyth, eds. Women
Educators, Leaders and Activists 1900–1960, New York: Palgrave Macmillan; Kay Whitehead.
2017. British teachers’ transnational work within and beyond the British Empire after the
Second World War, History of Education, 46:3, 324–342.
12
C.A.Bayly, Sven Beckert, Matthew Connelly, Isabel Hofmeyr, Wendy Kozol, and Patricia
Seed. 2006. ‘AHR Conversation: On Transnational History’, American Historical Review
111: 1441.
13
Pierre Yves Saunier. 2013. Transnational History, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 3.
Another random document with
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l’emmener, de la prendre malgré moi, comme je l’ai prise malgré ma
mère ?
Le souvenir de sa mère morte acheva de le mettre hors de lui. Il
cria :
— Eh bien, non ! je t’ai promis de te sauver, — je te sauve !… Par
notre passé de vingt ans d’affection, Albert, par notre amitié toujours
vivante, tu n’emmèneras pas cette femme ! J’écraserai cette
puissance malfaisante, avant qu’elle ait pu te perdre !… Mais vois
donc, regarde-la donc ! Regarde comme elle est pâle, sous ses
habits de deuil… Tu sais de qui elle est en deuil ?… Elle tuerait ta
mère, comme elle a tué la mienne, si je n’étais pas là, moi, pour
vous garder contre elle ! — Regarde-la bien, je te dis, pendant que je
la dévoile, — regarde moi ça bien en face !… Ça ne s’est jamais
donné, afin de se vendre un jour plus cher. Peut-être bien qu’elle est
encore vierge ; on ne sait pas ! Soit ! Regarde-la donc, la vierge
adultère ! Regarde-moi ce visage démonté, d’où toute beauté a
disparu. On n’y voit plus que la rage de la défaite, la honte d’être vue
à fond, la terreur sans repentir, d’être châtiée ! Mais regarde-la donc
en ce moment… Elle est horrible : elle est sincère ! Ce n’est plus
Marie : c’est Rita !
Et comme Albert, les yeux égarés, hurlait à son tour : « Tais-toi !
ou je ne réponds plus de moi-même ! » le comte Paul, comme pour
la piétiner d’un mot, répétait avec rage : « Rita ! Rita ! Rita ! »
Elle ne savait toujours pas s’il était sûr de la présence de l’autre.
Elle était là, muette, droite sur ses pieds crispés, attentive, le cou
tendu, comme la bête au ferme.
C’était ici le dénouement d’une de ces tragédies sourdement
compliquées, qui, aux yeux du monde, resteraient inexplicables, car,
pour les comprendre, il faudrait, comme le Dieu de la Bible, sonder
les cœurs et les reins des acteurs en lutte ; mais le monde ne les
voit pas ; ce sont des drames ignorés comme il s’en passe pourtant
tous les jours entre les murs de ces maisons riantes, dont les hautes
fenêtres, encadrées de riches tentures, laissent entrevoir aux
passants des tableaux et des plantes rares, et qui, ainsi vues du
trottoir, muettes, nobles, paisibles, semblent les asiles même du
bonheur.
Paul fit un pas vers la porte de son cabinet ; et, d’un ton tout à fait
tranquille :
— Me crois-tu donc capable de parler au hasard, quand je
t’affirme qu’on te trompe ?… Et puisque le mari c’est toi, cherche
donc l’amant, — malheureux ! Tiens, il est ici, je parie !
Il essaya d’ouvrir la porte qui résista, fermée en dedans.
Elle comprit que tout était perdu. Il n’y avait plus qu’à faire bonne
contenance.
— Allons, — dit-elle, d’une voix sèche, vulgaire, avec un
haussement d’épaules, — il est clair que vous savez tout. Soit.
D’ailleurs, j’en ai assez ! mais je tiens à vous dire que je ne suis pas
le monstre que Monsieur d’Aiguebelle imagine. J’ai épousé, — c’est
vrai, — pour son titre et pour sa fortune, un homme que je n’aimais
pas. Mais quand vous mariez ainsi vos filles ou vos sœurs, vous
appelez ça tous les jours un mariage de convenance… Celui que j’ai
épousé m’a rendue malheureuse et je l’aurais quitté, — c’est encore
vrai, — pour chercher le bonheur avec un autre… moins exalté et
plus riche. Mais, si vos lois le permettent, qu’aurait-on à y
reprendre ? Enfin, j’étais bien près d’avoir pour amant un homme
que j’aimais depuis longtemps… l’auteur de ces funestes lettres que
vous avez lues, malgré moi, une certaine nuit, vous souvenez-vous,
Monsieur d’Aiguebelle ? Eh bien ! mais qu’est-ce que cela prouve,
sinon que je suis capable de fidélité, et que j’aurais eu, de guerre
lasse, un amant, — comme toutes les femmes ? Voilà bien du fracas
pour une histoire assez commune, mon cher !… Je croyais que,
dans votre monde, on était resté plus Louis XV !
Elle se tenait, la tête haute, dans une attitude de défi.
Albert, la tête haute également, blême, supportait le coup en
soldat, — et, l’œil fixe, il mesurait l’abîme qu’on venait d’ouvrir
devant lui.
— Enfin, dit-elle, que me veut-on ? Vous ne me changerez pas,
n’est-ce pas ?… Vous ne me tuerez pas non plus, je pense ?… Ça
n’est pas votre genre… Je ne vois pas beaucoup ça dans les
journaux de demain : « Le crime de la rue Saint-Dominique. Mort
tragique et inexplicable de la comtesse d’Aiguebelle. »… Vous
voudrez éviter ça, je m’en doute !
Elle pensait à tout, et elle riait méchamment.
— … Alors, quoi ? Il faut prendre un parti pourtant ! Notez que je
n’ai commis réellement aucune faute — et que je suis toujours
punie !… C’est même agaçant, à la fin !
Elle avait l’air très ennuyé et nonchalant.
Le comte Paul s’approcha d’Albert et lui mit affectueusement une
main sur l’épaule. C’était un geste de consolation.
Ensuite, il alla à la porte de son cabinet, dont il écarta la lourde
draperie ; et, le visage tourné vers cette porte, derrière laquelle
s’agitait une douleur inconnue :
— Allons, ouvrez !… On sait qui vous êtes, Monsieur Terral !
Le silence qui suivit fut court, mais il fut profond comme la mort.
Ce qui répondit enfin, ce fut un bruit bizarre, qu’on ne comprit pas
tout de suite, un coup sec ; mat, comme étouffé… Son revolver lui
avait servi… Ne venait-il pas d’apprendre qu’elle s’apprêtait à fuir
avec un autre ? Lui aussi, il venait de mesurer l’abîme, mais, déjà
pris de vertige, il y avait roulé.
Les deux hommes s’élancèrent contre la porte… Des
domestiques accoururent… Léon Terral, vivant encore, mais blessé
mortellement, demanda à être porté chez son père.
 VIII

Dès qu’elle s’était vue seule un moment, Marie Déperrier, avec

un grand sang-froid, était allée mettre son chapeau, et prendre, dans
sa chambre, son sac de voyage toujours tout prêt.
Comme elle partait, elle croisa dans l’escalier un homme inconnu
à qui elle fit un petit salut et un sourire. C’était le commissaire de
police, qui s’expliqua fort bien le suicide de Léon Terral : — il était
chargé de l’arrêter.
La jeune comtesse d’Aiguebelle, son petit sac à la main, s’en alla
demander asile à Théramène surpris. Là, au moins, on la laisserait
tranquille. Elle évitait les curiosités d’hôtel.
Pinchard ne l’interrogea même pas :
— Ça te regarde, ma fille ! Je n’ai pas besoin de savoir. Des gros
chagrins, des histoires, des drames, quoi !… L’amour, vois-tu, c’est,
comme la langue, ce qu’il y a de meilleur, et ce qu’il y a de pire. Ah !
ce bossu d’Ésope avait bien de l’esprit !…
Il posa une serviette blanche sur un coin de table débarrassé,
pour la circonstance, des brochures et des copies de rôles qui
l’encombraient d’ordinaire, et, en mettant le couvert, il disait, le
philosophe :
— Le drame, c’est la vie… Tout passe.
En ajoutant, « hormis Dieu ! » il eût parlé précisément comme
l’abbé.
Elle le regardait faire, assise sur le lit, songeuse.
Il courut chez le charcutier.
— Pas de jambon, — un pâté !… Je régale une duchesse, — et
une vraie encore ! Un pâté de lièvre, voisin, — avec du veau dedans,
et une tête de faisan dessus !
Ils dînèrent en tête-à-tête.
— Sans toi, mon bon Théramène, j’aurais passé une fichue nuit,
car je couche ici, entends-tu ?… Oh ! tu ne peux pas te douter du
service que tu me rends. C’est bon tout de même, mon vieux, d’avoir
des gens de cœur près de soi, en de certains moments… Non ; vrai,
sans toi, Théramène, ce que je serais embêtée, ce soir !… Au fond,
vois-tu, j’ai du vrai chagrin.
Elle songeait : « Il était fou, ce malheureux Léon, c’est clair. Sans
ça, c’était devenu si simple, — puisque c’était forcé, — de partir
ensemble ! »
Elle regrettait le Léon d’autrefois, mais ce fou d’aujourd’hui, ce
désespéré, c’était, après tout, une chance, de n’avoir pas été obligée
de le suivre.
Théramène mit avec soin des draps blancs à son lit ; et il passa
la nuit sur son fauteuil, sommeillant de temps à autre, se réveillant
pour la regarder dormir, — heureux de jouer les pères nobles au
naturel.
Elle aussi se réveilla plusieurs fois, cette nuit-là. Quel parti
devait-elle prendre ? Où irait-elle ? Qu’allait-elle devenir ?
Quand le jour parut, et qu’elle ouvrit les yeux, elle trouva
Théramène debout près du lit, et qui, vêtu de son velours râpé et de
sa soie éclatante, lui présentait un chocolat fumant sur un plateau,
apporté du cabaret voisin.
— Heureux de vous servir, princesse !
— Donne-moi mon petit sac, dit-elle aussitôt.
Il posa le plateau et courut au sac.
— J’ai diablement peur d’avoir oublié quelque chose de très
important, fit-elle.
Elle cherchait, — sous les yeux de Théramène ébloui. Un rayon
de soleil, par l’humble fenêtre à tabatière, entrait, jouait gaiement sur
son cou délicat. Ses cheveux dénoués, irisés de lumière, inondaient
ses épaules nues. D’une Vierge de Raphaël, elle avait vraiment
toutes les grâces candides, l’ovale pur du visage, la fraîcheur dorée,
un peu rose sous l’ambre lumineux, et surtout, dans ses yeux bleu
pâle, la pureté de l’innocence même.
— Ah ! ça y est ! cria-t-elle… Sapristi ! que j’ai eu peur !
— Sauvé ! merci, mon Dieu ! déclama Théramène.
Elle tira avec soin, du sac bondé de bibelots, — un étui d’ivoire
sculpté, qu’elle ouvrit. Et elle lut à haute voix :
— Tcherniloff !
Après tout, qu’était-ce pour elle que cette aventure de son
mariage ? Une simple affaire manquée ; tout au plus un retard de six
mois à la vie aventureuse qu’elle avait toujours rêvée.
A présent, elle était libre, et seule maîtresse de sa destinée.
 IX

Deux ans après, aux Bormettes, le comte Paul d’Aiguebelle, mari

de Pauline, Albert de Barjols, mari d’Annette, veillaient, sous la
lampe paisible.
Les hommes lisaient. Les deux jeunes femmes, attentives et
souriantes, se montraient de mignonnes dentelles et des rubans à
orner de petits bonnets d’enfant.
— Tiens, regarde ça, dit à voix basse Paul à Albert, en lui
passant son journal et en lui désignant du doigt la rubrique : Échos
des deux mondes.
Le journal disait :

« La princesse Rita Tcherniloff vient d’arriver à Spa. On

prétend ici qu’elle n’avait jamais épousé le prince, et qu’elle a
été naguère expulsée de Pétersbourg, après des aventures tout
à fait cosaques. On dit encore qu’elle serait espionne aux gages
de plusieurs puissances qu’elle trahirait également les unes
pour les autres. Mais rien de tout cela n’est prouvé. On
calomnie tant aujourd’hui, que la médisance en devient
suspecte. Quoi qu’il en soit, tout le monde s’accorde à admirer
cette femme, illustre par la beauté, par l’intelligence, par la
fortune, aussi bien que par la bizarrerie éclatante de ses
aventures, vraies ou fausses. A Spa, son arrivée a fait
sensation.
Comme le disait, l’autre jour, M. X de Z, secrétaire de
l’ambassade de France à Rome : « C’est une des reines du
monde. »

Paris, 24 février 1894.

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