ESSAY WRITING

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO CSS ESSAY WRITING.....................................................................................................3
EXAMINER’S VIEW ON CAUSES OF FAILURE IN CSS ESSAY...................................................................5
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS FOR CSS ESSAY.............................................................................................6
SELECTING ESSAY TOPIC.................................................................................................................................7
STEPS IN ESSAY WRITING.................................................................................................................................8
WRITING ESSAY OUTLINE................................................................................................................................9
INTRODUCTION WRITING METHODS..........................................................................................................11
WRITING OVERVIEW PARAGRAPH..............................................................................................................15
WRITING A THESIS STATEMENT...................................................................................................................16
BODY PARAGRAPHS: STRUCTURE AND WRITING...................................................................................18
WRITING BODY PARAGRAPHS..................................................................................................................18
QUOTING METHODS IN PARAGRAPHS....................................................................................................20
ELIMINATING DANGLING MODIFIERS....................................................................................................22
WRITING CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................................................23
WRITING CAREFULLY.....................................................................................................................................24
COHERENCE AND COHESION....................................................................................................................24
USING PARALLELISM...................................................................................................................................26
DIFFERENT APPROACHES USED TO WRITE ABSTRACT AND ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS............27
USING TRANSITION SIGNALS TO INTRODUCE IDEAS.............................................................................30
WRITING SPECIFIC TYPES OF ESSAYS.........................................................................................................31
EXPOSITORY ESSAYS...................................................................................................................................31
CAUSE AND EFFECT ESSAYS.....................................................................................................................32
PROBLEM – SOLUTION ESSAYS.................................................................................................................34
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS.........................................................................................................................35
KEY THEMES FOR ESSAY WRITING.............................................................................................................37
EDUCATION....................................................................................................................................................38
HEALTH...........................................................................................................................................................39
ECONOMY.......................................................................................................................................................40
AGRICULTURE...............................................................................................................................................41
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND GENDER EQUALITY...........................................................................42
POLITICS/DEMOCRACY...............................................................................................................................43
SOCIAL PROBLEMS (POVERTY, CORRUPTION, OVERPOPULATION, UNEMPLOYMENT)............44
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MAJOR CRISES (WATER CRISIS, ENERGY CRISIS, ECONOMIC CRISIS, GOVERNANCE CRISIS,
TERRORISM)...................................................................................................................................................45
MAJOR GLOBAL CONFLICTS (KASHMIR, PALESTINE, UKRAINE, SINO-US TRADE WAR)..........46
PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN RELATIONS (KASHMIR, MIDDLE-EAST).......................................................47
RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE (ISLAMOPHOBIA, GLOBAL RELIGIOUS HARMONY IN THE MODERN
WORLD, SECTARIANISM) – INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL........................................................48
LAW AND ORDER (JUDICIARY).................................................................................................................49
TECHNOLOGY (TECH ADVANCEMENT, INDUSTRIALIZATION)........................................................50
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (AI, ROBOTICS, SOCIAL MEDIA, DIGITAL REVOLUTION)..........51
ENVIRONMENT (GLOBAL WARMING, CLIMATE CHANGE, CLIMATE GOVERNANCE.................52
 ESSAY WRITING

INTRODUCTION TO CSS ESSAY WRITING

Overview:

 Essay is not a content-based paper like other papers of CSS. It cannot be passed just by copying outlines or other
people’s essays.It is purely a skilled-based paper. The essay written in CSS is always a thesis essay.
 An Essay is a great debate, an open discussion or elaboration of statement where a candidate, with the help of
deep and diverse knowledge tries to justify or to negate or explain the point of discussion in a logical manner.
 An essay is an organized discussion of a topic in a series of paragraphs. It contains three main parts:
o Introduction: The introductory part performs several roles. It attracts reader’s interest. It established the
essay’s specific topic and states the writer’s position or claim about that topic in a thesis statement. It
may also provide a preview of the body of the essay.
o Body:Body contains several paragraphs (at least two). Each body paragraph of an essay supports and
develops a subtopic of the thesis statement. The paragraph states its controlling idea, or the writer’s area
of the focus, in a topic sentence. The remaining sentences support the topic sentence with facts, details,
and explanations, which lead logically to the next paragraph.
o Conclusion:It is the essay’s last paragraph. It summarizes main points, end with a question for the reader,
or cite a memorable quotation. In any instance, however, it provides a strong ending to the essay.
 Features and caliber of good Essay include:
o Good language
o Originality of thoughts
o In-depth knowledge
o Critical thinking
o Expressed in well versed manner-correct & flawless language
o Literary expression
o Choice of appropriate vocabulary
o Accuracy of language-well versed in English language
o Interpersonal skills
o Organization of ideas
o Coherence, cohesion, clarity, candidness, comprehensiveness etc.

Syllabus:

1. Reflect Comprehensive and Research-based Knowledge on a Topic

2. Articulation, Expression, and Technical Treatment of the Topic will be Checked
 Articulation means use of proper language and proper manner
 Expression means clarity of language

Requirements of the Paper:

1. Make an Outline
2. Write a comprehensive essay (2500-3500 words)
3. Use different forms of discourses, e.g. exposition, argumentation, description, and narration.
4. Ensure organization (proper structure), relevance, and clarity.
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Essay Marking Criteria:

1. Content:40% (material, qualitative and quantitative analysis, validity and reliability, and relevance).
2. Language: 25% (sentence structure, vocabulary).
3. Structure: 20% (outline, introduction, body, and conclusion).
4. Coherence: 15% (cohesion and coherence).

Types of Essays:

1. Expository Essay:
 It is an informative piece of writing that presents a balanced analysis of the given topic. It explains
something
 You either explain or define a topic using facts, figures, and examples.
 It may involve a compare and contrast writing, cause and effect writing, or ‘how to’ or process writing.
o Water Crisis and National Unity (CSS 2016)
o Higher Education in Pakistan: Ills and Remedies (CSS 2018)
2. Argumentative Essay:
 An argumentative essay is an attempt to convince others that a particular point of view is or is not correct.
It presents arguments in favor of or against the topic.
 You are required to choose between two options and prove your choice (thesis).
 An argument often requires that you make suggestions, recommendations, and even demands. These
expressions usually include model verbs, phrasal model verbs, and the use of subjunctive mood.
 You must include antithesis (counter arguments) and synthesis (proving that thesis is more valid than
antithesis).
o Expanding IT: Curse or Blessing (CSS 2018)
o Feminism is Not Really a Third World Issue (CSS 2017)
3. Abstract/Literary Essay:
 It is written to elaborate the writer’s opinion or comment on certain abstract topics.
 Such a topic can have various interpretations and you may have your own.
o Art for Peace (CSS 2019)
o Too Many of us are Not Living Our Dreams because We are Living Our Fears (CSS 2018).
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EXAMINER’S VIEW ON CAUSES OF FAILURE IN CSS ESSAY

2016

 Ideas presented were random. The argument was without any logical reasoning or research based facts. There
was neither coherence nor creativity.
 The candidates were neither able to build an argument from multiple angles nor substantiated it with facts.
 The outline of Essay was not properly structured. In many answer scripts, aspects mentioned in the outline were
not discussed in the Essay.

2017

 The standard Essay was examined on footing of argumentation, content, language and intellectual signifier. The
quality and level of critical argumentation on the whole was very poor.
 Most of the candidates were unable to identify the dormant contention in topics. In most papers content were
inadequate and irrelevant.
 Most worrying aspect of Essays was the wrong use of English language. The sentence structure was glaringly
flawed. Moreover grammatical and spellings mistakes were rife.
 The intellectual level of essays was mediocre and candidates were unable to even grasp the topic of the essay.

2018

 Candidates were at their best in topics involving critical and subjective approach i.e. in topics like Democracy in
Pakistan: Hopes and Hurdles, Rule of Law, Safeguarding Human Rights & Civil Liberties during Fight against
Terrorism and Corruption etc.
 On the other hand, in topics that were of objective nature (Global Warming / CPEC), reliance on crammed
knowledge, dull monotony and repetition of stereotypical information was observed.
 A significant number of the candidates did not have a clear sense of the essentials of a comprehensive essay or
the features which differentiate an essay from other forms of writing.

2019

 A significant majority of candidates presented a crammed write up, without realizing delicacy, twist and
emphasis in the given topic.
 A large number of candidates failed to reach 1200-1300 words, reflecting shallow limited & scanty range of
knowledge and understanding.
 Candidates reproduced their early patterns of mechanical learning filled with readymade material. Stock of
similar material, quotes and examples reflect consulting easily available sources, lacking original thinking,
critical evaluation and discursive strength of discussion.
 There were grammatical errors/mistakes relating to Subject-Verb agreement, Verb tense and Conjugation of
Verb.
 Reading A-rate recognized Newspapers, work of well-known authors and magazines must be encouraged.
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CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS FOR CSS ESSAY

Critical Thinking and Its Importance in CSS:

 It is all about solving problems and making decisions.

 Through critical thinking, you choose the best option out of many alternatives.
 It helps make most simple to most complex decisions.

Critical Thinking Models for CSS Essay:

 There are three key critical thinking models used in CSS essay writing. All three models are important especially
at the planning stage of the essay.
 Your essay and paragraphs are of no use unless they are written in a logical sequence.
 The three models are:
1. Brainstorming
2. Mind-mapping (Evaluating a thing and comparing it against others).
3. Logical Sequencing (as stories are written in sequencing).

Five Ws for Critical Thinking:

1. What (What is the Issue/Argument?)

2. Why (Reason or Cause)
3. Where (Place)
4. When (Time)
5. Who (People)

Example: Water Crisis in Pakistan

1. What is Water Crisis? OR What is the Situation?

2. Causes (Why did it Happen?)
3. Impacts (Who)
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SELECTING ESSAY TOPIC

Approach-I

 What you know the most about (your education).

 It is all about incorporating fossilized knowledge (the knowledge you studied in early classes in academia).
 This approach is deceptive – so must be avoided.

Approach-II

 What you have read the most about (from books, newspapers, etc.)
 It is more favorable approach because it is is more fresh and to the point.

Approach-III

 What you are most interested in.

 It is also a preferable approach.
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STEPS IN ESSAY WRITING

1. Topic Segmentation (Writing Headings of Outline):
 First write fixed headings (Paragraphs). The following headings are always present in the essay:
i. Introduction (first paragraph)
ii. Overview/Explanation of the Topic (second paragraph)
iii. Conclusion (last paragraph)
 Break down the topic into primary headings (variable) according to the keywords of the statement (topic)
and their correlation with each other). Variable headings may vary in number ranging from three to more
as required. For example, an issue based topic like “Energy Crisis in Pakistan” would have following
primary headings:
i. Causes
ii. Effects
iii. Remedies
2. Brainstorming (to produce subheadings):
 Apply divergent thinking here and come up with several possible points related to the topic.
 Collect a pool of ideas and points.
 Don’t arrange collected points at this stage.
3. Mind-Mapping:
 Divide the pool of ideas collected at the previous stage among topic segments (variable headings).
 Filter out your points and select the most relevant and the ones for which you can provide evidence
(examples, facts, statistics, quotations, etc.)
 Write approximately 16 to 18 paragraphs (100-120 words each paragraph) in 2000 words.
4. Thesis Statement Writing
5. Logical Sequencing:
 To create coherence and cohesion in your essay, apply following sequencing models to arrange the
selected points:
1. GPEST (Governance, Politics, Economy, Society, and Technology)
2. 10 Indicators
3. IRFS (Individual, Family, Relatives, Society)
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WRITING ESSAY OUTLINE

Remember that your essay outline must be in “Phrase Form”.

Method of Brainstorming and Logical Sequencing in the Outline of an Abstract Essay:

 Abstract topics are better broken down by focusing on individual aspects leading top broader aspects of society
and then to national and global level. Keep adding about 3 to 4 points of each aspect / perspective.

10 Indicators for Abstract Outline:

1. Individual (individual’s fears, aspirations, thoughts, feelings, mental conditions, limitations, etc.)
2. Family
3. Relatives
4. Profession
5. Society
6. Education
7. Religion
8. Politics
9. History
10. Environment

Example of an Outline Utilizing above Ten Factors:

Too Many of Us are Not Living Our Dreams because We are Living Our Fears

F.I.R.E. Model:

 Individual:
o Individual decisions based on fears, not according to their dreams.
o Lack confidence in their own thinking and follow others.
o Fear of failure.
o Fear of disappointing family.
o Fatalism hinders craving for dreams.
 Family:
o Family wants to secure individual’s future and worldly success.
o Individual will and wish is sacrificed for the sake of others’ will.
o Comparison with other relatives’ children.
o Family’s financial situation dictates children’s future, education, and career.
 Relatives/Friends:
o Family imposes its decisions according to traditions and conventions.
o Fear of what others will say.
o High status relatives impose their will to protect family reputation.
o Peer pressure among friends.
 Profession:
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o Limited scope of certain professions.

o Association of status with profession.
o Lack of promotion in certain careers.
 Society:
o Herd mentality – blindly following what others are doing.
o Certain profession not highly regarded by society.
o Pressure of following social role models.
 Economy:
o Only high-rewarding activities are encouraged.
 Religion:
o Professions not allowed or unacceptable by religion.
o Workplace environment not approved by religious scholars.
 Education:
o Opting degrees and disciplines regarded highly by society.
o Traditional education vs. modern education.
 History:
o Choices are based on trends, not on passion.
o East has been wary of adopting new knowledge and profession.
o Colonized always retaliates to colonizer’s ideology.
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INTRODUCTION WRITING METHODS

Overview:

 There is no concept of “examiner’s impression” in the world of CSS Essay. Nothing like “first impression is the
last impression” exists here.
 However, the examiner gives us three lives in an essay. Examiner’s impressions don’t end on the first sight.
1. In Outline
2. In Introduction
3. The first three to four paragraphs and the Conclusion
 Examiner is not impressed from your bombarded introductions, tough vocabulary, or quotations. They are
impressed when you write in different types of discourses as demanded in the paper. So, be natural rather than
trying to make examiner happy. An examiner, with experience more than your life, has no such standards.
 There is nothing like “examiner’s point of view”. Don’t think about the examiner.

Writing an Introduction:

 Introduction is the single paragraph, having three parts. It should be 220 to 250 words and maximum 18
sentences long.
 Move to the Introduction part only after writing the Outline.
 Introduction tells the examiner what is included in your essay.Don’t starting arguing in your introduction.
 It is like the Structure of the Study in a research paper.
 It doesn’t start the argument in detail. Your arguments should be discussed in paragraphs, not in the introduction.
 A good introduction actually reflects the outline. No discussion or description is given in it.
 Don’t clutter the introduction with examples, figures, or statistics. They should come later in the essay, in body
paragraphs. Don’t write lengthy sentences in it.
 This paragraph must have textual flow and coherence. Use linking words between sentences, wherever required.

Three Parts of an Introduction OR Steps in Essay Writing:

1. Attention Graber:
 Write 3 to 5 sentences in the beginning “as attention grabber” or “hook”. It is an indirect reference to the
topic.
 Example of a Hook is given below:
Dancing around the fire is not a solution to the problem. One must dig deep into the fire to find out
what caused it. Environmental pollution is also such an issue in which people have to find who have to
get deep into the details.
OR
Burying your head in the sand does not mean that storm will go away. The problem will only
aggravate if you do not end it. Same is the case with the economic problems of Pakistan where the people
have not paid attention due to which the crisis has aggravated.
 Try to create a hook by yourself to make a difference because readymade hooks have been remembered
by thousands of aspirants who all fail.
2. Brief Reflection of the Outline:
 After writing 2-5 lines hook, start mentioning points of your outline in sentences.
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 Remember to write outline in the form of phrases. Now, at this stage of introduction writing, convert
outline phrases into sentences. Carry on like this till your last point by combining similar points in the
outline; don’t write each point individually. Like you should write all points in an outline related to social
issues in one sentence. Write another sentence for issues related to political issues.
3. Conclude Your Introduction:
 In the end, conclude your paragraph by writing into two or three sentences what is your standpoint about
the topic (Thesis Statement).
 The natural conclusion of the introductory paragraph is actually the Thesis Statement.

Explaining the Introduction Paragraph Structure:

1. Attention Grabber or Hook:

 Start your essay introduction with an indirect reference to the topic like aquotation, followed by
elaboration and linking it with the topic. Don’t ever start writing introduction by explaining it like writing
“Global warming has become a big issue in the world today …”
 Give an incident or anecdote, etc. It may be a quotation or an event followed by its elaboration and
linking it with the topic.
 Don’t use fact(s) which will later appear in the essay. For example, don’t write “The global warming has
caused the sea level rise by 7.7 mm”.
 It should be 3 to 5 sentences long.
 It gives your stance on the topic.
 But extra effort to grab attention often backfires. Try to avoid it. Don’t try to grab attention by giving
irrelevant event as an anecdote.
 Avoid readymade starting lines at any cost. The same material is available to thousands of others as well.
This will hinder you from making any difference.Make your own attention grabbers and don’t share with
other people.
 A good example of an attention grabber:
The year was 2018 and the day was 18th of May. The place was the Independence Square in Kuala
Lumpur and the people who had gathered at the Independence Square were chanting deep into the dusk
the name of their beloved leader whom they had elected for fourth time, Mahathir! Mahathir! Mahathir!
People were excited because this time their beloved leader was elected not from his own party which he
had founded, but from the opposition party because the charges of corruption which were levied on his
own people by the Prime Minister of Malaysia. This shows how when a nation rises against corruption, it
can change its destiny forever.
OR
She is an apostle of empathy in vigorous life with her vigor, fosters compassion and surmounts
endless obstacles. She is a woman! The contribution of women in the progress of this world and
balancing its framework is unparalleled. Women are honored by Islam, cherished by families, and
protected under the edges of the Constitution of Pakistan. (Topic: Awareness of Women’s Rights in
Pakistan: Perceptions and Realities)
OR
th
They are in the same class, studying in 8 Grade. They also like to live together and sometimes they
talk about Mathematics and General Science book. Bur what both of them study, the strange thing is that
both are in the same age group and grade but what they study in different schools is entirely different.
One studies the Cambridge syllabus which comprises chapters, concepts, and ideas which the government
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school student has never even heard of. What is the future of these two people within Pakistan? (Topic:
SNC).
2. Connecting Sentence
3. Reflection of the Outline:
 Write sentences related to the headings and subheadings of the outline.
 This should follow a logical sequence.
 The sentences should be coherent with each other. Add linking words between sentences.
 Mention whole outline in the like manner.
 It should be 8 to 10 sentences long.
4. Concluding Sentence or Thesis Statement:
 Write 2 to 3 sentences as the conclusion of the paragraph.
 This may be your Thesis Statement.

Sample Outline and Introduction of an Essay:

The Role of World Trade in Uplifting Developing Economies

Outline

1. Introduction
Thesis Statement: World trade is considered crucial to the prosperity of developing countries because it
fuels up their economic growth. However, by making proper trade policies its negative impacts can be mitigated.
2. Correlation between World Trade and Developing Economies
3. Why World Trade is Important for Boosting Developing Economies?
a. Trade stimulates market competition.
b. Trade allows import of key technologies.
c. Trade generates foreign currency.
d. Creates jobs and raises per capita income.
e. Promotion of foreign relations.
4. Drawbacks of World Trade for Developing Countries
a. Rise in tariffs on exporting goods.
b. Security threats.
c. Currency depreciation.
5. Way Forward to Increase World Trade in Developing Countries
a. Free trade agreements between countries.
b. Decrease in internal security threats.
c. Reduction in trade deficit.
d. Higher tariffs on foreign goods.
e. Boosting local production sector.
6. Conclusion

Essay (Introduction Paragraph)

Once a man came to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and asked for some financial help. The Prophet (PBUH)
helped him in a unique way which resulted in the poor man having an exe in his possession. The Prophet (PBUH) told to
go and earn his livelihood by cutting firewood with the axe and selling it. This became a benefitting lesson for all about
how to help when someone is in need. Instead of solving the problem temporarily, a permanent solution should be
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sought.World trade is also such a solution which provides a permanent method to uplift the developing economies.This is
done by importing key technologies which help to stimulate market competition among local companies. Furthermore, it
generates foreign currency, create jobs, and raises the per capita income. It also helps to access industrial
advancements and promote foreign relations. However, world trade also has some drawbacks for developing economies
like raising tariffs on export goods, security threats, and currency depreciation. Therefore, there is a need to take several
steps for boosting the developing economies like inking free trade agreements between trading countries. The internal
security threats should also be decreased. Another step may be to reduce the trade deficit so that economy of developing
countries could flourish. If there is high tariff on foreign goods, this will also lead to boosting up the production sector in
developing countries.In a nutshell, trade is considered crucial to the prosperity of developing countries because it fuels
up their economic growth. However, by making proper trade policies its negative impacts can be mitigated.

Each color refers to a particular component of the Introduction paragraph:

 Hook
 Connecting Sentence
 Reflection of Outline
 Thesis Statement
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WRITING OVERVIEW PARAGRAPH

Overview:

 Overview paragraph gives details of the topic, not of the essay. This paragraph is written immediately after the
introduction paragraph.
 It carries the necessary statistics or definitions or key terms required to understand what the essay topic statement
means.
 This paragraph is limited to elaborating the topic, and it does not start the essay argument.

Example:

Water Crisis in Pakistan

The crisis situation related to water is defined by a UNDP report (2018) which shows that by 2022, Pakistan will
become a water-scace country. In 1957, Pakistan used to have 500 MAF per capita water which shunk to 1089 MAF in
year 2022. Current statistics show that Pakistan has only 1057 MAF water as per capita available. This is expected to
fall below 1000 MAF by 2022, when Pakistan would be declared as a water-deficient country. This clearly shows that
Pakistan is going to face water scarcity which will prove to be a major crisis and an existential threat for the country.
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WRITING A THESIS STATEMENT

Overview:

 It is a simple thing. It is a short statement summarizing the main point (in expository or abstract essay) or claim
(in argumentative essay) of an essay, which is developed, supported, and explained in the text by means of
examples and evidence. It is like a précis of the essay.
 Thesis Statement always answers the Why, Why, and How of the topic.
 Its ideal length is 35 to 45 words.
 It is like the steering of essay. Wherever it goes, essay follows it.
 A good Thesis Statement is developed at the brainstorming and mind-mapping stage. It is at this stage that the
essay writer can look at the whole essay “objectively” and phrase the Thesis Statement properly.
 Keep Thesis Statement direct and simple by avoiding lengthy definitions and winding sentences.

Template for Writing Thesis Statement:

1. First Sentence (What?):

 Address the topic in one clause.
2. Second Sentence (Why?):
 Cause of the issue in two clauses.
 This is written to find the significance of the topic.
3. Third Sentence (How?):
 Tell how to resolve the situation (way forward) in one to two clauses.

Where to Write the Thesis Statement?

 It has to be written in the Outline as well as Introduction of the essay.

 In outline, it is written immediately below the heading of Introduction. However, was a sub-heading, it is not
numbered in the Outline.
 In introduction paragraph, it may be written in either in the beginning or middle or end of the paragraph.
o In an expository essay, it is written at the end of introductory paragraph after the outline gist because here
you are going to prove the main point.
o In an argumentative essay, it is written immediately after the hook and before the gist of outline because
here you are going to support your claim.
o In an abstract essay, it is written in the beginning, even before the hook because here you try to interpret
the topic and tell what you understand that what the topic is all about.

Examples of Thesis Statements:

True Democracy cannot be Exercised without Literacy (Argumentative – Asking for Stance)

Democracy encompasses the will of people and ascertains the future of a state based on national consensus.Literate
people are in better position to guide a nation to prosperitybased on informed decisions and collective will.

Agriculture has Lost the Potential to Provide Subsistence to Many Families in Pakistan
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In agriculture-based countries like Pakistan, agriculture provides subsistence to farming families.The current
situation, however, depicts a catastrophic socio-economic scenario where a negative paradigm shift in the role of
agriculture sector is evident.By implementing technologically advanced practices, agriculture can be made sustainable.

Boosting Agriculture and Its Effects of Pakistan’s Economy

The identity of Pakistan as an agricultural country is in jeopardy due to low agricultural output.Pakistan has not
fully utilized the advancements in agricultural technologythe use of which can have major effects on its economy.

OR

Agriculture decline in Pakistan is due to the lack of human resource development.Self-trained and semi-skilled
farmers are unable to get maximum yields from the fertile lands of the country.Reskilling the farming community with
modern agricultural methods is the need of the hour.

Higher Education in Pakistan: Ills and Remedies

In Pakistan, higher education is strewn with several ills currently.These problems have rendered higher education
ineffective to a great extent.However, by applying stern preventive measures, its effectiveness can be restored.
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BODY PARAGRAPHS: STRUCTURE AND WRITING

WRITING BODY PARAGRAPHS

Overview:

 It is the most important part of essay after the outline.

 We are needed to write 16-18 paragraphs in an Essay; each containing 100-120 words.
 Paragraph is the building block of the essay. It is a mini-essay.
 Note that CSS essay is always an evidence-based (or research-based) writing (as the fourth part of the paragraph
suggests).
 Each paragraph has specific functions in a composition (essay, letter, report, etc.). A composition is basically a
collection of different paragraphs. Every paragraph has three parts like every composition:
1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion

What a Paragraph Actually Is?

 A paragraph is basically a collection of sentences which are written according to a certain theme or they elaborate
a certain point. Every sentence, however, has a specific function in a paragraph.
 The fact that a paragraph in CSS essay has five parts, a paragraph must have at least five sentences; each sentence
performing the function of a different part.

Composition of a Body Paragraph:

1. Topic Sentence (What the Problem?):

 A topic sentence basically expands the subheading of the outline. Outline, remember, is the list of topic
sentences written shortly.
 It introduces the topic or theme of the paragraph in specific terms.
 It should be just one sentence – comprehensive and precise. It should be simple – not long and winding
sentence. It should not contain too much details or statistics because it is an academic paragraph rather
than a journalism paragraph.
 It just tells what the paragraph is about, nothing more than that.
2. Reasoning or Explanatory Sentence (How it is a Problem?):
 It explains the topic sentence or gives its reason.
 This sentence should not include any new detail. It groups with the topic sentence.
 Any statistics or details required to explain the topic should be given here.
3. Supporting Point (Why the Problem has Occurred?):
 It gives the main argument related to the topic sentence. It supports the topic or theme of the paragraph.
 Supporting Point actually enlarges the scope of the paragraph. We add a new point related to the topic
sentence.
 Reference can be written in citation style (e.g. by writing book and author name in bracket). Or they
should be incorporated in a sentence form.
4. Example or Evidence:
 ESSAY WRITING

 It includes facts, figures/statistics, example or quotation which provides factual evidence of supporting
point.It links the supporting point to the reality.
 Don’t ever write a paragraph if you don’t have a reference, evidence, or example.
5. Concluding Sentence:
 It concludes the argument or theme, or point discussed in the paragraph.
 At a primary task, it sums up what has been said in the sentences above it. It is not a result of the
discussion but the end of it.
 As a rule, there should be no new point in the concluding sentence.
 Don’t try to offer the solution or remedy to the problem here.
 In a thesis essay, as a secondary task, the concluding sentence also hints to the new paragraph.
Remember! Don’t write a new thing in it, making it a new sentence.

Examples of Paragraphs:

Lack of Planning in Education Sector in Pakistan

Lack of planning has created several problems which lead to poor educational standards in Pakistan.When the
educational planners do not have clear directions or policies, they are unable to create such systems that could provide
good standard of education.Ministry of Education in Pakistan usually has such people at the helm of affairs who either
have outdated knowledge or lack expertise of educational planning.For example, primary, middle, and high school
classes require different types of planning for curriculum, conduct, and assessment,but, in Pakistan, a single ministry
without division of departments takes all the decisions about these sections of school education.In this way, educational
standards have not improved in Pakistan because of poor planning or inadequate implementation of education policies.

Bleak Peace Prospects in Afghanistan

The prospects of establishing peace have mostly been bleak in Afghanistan.The reason is that throughout its history,
Afghanistan has seen little peace in totality.The land of Afghanistan, with its mountainous terrain, is somewhat
responsible for the warring history of its ethnically different people who live isolated in different valleys and
plains.Afghanistan comprises of 34 provinces. Each ruled by one or two dominant tribes. These tribes are mostly at
draggers drawn with each other. Whether the dispute is territorial, cultural, social, or religions, it is mostly settled in
militant style.In this way, the desire of peace in Afghanistan is not supported by historical evidence.(Christophe Jafferlot,
“Pakistan at the Crossroads”, 2016)

Efforts of Pan-Islamism

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, several Islamic states became independent and the need of pan-Islamism
was left across the globe.The idea was the Muslim states could form an Islamic bloc while the world was divided under
the influence of two major superpowers – USA and USSR. The leaders of major Muslim nations sought to unite the
Muslim Ummah under one flag of Islam so that dissolution of the Ottoman Empire could be compensated.As a result of
this desire, Organization of the Islamic Countries (OIC) was formed, and its first meeting was held in 1969 in Rabat,
Morocco.This shows that the efforts of pan-Islamism were not only conceived theoretically but the Muslim Ummah also
took practical steps to achieve that goal.
 ESSAY WRITING

QUOTING METHODS IN PARAGRAPHS

Overview

 An essay gains strength from backing or support you provide for the claims in topic sentences. Quotations based
on your research are a strong source of that support.
 A quotation is a word-for-word, comma-for-comma, exact copy of materials found in outside sources. Quotation
marks (“ ”) signal to your readers that the materials are copied from a book, a magazine, or the Internet.
 You must identify the source. Either prior to or following the quotation. Also after the quotation, you should
either explain it or indicate its relationship to the topic idea of the paragraph.
 Note the above explained quoting pattern in the following examples:
1. A phrase introducing the source appears before the quotation:
A census in 1841 reported, “Nearly half of the rural population are living in the lowest state.” People were
crammed inside one-room mud cabins without windows or furniture.
Note that:
 The introductory phrase is followed by a comma.
 A period, a question mark, or exclamation point goes inside the closing quotation marks.
 The first word is capitalized because the quotation is a full sentence.
 The sentence following the quotation explains, interprets, or adds information to the quotation.

2. The first sentence makes a claim that the quotation supports. In this case, the source follows the
quotation:
Abraham Lincoln was regarded as a humble working man. (Quotation supporting the claim) “The
middle-class country had got a middle- class President at last,” wrote the famous author Ralph Waldo
Emerson when Abraham Lincoln took office in 1861. (Relevance to the topic idea) Indeed, Lincoln greatly
advanced the growth of the middle class when he authorized the building of the transcontinental railroad.

Note that a comma replaces a period at the end of the quotation; again, the sentence following the
quotation explains, interprets, or adds information to the quotation.

3. Only a few words are quoted and incorporated into a paraphrase, so the punctuation differs again:
In the 1880s, all the sewers of Baltimore emptied into the Back River Basin, and according to the
journalist H. L. Mencken, every summer they smelled like “a billion polecats.”

Note that the first word of the quotation is not capitalized; there is no comma before the quoted words.

4. The phrase identifying the source splits the quotation in two parts:
The founding fathers of the United States were practical men. “The earth belongs to the living,” wrote
Thomas Jefferson, “not to the dead.” Their Constitution and Bill of Rights put those practical concerns
into law.

Note that a comma ends the first part of the quotation; a second comma precedes the second part.

5. In a long quotation (about four or more sentences), quotation marks are not even used:
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Jacob A. Riis, a reporter, captured the horror of the crowded conditions of poor immigrants in New York
in his classic study of life in the slums, How the Other Half Lives (1890):
The metropolis is to lots of people like a lighted candle to the moth. It attracts them in swarms that
come year after year with the vague idea that they can get along here if anywhere; that something is
bound to turn up among so many. Nearly all are young men, unsettled in life, many-most of them,
perhaps- fresh from good homes, beyond a doubt with honest hopes of getting a start in the city and
making a way for themselves. Few of them have much money to waste while looking around, and the
cheapness of the lodging offered is an object. Fewer still know anything about the city and its pitfalls.

Note that a colon follows the introduction of the source; the left and right margins of the long quotation are
indented; the quotation does not have quotation marks.
 ESSAY WRITING

ELIMINATING DANGLING MODIFIERS

Overview

 Every modifier – that is a word, phrase, or clause that functions as an adjective or adverb – must attach itself to
the word or phrase it modifies or describes. A dangling modifier, however, doesn’t attach itself to anything in the
sentence.
Examples:
Dangling Modifier: Upon seeing an instance of bullying, it must be stopped at once.(No one sees
the bullying in the sentence)
Clear: Upon seeing an instance of bullying, a teachermust stop it at once. ORIt is important to stop
an instance of bullying the moment a teacher sees it.

Dangling Modifier: When teased or bullied, the results can be very hurtful. (The results are not
teased or bullied; people are)
Clear: When teased or bullied,people can feel extremely hurt. ORTeasing or bullyingcan be very
hurtful to people.

 Most dangling modifiers begin a sentence, so readers expect the subject of the clause that follows to name the
actor a modifier describes. If that actor is nit named, the sentence is imprecise or unclear.
 Correcting dangling modifiers is easy to do, but noticing them is much harder, especially in your own writing.
You must edit your papers carefully, asking, “Can this be misunderstood?” When spotting a dangling modifier,
you can eliminate the problem in one of the two ways:
1. Name the actor as the subject of the sentence
2. Name the actor in the modifiers.
 ESSAY WRITING

WRITING CONCLUSIONS
Overview:

 Essay conclusion sums up your argument/discussion of the essay. It sums up everything that you have said so far.
 There should be no new point in the conclusion. Reflect upon what you have written, don’t add something new.
 Recommendations (way forward), if any, should be given in paragraphs before the Conclusion.
 Don’t clutter conclusion paragraph with unnecessary recommendations / remedies / suggestions as they have
already been discussed in earlier paragraphs.
 Conclusion is somewhat a reflection of the introduction paragraph. However, the argument/discussion that you
started in the introduction is to be represented in the conclusion from the “looking back at” standpoint, summing
up what has gone in between.
 Avoid using expressions like “in my opinion”, “as I/we have discussed”, etc. in the conclusion.
 Conclusion paragraph is usually longer than body paragraphs, but shorter than the introduction paragraph. Its
ideal length is 150 to 180 words.
 Remember! Do not throw away the conclusion paragraph just because you are tired by the end of the essay.
 When you start the conclusion paragraph, give a clear indicator that it is the conclusion of your essay. For
example, start the ending paragraph in words like “in conclusion / conclusively, one may say that / summing up
the argument one may say that, etc. The examiner must be shown that have concluded your essay properly. But
never use the terms like “at least, finally, or in the end”, Never!
 End your conclusion paragraph on a ray of hope (silver lining of the cloud). For example:
Although corruption has devastated the social, economic, and moral fiber of Pakistani society, by acting
out the suggested remedies Pakistan can again be set on the path to progress.
OR
The picture of the climate change seems to paint a bleak picture for mankind; however, it is a false
imposition. By acting out the suggested remedies making can surely overcome climate change and reduce its
negative effects for the better future of coming generations.

Strategy to Write Conclusion Paragraph:

 It is suggested to start the conclusion paragraph by stating the thesis statement once again: e.g. Start the
conclusion paragraph with “In a nutshell, (reiterate the thesis statement)”.
 Then provide a brief summary of the outline highlighting the main points (this will automatically include the way
forward / remedies in the conclusion paragraph).
 You may round off the conclusion paragraph with ‘hopeful sentences’.
 ESSAY WRITING

WRITING CAREFULLY

COHERENCE AND COHESION

Overview:

 Each paragraph in a well-developed essay should display both unity and coherence. A paragraph with unity or
cohesion develops a single idea and links it to the rest of the paper; a paragraph with coherence flows logically
from one sentence to the next.
 Cohesion and coherence are highly important ingredients of an essay. They connect the essay as a
chain.Coherence is the main reason behind essay failures because it impacts our flow of writing in the essay.
 These are mostly the hidden and intrinsic aspects of the structure of an essay. Numbering in an essay cannot
determine its coherence and cohesion.
 Inculcate the cohesion and coherence in an essay at the time of outline writing. It cannot be employed later in the
essay.

What is the Unity or Cohesion?

 All the sentences in a paragraph must discuss just one main idea, stated in the topic sentence from the beginning
to the end. Therefore when you revise your paragraphs, look carefully at each supporting sentence and ask
yourself these questions:
o Does it continue to support the topic sentence?
o Does the last sentence of a paragraph relate in some way to the first sentence?
 It is the grammatical and lexical (lingual) linking within a text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it
meaning.
o Grammatical Cohesion is based on structural content. It discusses things in time flow as per
requirements. Different tenses and other grammatical settings should be used correctly.
o Lexical Cohesion is based on lexical content and background knowledge. Pronouns should match with
nouns. Other referents (e.g. this, that, those, these, whose, whom, etc.) should match the rest of the
sentence.

What is the Coherence?

 The ideas must also be coherent; that is, the logical relationship between sentences and paragraphs in the whole
essay must be clear, and the movement from one sentence to the next must be smooth.
 Coherence can be achieved in several ways through the use of transition signals, pronouns, and synonyms.
 Transition signals allow sentences to smoothly flow from one to another by altering your reader to how the ideas
in the new sentence or paragraph logically relate to those in the previous sentence.
 Demonstrators can also be used to maintain coherence in the writing. Add the pronouns like this, that, these, or
those before nouns that refer back to an idea or ideas, or a noun or nouns, repeated from the previous sentence.
Look at the given example:
… the rolling green pastures, white farmhouses, simple barns, horse-drawn buddies, and clotheslines hug with
modest, dark-colored clothing … This scene conveys a sense of peace and innocence.
 By using synonyms or expressions that have similar meaning, you can restate your points without continually
repeating nouns and phrases, which might make your sentences feel repetitive. Look at the example:
 ESSAY WRITING

… The Amish adapt to change in ways least threatening to their basic values …. This continual adjustment
allows the community to stay intact.

Example:

“A week has seven days. Every day I feed my cats. Cats have four legs. My leg hurts. ‘Hurts’ is a verb.”

This sequence is highly cohesive, as each sentence is connected to the previous one at the level of discourse. However, it
is not coherent, because no plausible connections can be made outside the discourse.

Now take a look at the following example:

“Liverpool shot a goal. The whistle blew.”

The sequence is not cohesive, since no clear connections are made at the level of discourse. Nevertheless, the sequence
is coherent; as the reader/listener can draw plausible conclusions about what happened based on his/her knowledge of
the context.

Exercise:

When faced with any stretch of discourse, we expect it to be sufficiently cohesive and coherent. If some connections are
missing, we will make an effort to establish them on our own.

Try to reconstitute the original sequence out of the following sentences:

1. However, nobody had seen one for months.

2. He thought he saw a shape in the bushes.
3. Mark had told him about the foxes.
4. John looked out of the window.
5. Could it be a fox?

The original sequence is as follows:

John looked out of the window. He (➜John) thought he saw (➜looking out) a shape in the bushes. Could it (➜the
shape) be a fox? Mark had told him (➜John) about the foxes (➜fox). However, (➜the foxes hypothesis), nobody
had seen one (➜foxes) for months.

In order to reconstitute the original sequence, you have relied on the existing cohesive ties ( ➜xxx), but you have also
drawn upon your knowledge of the world.
 ESSAY WRITING

USING PARALLELISM
o

 Clarity and maturity of style are the marks of effective writing. Parallelism (or the parallel structure) repeats
items in a series using the same grammatical form so your ideas are symmetrical and clear.
 Look at the examples given below:
o Parallel Infinitives:
In many communities, public-spirited groups formed societies to plant trees, clean up littered areas, and
develop recreational activities. (Note that repetition of ‘to’ is not necessary)
o Parallel Nouns:
City dwellers of all classes resented the dirt, noise, and ugliness. These poor immigrants arrived in rags,
without money, education, or skill, but they had a smaller glimmer of hope.
o Parallel Sentences:
Fire protection became less and less adequate. Garbage piled up on the streets. The streets themselves
crumbled beneath the pounding of heavy traffic. (Sentences in identical pattern)
 ESSAY WRITING

DIFFERENT APPROACHES USED TO WRITE ABSTRACT AND ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS

Argumentative Essay:

 This is the type of Essay in which the writer chooses one side of the argument and tries to support his opinion
(thesis) in comparison to the opposite opinion of others (antithesis).
 It is important in such an essay to compare and contrast the opinions of both sides and draw a synthesis based on
the features of the arguments of both sides, proving thesis to be correct or true.
 In this essay, we don’t need 17-18 ideas, each depicting a separate picture. In this essay, just take five main
arguments and then make their thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.

Method of Writing Outline of an Argumentative Essay:

1. Introduction
Thesis Statement
2. Overview
3. Thesis
a. Argument-I
b. Argument-II
c. Argument-II,
d. Argument-IV
e. Argument-V, and so on
4. Antithesis
a. Antithesis of 3a
b. Antithesis of 3b
c. Antithesis of 3c,
d. Antithesis of 3d
e. Antithesis of 3e, and so on.
5. Synthesis
a. Synthesis of 4a proving 3a to be True
b. Synthesis of 4b proving 3b to be True
c. Synthesis of 4c proving 3c to be True
d. Synthesis of 4d proving 3d to be True
e. Synthesis of 4e proving 3e to be True
6. Conclusion
 ESSAY WRITING

Example of Making Outline of an Argumentative Essay:

Expanding Information Technology: Blessing or Curse

1. Introduction
Thesis Statement:
Spread of IT has created both positive and negative impacts in the modern world. Despite some significant
negative effects, expanding information technology is more of a blessing due to the vast array of benefits that it
has provided to mankind. By utilizing checks and controls, its negative impacts can also be minimized.
2. How Information Technology can be Blessing or Curse?
3. Advantages of Information Technology to Mankind(Thesis)
a. Communication has been immensely facilitated
b. Ease of access to all humanity
c. IT has benefitted all fields of knowledge.
d. Effect of expanding IT on education, health, and human development.
e. Positive and indiscriminate of all humanity alike.
4. People have also used Information Technology Negatively (Antithesis)
a. Negative activities have also increased manifold due to ease of communication.
b. Antithesis of 3b
c. Antithesis 3c
d. Antithesis of 3d
e. Antithesis of 3e
5. Information Technology has Provided far more Benefits to Mankind to Outweigh its Disadvantages
(Synthesis)
a. Evil minds are not limited to information technology
b. Synthesis of 4b proving 3b true
c. Synthesis of 4c proving 3c true
d. Synthesis of 4d proving 3d true
e. Synthesis of 4e proving 3e true
6. Conclusion

How Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis Paragraphs are Written in Essay?

Thesis Paragraph (3a)

The expansion of information technology has greatly facilitated communication all over the world. It is possible for
people to communicate with each other across the globe conveniently. The invention of various softwares, applications,
and communication platforms has made it easy for people around the globe to connect with each other without any
wastage of time. For example, SMS, eMail, WhatsApp, Messenger, Twitter, etc are just few of the methods used by
millions across the globe to send and receive messages and media to and from each other. In this way, information
technology has expanded the scope of global communication and has made it highly convenient.

Antithesis of 3a:

However, many believe that expansion of information technology is not a blessing, rather it is a curse. The ease of
communication has also made it possible for evil-minded people to carry out their malefic designs. The communication
platforms are frequently used to spread negative content in the world and thus influence weak and immature minds. An
 ESSAY WRITING

apt example could be the Blue Whale game which was propagated through the information technology to millions across
the globe. Several young people fell prey to the evil designs of the makers of the Blue Whale game who ultimately
gripped their minds so much that they even committed suicides due to activities related to playing that game; more than
257 suicide attempts were reported globally (Ben Radford, Blue Whale Game Suicide Conspiracy Surfaces, 2018). Thus,
the information technology has provided convenience to the criminal minds to influence youth without any check and
balance.

Synthesis of 4a Proving 3a True:

Seeing the evidence provided by the opponents of information technology, one may observe that their arguments are
not valid. The evil-minded people are everywhere and can make use of every kind of knowledge; this does not mean that
all technology is curse. A valid example may be the use of a kitchen knife which is used in millions of households
globally to prepare food on daily basis. The same tool may also be used by evil-minded people to harm others. This
means that fault is not in the technology, but the way it is used. Hence, it shows that information technology has proved
to be more of blessing as its benefits like ease of communication far outweigh the curses that have been devised by using
it negatively.
ESSAY WRITING

USING TRANSITION SIGNALS TO INTRODUCE IDEAS

Rules Examples
1. Use these transition signals when Additionally
introducing additional ideas: Another
First, second, third,…
Furthermore / In addition
Moreover
Yet (or still) another
2. Use these transition signals when By contrast
introducing a contrast: Despite
However
In spite of
Nevertheless
On the one hand / on the other hand
3. Use these transition signals when For example / For instance
introducing examples: Specifically
To illustrate
4. Use these transition signals when In other words
introducing further explanations: To put it another way
5. Use these transition signals when Because of
introducing reasons: Due to
6. Use these transition signals when As a consequence / As a result
introducing results: Consequently
Therefore
Thus
7. Use these transition signals when First,
introducing the beginning of a process: To begin, / To begin with,
The first step
8. Use these transition signals when Next,
demonstrating the continuation of a Then
process: Afterwards,
The next step
Second, third, and so on
9. Use these transition signals when Finally, / Last,
introducing the end of a process: The final step
10. Use these transition signals when A key factor
introducing causes: Because / Because of
Due to / Owing to
One reason / the first cause
Since this occurred
11. Use these transition signals when Accordingly
introducing effects: As a consequence / As a result
Consequently / So
One outcome / Resulting in
The first effect
12. Use these transition signals when qualifying Could (have)
statements: May (have) / Might (have)
Perhaps / Possibly / Probably
 ESSAY WRITING

WRITING SPECIFIC TYPES OF ESSAYS

EXPOSITORY ESSAYS
Organization of an Expository Essay

A well-organized essay helps readers understand how all its parts fit together in a logical whole. The thesis statement,
topic sentences, and conclusion play a central role in that organization.

 A Clear Thesis Statement:

o A thesis statement is a full sentence that narrows the topic specifically to what the essay is about, such as
the beginning stage of writing.
o It also makes clear the writer’s position on or claim about the topic.
o Often the thesis statement gives a preview of the subdivisions or subtopics to be developed in the body of
the essay.
o Example:
The beginning stage of the writing(Topic) is a time to discover your ideas and plan how to present them,
(Claim) through free writing, brainstorming, clustering, and outlining.(Preview of the Body)
Learning a new language is not easy. (Topic) Mastering the pronunciation of a new language can be
challenging for several reasons.(Claim)
 Topic Sentences:
o Just as a thesis statement introduces the specific topic of an essay, a topic sentence at or near the
beginning of a paragraph introduces the topic of a paragraph, or what it is about.
o A topic sentence also establishes the controlling idea in the paragraph. Although controlling ideas are
sometimes implied rather than stated directly, most are stated clearly in a topic sentence.
o Likewise, a controlling idea may be expressed as a claim that the writer makes about something. The
remainder of the paragraph then explains, supports, or expands on the claim.
o Example:
In addition to money, a part-time job can provide valuable experience in time management and self-
discipline.
The rest of the paragraph would support the claim by explaining how it is true.
 A Strong Conclusion:
o The final or concluding paragraph of an essay often summarizes or rephrases the essay’s thesis statement.
o Because the conclusion is usually a summary, it should never add new ideas or information.
o The paragraph often concludes with a phrase that echoes the language in the opening paragraph.
o Depending on the content of the essay, the concluding paragraph might also end with a memorable
quotation, or a call to attention or recommendation of what the reader should do.
e.g. In short, the only solution to getting writing done is to write, write, and write.
 ESSAY WRITING

CAUSE AND EFFECT ESSAYS

Organization of a Cause and Effect Essay

 Writing a Cause and Effect Essay requires that you gather information and plan carefully. In some cases, it beins
with research, such as finding and analyzing the possible causes of a historical event. In others, it starts with
experimentation, such as noting the effects of a change in diet on laboratory mice. No matter what the case,
however, you must address these two questions in planning your essay:
1. Who will be reading my paper, and how much do they know about the subject matter?
2. Am I examining more than one cause or effect? Are the causes and effects occurring at the same time, or
does lead to one another?
The answer to the last question will help you decide on the structure of your essay.
 An event may have more than one cause, and a cause may have more than one effect. Sometimes the cause
occurs one after another; in other words, in chain reaction.
 The structure of a cause/effect essay can be organized in one of the two ways:
1. Chain Organization: In this you examine causes or effects in a sequence. In this, causes and effects are
directly linked sequentially. In other words, one cause leads to an effect, which leads to another cause,
and so on.
2. Block Organization: In this you examine the multiple causes or effects of some action or situation. This
organization is appropriate when all the causes or effects are not in a sequence.
ESSAY WRITING
 ESSAY WRITING

PROBLEM – SOLUTION ESSAYS

Organization of a Problem-Solution Essay

A Problem-Solution Essay both identifies a problem and offers a solution. The problem is stated first and the solution
stated afterward. Following diagram gives the organizational pattern of such an essay:

1. Introductory Paragraph
 As shown in diagram, introductory problem, but also indicates why it is important. When possible, you
should note why widespread the problem is and what effect it has on people or institutions. You then
propose a solution, which is the thesis of your essay.
2. Body Paragraphs
In the body of the essay, a paragraph (or two) should explain the problem in more detail. Then a transitional
statement should lead into the paragraphs that introduce and discuss possible solution(s).
 Explaining the Problem: Your readers must understand the nature of the problem. Therefore, you
should establish why the problem is troubling, frustrating, or harmful. Support your claims with
definitions (if necessary), logical reasons, facts and figures, and quotations from outside sources or
interviews.
 Making a Transition: After defining and illustrating the problem, move on to explore solutions. This
shift in focus requires transition, which goes beyond a single word or phrase such as “therefore” or “as a
result.” Sometimes it is merely a sentence, but other times the transition may be a full paragraph.
 Explaining the Solution: You should devote the remainder of the body to your solution(s) to the
problem. Explain why you think they will or might work, and contrast them to other less effective or
ineffective solutions. Again, if possible, back up your claims with facts and figures, results of surveys, or
quotes from authorities, similar to the quotation used in the writing model from the assistant director of
an institute. You may also want to emphasize your main points by setting them off in a bulleted or
numbered list, as in the writing model.
3. Concluding Paragraphs:
 Your concluding paragraph should include a call to action, in which you ask your readers to become part
of the solution or at least allow others to carry it out. Example is given below:

School remains a relatively safe place for children to be, and every teacher, staff member, and parent
must work to maintain that atmosphere.
 ESSAY WRITING

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS
Organization of an Argumentative Essay

 In an argumentative essay, you must present opposing sides of the issue and demonstrate why one side, or
position, is the better one. In short, argumentation requires that you present and support your own ideas while
responding to the ideas that oppose them.
 The viewpoint you support is called an argument. The opposing viewpoint is called a counterargument. You
cannot ignore a counterargument or counterarguments. Instead you must state a redub (that is, respond to by
disproving, or raising doubt about) the claims of the opposition.
 Acknowledging these counterarguments demonstrate to your readers your knowledge of the issue, and that you
are being thoughtful, open-minded, and fair. In this way, readers are more likely to respect your point of view.
 However, before writing you will need to determine who your readers are likely to be and what their instance,
if any, is on the issue, which will affect how you support your position.
 There are two common organizational patterns for argumentative essays:
1. Block Organization: In this pattern, counterarguments and rebuttals, and arguments and support are
divided into different sections, or blocks of paragraphs presented separately. This pattern, because of its
divided approach (one side, then the other), works well for short papers and issues that are not very
complex.

2. Point-by-Point Organization:In this pattern, each key idea from both sides of an issue is examined in
a single paragraph. You rebut the opposing claim and provide support for your argument. This pattern
allows the writer to examine issues in depth and is better suited for complex issues and longer papers.

 Introductory Paragraphs:
In the opening paragraph or paragraphs, it is important that you frame the issue, that is, introduce the arguments
for and against the issue while stating your position. In short, the framing of an argument moves from “on the one
hand” to “on the other hand,” with the argument or counterargument occupying either position. For example,
look at the following opening paragraphs which present the counterargument and the argument before moving
into its thesis:
Counterargument: The rapidly rising cost of higher education is causing many to question the value of
continuing education beyond high school.
Introduction to Argument: In order to determine whether higher education is worth the investment, it is
useful to examine what is known about the value of higher education and the rates of return on investment to
both the individual and to society.
Thesis: There is considerable support for the argument that the return on investment in higher education is
high enough to justify the high cost of pursuing a college degree.

Verbs for Framing an Issue: A convincing argument in part depends on a mature writing style and accurate
characterization of the issues. Do not overuse the verb “says” in introducing an argument or counterargument.
Aside from being repetitive, it does not indicate the attitude of the writer and the strength of his or her position.
There is, for example, a great difference between “The writer insists” and “The writer suggests.” The following
lists of verbs will be helpful in framing an issue, introducing an argument, and responding to a counterargument.

 Body Paragraphs:
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Once you have framed the issue and introduced your position on the controversy, you can follow one of two
organizational patterns:
o At the beginning of each paragraph, introduce the counterargument and then state and develop your claim
in response.
o At the beginning of each paragraph, state and support your claim and then present and acknowledge or
respond to a counterargument.
 Concluding Paragraphs:
As in other types of essays, the conclusion of an argument typically returns to the thesis, summarizes the main
ideas, and may make a call for action. Here are examples:
Example-I: But if the more radical members of this movement are successful in limiting further research,
their efforts will bring about a tragedy that will cost many lives. The real question is whether an apathetic
majority can be aroused to protect its future against a vocal, but misdirected, minority.

Example-ii: While it is clear that investment in a college degree, especially for those students in the lowest
income brackets, is a financial burden, the long-term benefits to individuals, as well as to society at large,
appear to far outweigh the costs.

Responding to Counterarguments

Responding to counterarguments is essential to persuading your readers, but how, exactly, can you respond? You have
several choices.

 Disagree: Claim that the counterargument is wrong, because:

o It misinterprets or ignores the facts
o Its claims are exaggerated
o Its reasoning is not sound
o Its solution to a problem will not work
Following example maintains that the opposing argument is exaggerated and unreasonable and then responds:
Much is made of the pain caused to these animals in the name of medical science. The animal-rights activists
contend that this is evidence of our cruel and brutal nature. A more reasonable argument, however, can be
advanced in our defense. Life is often cruel, both to animals and human beings.
 Concede a Point, but Disagree Nonetheless:
Acknowledge that part of the counterargument is valid, but disagree with the remainder of the argument. For
example,
The animal rights advocates have made scientists “more aware of the needs of these animals, and made us
search harder for suitable alternatives.” Nevertheless, he warns that limiting further research “will bring
about a tragedy that will cost many lives.”
 Agree and Disagree, but Take a Position:
Acknowledge the validity of both sides of the issue, but then claim that one side is the better choice-or the least
harmful choice. Example is given below in which the author agrees in part with the counterargument, but then
expresses disagreement:
While it is clear that investment in a college degree, especially for those students in the lowest income
brackets, is a financial burden, the long- term benefits to individuals, as well as to society at large, appear to
far outweigh the costs.
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KEY THEMES FOR ESSAY WRITING

1. Education
2. Health
3. Economy
4. Agriculture
5. Women Empowerment and Gender Equality
6. Politics/Democracy
7. Social Problems (Poverty, Corruption, Overpopulation, Unemployment)
8. Major Crises (Water Crisis, Energy Crisis, Economic Crisis, Governance Crisis, Terrorism)
9. Major Global Conflicts (Kashmir, Palestine, Ukraine, Sino-US Trade War)
10. Pakistan’s Foreign Relations (Kashmir, Middle-East)
11. Religious Tolerance (Islamophobia, Global Religious Harmony in the Modern World, Sectarianism) –
International and National.
12. Law and Order (Judiciary)
13. Technology (Tech Advancement, Industrialization)
14. Information Technology (AI, Robotics, Social Media, Digital Revolution)
15. Environment (Global Warming, Climate Change, Climate Governance)
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EDUCATION
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HEALTH
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ECONOMY
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AGRICULTURE
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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND GENDER EQUALITY

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POLITICS/DEMOCRACY
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SOCIAL PROBLEMS (POVERTY, CORRUPTION, OVERPOPULATION, UNEMPLOYMENT)

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MAJOR CRISES (WATER CRISIS, ENERGY CRISIS, ECONOMIC CRISIS, GOVERNANCE CRISIS,
TERRORISM)
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MAJOR GLOBAL CONFLICTS (KASHMIR, PALESTINE, UKRAINE, SINO-US TRADE WAR)

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PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN RELATIONS (KASHMIR, MIDDLE-EAST)

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RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE (ISLAMOPHOBIA, GLOBAL RELIGIOUS HARMONY IN THE MODERN

WORLD, SECTARIANISM) – INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL.
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LAW AND ORDER (JUDICIARY)

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TECHNOLOGY (TECH ADVANCEMENT, INDUSTRIALIZATION)

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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (AI, ROBOTICS, SOCIAL MEDIA, DIGITAL REVOLUTION)

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ENVIRONMENT (GLOBAL WARMING, CLIMATE CHANGE, CLIMATE GOVERNANCE