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 CONTENTS ix

20 Balancing Reciprocating Masses 408

20-1 Introduction 20-2 Four-Bar Linkage . 20-3 Slider-Crank
Mechanism 204 Multicylinder In-Line Engines ·
20-5 Four-Cylinder In-Line Engine 20-6 Analysis by Rotating
Vectors 20-7 V-Type and Opposed Engines 20-8 Discussion

21 Gyroscopic Effects 435

21-1 Introduction 21-2 Gyroscopic Forces

22 Critical Whirling Speeds and Torsional

Vibrations of Shafts 444
22-1 Critical Whirling Speeds 22-2 Shaft with a Single Disk
22-3 Shaft with a Number of Disks 22-4 Critical Speed of a
Uniform Shaft 22-5 Dunkerley's Equation 22-6 Shafts with
Variable Diameter 22-7 Factors Affecting Critical Speeds
22-8 Torsional Vibrations 22-9 Torsional Vibration of a Shaft
with Two Disks 22-10 Stepped Shafts 22-11 Geared
System 22-12 Torsional Vibration of a Multiple-Mass
System 22-13 Summary

Appendixes
A Proof of the Equivalent Four-Bar Linkage 471
B Computer Program for Positions, Velocities, and
Accelerations in the Slider-Crank Mechanism 475
C Computer Program for Calculating the Cam Profile and the
Locations of the Cutter to Produce the Profile 479

Index 485
 PREFACE

Kinematics of machines is the study of the relative motion of machine parts and
is one of the first consideraiions of the designer in the design of a machine.
Dynamics of machines treats with the forces acting on the parts of a machine
and the motions resulting from these forces. A dynamic analysis is necessary to
ensure that balance is provided for rotating and reciprocating parts and that all
members are adequate from the standpoint of strength.
This book is intended as an undergraduate text and contains sufficient
material for a full year's work. Part 1 of the text is concerned with kinematics of
machines and Part 2 with dynamics of machines. The book may be used for
either one of these subjects or both. If the student has already completed a
course in kinematics of machines using another text, this book should be read-
ily acceptable for a following course in dynamics of machines. Conventional
notation has been used throughout the text. If the time allotted for kinematics
and dynamics of machines iri the undergraduate curriculum is not sufficient for
including all of the topics presented in the text, the material in Chapters 9, 14,
15, and 22 can be presented in a graduate course.
As prerequisites to Part 1, "Kinematics of Machines," a course in college
physics and mathematics through calculus are sufficient. For Part 2,
''Dynamics of Machines,'' kinematics of machines and mechanics courses in
statics and dynamics are prerequisites.
Emphasis has been placed on presentation of fundamental principles. Spe-
cial constructions have been omitted in order to include more basic theory. The
major concern has been to present the principles in as simple a manner as
possible and to write a book which the student can understand. The text con-
tains numerous worked-out examples illustrating application of the theory.
In Part 1, in the chapter on accelerations, equivalent linkages are discussed
extensively because of their importance in simplifying the acceleration analysis
of direct-contact mechanisms. To aid the student in visualizing the direction of
xi
xii PREFACE

the Coriolis acceleration, it is derived for a special case, but the presentation is
then extended to the most general case of plane motion.
The Hartmann construction and Euler-Savary equation as methods for
obtaining the radius of curvature of the path of relative motion are given par-
ticular emphasis. Having found that students often experience considerable
difficulty in understanding and applying these methods, the author thus has
endeavored to present them in a simple manner with rules set down for apply-
ing them to any problem.
In Chapter 9 the mathematical analysis of velocities and accelerations in
mechanisms is treated. The limitations of analysis by trigonometry are pointed
out, and most of the chapter is devoted to analysis by complex numbers,
including analysis of complex linkages;
Planetary gear trains are discussed in Chapter 10, including planetaries
with multiple inputs. The tabular method of analysis and the principle of super-
position are used here to aid the student.
In Chapter 14 the synthesis of mechanisms by graphical and mathematical
methods is presented, and Chapter 15 is an introduction to mechanical analog
computer mechanisms.
In Chapter 20 the method of rotating vectors for investigating engine bal-
ance has been included because it simplifies the analysis. Gyroscopic effects
are treated in Chapter 21, and here the method of angular momentum has been
used because it makes it easier to visualize the direction of the gyroscopic
forces. Chapter 22, "Critical Whirling Speeds and Torsional Vibrations of
Shafts,'' includes analysis of whirling speeds of shafts with any number of disks
and analysis of stepped shafts.
In keeping with the changeover to the International System of Units (SI) in
the United States, this edition has been written using SI units. In order to aid
the American student in making the change, approximately 20 percent of the
examples in the text and the problems for assigned work are in the customary
U.S. units and 80 percent are in SI units.
As a result of many suggestions received from users of the previous edi-
tion, material in the first edition has been retained and some chapters have been
expanded. In conjunction with Chapter 9, "Mathematical Analysis," a FOR-
TRAN computer program for the slider-crank mechanism has been included in
the appendix. The program gives the positions, velocities, and accelerations of
the links as well as the positions, velocities, and accelerations of any point on
the linkage. In Chapter 10, "Cams," mathematical methods for the design of
disk cams have been added, and methods used to manufacture cams have been
included. Here it is shown how radial distances to points on the pitch curve can
be computed and how the pressure angle can be calculated for any angular
position of the cam. In addition, methods for calculating the cam profile and
also the positions of the cutter or grinder relative to the cam are presented for
various types of cam followers. A FORTRAN computer program which gives
the latter is included in Appendix C. At the time this edition was written, no
standards had yet been established on gear-tooth systems based wholly on the
 PREFACE xiii

International System of Units. Hence in this edition, Chapter 12, "Gears," and
Chapter 13, "Gear Trains, Translation Screws, Mechanical Advantage" use
the tooth systems which were in use in the United States at the time; however,
these chapters use SI units and also module to express tooth size. Chapter 14,
"Synthesis of Mechanisms," has been expanded to include a discussion of how
mechanisms can be designed to increase their efficiency of force transmission,
and it is shown how the transmission angle can be calculated. Chapter 22,
which in the first edition covered critical speeds (whirling speeds of shafts), has
been considerably extended to include torsional vibrations of shafts.
The author believes that problem work is of great importance to students in
engineering courses because it aids motivation, understanding, and retention.
At the end of each chapter the text contains a large number of problems of
varying difficulty and length, which can all be worked on 216 x 279 mm
(8~ x 11 in) paper. Scales have been specified for all graphical work so that
the solutions will come out a reasonable size.
In some chapters the number of problems for assigned work has been
increased. A number of the problems in this edition are design problems, and
these are found in the chapters on linkages, cams, gears, gear trains, synthesis,
and flywheels.
Material taken directly from other sources is acknowledged in the book,
and the author wishes to express appreciation to the manufacturers who gener-
ously presented photographs.
In conclusion, the author wishes to express appreciation for the many
helpful suggestions received from users of the previous edition.

George H. Martin
 PART

ONE
KINEMATICS OF MACHINES
 CHAPTER

ONE
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

1-1 KINEMATICS

Kinematics of machines is a study of the relative motion of machine parts.

Displacement, velocity, and acceleration are considered.

1-2 DYNAMICS

Dynamics of machines treats with the forces acting on the parts of a machine
and the motions resulting from these forces. - --

1-3 MACIDNE

- A machine is a device for transforming or transferring energy. It is sometimes

defmed as consisting of a number of fixed and moving bodies interposed be-
tween the source of power and the work to be done for the purpose of adapting
one to the other. The electric motor transforms electrical energy into mechani-
cal energy while its counterpart the electric generator transforms mechanical
energy into electrical energy. In a gasoline engine each piston connecting rod
and the crankshaft act as a machine for transferring energy. The input mechani-
cal energy is the product of the force on the piston and the distance it travels.
This energy is transferred to the crankshaft, where it appears as output mechan-
ical energy and is the product of the torque and the angle of shaft rotation.
3
4 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES

Figure 1·1

1-4 KINEMATIC DIAGRAM

In studying the motions of machine parts, it is customary to draw the parts in

skeleton form so that only those dimensions which affect their motions are
considered. The drawing in Fig. 1-1 represents the main elements in the diesel
engine shown in Fig. 1-2. The stationary members, consisting of the crankshaft
bearing and cylinder wall, are crosshatched and labeled link 1. The crank and
crankshaft are link 2, connecting rod link 3, and piston or slider link 4. Link is
the name given to any body which has motion relative to another. Since the
bearing and cylinder wall have no motion relative to one another, they are
considered as a single link. That part of a machine which is stationary and
which supports the moving members is called the frame and is designated
link 1.
In Fig. 1-1 consider the position of the connecting rod for a given angular
position of the crank. The angular position, velocity, and acceleration of the
rod depend only on the lengths of the crank and connecting rod and are in no
way affected by the width or thickness of the rod. Thus only the lengths of
members 2 and 3 are of importance in a kinematic analysis. The drawing in Fig.
1-1 is known as a kinematic diagram and is a scale drawing representing the
machine so that only the dimensions which affect its motions are recorded.
All materials have some elasticity. A rigid link is one whose deformations
are so small that they can be neglected in determining the motions of the
various other links in a machine. Bodies 2 and 3 in Fig. 1-1 are considered rigid
links. A belt or chain, as illustrated in Fig. 1-3, is aflexible link. However, if it is
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 5

Figure 1-2 Diesel engine. (Cummins Engine Company, Inc .)

Figure 1-3
6 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES

always in tension, it may be replaced by a rigid link, as shown in Fig. 1-4, in

order to analyze the instantaneous motions of bodies 2 and 4. Similarly, the
fluid in the hydraulic press shown in Fig. 1-5 is a flexible link. If the piston areas
are A1 and Az, then, assuming an incompressible fluid, points A and B of the
equivalent rigid link shown in Fig. 1-6 have the same motions as the pistons,
provided dzld1 is made equal to A 11A 2 •

1-5 MECHANISM

A kinematic chain is a system of links, that is, rigid bodies, which are either
joined together or are in contact with one another in a manner that pennits them
to move relative to one another. If one of the links is fixed and the movement of
any other link to a new position will cause each of the other links to move to
defmite predictable positions, the system is a constrained kinematic chain. If
one of the links is held fixed and the movement of any other link to a new
position will not cause each of the other links to move to definite predictable
positions, then the system is an unconstrained kinematic chain. A mechanism
or linkage is a constrained kinematic chain. When link 1 in Fig. 1-1 is held fixed,
the piston and connecting rod each have a definite position for each position of
the crank. Thus, the linkage is a constrained kinematic chain and is therefore a
mechanism. Suppose, however, we have an arrangement of links as shown in

Figure 1·4

.
: : ·.- ,. ~ -~ -' ' . - .· : . . . -:.'.; ;.,:.,,

Figure l·S
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 7

Figure 1-6

,,_-_-- -- -o.. __ _
.... ,, '--..... --
',, '0-------------- --- -
'0--- - - - - - - - - - --------:..--~
'•

Figure 1-7

Figure 1·8

Fig. 1-7. Note that if link 1 is fixed, then with link 2 in the position shown, links
3, 4, and 5 will not have definite predictable positions, but could assume many
positions some of which are shown with dashed lines. Thus, this is an uncon-
strained kinematic chain and is therefore not a mechanism. Further, let us
consider Fig. 1-8, in which three bars are pinned together as shown. An ar-
Jangement of this type does not constitute a kinematic chain because there can
be no motion of the members relative to one another. Such an assemblage is not
a mechanism but is a structure or truss.
A machine is a mechanism which transmits forces. The mechanism in Fig.
1-1 becomes a machine when a force is applied to one of the .pistons and is
transmitted through the connecting rod and crank to produce rotation of the
crankshaft. An electric motor is a machine, but one might question whether it is
a mechanism. Actually it is a four-link mechanism which is equivalent to the
one shown in Fig. 1-9. In Fig. 1-9 disks 2 and 4 rotate about a common axis and
are connected by a connecting bar, which is link 3. In the electric motor the
rotating polarity of the field coils is analogous to disk 2, the driver in Fig. 1-9.
The magnetic field functions as the connecting bar 3, and the armature is
equivalent to the driven disk 4.
Though all machines are mechanisms, not all mechanisms are machines.
Many instruments, for example, are mechanisms but are not machines because
they do no useful work nor do they transform energy. For example, a clock
does no work in excess of that required to overcome its own friction.
8 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES

Figure 1·9

1-6 INVERSION

By making a different link in a kinematic chain the fixed member, we obtain a

different mechanism. The four mechanisms shown in Figs. 1-10 to 1-13 are
derived from the slider-crank chain. The mechanism used in gasoline and diesel
engines is shown in Fig. 1-10. If instead oflink 1 being fixed, link 2 is held fixed,
the result is as shown in Fig. 1-11. This mechanism was used in early radial
aircraft engines. The crankshaft was stationary and the crankcase and cylinders
rotated. The propeller was attached to the crankcase. Another application of

Figure 1·10

Figure 1·11
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 9

Figure 1-12

Figure 1-13

this inversion of the slider-crank chain is the Whitworth quick-return

mechanism, which is discussed later in this book in Sec. 3-8. In Fig. 1-12link 3
is held fixed. This mechanism is used in toy oscillating-cylinder steam engines.
In Fig. 1-13 link 4 has been made the fixed member. This mechanism is com-
monly used for pumps.
It is of importance to note that inversion of a mechanism in no way changes
the relative motion between its links. For example, in Figs. 1-10 to 1-13 if link 2
rotates 6° clockwise relative to link 1, link 4 will move to the right a definite
amount along a straight line on link 1. This is true no matter which link is held
ftxed.

1-7 PAIRING

Two bodies in contact constitute a pair. Lower pairing exists when two sur-
faces are in contact. Examples of lower pairing are a piston and its cylinder wall
and a journal and its supporting bearing. Higher pairing refers to contact which
exists at a point or along a line. Examples of higher pairing are a ball bearing,
where point contact exists between the ball and race, and a roller bearing,
where contact between the roller and race is along a line. In Fig. 1-14 lm:ver
pairing exists at A, B, C, and D. If instead of being cylindrical, the piston were
made a sphere as in Fig. 1-15, then the piston would contact the cylinder wall
10 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES

D
Figure 1·14

Figure 1-15

along a circle. Thus there would be higher pairing and it would make for greater
wear.

1-8 PLANE MOTION

A body has plane motion if all its points move in planes which are parallel to
some reference plane. The reference plane is called the plane ofmotion. Plane
motion can be one of three types: translation, rotation, or a combination of
translation and rotation.

1-9 TRANSLATION

A body has translation if it moves so that all straight lines in the body move to
parallel positions. Rectilinear translation is a motion wherein all points of the
body move in straight-line paths. The piston in Fig. 1-1 has rectilinear transla-
tion. A translation in which points in the body move along curved paths is
called curvilinear translation. In the parallel-crank mechanism shown in Fig.
3-2 the connecting link 3 has curvilinear translation.

1-10 ROTATION

In rotation all points in a body remain at fixed distances from a line which il)
perpendicular to the plane of motion. This line is the axis of rotation, and points
in the body describe circular paths about it. The crank in Fig. 1-1 has a motion
of rotation if the frame of the engine is fixed.
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 11

1-11 TRANSLATION AND ROTATION

Many machine parts have motions which are a combination of rotation and
translation. For example, in the engine in Fig. 1-16 consider the motion of the
connecting rod as it moves from position BC to B C These positions are
1 1
•

shown again in Fig. 1-17. Here we see that the motion is equivalent to a
translation fromBC toB C followed by a rotation fromB C toB C Another
11 1 11 1 1 1
•

equivalent motion is illustrated in Fig. 1-18. This shows a rotation of the rod
1 1
about C from position BC to B" C, followed by a translation from B " C to
B C'. Thus the motion of the connecting rod can be considered as a rotation
1

about some point plus a translation.

1-12 HELICAL MOTION

A point which rotates about an axis at a fixed distance and at the same time
moves parallel to the axis describes a helix. A body has helical motion if each

Figure 1-16

,8" 8
r-------------
-r--
8 L-f -----.--t--
1
1
----
I --------
-----1.
~2
---
.
----- - - - - - - -
-
----
- --
-----::::.-~~------------ c

Figure 1-17

I
I
I 8 '" ~1 rt 2

8'--=--:;. =:::::::::::::=-=~~:.--=-{::::_~-=--------- ----------

--- - ---- ---- -- ---~
f
t C' C
Figure 1-18
12 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES

point in the body describes a helix. The motion of a nut along a screw is a
common example.

1-13 SPHERICAL MOTION

A point has spherical motion if it moves in three-dimensional space and re-

mains at a fixed distance from some fixed point. A body has spherical motion if
each point in the body has spherical motion. In the ball-and-socket joint in Fig.
1-19, if either the socket or rod is held fixed, the other will move with spherical
motion.

1-14 CYCLE, PERIOD, AND PHASE OF MOTION

A mechanism completes a cycle of motion when it moves through all its possi-
ble configurations and returns to its starting position. Thus the slider-crank
mechanism in Fig. 1-16 completes a cycle of motion as the crank makes one
revolution. The time required for one cycle is the period. The relative positions
of the links at any instant during the cycle of motion for the mechanism consti-
tute aphase. When the crank in Fig. 1-16 is in position 01o the mechanism is in
one phase of its motion. When the crank is in position 02 , the mechanism is in
another phase.

1-15 VECTORS

Two types of quantities are treated in mechanics. Scalar quantities are those
which have magnitude only. Examples are distance, area, volume, and time.
Vector quantities have magnitude and direction. Examples are displacement,
velocity, acceleration, and force.

-------,1---

Figure 1-19
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 13

Figure 1-20

A vector quantity can be represented by a straight line with an arrowhead

as illustrated in Fig. 1-20. The magnitude of the vector A is represented by its
length, which is drawn to any convenient scale. For example, if we wish to
represent a velocity of 20 ft/s and we let 1 in on the paper represent 10 ft/s,
then A would be drawn 2 in long. The arrowhead represents the head or ter-
minus of the vector, and the other end is called the tail or origin. The direction
of a vector may be described by specifying the angle in degrees which it makes
with the horizontal (x axis) measuring in the conventional counterclockwise
direction. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-20.

1-16 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS

The symbol -» is commonly used to denote the addition of vector quantities,

and the symbol---+ is used to denote subtraction. The sum of vectors A and B is
written A -» B, and the subtraction of B from A as A -----+ B.
Vectors A and B in Fig. 1-21 can be added by laying them out in the manner
shown in Fig. 1-22 or in the manner shown in Fig. 1-23. Point 0 is the starting
point, called the pole, and may be chosen at any convenient location in the
plane of the vectors. From the pole, vectors A and B are laid off with the tail of
one placed at the head of the other. Their sum is called the resultant and is
shown by the dashed line in the figures.
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and cauterization, either with powerful caustics or the actual cautery,
are indicated. Since the specific germ is an anaërobe, hydrogen
dioxide may be used locally with great advantage, mainly because it
oxidizes the albuminous material upon which the bacilli thrive. If it is
in a finger or toe, amputation may be the simplest method of
eradicating the local lesions.
Constitutional treatment may be divided into nutrition and
medication. The tendency too often in these cases is to be careless
or indefinite with regard to the excretions and the nutrition of the
patient. If, for instance, each attempt at catheterization throws him
into convulsions, the bladder may become overdistended and burst.
So, too, there is apprehension usually in regard to fecal evacuations.
At the same time these patients are allowed to almost starve
because of the difficulty of feeding them. It is advisable to resort to
chloroform to permit the introduction of the stomach tube—through
the nostrils, if necessary—by which nutrition may be introduced into
the stomach without causing the violent convulsions that would occur
without an anesthetic. At the same time the catheter may be used.
In the way of active medication there is no agent so efficacious for
controlling the tetanic spasms as chloroform, which may be
administered occasionally, or more or less continuously, according to
the wishes of the attendant. By its use the severest spasms can be
kept in abeyance, and the horrible character of the disease
somewhat mitigated. Of the other medicaments used, most of them
are of the nature of nerve sedatives, such as chloral, the bromides,
Calabar bean, cannabis indica, opium, etc. Hot-air baths or
diaphoretics, by which copious perspiration may be induced, have
yielded good results.
Specific treatment means in these instances taking advantage of
the well-known properties which the blood serum of an animal
artificially immunized against the disease possesses. This is in
accordance with experimental labors with a number of different
diseases, of which tetanus is one. It is, in effect, similar to the serum
therapy of diphtheria.
The most hopeful of remedies is antitoxin. More lives can be
saved by this preparation, if used early and freely, than by any other
known remedy. Moschcowitz, in 1900, collected 338 cases, with a
mortality of 40 per cent. In many of these cases it was not used
early. It is of importance, however, to use it at the very outset, and to
repeat its use as soon or as often as may be indicated by any
exacerbation of symptoms. In one instance under my observation
twenty-three phials of antitoxin were used before muscle rigidity
subsided; in another case double this amount was used. Without
quoting figures it is safe to say that the former great mortality rate of
tetanus has been reduced at least 50 per cent. by its use, and that
further reduction can be effected by its early and prolonged use.
The use of antitoxin nowise takes away the necessity for proper
physical care of the laceration or the wound. Every particle of
affected tissue should be cut away, all the principles of physical
cleanliness adhered to, and proper antiseptics used.
When the antitoxin is used in the presence of the disease it should
be injected into the spinal canal, as it is known that the cerebrospinal
fluid may contain a considerable amount of the toxin and is of itself
highly poisonous. Therefore after inserting the needle into the canal
it is well to withdraw a considerable amount of the fluid before
injecting the antitoxin. If this method is pursued the material is
brought into more immediate contact with the anterior horns of the
cord than could be effected in any other way. After withdrawing all
the fluid that will run through the needle without applying the syringe
—probably 150 to 200 Gm.—10 to 15 Cc. of the antitoxin may be
slowly injected, the process consuming from three to five minutes.
Then a further injection should be made along some of the large
nerve trunks, preferably those leading to the part involved. This
injection should be made with a finer needle, such as that with which
cocaine solution is injected during anesthesia for the prevention of
shock. This is a more effective and less serious matter than
trephining the skull for the injection of fluid upon the surface of the
brain. This may be done while the patient is under the influence of
the anesthetic administered for the purpose of giving proper attention
to the wound. The antitoxin should be injected into the nerve trunks
after their exposure. At the same time it is well to make intravenous
saline injections at more than one point. After from twelve to fifteen
hours the injection of antitoxin and perhaps of saline solution should
be repeated, if necessary, under such light anesthesia as can be
produced by ethyl chloride. Recently a substitute for antitoxin has
been suggested in an emulsion of brain tissue which has been
shown to have a specific affinity for the tetanus toxin. It has been
seen that when these two substances have been thoroughly shaken
together the toxin is removed from the fluid and confined in harmless
form within the brain-tissue cells.
In injecting the antitoxin into the spinal canal no harm will ensue if
a little blood flow through the needle, showing that the cord itself has
been touched.
When there is need to employ this material the brain of a freshly
killed small animal should be removed under antiseptic precautions.
10 Gm. or 15 Gm. should be emulsified in about 30 Cc. of sterile salt
solution, which should then be strained through a sterile cloth under
light pressure. This is then injected as near the wound as possible
and the procedure repeated every day as long as indicated. This
method can only be expected to neutralize toxin that has not yet
entered the nerve cells. Nevertheless, Russian observers have
reported thirteen recoveries out of sixteen instances in which the
method was practised.
When no other means are at hand a 1 per cent. carbolic acid
solution may be injected after the same fashion, using such an
amount that about five grains are administered during twenty-four
hours to an adult. This is the method especially favored by the
Italians, and is due especially to Baccelli.
Matthews has devised a method which seems quite effective in
experimental animals. It consists of the use of a solution of the
following: Sodium chloride 4 Gm., sodium sulphate 10 Gm., sodium
nitrate 3 Gm., calcium chloride 14 Cgm., water 1000 Cc. This is
intended for intravenous injection, and must be introduced very
slowly. The performance should be repeated twice during the first
twenty-four hours and once each succeeding twenty-four hours. It
produces profound diuresis, i. e., a washing out of tissue cells, as he
calls it.

HYDROPHOBIA.
 Hydrophobia is an acute specific or infectious disease, as far as
known never originating in man, but transmitted to him, usually
through the bite or by inoculation from the saliva of a rabid animal—
in this country usually the dog, although the wolf, the cat, the skunk,
and even certain of the domestic poultry, are capable of conveying
the disease. Chickens are said to be immune save when their vital
resistance is lowered by starvation. Chicken blood injected into other
animals seems to antidote the virulence of the virus. It can also be
inoculated in other animals, like rabbits. The virus is ordinarily
conveyed in the saliva of the rabid animal. This may be wiped off as
the teeth of the animal pass through the clothing of the injured
individual; consequently, infection does not certainly follow such
bites. But those upon exposed portions of the body, where animals
generally bite, are almost invariably followed by infection.
Hydrophobia is frequently spoken of as rabies, sometimes as lyssa.
While rare in this country, it is by no means uncommon in Central
Europe, especially perhaps in Russia, where bites from infuriated
wolves are common. In the United States infection comes almost
invariably from the rabid dog, in which this disease presents two
types.
The so-called furious form is that which is marked by frenzy and
canine madness, the objective symptoms being more pronounced
and alarming, though not less dangerous than the other variety. After
the period of incubation, which varies considerably, these animals
show depression and uneasiness, and even thus early their saliva is
infectious. Their sense of hunger becomes perverted; they exhibit
unusual tastes, secrete saliva abundantly, which becomes very
tenacious and even frothy, exhibit a dry and edematous condition of
the faucial mucous membranes; the character of the bark is altered,
while they are usually infuriated at the sight of other dogs. In this
stage there is usually insensibility to pain. Finally, come more or less
paralysis of deglutition, quickened respiration, dilated pupils, and
frenzy and madness of manner, by which they attack indiscriminately
men and other animals. To this stage of furious excitation succeeds
one of paralysis, and death follows from exhaustion. These
manifestations usually last about a week.
 Dumb hydrophobia is the more common form. Here paralysis
appears much earlier and involves especially the lower jaw; the
tongue falls out of the mouth; and the posterior extremities are
quickly paralyzed. This form is much more quickly fatal than the
other.
Animals thought to have hydrophobia should be kept by
themselves in a secure enclosure and carefully watched, especially
those known to have bitten men or other animals. If a suspected dog
have been killed before the suspicion has been confirmed, the head
and upper part of the neck should be removed for examination.
Veterinarians claim that what they call the plexiform ganglion permits
an almost certain diagnosis to be made. The presence of foreign
bodies in the stomach of the animal is a corroborative feature.
Diagnosis by subdural inoculation requires two or three weeks, and
in at least one case a human patient died while waiting for diagnosis
to be thus established.
Hydrophobia in man is rare in this country, yet is occasionally
observed. Its etiology is as yet obscure. That a contagion vivum is
present is positive, but its nature is uncertain. Negri, of Pavia, has
recently described certain bodies observed in the nervous system of
animals dead of hydrophobia which may offer the solution of the
problem that has so long been sought. They are found in the
protoplasm of nerve cells, but not in their nuclei. They are round or
oval in shape, vary in size from 25 microns down to those which can
be barely seen with the highest powers. They take ordinary stains.
Negri maintains that these bodies are parasites and he has
invariably failed to find them in animals which did not have rabies.
His work has been confirmed by a number of his colleagues, and
bids fair to furnish a reliable and rapid means of diagnosis. The fact
that the virus of hydrophobia will pass through a porcelain filter
nowise contradicts the view that these bodies may be parasitic, for it
is quite possible that they undergo different stages of development,
in some of which they are small enough to pass even barriers of
porcelain.
In fact it seems to have been positively demonstrated that these
bodies described by Negri, in 1903, are diagnostic for rabies. They
are most likely to be found in the horns of Ammon or the cerebellum.
When found here, careful examination must be made of the
Gasserian ganglion, where may be found the lesions first described
by Van Gehuchten and Nelis, which consist of a proliferation of the
endothelial cells to such an extent that the ganglion cells are first
invaded and then destroyed, their places being taken by the new
cells.
The Negri bodies have been generally regarded as protozoa and
the specific cause of the disease. At all events, it seems possible
always to successfully reproduce the disease in rabbits or guinea-
pigs by inoculation with these bodies.
If examination shows neither the Negri bodies nor the lesions in
the ganglion the presence of the disease can scarcely be suspected,
and could only be proved by animal inoculations, which, however,
would be advisable in doubtful cases where human beings have
been bitten.
Symptoms.—The period of incubation in man is variable, ten
weeks being perhaps the average. It is shorter in
children, as also when the bites are numerous. It is even stated that
it may be as long as a year or more, during which time the poison
seems to lie latent. When the active symptoms supervene there are,
locally, discomfort about the wound, itching, heat, and peculiar
unpleasant sensations. It is said also that vesicles may make their
appearance in the neighborhood of the original lesion. As in animals,
so in man, the disease may assume either the furious or the paralytic
type. These cases are nearly all marked by mental depression and
apathy, with complete loss of courage. The earlier symptoms are
connected perhaps with the respiration, which is infrequent, while
inspiration is halting and speech is interfered with. The facial
appearance is often changed to one of anxiety, even despair. The
muscles of deglutition are next involved in a combination of spasm
and paralysis, and the act of swallowing is interfered with,
sometimes made almost impossible. Although patients can swallow
their own saliva, they find it difficult to swallow any foreign
substances, such as water, etc. This is not due to the fear of water,
as the term “hydrophobia” would imply—this being an absolute
misnomer—but is due to reflex spasm excited by the attempt. It is
accompanied by more or less sense of suffocation and palpitation of
the heart. Indeed, a paroxysm of this kind may be precipitated by the
attempt to swallow, so that the patient instinctively refuses water or
any other fluid. Reflex excitability is also very great, and a breath of
air or a trifling disturbance may precipitate a paroxysm, almost as in
extreme cases of tetanus. As the case progresses the saliva
becomes more tenacious and viscid, faucial irritation more marked,
and the attempts to expel the secretion, along with the disturbed
respiratory efforts, have given rise to the foolish lay notion that these
patients bark like dogs. The paroxysms, as the case progresses,
become more marked, the patient more restless, until, later, furious
mania or muttering delirium is present, to be followed by prostration
and paralytic phenomena, muscle tremor, etc., and death.
The paralytic form in man, as in dogs, is marked by the much
earlier paretic phenomena, anesthesia, and, finally, respiratory
paralysis which terminates the case. Curtis and others have insisted
that the hydrophobic paroxysms are not convulsions in the ordinary
sense of the term, but are due to temporary inhibitions of the most
important respiratory and cardiac centres as the result of peripheral
impressions. He likens them to the shock of a shower bath.
Postmortem Changes.—Postmortem changes are indistinct and
only suggestive. They consist for the
greater part of a sort of vacuolous degeneration of the ganglion cells
of the nerve centres—most prominently in the medulla, next in the
hemispheres, and then in the spinal cord. There is hyperemia, with
minute ecchymoses, with infiltration of the adventitia of the vessels
and perivascular extravasation. The changes met with in the other
viscera bear no constant relation to symptoms. Nevertheless,
Gowers holds that because of the location of the lesions and their
intensity in the neighborhood of certain nerve nuclei we have here a
distinguishing anatomical character of the disease.
The toxin (as we may call it for the lack of a better term) seems to
be transmitted much as is that of tetanus (q. v.), along the afferent
nerves to the cells of the anterior horns of the cord.
Diagnosis.—As between hydrophobia and tetanus diagnosis is
not difficult, as already described. In certain hysterical
individuals nervous paroxysms, largely due to fright, may be
precipitated by dog-bites and other incidents or accidents. In these
cases there is rarely such a period of incubation, and in a true
hysterical case there will be no such mimicry of this awful disease. A
condition known as lyssophobia (fear of hydrophobia) has been
described. It is seen in hysterical subjects. It is said to have even
been fatal, but this must have been from other complications.
Treatment.—There is no authenticated case on record of recovery
after medication by drugs. It is probable that recovery
has never followed anything but the modern inoculation treatment.
The only successful treatment for this disease has been
elaborated as the result of the labors of that indefatigable French
savant, Pasteur, and is among the glorious triumphs of laboratory
research, against which it is so often charged that it is not practical in
its results. It is in some respects a curious commentary on the study
of infectious disease that we can secure and work with the peculiar
virus of hydrophobia, and at the same time be utterly unacquainted
with its true character. To this fact is due the modern cure. It is based
upon the fact that the virus is not only in the saliva, but also in the
nervous system of animals suffering from this disease, and that its
effects are intensified and hastened by inoculation directly into the
cerebral substance. Accordingly, when a diagnosis of hydrophobia
can be reasonably well established, no time should be lost in
sending the patient to one of the “Pasteur Institutes,” to be found
now in most of the great centres, there to undergo a regular course
of treatment. It was reported that in the Institute in Paris, between
the years 1886 to 1894, there were treated a total of 13,817 cases,
and that the mortality was 0.05 per cent. Of course but a small
proportion of these really had or would have developed the disease.
Virus obtained from the brain or cord and inoculated into the dura
of another animal quickly precipitates the disease. It is, moreover,
modified in virulence as it passes through successive animals of
certain species—for example, monkeys. It is increased by passage
through rabbits, and the period of incubation thereby shortened. The
weakest virus can by proper handling and manipulation in this way
be so intensified as to produce disease within seven days after
inoculation. Desiccation reduces the virulence, and preparations
from the cord of an infected animal may be attenuated to almost any
desired extent by drying. By inoculating a dog or a rabbit with virus
prepared from this weakened source, and daily making injections
from stronger and stronger preparations, it is in the course of a
couple of weeks rendered practically immune to the disease.
Animals thus made immune are trephined and the virus injected
beneath the dura, by which more certain results are obtained. The
treatment consists in using a section of a rabbit’s spinal cord, 0.5
Cm. in length, rubbed up in 6 Cc. of sterile salt solution. Half of this
amount is injected each day into the flank of the patient. The cord
first used is one that is thirteen or fourteen days old, which has been
kept suspended in a sterile flask, over caustic potash, in order to
assist in its desiccation. The next day a cord one day younger is
used, and so on until by the twelfth day of treatment the cord is one
only two days old, and at the end of two weeks a fresh cord can be
used which would convey the disease had it been used first. If this
course of treatment can be carried through before the first symptoms
of the disease appear, the antidote has gained complete mastery
over the infecting agent and the patient is saved.

GLANDERS AND FARCY.

Glanders as it is known in man is a specific infectious disease,
transmitted usually from the horse, characterized by rapid formation
of specific granulomas, particularly in the skin and mucous
membranes, which quickly break down into ulcers, and by the
general toxemia characteristic of any acute infection. In German it is
known as Rotz, in French as morve, while its old Latin name was
“malleus” (hence we speak of the bacillus mallei). It was also known
in former days as equinia. In horses the disease has also been
known as farcy, because of the peculiar subcutaneous nodules
which farriers and hostlers, almost from time immemorial, have
called “farcy buds.” The disease, while capable of transmission from
man to man, is generally produced by contagion from some of the
domestic animals, most commonly the horse, although sheep and
goats are known to occasionally have it, and dogs are susceptible,
though seldom showing manifestations of it.
Like some of the other infectious diseases glanders appears to be
variable in its manifestations. While infection occurs probably
through some superficial abrasion, it is almost certain that it may
also occur through the unbroken mucous membrane of the
respiratory organs. It is said to be also capable of transmission from
mother to fetus in utero. So far as known in man, infection occurs
practically invariably through some slight abrasion, either of the skin
or the mucous membrane of the nose, the eye, or the mouth. The
discharges from the nostrils of affected animals are extremely
virulent, and infection comes usually from this source. It is said to
have been communicated from one patient to another by eating from
the same dish or by drinking from a pail used by a diseased horse.
Glanders is due to the specific bacillus known as the bacillus
mallei. It is shorter and plumper than the tubercle bacillus, in length
about one-third the diameter of a red corpuscle. It is a non-motile
organism, occasionally spore-bearing, not very resistant, belonging
to the facultative anaërobic forms, growing best at blood
temperature, taking stains easily, and losing them in the same way.
Symptoms.—Glanders is seen usually in workers and hangers-on
in stables. The acute—the common—form has a
period of incubation of from three to seven or eight days, after which
both local and general symptoms supervene. About the infected
region a form of cellulitis appears, assuming often a more or less
phlegmonous type, with implication of the adjacent lymphatic nodes
and evidences of periphlebitis and perilymphangitis. Over the
affected area vesicles appear, which become hemorrhagic and later
suppurate. A wound which has healed may reopen. Almost always
there are accompanying constitutional disturbances of septic type,
occasionally chills, pyrexia, etc. It is rather characteristic of glanders
to have severe pain in the muscles and extremities, with epistaxis
and formation of metastatic tumors and edematous swellings in
various parts of the body. Frequently, later in the disease, appears a
somewhat distinctive eruption, papular in character, merging into
pustular. Hemorrhagic bullæ are also often seen. Pustulation and
edema of the face change its appearance. There are also edema of
the eyelids and mucopurulent discharge from the conjunctivæ and
the nose. This latter discharge is often ozenous in character. Upon
inspection of the nasopharynx and oropharynx a similar condition will
be noted. In connection with these local signs more or less general
furunculosis also will be observed. Obviously, as these local
conditions intensify and multiply, septic disturbance will be
increased, and the patient dying of acute glanders dies generally of
septicemia or intoxication and exhaustion combined.
A chronic form is known, distinguished mainly by slowness or
tardiness of lesions, though the local changes are not particularly
different in character. There is perhaps more tendency to
suppuration and less to lymphatic complications. The nodule which
breaks down will leave a foul ulcer, the discharge from these lesions
being extremely infectious.
Diagnosis.—This is not always easy, but may be based in
suspicious cases to some extent upon the occupation
of the patient. The presence of multiple lymphatic lesions and
subcutaneous nodes, especially when breaking down as above
described, and accompanied by ozenous discharge from the nose,
should at least be suggestive, and will serve to distinguish between
this disease and, for instance, typhoid fever. The chronic type of
glanders might be mistaken for syphilis, and here is where the real
difficulty of diagnosis will probably occur. In doubtful cases the
crucial tests are the microscopic examination of discharges, after
staining for bacilli, and the cultivation test.
Prognosis.—A generalized attack of glanders is a matter of
gravest import, especially when acute. Scarcely more
than 10 or 15 per cent. of such cases recover. In the more chronic
manifestations the prognosis is more favorable, half of the patients
making a final recovery.
Treatment.—All infected animals should be isolated and
destroyed, their carcasses being burned. If possible,
the infected wound or abrasion should be induced to bleed freely,
and then cauterized with an active caustic. By prompt interference
with the first manifestations it may be possible to cut short the
disease. This would necessarily be done by excision, cauterization,
packing, etc. Bayard Holmes has reported a case in which, during
two and a half years of chronic manifestations of this disease, he
anesthetized the patient twenty times for the purpose of opening new
foci or scraping out old ones, finally obtaining a permanent cure.
There is no specific treatment, but the septic symptoms should be
combated as indicated in the chapter on Septicemia.
By making a glycerin extract from the filtered and evaporated
culture of the glanders bacillus it is possible to prepare a toxalbumin
analogous to tuberculin, which reacts in a similar way. By it animals
may be fortified against inoculation, and by its use a peculiar
reaction is produced in those affected by the disease. It is known as
mallein, and by it are tested all horses used for the preparation of the
diphtheria antitoxin, in order that all possibility of glanders may be
eliminated. It is probable that it might be made of therapeutic value in
treating the disease when actively present in man.

ANTHRAX.
Anthrax is more commonly known as splenic fever, malignant
pustule, or woolsorters’ disease; in Germany as Milzbrand, and in
France as charbon. It is an infectious disease of cattle, which has
devastated many parts of Central Europe, and has been frequently
met with on the Continent among men, though but rarely in the
United States. All the domestic and nearly all the experimental
animals are subject to it. Gronin has stated that in the district of
Novgorod, in Russia, during four years more than 56,000 cattle and
528 men perished from anthrax. Poultry and dogs are not strictly
immune, but possess a low susceptibility to the disease. It generally
prevails in low districts and in marshy grounds.
The disease is the result of the invasion of the bacillus anthracis,
which is a relatively large-sized bacillus, varying in breadth from 1 to
1¹⁄₂ and in length from 5 to 20 microns. It is easily cultivated outside
the body, and multiplies with great rapidity in the bodies of
susceptible animals; it is the type of spore-bearing bacilli, and is so
readily recognized and worked with that it is commonly used in
laboratory investigations. The demonstration of its specificity we owe
to Davaine, in 1873, although he had described it in 1850.
 PLATE IV
FIG. 1

Anthrax Bacilli. Spore Formation. (Karg and

Schmorl.)
From an agar culture twenty-four hours old. About the margin of the photograph
are a number of free spores, × 600.
FIG. 2
 Anthrax Pustule. Removed from Arm of Man. (Karg
and Schmorl.)
Marked edema of the skin, causing elevation and separation of the papillæ. In
the edematous exudate a large number of anthrax bacilli and leukocytes. × 50.

Anthrax bacilli may enter the body through the respiratory organs,
through any abraded surface, and possibly even through the
alimentary canal. They may also pass through the placenta and
affect the fetus in utero. They are too large to pass through the walls
of the capillaries of ordinary size; consequently they plug them and
produce a mechanical stasis which is rapidly followed by gangrene.
From the kidney structures and capillaries, however, they may
escape, as bacilli are found in the urine in certain cases of anthrax.
(See Plate IV.)
In man the disease occurs usually as the so-called malignant
pustule, or woolsorters’ disease, the latter name being given
because of the liability of those individuals who come in contact with
the carcasses and hides of diseased animals or their immediate
products. The period of incubation is brief—on the average two or
three days. The first lesion appears usually on the face, hands, or
arms, and is characterized by local discomfort with formation of a
small papule, which rapidly becomes a vesicle with an areola of
cellulitis about it. This is rapidly followed by induration and infiltration,
and these by local gangrene, the result being the separation of a
core-like mass, similar to that of carbuncle. The affected area is
usually discolored, often quite black. The process is not usually
accompanied by suppuration, nor is there the pain of true carbuncle.
The lesions tend to spread peripherally, but there is more or less
vesication of the surrounding skin. On account of the local ischemia
there will always be edema of the affected region, and sometimes
the swelling and local disturbance become extreme. These peculiar
lesions have given rise to the common name malignant pustule,
which is well deserved. At last a line of demarcation becomes
manifest, and if the disease progresses favorably the included area
is sloughed out, leaving a surface which it is hoped will soon become
covered with reasonably healthy granulations.
Absence of pain, and usually of pus, are significant features of
anthrax. Should mixed infection occur, however, we are likely to see
pus formation. When the disease partakes less of the characteristics
of malignant pustule and more of a general infection, the local
symptoms may not predominate, but, on the contrary, septic
indications may become serious and even fatal. The evidence of
more or less toxemia is usually at hand, however, and the toxin of
anthrax is almost as destructive of muscle cell integrity as is that of
diphtheria.
The local lesions may be single or multiple, but will be met with
almost always upon exposed areas of the body.
Postmortem Appearances.—These will depend upon the clinical
course of the disease. In the
sloughing tissues the bacilli are very numerous, while around the
margin more than one bacterial form will probably be met—i. e.,
mixed infection. Should saprophytic organisms complicate the case,
they may have replaced the anthrax bacilli by the time the
examination is made. The latter abound, however, in the blood, and
may usually be found occluding the capillaries of the liver, spleen,
kidney, etc. In intestinal infection, particularly in animals, the
mesenteric nodes are involved. Inasmuch as septic features
accompany all fatal cases, putrefaction will be found to begin early,
and the changes in the blood and the gross changes in the other
organs will resemble sepsis rather than anthrax.
Prognosis.—Prognosis for man is not usually unfavorable, the
majority of cases recovering with more or less local
destruction of tissue. Should, however, infection become
generalized, the case will probably terminate fatally. Cases assuming
the type of splenic fever are of much more serious character, and
their prognosis graver.
Treatment.—This should be both local and constitutional. The
former should consist of the most radical possible
attack and include complete excision of the infected area, with the
use of active caustics or the actual cautery. In fact, the latter
instrument offers a most valuable means for combating the
destructive tendency of the disease. Sloughing and separation of the
cauterized mass may be hastened by warm antiseptic poultices.
Subcutaneous injections of 5 per cent. carbolic solution have been
given, with apparent benefit, in a number of cases, but should only
be relied upon in the treatment of the milder manifestations.
Benefit will accrue from the use of the ichthyol-mercurial ointment
whose formula was given under treatment of Erysipelas. It has been
suggested to treat these cases by the employment of the bacillus
pyocyaneus, since it is known that this organism when injected with
the anthrax bacillus materially attenuates its effect.
Prophylaxis.—Prophylaxis is most important. The bodies of all
infected animals should be burned, not buried, since
the resistant bacilli are often brought to the surface of the soil by
earth-worms. Every discoverable source or medium of infection
should be destroyed or sterilized.

MALIGNANT EDEMA.
This disease has been recognized for some time, mainly by
French and Continental clinicians, and under such names as
gangrène foudroyante, gangrène gazeuse, gangrenous septicemia,
and gangrenous emphysema. The name malignant edema was
given by Koch, who identified the infecting organism. It is one of the
most dangerous forms of gangrenous inflammation, and occurs
sometimes after serious injuries, and, again, after most trifling
lesions, such as those inflicted by the dirty pointed implements of the
gardener, etc., or even the stings of insects. Two cases are on
record where the disease followed a puncture of the hypodermic
needle for the administration of morphine. In one of these the
organism was found in the solution; in the other it probably had been
deposited upon the skin.
Malignant edema is essentially a specific form of gangrene (see
Chapter V), and is mentioned here rather because of its specific
character. It is characterized by rapidity of spread and the specific
nature of the exudate, as well as by the speedy destruction of the
tissue involved, and by more or less gas formation. It is not the same
as the gaseous phlegmons described by some German surgeons,
yet partakes of their general character. Gas phlegmons have been
rarely noted, their peculiarity being formation not only of pus, but of
more or less offensive gases, which escape when the phlegmon is
incised. The gases are mainly due to the presence of bacillus
aërogenes capsulatus, and gas phlegmons, as such, are to be
regarded as instances of mixed or rarely pure infection.
Malignant edema is known by the brownish discoloration of the
overlying skin, which is streaked with blue where the overfilled veins
show through it, while the underlying tissues are sodden with fluid
and more or less inflated by the gaseous products of decomposition,
so that the finger detects a firm crepitus, as is common in
subcutaneous emphysema. From the wound, if there is one, flows a
thin, foul-smelling secretion, which may also be expressed from the
deeper layers. That the neighboring lymph spaces and nodes are
actively involved is evident from the enormous swelling of the latter,
as well as from the general condition of the patient. The rapid
elevation of temperature with but trifling remissions remains constant
until shortly before death. The tongue early becomes dry and
cleaves to the palate, its surface being covered with a thick, foul fur.
Patients early become apathetic, complaining only of pain and
burning thirst. Delirium and coma usually precede death, which may
occur in fifteen to thirty hours. After death the cadaver bloats quickly
and putrefaction goes on with amazing rapidity.
Postmortem Appearances.—At the seat of the lesion even
muscles and tendons will be found
macerated, bone denuded and surrounded by a putrid fluid, the
entire region presenting a notable swelling and infiltration of soft
parts with reddish fluids and stinking gases. The overlying skin will
be stretched, and superficial blisters may deepen the intensity of the
process. The veins are clogged with decomposed blood and broken-
down thrombi, and in the heart and large vessels will be found putrid
liquid as well as gas, to whose presence early and sudden death is
probably due.
Prognosis.—This is unsatisfactory, especially when the bacillus of
malignant edema is alone at fault. Patients may
escape with their lives, but always at the expense of more or less
tissue destruction.
Treatment.—This should consist of extensive incision to permit
escape of fluids and gases and relieve tension; of such
antiseptic applications as can be made available; of immersion of the
affected part in a hot antiseptic bath; and of such vigorous
stimulation by the most powerful measures—strychnine, alcohol, etc.
—in order to support the patient through the period of profound
depression characteristic of the disease.
 PLATE V

Actinomycosis. Ray Fungus in Man. (Gaylord.)

ACTINOMYCOSIS.
 This also is a subacute but always destructive infection by a
specific microörganism, though not a bacterium. Known always as
actinomycosis in man, the disease, which is most common in cattle,
is called lumpy jaw or swelled head, and years ago was usually
regarded as cancer or as a malignant affection.
Many museum specimens labelled as cancer of the tongue, jaw,
etc., have been shown to be instances of actinomycosis of these
parts. It is occasionally met with in man, so that there are at least
four hundred cases on record in this country and in Europe. The
organism was recognized a half-century ago by Langenbeck and
Lebert, but was not scientifically described until many years later.
The names of Bollinger, Israel, and Ponfick will always be connected
with these researches.
The organism belongs among the ray fungi, is known as the
actinomycis, and occupies an uncertain place in classification. It is
large enough, when entire, to be perceived by the naked eye, has
ordinarily a yellowish tint, a tallowy consistence, and may be seen
under the microscope to consist of a cluster of branching
prolongations, club-shaped at the end, radiating from a common
centre. They give it a sunflower appearance. It is stained with
difficulty, the best stain being a combination of picrocarmine and an
aniline dye. In tissue sections the Gram stain is the best. It is
cultivated with difficulty, but can be grown upon solid media and may
be inoculated. (See Plate V.)
As met with in tissue or in pus these fungi constitute small
granulations, giving usually a gritty sensation to the finger, which is
due to the presence of calcium salts. The recognition of this
calcareous material is of importance, since it may enable a diagnosis
to be made offhand, in a case which otherwise might puzzle one.
The disease is very common among cattle in certain regions, and
causes the condemnation of many animals in every large stockyard
establishment where inspection is careful and scientific. It occurs
oftener in young than in old animals, and most frequently in those
which come from valley regions and marshes. In animals infection
occurs almost invariably through the mouth, which is easily
explained by the fact that, in grazing, the lips, tongue, and gums are
likely to be irritated and infected at any time from soil containing