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A Political History
of Big Science
The Other Europe
Katharina C. Cramer
Palgrave Studies in the History of Science
and Technology
Series Editors
James Rodger Fleming
Colby College
Waterville, ME, USA
Roger D. Launius
Auburn, AL, USA
Designed to bridge the gap between the history of science and the history
of technology, this series publishes the best new work by promising and
accomplished authors in both areas. In particular, it offers historical per-
spectives on issues of current and ongoing concern, provides international
and global perspectives on scientific issues, and encourages productive
communication between historians and practicing scientists.
A Political History
of Big Science
The Other Europe
Katharina C. Cramer
University of Konstanz
Konstanz, Germany
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to Justus and Cornelius, who have grown alongside
this project.
Preface
This book is about light. It explores the history and science of the brilliant
light, synchrotron radiation, that is produced at two collaborative light
sources in Europe, namely, the ESRF as a circular-shaped synchrotron
radiation source and the European XFEL as a linear free-electron laser. In
the early decades after the first experimental observation of synchrotron
radiation in the late 1940s, research with synchrotron radiation was a mar-
ginal phenomenon in the scientific landscapes in Europe and the United
States that were largely dominated by particle physics research. Probably
nobody would have guessed at that time that synchrotron radiation would
become one of the most crucial experimental resources for multidisci-
plinary research in the twenty-first century and a kind of mainstream activ-
ity for the investigation of materials or living matter. But this book also
sheds new light on the history and politics of Big Science, Europe and the
European Union. One of its core aims is to enlighten the ways we see,
write and think about Europe and the European Union, as well as about
European politics and history. It introduces the other Europe as an alterna-
tive perspective to politics and integration in Europe besides the main-
stream political integration processes, arguing that Big Science
collaborations, such as the ESRF and the European XFEL, have played
crucial roles in both European politics and science.
This book is based on a doctoral dissertation that was carried out
between 2014 and 2018 at the Leibniz Prize Research Group “Global
Processes” at the University of Konstanz, Germany (date of oral examina-
tion: 30 August 2018, examiners: Jürgen Osterhammel, Olof Hallonsten
vii
viii PREFACE
ix
x Contents
Bibliography203
Index233
Abbreviations
xi
xii Abbreviations
The following names of projects, accelerators and/or light sources that are used in
this thesis do not constitute acronyms and/or abbreviations: Alba, Diamond,
Elettra, ISIS, Tantalus and Aladdin.
List of Figures
xvii
List of Tables
xix
CHAPTER 1
The ESRF and the European XFEL produce intense and brilliant light:
synchrotron radiation. This is a specific kind of electromagnetic radiation
that was first discovered in the late 1940s at a synchrotron, a circular-
shaped particle accelerator, from which this name derives.3 Synchrotron
radiation became an increasingly demanded experimental resource for
multidisciplinary investigations into materials and living matter, as well as
the development of drugs or smart materials. Today, nearly all research
with synchrotron radiation is done at storage rings (another kind of
circular-shaped particle accelerator) and free-electron lasers, which are
based on a linear accelerator complex (see Chap. 3). Nevertheless, the
(misleading) notion of synchrotron radiation has stuck among scientists,
administrators, as well as in the public mind, and is also used throughout
this book. An alternative way of framing research with synchrotron radia-
tion is to consider it as a part of the field of photon science, which is, very
simply speaking, science with light. The ESRF and the European XFEL
are so-called user facilities or service facilities that provide synchrotron
radiation as an experimental resource to external users. The facilities are
publicly funded, and access for fundamental, non-proprietary research
groups to the ESRF and the European XFEL is granted on the basis of a
scientific peer-review process. Both facilities also offer the possibility to
buy experimental time by commercial companies and similar industry-
related organisations to carry out proprietary research.
The main motivation of this book is to explore the founding histories
of the ESRF and the European XFEL, and to understand how these two
Big Science collaborations came into being in the late twentieth and early
twenty-first centuries. What were the main motivations to initiate and join
these two collaborative Big Science projects? How were national research
policy strategies and scientific needs set and negotiated? How did one
compromise on site, financial share and legal framework? These questions
are fundamental not only to understand the history and politics of the
ESRF and the European XFEL but also to gain a nuanced understanding
of how their founding histories relate and connect to the broader patterns
and dynamics of European politics, European integration and interna-
tional relations.
More than three decades after the convention of the ESRF was signed
in 1988, and more than one decade after the signing of the convention of
the European XFEL in 2009, the political processes that preceded both
events remain largely unexplored events in the history of science and tech-
nology and the history of Europe.4 Based on largely unexplored material
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