Environment International 26 (2000) 87–96

www.elsevier.com/locate/envint

Study of water quality of Hudiara drain, India-Pakistan

Shahzad Afzala, Imtiaz Ahmada, Mohammad Younas*,b, M. Din Zahida,
M. H. Atique Khana, Akram Ijaza, Karamat Alia
a
Directorate of Land Reclamation, Irrigation and Power Department, Canal Bank, Moghulpura, Lahore, Pakistan
b
Institute of Chemistry, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Received 12 March 1999; accepted 06 June 2000

Abstract
This paper examines the extent of pollution in Hudiara drain water due to untreated industrial and sewage waste of India
and Pakistan. Ninety-nine surface water samples from the Pakistani side of the Hudiara drain were collected during September
1997, and April and June 1998. The analytical results of the Hudiara drain samples point out the industrial and sewage inputs
from India and Pakistan. Higher values of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand(COD), total organic
carbon(TOC), and trace metals in drain samples from the Indo-Pak border clearly indicate the Indian industrial and sewage
pollution. Large variations in the levels of various measured parameters (COD, BOD, TOC, pH, total soluble substances, and
trace metals) were observed along the Hudiara drain in the Pakistani vicinity. These variations were due to different types of
industrial effluents and small village drains. The study showed that suspended solids(SS), COD, and fecal coliform (FC) were
the major pollutants. Accordingly, the most feasible alternative is to convert the drainage network to a sedimentation and
temporary storage reservoir. If disinfected, the runoff water can be used for restricted irrigation. Groundwater samples taken
from the drain’s surrounding area have also been analyzed. Thirty percent of the samples are not fit for drinking purposes due
to NO3-N, Se and FC counts as prescribed by World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. A trilinear diagram clearly indicates
the influence of surface water of the Hudiara drain on ground water; moreover, higher values of nitrate and FC clearly indicate
the seepage from the Hudiara drain.  2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hudiara drain; Untreated industrial and sewage waste; India; Pakistan; Indian industrial and sewage pollution

1. Introduction nicipal wastewater also contains a variety of inorganic

The seepage and seepage-cum-storm-water drains are
undergoing a process of decline and degradation primar-
ily due to untreated industrial and sewage waste in Paki-
stan. Finally, the result of this abuse started to show in
the form of widespread degradation of groundwater
(Afzal et al., 1998a), and surface water quality of rivers
(Saleeimi and Hussain, 1988; Izhar-ul-Haq et al., 1998).
In Pakistan, annual per capita water availability was
about 2500 m3 in 1951, which would drop to around
1000 m3 by the year 2000, a level commonly taken to
indicate water scarcity. Whenever good quality water is
scarce, water of marginal quality of drains has to be
considered for use in agriculture (Asrar-ul-Haq et al.,
1997; Ishaq and Alassar, 1999). The studies have shown
possible beneficial effects of municipal wastewater, in-
cluding the enhancement of soil microflora and increased
plant growth, and improved physical properties (Hyde,
1950; Aldon, 1982; Fresquez and Lindemann, 1982). Mu-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: ⫹91 5868360/5868375.
0160-4120/00/$ – see front matter  2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0160-4120(00)00086-6
substances from domestic and industrial sources, includ-
ing a number of potentially toxic elements such as cad-
mium, copper, lead, and zinc (Younas et al., 1998) and
nutrients (N and P) which are responsible for eutrophi-
cation of water bodies (Afzal et al., 1998b). Even if
major cations (Na, Ca, Mg), anions (CO3, HCO3, Cl,
and SO4), and toxic materials are not present in concen-
trations likely to affect humans, they might well be at
phytotoxic levels, which would limit their agricultural
use (Ayers and Wescot, 1989; Pescod, 1992); however,
from the point of view of health, a very important con-
sideration in agriculture use of wastewater, the contami-
nants of greatest concern are the pathogenic micro- and
macro-organisms (Shuval et al., 1985; Pescod, 1992).
Newspaper media (28th April, 1998: Dawn, The Fron-
tier Post, The News) reported that the Hudiara drain
has been turned into toxic waste from India due to the
mortality of cattle reported in the area. The owners of
the cattle bathed them in the drain water. They said
since the drain falls into the Ravi, it also destroys the
88 S. Afzal et al. / Environment International 26 (2000) 87–96
Fig. 1. Location map of Hudiara drain, Pakistan.
aquatic life of the river and makes it extremely danger-
ous for public health. The Ravi River already has a
great concentration of industrial and chemical wastes
from factories in and around Shahdra. The press de-
manded that the government should constantly monitor
the water of the Hudiara drain to determine the concen-
tration of toxic elements, as well as carry out a compaign
to warn the people of the area against the danger of
using the drain water. The objective of the current study
was to determine the nature and extent of pollutants in
the Hudiara drain surface water and their effect on
groundwater of the area.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study site
The study was conducted from September 1997 to
June 1998. The Hudiara drain having a length of 98.6
km., 44.2 km in Indian and 54.4 in Pakistan territory
(Fig. 1). The main Hudiara drains nine tributaries as
shown in Fig. 2. The design discharge of the Hudiara
drain at its source in Pakistan R.D. (138) is 73.7 m3/sec.
and at outfall R.D. (308) is 141.2 m3/sec. In the study
area, watertable depths are generally more than 10 m.
The depth to groundwater at a site also varies seasonally
(1-2 m), mainly because of seasonal changes in evapo-
transpiration. Beneath the surficial aquifer is a series of
confined aquifers, most of which are not in geologic
contact with the surficial aquifer (Afzal et al., 1998a).
In five of the past 15 years, annual precipitation was
more than 550 mm. The rainfall is the greatest in the
months of July, August, and September. Major crops
include wheat, rice, corn, and potato. Other crops in-
clude sugarcane and barley, and fruits and vegetables
(for fresh markets).
Twenty-seven villages are affected by the Hudiara
drain water. They are using the drain water for irrigation
with diesel generating pumps and as drinking water for
their cattle due to non-availability of canal water in the
area. More than 600 buffaloes are using the Hudiara
drain water for drinking on daily basis. According to
the consumers of Hudiara drain water, their cattle are
sometimes suffering from various diseases and die due
to drain water. The contaminated milk is provided to
the urban population of Lahore from this area.
Chronic toxicity has been reported in buffaloes when
consuming Hudiara drain water regularly in those areas
of the Hudiara drainage where canal and tubewell water
are not available for buffaloes. Buffaloes that are using
the Hudiara drain water have reported major symptoms
of toxicity, diarrhea, pulmonary edema, cirrhosis of the
liver, and loss of hair (personal communication; M. Sha-
feeq, veterinary doctor).
It was told by the people living near the Hudiara
drain that before 1970, a large population of fish existed
there. At present there is no fish life in the Hudiara drain
 S. Afzal et al. / Environment International 26 (2000) 87–96
Fig. 2. Sampling map of Hudiara drain, Pakistan.
water due to zero dissolved oxygen resulting from higher
organic waste. Further, higher levels of nitrogen in Hud-
iara drain water along with P may accelerate eutrophica-
tion in the Ravi River (Afzal et al., 1998b).
2.2. Sampling and analysis
Surface water samples of the Hudiara drain were
collected during the months of September 1997, April
1998, and June 1998. Thirty-three sites were selected
for sampling from the Hudiara drain. A total of 21
groundwater samples were collected along the Hudiara
drain as shown in the location map of the area in April
1998 and June 1998 (Fig. 2). Samples were collected in
one-liter acid washed polyethylene bottles. These were
transported to the laboratory in ice boxes. Immediately
after arrival in the laboratory, each sample was acidified
for graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotom-
etry with spectroscopy grade nitric acid until the pH
was less than 2, and then stored at 4⬚C until analyzed.
Most of the standard analytical procedures (Ameri-
can Public Health Association, 1985; U.S. Salinity Lab.
89
Staff, 1954) were adopted and presented here in ab-
stracted form: Odour, colour, pH, temperature, electri-
cal conductivity, and dissolved oxygen measured in the
field; COD, BOD, and alkalinity were conducted with
eight hour of collection; P, B, NO3, and SO4 were deter-
mined by spectrophotmetrically; Na, K, and Li were de-
termined by flame photometer; Ca and Mg were deter-
mined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry; and As,
Cu, Cd, Cr, Fe, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn were determined by
graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (Zee-
man/5100 PC Perkin Elmer USA). For Se and other trace
elements estimation, 10-mL of water sample was col-
lected in tests tube containing 0.1 mL of nitric acid and
0.2 mL of 5% nickel nitrate as a matrix modifier. The
samples were analyzed within 2 h by graphite furnace
atomic absorption spectrometry (US Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, 1983; Standard Method 270.1). Dissolved
oxygen of surface waters was measured at the spots dur-
ing April and June 1998 by oxygen meter. The Perkin
Elmer Model 3110 was used with a flow injection mercury
hydride system FIAS-100 for mercury determination.
90 S. Afzal et al. / Environment International 26 (2000) 87–96

Table 1
Measured parameters of Hudiara drain surface waters
September 1997 April 1998 June 1998
Measured parameters Range Mean S.E. Range Mean S.E. Range Mean S.E.
pH 7.4–7.8 7.6 0.1 7.7–9.0 8.2 0.2 7.8–8.8 8.1 0.2
TDS mg/L 584–887 708 33.7 869.5–5329.5 1204.3 322.2 918.0–1803.5 1256
Suspended solids mg/L 221–274 233.7 19.2 405–784 672 50.4 438–674 562 25.9
N mg/L 13.0–18.0 13.9 1.5 32–46 37.0 4.75 24–45 33.16 3.2
Total P mg/L 6.2–10.4 7.9 0.76 12.2–20.1 16.4 1.12 6.4–16.7 11.2 1.6
D.O. mg/L 0.6–1.5 0.7 0.82 0.4–1.6 0.8 0.72 0.4–1.5 0.6 0.7
BOD5 mg/L 84–118 92 16.2 99–185 142 26.7 104–188 162 17.5
COD mg/L 126–180 138 19.3 126–389 246 34.5 172–340 256 22.8
TOC mg/L 99.2–122 102 11.6 147.4–214.0 152.2 12.8 164–230 190.7 10.6
Li mg/L 3.6–5.6 4.3 0.31 2.9–13.4 6.06 0.35 3.7–5.2 4.5 0.2
Na mg/L 59.8–98.9 82.8 11.8 46.0–1720.4 204.2 48.7 111.2–502.3 255.18 75.9
K mg/L 15.6–23.5 18.2 2.6 15.6–195.5 46.7 5.2 16.2–41 22.3 2.0
Ca mg/L 42.1–74.1 54.8 9.8 10.0–100.2 67.9 2.9 45.2–72 56.4 4.6
Mg mg/L 7.3–10.9 8.9 1.1 14.6–42.6 32.1 1.1 18–32 24.2 2.17
CO3⫹HCO3 mg/L 201.3–329.4 258.2 37.6 475.8–603.9 526.4 5 342.6–513 410.2 32.3
Cl mg/L 60.3–78.0 72.1 5.9 92.2–2021.2 190.4 57.3 84.2–200.3 126 21.47
SO4 mg/L 76.8–129.6 104.0 15.3 43.2–604.8 154.2 18.6 105.6–161 124 9.7
B mg/L 0.62–0.92 0.75 0.04 0.683–1.10 0.812 0.062 0.723–1.023 0.856 0.058
As mg/L ND 0.042–0.113 0.074 0.012 0.042–0.132 0.066 0.012
Cd mg/L ND 0.002–0.124 0.042 0.017 0.008–0.214 0.111 0.042
Cu mg/L ND 0.092–0.342 0.163 0.041 0.0–0.142 0.062 0.025
Cr mg/L ND 0.0–2.324 0.832 0.321 0.141–2.813 1.213 0.562
Fe mg/L ND 0.14–0.412 0.253 0.043 0.082–0.523 0.274 0.097
Hg mg/L ND ND 0.0–0.006 0.003 0.001
Ni mg/L ND ND 0.652–0.901 0.762 0.055
Pb mg/L ND 0.02–0.12 0.062 0.018 0–0.091 0.045 0.0185
Se mg/L ND 0.183–0.834 0.391 0.132 0.231–0.513 0.355 0.069
Zn mg/L ND 0.623–1.524 0.922 0.341 0.614–1.324 0.831 0.361
FC counts/100mL ND 1800–3200 2600 310 2300–3550 2875 280

ND ⫽ Not determined.

Standard curves were obtained by analyzing standard
solutions prepared by serial dilution of 1000 mg/L stock
solutions. The direct method of analysis was used for all
furnace work. This entails comparing, directly, the ab-
sorbance reading of a sample to that of a standard pre-
pared in demineralized-distilled water. The direct method
was checked by means of standard additions and found
to agree quite well for the samples analyzed in this
study. Duplicate determinations were made on most
samples and the blank and standard curves were
checked after every 10 determinations. The Perkin El-
mer N930-0211 trace elements groundwater and waste-
water pollution control check standard (Al, As, Be, Cd,
Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, Se, V, Zn) was used
as both a quality assurance reference material and a
daily control standard. The relative S.D.s were deter-
mined in order to find the precision of the analysis and
recovery results were calculated for the determination
of accuracy. Experiments were repeated till an accuracy
of 95 to 105% and precisions of ⫾5% were achieved.
In the groundwater samples Cu, Pb, and Zn were below
the detection limits of graphite furnace atomic absorp-
tion spectrophotometry.
TOC was determined by the procedure of Barcelona
(1984). Five mL water samples were first acidified and
purged with oxygen for five minutes at 80 mL/min in a
flow system incorporating a 25 cm ⫻ 2.5 mm i.d. stainless
steel trap filled with Tenax-GC support (60-80 mesh),
which adsorbed the volatile organics and allowed water
and inorganic CO2 to vent. The volatile organic com-
pounds were desorbed from the trap in an oxygen steam
(149 mL/min.) into the combustion tube (950⬚C) of the
Gas Chromatograph with the standard direct injection
module (DIM) for conversion to CO2. The purging step
and subsequent reversal of gas flow through the trap as
it was heated (180⬚C) for five minutes (to desorb the
volatiles) for the separation of volatile organics. From
the combustion tube, the gases passed through a series
of columns to remove water (anhydrous magnesium
perchlorate) and hydrochloric acid (finely divided tin
particles) prior to entering the infrared detector. Stan-
dard solutions were made by careful dilution of 50-1000
mg Carbon/L stock solutions gravimetrically prepared
in 10⫺3 N bicarbonate solution immediately prior to
use. All standards and most samples were processed in
triplicate.
 S. Afzal et al. / Environment International 26 (2000) 87–96 91

Table 2
Comparison between parameters measured at RD-138 and RD-308
September 1997 March 1998 June 1998 September 1997 March 1998 June 1998
Measured Parameters RD-138 RD-138 RD-138 RD-308 RD-308 RD-308
PH 7.5 8.1 7.9 7.4 8.3 8.0
TDS 757.3 1103.4 876.52 628.3 1326.2 892.4
Suspend solids 465.4 704.2 576.3 392.4 826.2 582.1
Nitrogen as N 32.21 66.23 39.13 29.23 37.04 33.14
Total P 13.42 20.13 14.17 9.72 14.13 10.20
D.O. 0.61 0.42 0.41 0.62 0.50 0.42
BOD5 106 184 162 102 172 178
COD 152 377 315 143 358 204
TOC 182.6 237.0 197.5 168.6 206.3 209.2
Li 4.12 5.30 5.90 4.52 4.91 4.72
Na 89.7 149.5 122 98.9 289.0 200.6
K 23.5 35.2 38.1 15.6 31.28 27.23
Ca 74.1 70.1 56.12 48.1 60.12 50.1
Mg 10.9 42.6 27.4 7.3 24.32 22.9
CO3⫹HCO3 329.4 549.0 378.2 244.0 516.3 457.5
Cl 78.01 141.8 88.6 78.01 158.2 145.0
SO4 129.6 67.20 105.6 105.6 249.6 115.2
B 0.672 0.712 0.862 0.732 0.921 0.973
As ND 0.083 0.061 ND 0.113 0.092
Cd ND 0.007 0.012 ND 0.131 0.183
Cu ND 0.124 0.091 ND 0.282 0.141
Cr ND 0.061 0.102 ND 1.731 2.321
Fe ND 0.183 0.131 ND 0.322 0.521
Hg ND 0.007 0.004 ND 0.006 0.003
Ni ND 0.621 0.921 ND 1.124 0.821
Pb ND 0.072 0.053 ND 0.081 0.092
Se ND 0.231 0.213 ND 0.683 0.421
Zn ND 1.102 0.902 ND 1.412 0.821
FC 2900 3100 ND 2400 2550

Bacteria samples were collected according to the
American Public Health Association (APHA) (1975)
procedure and stored on ice until returned to the labora-
tory. The membrane filter technique was utilized for
FC tests (APHA, 1975) and aseptic techniques were
strictly followed. M-FC media was used for FC determi-
nations, respectively. FC cultures were incubated in a
water bath at 44.5⫾0.2⬚C.
Trace metal contents and TOC of various surface and
groundwater samples were compared with the values
obtained in the laboratories of the Land Reclamation
Directorate, Lahore and Pro Diesel Laboratories, La-
hore. The results were within 10% confidence level.
3. Results and discussion
Table 1 shows the range, mean, and S.E. values of
the measured parameters (TDS, Suspended solids, pH,
alkalinity etc.) of September 1997 and April and June
1998 of the Hudiara drain surface water samples. Table 2
shows the mean values of samples collected at RD-138
(India-Pakistan border) and RD-308 (where it enters
the Ravi River) in September 1997 and April and June
1998. In the Hudiara drain, sewage drains from small
villages and industries discharge their untreated efflu-
ents: 27 tanneries; 24 chemical; 31 pharmaceutical; 11
cooking oil/ghee industries; 37 households; 3 pesticide
industries; 26 food industries; 9 metallurgical; and 46
miscellaneous industries. Total dissolved solids, Na, pH,
et cetera, were excessively high (maximum values re-
ported in Table 1 at RD-245) in the Hudiara drain water
after mixing of industrial effluents at RD-245 (Fig 2).
At this point, average BOD, COD, and sulfates are 247,
538, and 123 mg/L, respectively. Similarly, at the same
station, pollution loads carried by this stream are mea-
sured as BOD loading, COD loading, and sulfate load-
ing, with values of 190, 459, and 87 tons/day, respec-
tively. Concentration of toxic metals were found to be
higher than the drinking water guidelines of WHO
(1993) in the surface waters of the Hudiara drain; more-
over, coliform counts in the drain water ranged between
1.8 ⫻ 103 and 3.55 ⫻ 103 counts/100 mL. It is obvious
treatment and disinfection would be necessary before
use of the drain water.
Tables 3 and 4 show the analysis of groundwater
samples collected in April 1998. The groundwater is
largely alkaline. The major components of the ground-
water are sodium, calcium, magnesium, carbonates,
chloride, and sulfates. Significant (p⬍0.05) variations in
the concentrations of major elements are shown. Con-
92 S. Afzal et al. / Environment International 26 (2000) 87–96

Table 3
Measured parameters of Hudiara drain groundwaters
TDS Ca Mg Na K CO3⫹HCO3 Cl SO4 NO3-N
(a) Sample No. mg/L pH mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
G–1 770 7.4 74.15 17.02 117.3 7.82 347.7 53.2 153.6 11.7
G–2 856 7.3 64.13 24.3 112.7 46.9 378.2 46.1 182.4 14.3
G–3 1101 7.3 118.24 35.26 161.0 3.91 384.3 180.8 216.0 10.2
G–4 1237 7.5 40.08 26.75 289.8 3.91 506.3 117.0 254.4 3.7
G–5 1233 7.3 54.11 28.0 264.5 7.82 524.6 99.3 254.4 2.7
G–6 1273 7.9 54.11 26.75 276.0 7.82 579.5 99.3 230.6 3.4
G–7 785 7.7 56.1 18.2 138.0 7.82 366.0 49.6 148.8 14.6
G–8 1010 7.4 70.14 34.05 174.8 3.91 427.0 99.3 201.6 7.3
G–9 695 7.4 76.15 35.26 57.5 7.82 353.8 24.8 139.2 10.2
G–10 692 7.7 32.06 10.94 151.8 3.91 311.1 42.5 139.2 2.8
G–11 1224 7.4 114.23 36.48 184.0 11.73 500.2 127.6 249.6 12.4
G–12 1244 7.4 58.12 37.7 246.1 11.73 524.6 106.4 259.2 3.1
G–13 1129 7.7 88.18 28.0 202.4 7.82 414.8 113.5 273.6 5.3
G–14 1223 8.5 22.04 13.4 322.0 3.91 533.7 106.4 220.8 2.2
G–15 1083 8.5 32.06 19.5 253.0 7.82 478.8 70.9 220.8 4.3
G–16 1201 8.7 30.06 24.3 289.8 7.82 463.6 95.7 288.0 5.4
G–17 981 8.6 30.06 26.7 218.5 3.91 408.7 67.4 225.6 5.2
G–18 928 8.5 48.10 24.3 184.0 3.91 409.6 70.9 187.2 3.4
G–19 1435 8.3 68.14 43.8 303.6 3.91 427.0 138.3 451.2 3.9
G–20 1014 8.5 30.06 25.5 230.0 3.91 433.1 74.5 216.0 3.2
G–21 337.9 8.4 40.08 24.32 13.8 3.91 176.9 21.3 57.6 3.7
Li B Cd Cr P Fe As Se Hg
(b) Sample No. mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L ␮g/L ␮g/L ␮g/L FC

G–1 1.3 0.82 Nil Nil 0.18 Nil 0.015 0.029 Nil 27
G–2 6.5 0.72 Nil Nil 0.10 Nil 0.018 0.034 0.017 35
G–3 1.1 0.65 Nil Nil 0.09 Nil 0.013 0.030 0.015 20
G–4 1.1 0.81 Nil Nil 0.10 Nil 0.013 0.008 Nil Nil
G–5 1.5 0.78 Nil Nil 0.07 Nil 0.17 0.007 Nil Nil
G–6 1.3 1.1 Nil Nil 0.05 Nil 0.014 0.008 Nil Nil
G–7 1.3 0.88 0.006 Nil 0.06 Nil 0.009 0.008 Nil 40
G–8 0.9 0.74 0.004 Nil 0.05 Nil 0.016 0.021 .008 29
G–9 1.7 0.67 0.004 Nil 0.04 0.2 0.013 0.015 Nil 20
G–10 0.9 0.78 Nil Nil 0.01 0.3 0.014 0.026 Nil Nil
G–11 1.9 1.07 Nil 0.04 0.01 Nil 0.017 0.024 0.021 13
G–12 1.7 0.72 0.003 0.03 0.02 Nil 0.023 0.017 0.018 5
G–13 1.5 0.84 Nil 0.1 0.01 0.14 0.017 0.025 0.017 Nil
G–14 1.1 0.92 Nil 0.05 0.01 0.16 0.028 0.033 0.014 7
G–15 1.5 0.74 0.002 0.07 0.01 Nil 0.016 0.031 0.017 9
G–16 1.3 0.76 Nil 0.04 0.01 Nil 0.023 0.016 0.017 15
G–17 1.1 0.82 Nil Nil 0.01 0.32 0.008 0.013 Nil Nil
G–18 1.1 0.76 Nil Nil 0.011 Nil 0.007 0.011 Nil Nil
G–19 1.3 0.68 Nil Nil 0.02 Nil 0.007 0.006 Nil Nil
G–20 0.9 0.72 Nil Nil 0.01 Nil 0.011 0.007 Nil Nil
G–21 0.9 0.78 Nil Nil 0.01 Nil 0.007 0.006 Nil Nil

Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in groundwaters were below the detection limits of GFAAS.

centrations of toxic metals, except arsenic and mercury,
were found to be below the drinking water guidelines
of WHO (1993).
The relatively low number of wells with detectable
residues could indicate that most groundwater currently
used for drinking water is not contaminated (Table 3).
Nitrate at some sites could eventually move to deep
parts of the aquifer in the absence of complete degrada-
tion or significant sorption and dispersion because the
source of nitrate, the Hudiara drain, has a long history.
Samples from wells in areas considered unaffected by
drain water and agricultural developments have low pH
and alkalinity, as well as low concentrations of Na, P,
dissolved solids, and NO3. Groundwater samples from
areas affected by drain water and, particularly, agricul-
tural developments, however, have high pH and high
concentrations of Na, Ca, Mg, and other constituents.
3.1. Irrigation water quality
Specific limits of permissible salt concentrations for
irrigation water cannot be stated because of the wide
variations in salinity tolerance among different plants.
 S. Afzal et al. / Environment International 26 (2000) 87–96 93

Table 4
Chemical composition of drinking water
Permissible or recommended
Parameter Mean Median Min Max S.D. upper limits for drinking
pH 7.88 7.70 7.30 8.70 0.528 6.5–8.5
Total dissolved solids 1021.50 1083.00 337.90 1435.00 259.80 1000 mg/L
Sodium 199.60 202.40 13.80 322.00 82.50 200 mg/L
Potassium 8.2 7.82 3.91 46.90 9.24
Calcium 57.20 54.10 22.04 118.24 26.76 75.0 mg/L
Magnesium 26.69 26.70 10.94 43.80 8.30 150.0 mg/L
Bicarbonate 426.20 427.00 176.90 579.50 91.00 500 mg/L
Chloride 85.90 95.70 21.30 180.80 39.60 250 mg/L
Sulfate 217.60 220.80 57.60 451.20 76.65 400 mg/L
Arsenic 0.015 0.140 0.007 0.028 0.006 0.010 mg/L
Chromium 0.016 0.000 0.000 0.100 0.028 0.050 mg/L
Boron 0.798 0.780 0.650 1.10 0.116 0.300 mg/L
Iron 0.053 0.00 0.00 0.320 0.104 0.300 mg/L
Lithium 1.52 1.30 0.90 6.50 1.176
Mercury 0.007 0.00 0.00 0.021 0.008 0.001 mg/L
Selenium 0.018 0.016 0.00 0.034 0.010 0.020 mg/L
Fecal coliform 10.5 5.0 0.00 40.00 13.10 Zero counts/100 mL

Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in groundwaters were below the detection limits of GFAAS.

The mean higher TDS value (1256 mg/L) was re-
ported in June 1998 (Table 1). Use of irrigation water
of this quality would only lead to slight to moderate
restrictions based on general water quality guidelines
(Table 5). The mean sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
values for September 1997 and April and June 1998
were 2.76, 5.09, and 7.1, respectively. Tables 1 and 5
indicate that the irrigated soils are expected to develop
slight to moderate infiltration problems based on the
SAR and electrical conducting (EC) values of the irriga-

Table 5
Guidelines for interpretations of water quality for irrigation
Degree of restriction on use
Potential irrigation problem None Slight to moderate Severe
Salinity
ECiw, dS/m ⬍0.7 0.7–3.0 ⬎3.0
TDS, mg/L ⬍450 450–2000 ⬎2000
Infiltration
SAR ⫽ (0-3) and ECiw⫽ ⬎0.7 0.7–0.2 ⬍0.2
(3-6) and ECiw⫽ ⬎1.2 1.2–0.3 ⬍0.3
(6-12) and ECiw⫽ ⬎1.9 1.9–0.5 ⬍0.5
(12-20) and ECiw⫽ ⬎2.9 2.9–1.3 ⬍1.3
(20-40) and ECiw⫽ ⬎5.0 5.0–2.9 ⬍2.9
Specific ion toxicity, mg/L
Na ⬍70 ⬎70 –
Cl ⬍100 ⬎100
HCO3 ⬍90 ⬎90–500
B ⬍0.07 0.7–3.0 ⬎500
PH Normal range 6.5–8.4 ⬎3.0

Recommended maximum concentration

As 0.10
Cd 0.01
Cu 0.20
Cr 0.10
Fe 5.0
Hg
Ni 0.20
Pb 5.0
Se 0.02
Zn 2.0
94 S. Afzal et al. / Environment International 26 (2000) 87–96
Fig. 3. Piper’s diagram of ground and surface waters (values in % meq/L).
tion water (Ayers and Wescot, 1989). The mean pH
remained within the normal range for irrigation waters
(pH ⫽ 7.6 to 8.2; see Tables 1 and 5).
Suspended solids (SS) range from 221 to 784 mg/L
for drain water. The high SS are due mainly to sand and
silt that is from the adjacent soils. High concentration of
SS may adversely affect growth and reproduction rates
of aquatic fauna, their resistance to disease, and their
life span. These may be caused by covering food supplies
and spawn beds, depleting oxygen by the organic com-
pounds, and blocking eggshell pores and fish gills. They
may also reduce the vertical mixing of water through
heating up of the surface layer, thereby causing a con-
centration of pollutants in the lower layers through a
reduction in dissolved oxygen. Excess suspended solids
may also have adverse effects on agriculture: through
soil crust formation, thereby impeding seedling emer-
gence and soil aeration; and through film formation on
foliage, reducing photosynthetic rates as well as market-
ability of leafy vegetables.
We have some data and observations from the farm-
er’s field about the irrigation of the Hudiara drain water.
Some were in the favour that after mixing with tubewell
water, the drain water is very useful to potatoes and
vegetables, but not for citrus plants. We are of the opin-
ion that the salinity and higher level of Li in soils and
irrigation from the drain water is the real cause of citrus
plant death.
Repeated Hudiara drain water application to soils
can lead to accumulated trace metals in soils and can
eventually cause contamination of human and other
animal food chains (Afzal et al., 1998c). This effect has
always been a major concern to the environmentalists,
general public, and regulatory agencies (Younas et al.,
1998).
3.2. Water types
Cation and anion proportions in surface and ground
waters are shown on the trilinear diagram of Piper
(1953) and divided the trilinear diagram into seven fa-
cies (Fig. 3):
1. alkaline earth water prevailing bicarbonate
2. alkaline earth water prevailing bicarbonate sulfate
3. alkaline earth fresh water prevailing sulfate
4. alkaline earth with higher contents of alkalies, pre-
vailing bicarbonate
5. alkaline earth with higher contents of alkalies, pre-
vailing sulfate
 S. Afzal et al. / Environment International 26 (2000) 87–96 95

Table 6 (1998). The average Ca:HCO3 equivalent ratio is ⬎0.5,

Hydrochemical coefficient of ground and surface water and indicates natural CO2 dissolution of calcite.
Groundwater Drain water
Ratio Median Min. Max. Median Min. Max.
4. Recommendations
Ca/Mg 1.18 0.53 2.64 1.33 0.24 4.11
Na/Cl 3.8 1.37 5.5 1.87 1.31 4.46 On the basis of present findings following recommen-
Mg/Ca⫹Mg 0.45 0.27 0.65 0.43 0.19 0.81 dations are proposed:
Ca/CHO3 0.35 0.13 0.94 0.42 0.06 5.53
Cl/Total anions 0.16 0.07 0.51 0.24 0.17 0.69 1. To clean up the Hudiara drain (92 km long). Sew-
Ca⫹Mg/HCO3 0.71 0.25 1.4 0.75 0.23 0.88 age and industrial effluents in India and Pakistan
should be treated before they are discharged into
the Hudiara drain.
6. alkaline, prevailing bicarbonate 2. The Hudiara drain water quality appears to be well
7. alkaline, prevailing sulfate-chloride within potential reuse schemes excluding potable
Most of the surface and ground waters are located use. The collection of drain water into a single
in f-type (Na-HCO3) of diamond shaped ring and lack reservoir after every three kilometers will act as
of contaminants in the majority of these groundwater a sedimentation and equalization tank. This can
Na-HCO3-types may be attributed to bacterial die-off be accomplished by utilizing the drainage network
associated with long residence times and to denitrifica- by blocking the discharge end, and thus converting
tion under reducing conditions. Bacterial survival is de- the network to a sedimentation and temporary
pendent on a number of environmental factors, includ- storage reservoir. In addition, the application of
ing availability of nutrients, temperature, pH, and ionic H2O2 inside the network to maintain the aerobic
composition (Chapelle, 1993). Studies of bacterial per- and disinfected environment is recommended.
sistence in well water indicate half-lives that range from The supernatant can then be collected, disinfected
17 to 22 h (McFeters et al., 1974). The longer residence with chlorine, and stored in long-term retention
time of Na-HCO3-type water is shown by the absence reservoirs. This stored water can then be used for
of seasonal fluctuations in their chemistry and the very irrigation and animal drinking.
low hydraulic conductivities of zones in which Na-HCO3 3. Alternate sources of drinking water for cattle
water occurs. Sulfate-chloride could be distinguished should be provided in those areas where canal
from the diagram; this group is characterized by the water is not available.
highest concentration of sulfate and variable concentra- 4. Further studies are needed to estimate trace ele-
tion of Cl ions, resulting in the formation of Na2SO4 ments in soils, plants, animal blood, and human
and located in the g-type of diamond shaped ring. blood samples of different population groups of
the area.
3.3. Hydrochemical coefficients 5. Further research is needed to characterize the or-
ganic compounds in drain water.
The ratios of Ca:Mg, Na:Cl, Mg:Ca⫹Mg, Cl:total
anions (T.A), and Ca⫹Mg:HCO3 were calculated for
surface and ground waters (Table 6). Acknowledgments
In surface and ground waters, Ca/Mg equivalent ra-
tios were ⬎1.0. Girdhar and Yadav (1982) have reported We are grateful to Mr. M. Iftikhar Ahmed, Analytical
that lower Ca:Mg ratios in irrigation water (poor or Measuring Systems, Pakistan for assistance with the
good quality) and/or soil solution of both productive as Atomic absorption and Gas chromatographic analysis.
well as salt affected soils induce dispersion and subse-
quently decrease crop yields.
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