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Rivalry in Sport
Understanding Fan
Behavior and
Organizations

Cody T. Havard
Rivalry in Sport
 Cody T. Havard

Rivalry in Sport
Understanding Fan Behavior and Organizations
Cody T. Havard
Bureau of Sport and Leisure Commerce
Kemmons Wilson School
The University of Memphis
Memphis, TN, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-47454-6 ISBN 978-3-030-47455-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47455-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my family, Kristin, Harrison, Lincoln, and Begley. Keep working,
dreaming, and singing. Never lose your imagination!
 Preface

Sport holds a special place in society, and competition and rivalry are
important facets of sport. In my research on rivalry, I have been fortu-
nate enough to observe fan behavior through interviews and quanti-
tative investigation. Through these ventures, I have made five primary
observations.
First, fan and group behavior is a fascinating area of inquiry, as Daniel
Wann, Ph.D., once told me, if 100 people were asked why they consume
sport, you would get 100 different answers. The study of fandom and
rivalry has been an interesting and worthwhile area of investigation for
me, and I hope to share my passion with others and encourage others to
inquire in this area through this book.
Second, the investigation into rivalry and what it means to fans and
group members is relatively new, with most of the work in the area
being published over the last decade. This means that more researchers
are needed to investigate and better understand the phenomenon. This
book was written to try and help researchers, academics, and practitioners
wanting to engage in this line of inquiry.
Third, it is important that valid and reliable measures are presented
to assist those researching and investigating rivalry and its influence on
sport fans and group members. This book discusses several instruments
that have been used to measure fandom and rivalry.
Fourth, scientific investigation is a never-ending pursuit, and the search
for information and answers is many times more enjoyable than containing

vii
viii PREFACE

answers. In the pursuit of knowledge, researchers should build on the

work of others in a constant attempt to advance understanding in an area
of inquiry. This book is written in this spirit and hopes to further engage
people with the subject area and encourage readers to ask questions and
seek answers.
Fifth and finally, in our society, gaining a better understanding of rivalry
and group behavior helps shape knowledge about the human condi-
tion. It is the hope that through more information, we as a society can
better understand each other and be able to engage in more positive
relationships and actions toward others.
These five observations have shaped much of my research into the
rivalry phenomenon, which started with college sport and has advanced
to include professional and international sport, the responsible promotion
of rivalry and competition, teaching readers about rivalry and appropriate
group member behavior, and rivalry in and out of the sport setting. This
book is written in the spirit of sharing information and encouraging others
to build on previous work so that we all can better understand how people
interact with others in an attempt to improve our society. May the work
presented in this book be used as either a launching point, rest area, or
stepping stone by others in seeking answers to our pressing questions.
I hope you enjoy and thank you for playing along!

Memphis, USA Cody T. Havard, Ph.D.

 Acknowledgments

There are many people that I would like to thank for their help on this and
other projects and for their collaboration and support in my career and
life. I would like to start with my chapter co-authors and collaborators in
this text, Timothy Ryan, Michael Hutchinson, Sklyar Workman, Megan
Lomenick, Bethany Holland, and Yash Padhye. The help of these individ-
uals has greatly enhanced the project. My colleagues at the University of
Memphis who did not contribute to this book, namely Brennan Berg and
Rhema Fuller, have always been a sounding board for ideas, discussions,
and collaboration. I would also like to thank Radesh Palakurthi, Dean of
the Kemmons Wilson School at the University of Memphis for being a
constant source of support and always being open to hearing my latest
ideas.
I would like to thank colleagues Daniel Wann, Rick Grieve, Julie
Partridge, and Ryan Zapolac for always lending their expertise in areas of
fandom studies, their experiences in the academy, and their friendship. I
would like to thank Dianna Gray and Linda Sharp for guiding me through
my doctoral studies and providing support throughout my career. Thank
you! Taking a class from Megan Babkes-Stellino as a doctoral student was
instrumental in shaping my view of how the research I conduct impacts a
larger audience, and how sport influences society on a larger level. Guid-
ance from David Stotlar helped my research and career along the way,
and for that I thank you. I want to thank colleagues Lamar Reams, Terry

ix
x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Eddy, Brendan Dwyer, and Stephen Shapiro for their support and collab-
oration. I also want to thank Yuhei Inoue for his help on and guidance
throughout my career.
Family is a constant source of enjoyment and adventure for me, and
I want to sincerely thank my mother Adella Havard, my sister Amy
Havard and her family Dimitri (Meech), Edie, Simon, and Lola Vigushin,
and Edith “Granny” Lambeth (posthumously), Clara “Mimi” Havard
(posthumously), and Tommy Havard (posthumously). Finally, I want to
thank my rock and foundation, my wife Kristin, our two boys Harrison
and Lincoln, and our brave companion Begely for keeping my days fun,
busy, and always fulfilling. Thank you and I love you all!
Thank you all for your support, collaboration, and inspiration!

Cody T. Havard, Ph.D.

 Contents

1 Introduction 1
Cody T. Havard
Chapters and Topics 3
How to Use This Book 4
Students 4
Researchers 5
Practitioners 6
References 6

2 What is Rivalry and Where We Go From Here 9

Cody T. Havard
Fandom and Fan Rivalry 12
Definitions, Antecedents, and Characteristics of Rivalry 13
Consequences of Rivalry 15
Reactions to Rival Misfortune 15
Fan Deviance and Violence 18
Summary of Current Knowledge 20
Organizational Role in Rivalry 21
References 24

xi
xii CONTENTS

3 Place Matters: Rivalry, Rival Perceptions,

and the Influence of Exposure and Proximity 37
Cody T. Havard, Timothy D. Ryan,
and Michael Hutchinson
Background 38
Sport Rivalry Fan Perception Scale 40
The Current Studies 41
Study 1 42
Method 42
Results 43
Discussion of Study 1 44
Study 2 45
Method 45
The Schools 45
Results 46
Discussion of Study 2 48
General Discussion 49
Implications and Future Research 50
References 51

4 Consumer Reactions to Rival Failure: Examining Glory

Out of Reflected Failure 57
Cody T. Havard, Timothy D. Ryan, and Yash Padhye
Review of Literature 60
Rivalry 60
Sport Rivalry 61
Perceptions of Rival Teams in Sport 62
Determinants and Consequences of Glory Out of Reflected
Failure 63
Method 65
Data Collection and Participants 65
Measures 66
Likelihood of GORFing 67
Rival Team Perceptions 67
Behavioral Intentions Toward the Favorite Team 68
Team Identification 68
Analysis and Results 69
 CONTENTS xiii

Testing of Measurement Model 69

Testing of Measurement Invariance 69
Testing of Structural Model 73
Discussion 75
Implications 78
Limitations and Future Research 80
References 81

5 The Future of Rivalry Research and Promotion: A Call

to Action 91
Cody T. Havard
Potential Avenues for Practitioners and Researchers 92
Messaging to Multiple Fan Identities 93
Promoting Similarities Between Fan Bases 94
Developing and Promoting New Rivalries 95
Engage Youth in Responsible Fan Treatment 97
Additional Areas for Further Inquiry 97
Conclusion 98
References 99

6 Sport Rivalry Man Curriculum: A Superhero

and Teaching Rivalry and Group Behavior 103
Cody T. Havard, Skylar S. Workman, Megan E. Lomenick,
and Bethany S. Holland
Sport Rivalry Man 104
Adventures with Sport Rivalry Man Stories 105
Sport Rivalry Man Curriculum 106
Using the Curriculum 108
Future of the Curriculum 108
Purpose, Goals, and Outcomes of the Curriculum 109
Purpose 109
Goals 110
Outcomes 110
Conclusion 111
References 111
xiv CONTENTS

7 Conclusion 115
Cody T. Havard
Measures 116
Resources for Information 117
Future Directions of Research on Rivalry 117
References 119

Index 121
 List of Contributors

Cody T. Havard Bureau of Sport and Leisure Commerce, Kemmons

Wilson School, The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA
Bethany S. Holland Bureau of Sport and Leisure Commerce, Kemmons
Wilson School, The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA
Michael Hutchinson Bureau of Sport and Leisure Commerce,
Kemmons Wilson School, The University of Memphis, Memphis,
TN, USA
Megan E. Lomenick Department of Athletics, The University of
Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA
Yash Padhye Bureau of Sport and Leisure Commerce, Kemmons Wilson
School, The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA
Timothy D. Ryan Bureau of Sport and Leisure Commerce, Kemmons
Wilson School, The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA
Skylar S. Workman Germantown Municipal School District, German-
town, TN, USA

xv
 Abbreviations

AVE Average Variance Extracted

BIRGing Basking In Reflected Glory
CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis
CI Confidence Intervals
GAM General Aggression Model
GORFing Glory Out of Reflected Failure
MANCOVA Multivariate Analysis of Covariance
MLR Maximum Likelihood Estimation with Robust Standard Errors
MTurk Amazon Mechanical Turk
OAP Out-group Academic Prestige
OIC Out-group Indirect Competition
OP Out-group Prestige
OS Out-group Sportsmanship
Pac 12 Pacific 12 Conference
SIT Social Identity Theory
SLT Social Learning Theory
SoS Sense of Satisfaction
SRFPS Sport Rivalry Fan Perception Scale
SSIS Sport Spectator Identification Scale
TII Team Identification Index
U.S. United States
VDT Voodoo Doll Task
WAC Western Athletic Conference

xvii
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Definitions/Descriptions of rivalry, rival groups, and rival

competitions 14
Table 2.2 Positive and negative consequences of rivalry on
individuals and organizations 16
Table 2.3 Fan deviance/violence examples around rivalry or
high-profile games 19
Table 2.4 Organizational messaging that potentially promotes Fan
deviance and violence 23
Table 3.1 Descriptive statistics for scales used in study 1 43
Table 3.2 SRFPS subscales by fans that visited and not visited rival
city other than for sport 44
Table 3.3 Descriptive statistics for scales used in study 2 47
Table 3.4 SRFPS subscales for Colorado, Colorado State, and
Wyoming comparison 47
Table 4.1 Standardized factor loadings, construct reliability
coefficients, and average variance extracted for the
measurement model 70
Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics and correlations 72
Table 4.3 Standardized results of the direct paths in the structural
model 74
Table 4.4 Bootstrap test of the indirect results 75

xix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Cody T. Havard

Abstract This chapter introduces readers to the content and format of

the text. It previews the chapters of the book and discusses how various
readers can best utilize information in the book. For example, the chapter
discusses the chapters and topics that students, researchers, and practi-
tioners can use to inform their views and understanding of rivalry. Further,
the chapter seeks to peak interest in the study of rivalry and group
behavior in readers and welcomes readers to the wonderful journey of
investigating and better understanding group behavior.

Keywords Rivalry · Sport fans · Research · Social Identity Theory ·

Group behavior

Sport in our society takes on many important roles. For people choosing
to play, it enables people to participate in physically active competitions,
even elevating a select few to heights which benefit them financially.
Further, sport practitioners frequently like to communicate the many
positive outcomes associated with sport participation, such as learning to
face adversity, play within a team setting (even for some playing sports

© The Author(s) 2020 1

C. T. Havard, Rivalry in Sport,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47455-3_1
2 C. T. HAVARD

such as tennis and golf), and learn important lessons about preparation
and critical thinking (Coakley, 2009).1
For people that consume sport, sport fans, following a sport and team,
present both positive and negative outcomes. For example, following a
team can help people socialize and acclimate to their environments (Wann
& Robinson, 2002). Additionally, identifying with a sport team can alle-
viate feelings of loneliness or depression (Branscombe & Wann, 1991).
Placing oneself into an identified group based on what that member-
ship communicates about an individual is known as social identity theory
(Tajfel, 1978). Typically, individuals chose to associate with groups in
which they currently or desire to share characteristics. For example, in
sport, if someone sees themselves as hardworking, they may choose a
team that exemplifies a blue collar ethic such as the Pittsburgh Steelers
or Nebraska Cornhuskers (Aden, 2008).
Sport is also a consumer product that many people in society enjoy.
Sport is consumed through attendance, participation, watching on tele-
vision or the Internet, reading content, and wearing and purchasing
merchandise of favorite teams, leagues, and sports. An important part
of the consumer product that is sport is the competition between players
and fans (Kilduff, Elfenbein, & Staw, 2010), and how such competition
impacts fans. For instance, the competition between players and teams
allows supporters of those entities to vicariously compare with others.
This comparison is the crux of rivalry within the sport context. As such,
rivalry influences many aspects of sport and the consumer product known
as spectator sport. This book focuses on the rivalry phenomenon in the
sport setting and offers readers with key findings and tools to help further
understand how the simple identification with a sport team influences the
disparate way groups and individual perceive and treat others. The rest of
the introductory chapter provides brief descriptions of the chapters and
topics covered throughout the rest of the book. Further, this introduc-
tion also informs readers of issues such as the various stakeholders that
could utilize the information in this text along with the best ways to use
this text.

1 Conversely, some academics have argued that sport may not present the types of
positive outcomes, or to the degree advertised by practitioners (Merkel, 2013).
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

Chapters and Topics

Chapter 2 introduces readers to the rivalry phenomenon by providing
an in-depth literature review of the subject, from within and outside
of the sport setting. Additionally, the chapter discusses the role of
the sport organization in properly and responsibly promoting rivalry
in a way that increases fan and consumer engagement while trying to
avoid also increasing animosity, deviance, and potential violence among
team supporters. The chapter also provides examples of responsible and
irresponsible promotion of rivalry among teams. Chapter 3 introduces
readers to the Sport Rivalry Fan Perception Scale (SRFPS: Havard, Gray,
Gould, Sharp, & Schaffer, 2013), an instrument that measures how fans
perceive rival teams and supporters. The chapter also illustrates how
the instrument is used to measure fan perceptions of rival teams in
different situations. Specifically, the chapter investigates contact hypoth-
esis by comparing rival perceptions between fans that have visited the
city or university where a rival team plays for reasons other than a sport
competition with fans that have not visited for reasons other than sport
competition. From there, the chapter then transitions into an investiga-
tion of how relative proximity influences rival perceptions by examining
fans of the Colorado Buffaloes, Colorado State Rams, and Wyoming
Cowboys, three teams that all compete in collegiate football in the United
States and are located reasonably close to each other.
Chapter 4 introduces Glory Out of Reflected Failure (GORFing), a
term that explains how some fans cheer and celebrate when a rival team
loses to someone other than their favorite team (Havard, 2014). The indi-
rect failure of a rival group is something that can make in-group members
feel better about their group, and thereby, better about themselves. The
chapter discusses a modified instrument to measure GORFing and exam-
ines how the phenomenon influences fan consumption of favorite team
merchandise. Chapter 5 presents a call to action for practitioners and
researchers on future ways to promote and investigate rivalry. It is imper-
ative that both practitioners and researchers gain more understanding of
the rivalry phenomenon and seek ways to decrease the occurrences of
derogations and overly negative interactions between competing group
members.
Chapter 6 introduces readers to Sport Rivalry Man and the Sport
Rivalry Man Curriculum. The curriculum was created in an effort to
teach the public about the rivalry phenomenon and was developed
4 C. T. HAVARD

with the primary focus that education leads to increased understanding

and positive influence on behavior. At this time, five lessons in the
curriculum package have been produced using standards set by the
American School Counselor Association (ASCA). Specifically, lessons
currently address issues important to young readers such as online and
school bullying, kindness/acceptance, decision making, and teamwork.
Chapter 7 provides a conclusion to the materials discussed in the book
and provides researchers and practitioners with additional streams of
research and inquiry.

How to Use This Book

This text is presented in a way so that it adds support to researchers,
practitioners, and students within and outside of the sport setting. This
section discusses the key audiences for this book and how to best utilize
the text. Chapters within this text are written in a fashion that one could
read the text from beginning to end and see the story of how rivalry
influences fan and group member behavior. In this approach, people
reading the text first learn about what rivalry is and how organizations
should be responsible for the healthy promotion of rivalry, before being
introduced to concepts that help explain how rivalry influences fans and
group members, before reading a call to action regarding the future
study of the phenomenon, and learn about a creative way to teach group
member behavior to audiences. This text is also written so that chapters
can represent stand-alone chapters or studies, with each entry containing
background literature, discussion, and future study recommendations. In
that regard, readers can utilize individual chapters based on their interests
and needs. For each group discussed below, readers would of course find
interest and helpful information throughout the text, but additional ideas
for reading the text are also presented.

Students
The text provides students in fields such as sport management,
psychology, sociology, marketing, general management, and education
with information about what causes group members to view others
differently. The book really tells a story that should help students in
various areas better understand how rivalry is formed, and how it influ-
ences group member perceptions and behaviors. For example, a student
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The Hardy-Fruit Book. By D. T. Fish. Two volumes.
London: probably 1882.
Flor. & Pom.
The Florist and Pomologist. A Pictorial Monthly
Magazine of Flowers, Fruits and General
Horticulture. Conducted at first by Robert Hogg
and John Spencer, later by Thomas Moore and
William Paul. London: 1862-84.
Floy-Lindley, Guide Orch. Gard.
A Guide to the Orchard and Fruit Garden. By George
Lindley; edited by John Lindley. American edition
by Michael Floy. New York: 1833. New edition
with an appendix, 1846.
Forsyth, Treat. Fr. Trees
A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit
Trees. By William Forsyth. London: 1802. Same
with Introduction and Notes, by William Cobbett.
Albany: 1803. Seventh edition [English] London:
1824.
Gallesio, Pom. Ital.
Pomona Italiana Ossia Trattato Degli Alberi Fruttiferi Di
Giorgio Gallesio. Tomo Secondo. Pisa: 1839.
Volume 2 includes two large books, Testo 2,
which contains the fruit descriptions and Tavole
2, which contains the plates.
Gard. and For.
Garden and Forest. Charles S. Sargent, editor. New
York: 1888-1897.
Gard. Chron.
Gardeners’ Chronicle, etc. London: 1841 to date.
Garden
Garden. London: 1872 to date.
Gardening
Gardening. Chicago: 1893 to date.
Gard. Mon.
Gardener’s Monthly, etc. Thomas Meehan, editor.
Philadelphia: 1859-1887.
Gard. World
Gardening World, illustrated. A weekly paper exclusively
devoted to all the branches of practical
gardening. London: 1884-1909. In Vol. 20, 1903,
the title was changed to The Gardening World,
an illustrated journal for country gentlemen and
professional gardeners. The editor from May,
1895, has been John Fraser; previously the
editor had been Brian Wynne, but in the earlier
years the editor’s name is not given.
Gaucher, Pom. Prak. Obst.
Pomologie der Praktischen Obstbaumzüchters. Von N.
Gaucher. Stuttgart: 1894.
Gen. Farmer
Genesee Farmer. Edited by Luther Tucker. Rochester:
1831-1839. Then consolidated with the
Cultivator. Another periodical of the same name
was published in Rochester from 1845 to 1865.
Also New Genesee Farmer and Monthly
Genesee Farmer.
Gerard, Herball
The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes. By John
Gerard. Enlarged and amended by Thomas
Johnson. London: 1636.
Goodrich, N. Fr. Cult.
The Northern Fruit Culturist, or Farmers’ Guide. By
Chauncey Goodrich. Burlington, Vt.: 1849.
Guide Prat.
Guide Pratique de L’Amateur de Fruits. Description et
Culture des Variétés de Fruits Classées Par
Séries de Mérite. Composant les Collections
Pomologiques de L’Établissement Horticole
Simon-Louis Frères. A Plantières-lès-Metz.
(Lorraine Annexée) Deuxième Édition. Revue et
Corrigée par les Chefs de Culture de
L’Établissement. Paris and Nancy: 1895.
Hoffy, N. Am. Pom.
Hoffy’s North American Pomologist. Edited by William
D. Brinckle. Book No. 1. Philadelphia: 1860.
Hoffy, Orch. Com.
Hoffy’s Orchardist’s Companion or Fruits of the United
States. A quarterly journal. Vol. 1, 1841-2, Vol. 2,
1842-3. Alfred Hoffy, Editor and Publisher.
Philadelphia.
Hogg, Fruit Man.
The Fruit Manual. By Robert Hogg. First edition,
London: 1860. Second edition, 1861. Third
edition, 1866. Fourth edition, 1873. Fifth edition,
1884.
Hooper, W. Fr. Book
Hooper’s Western Fruit Book. By E. J. Hooper.
Cincinnati: 1857.
Horticulturist
The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural
Taste. Albany, Philadelphia and New York: 1846-
1875. Founded by A. J. Downing. Other editors
were Barry, Smith, Mead, Williams and the
Woodwards.
Hovey, Fr. Am.
The Fruits of America. Two Volumes. C. M. Hovey.
Boston: 1851.
Jour. Hort.
 Journal of Horticulture began as: The Cottage
Gardener; or Amateurs’ and Cottagers’ guide to
out-door gardening and spade cultivation.
London: 1849-1861. 25 vols. (Edited Vols. 1-13
by G. W. Johnson, vols. 14-25 by G. W. Johnson
and R. Hogg.) Continued as The Journal of
Horticulture, Cottage Gardener and Country
Gentleman.... New Series. London: 1861-1880.
38 vols. (edited by G. W. Johnson and R. Hogg)
—continued under the same title as ... Third
Series. London: 1880-1909. 59 vols. (edited by
R. Hogg).
Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc.
Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. London: 1846
to date. Vols. 1-9; 1846-55, bear the title of
Journal of the Horticultural Society of London.
Kenrick, Am. Orch.
The New American Orchardist. By Wilham Kenrick.
Boston: 1832. Second edition revised, 1835.
Seventh edition, enlarged and improved, with a
supplement, 1844.
Knoop, Fructologie
Part I. Pomologie ou Description Meilleures Sortes de
Pommes et de Poires. Part II. Fructologie ou
Description des Arbres Fruitiers. Par Jean
Herman Knoop. Amsterdam: 1771.
Koch, Deut. Obst.
Die Deutschen Obstgeholze. By Karl Koch. Two Parts.
Stuttgart: 1876.
Kraft, Pom. Aust.
Pomona Austriaca. Abhandlung von dem Obstbaumen.
By Johann Kraft. Wein: 1792.
Lange, Allgem. Garten.
Allgemeines Gartenbuch. By Theodore Lange. Two
Volumes. Second Edition, Leipsic: 1879.
Langley, Pomona
Pomona; or the Fruit Garden Illustrated. By Batty
Langley. London: 1729.
Lauche, Deut. Pom.
Deutsche Pomologie. Von W. Lauche. Berlin: 1882.
Le Bon Jard.
Le Bon Jardinier. 126th Edition Almanach Horticole,
1882 and the 129th Edition, 1884. Paris.
Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat.
A Catalogue of the Fruits Cultivated in the Garden of the
Horticultural Society of London. London: 1826.
Second edition, 1831. Third edition, 1842. A
supplement was published in 1853.
London, Arb. Frut. Brit.
Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum. By J. C. Loudon.
Second Edition, Volume 2. London: 1844.
Loudons Enc. Gard.
An Encyclopedia of Gardening, etc. By J. C. Loudon.
New edition. London: 1834.
Lucas, Vollst. Hand. Obst.
Vollständiges Handbuch der Obstkultur. Von Ed. Lucas.
Stuttgart: First edition, 1880; second edition,
1886; third edition, 1893. Third edition edited by
Fr. Lucas. 1894.
Mag. Hort.
Magazine of Horticulture. Boston: 1837-1868. First
published under name American Gardener’s
Magazine, 1835-6. Edited by C. M. Hovey with P.
B. Hovey, Jr., associate editor during 1835-6.
Manning, Book of Fruits
Book of Fruits. By Robert Manning. Salem: 1838.
Second edition with title, New England Fruit
Book. Revised by John M. Ives. Salem: 1844.
Mas, Le Verger
Le Verger. Par M. Mas. Tomes 8. Paris: 1866-1873.
Tome 6. Prunes.
Mas, Pom. Gen.
Pomologie Générale. Par M. Mas. Tomes 12. Paris:
1872-83. Tome 2, 1873. Prunes.
Mathieu, Nom. Pom.
Nomenclator Pomologicus. Von Carl Mathieu. Berlin:
1889.
Miller, Gard. Dict.
Gardener’s Dictionary. By Philip Miller. London: 1754.
Revised edition, Volumes I and II. By Thomas
Martyn. London: 1807.
Miller, Gard. Kal.
Gardener’s Kalendar. By Philip Miller. London: 1734.
McIntosh, Bk. Gard.
The Book of the Garden. By Charles McIntosh. Two
Volumes. London: 1855.
McMahon, Am. Gard. Cal.
The American Gardener’s Calendar. By Bernard
McMahon. Philadelphia: 1806.
Nat. Hist. N. Y.
Natural History of New York. Part V. Agriculture. By
Ebenezer Emmons. Vol. III devoted to fruits.
Albany: 1851.
Nat. Nur.
National Nurseryman. Edited by R. T. Olcott and later by
John Craig. Rochester: 1893 to date.
N. E. Farmer Dict.
The New England Farmer or Georgical Dictionary. By
Samuel Deane. Second Edition. Worcester,
Mass.: 1797.
Nicholson, Dict. Gard.
The Illustrated Dictionary of Gardening. By George
Nicholson, assisted by J. W. H. Trail and J.
Garrett. Four volumes, London. Supplement to
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Noisette, Man. Comp. Jard.
Manuel Complet du Jardinier. Par M. Louis Noisette.
Paris: 1860.
Oberdieck, Deut. Obst. Sort.
Deutschlands beste Obst-Sorten. Von. F. G. C.
Oberdieck. Leipzig: 1881.
Oregon Agric.
Oregon Agriculturist. Edited by W. E. Williamson.
Portland: 1891 to date.
Parkinson, Par. Ter.
Paradisi in Sole. Paradisus Terrestris. By John
Parkinson. London: 1629.
Phillips, Com. Orch.
The Companion For the Orchard. By Henry Phillips.
New Edition. London: 1831.
Poiteau, Pom. Franc.
Pomologie Francaise. Recueil des Plus Beaux Fruits
Cultivés en France. Par Antoine Poiteau. Tomes
1-4. Paris: 1846.
Pom. France
Pomologie de la France. Ou Histoire et Description De
Tous Les Fruits Cultivés En France. Ouvrage
Public avec le concours des Sociétés
d’Agriculture et d’Horticulture Francaises. Tome
VII. Lyon: 1871.
Pom. Mag.
Pomological Magazine. Three Volumes. London: 1828-
30. This work has also been published under the
 title Pomona Brittanica.
Popular Gard.
Popular Gardening. An illustrated periodical devoted to
Horticulture in all its branches. Vol. I, Buffalo:
1886. Continued as Popular Gardening and Fruit
Growing. An illustrated periodical devoted to
Horticulture in all its branches, Vols. II-VI. Buffalo:
1887-91. All six volumes edited by E. A. Long;
these consolidated with American Garden and
continued as American Gardening. New York:
1892-1904.
Prince, Treat. Hort.
A Short Treatise on Horticulture. By William Prince. New
York: 1828.
Prince, Pom. Man.
The Pomological Manual, or a Treatise on Fruits. By
William Robert Prince, aided by William Prince.
Second edition. Parts I and II. New York: 1832.
Quintinye, Com. Gard.
The Complete Gard’ner; or Directions for Cultivating
and Right Ordering of Fruit Gardens and Kitchen
Gardens. By Monsieur De la Quintinye. Second
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Ray, Hist. Plant.
Historia Plantarum. By John Ray. London: 1688.
Rea, Flora
Flora: Seu, De Florum Cultura; or A Complete Florilege.
By John Rea, Gent. London: 1676.
Rec. Hort.
Woodward’s Record of Horticulture. Edited by A. S.
Fuller. (An annual.) New York: 1866-1868.
Rev. Hort.
Revue Horticole. Paris: 1829 to date.
Rural N. Y.
Rural New Yorker. Rochester and New York: 1850 to
date.
Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom.
Société Nationale d’Horticulture de France. Section
Pomologique. Les Meilleurs Fruits au début du
XXe Siècle. Paris: 1904.
Sou. Cult.
Southern Cultivator. Augusta, Ga.: 1843.
Thomas, Am. Fruit Cult.
American Fruit Culturist. By John J. Thomas. First
edition, Geneva and Auburn, N. Y.: 1846. Edition
of 1849, Auburn, N. Y. Edition of 1867, 1875-
1885, New York. Twentieth edition, revised and
enlarged by William H. S. Wood. New York:
1897.
Thompson, Gard. Ass’t
The Gardener’s Assistant. By Robert Thompson. Two
volumes. London: 1859. Same, revised by
William Watson. Six volumes. London: 1901.
Traité Prat. Sech. Fruits
Traité Pratique du Séchage des Fruits et des Légumes.
Par J. Nanot et L. Tritschler. Paris: 1893.
U. S. D. A. Rpt.
Reports of the United States Department of Agriculture:
1862 to 1894.
U. S. D. A. Yearbook
Reports of the United States Department of Agriculture:
1894 to date.
U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt.
Reports of the Agricultural section of the United States
Patent Office: 1837 to 1861.
Waugh, Plum Cult.
Plums and Plum Culture. By F. A. Waugh. New York:
1901.
Wickson, Cal. Fruits
California Fruits. By Edward J. Wickson. Second
Edition. San Francisco: 1891. Same, Fourth
edition. Los Angeles: 1909.
Willich, Dom. Enc.
Domestic Encyclopedia or a Dictionary of Facts, etc. By
A. F. M. Willich. First American edition with
additions by James Mease. In five volumes. Vol.
4, Philadelphia: 1803.
 INDEX.
(Names of varieties in this index, if accepted names, appear in
Roman type; if synonyms, in italics.)

Abbaye d’Arton, 391

Abricot Blanc, Blanche, de France; Abricot ordinaire; Abricote;
Abricotée; Abricotée Blanc, Blanche, de Tours, Perdrigon
(Syns. of Apricot), 148
Abricot de Guthrie (syn. of Guthrie Apricot), 457
Abricotée de Braunau, 391
Abricotée de Braunau (syn. of Abricotée de Braunau), 391
Abricotée de Braunau Nouvelle (syn. of Liegel Apricot), 484
Abricotée de Lange, 391
Abricotée de Liegel (syn. of Liegel Apricot), 484
Abricotée de Royer (syn. of Royer Aprikosen Pflaume), 535
Abricotée de Trauttenberg, 391
Abricotée de Trauttenberg (syn. of Abricotée de Trauttenberg),
391
Abricote Hâtif; Abricotée Hâtive, or Précoce (syns. of Early
Apricot), 437
Abricotée Nouvelle de Dörell (syn. of Dorell Aprikosenpflaume),
434
Abricot, Abricote or Abricotée Rouge (syns. of Red Apricot), 321
Abricotée Rouge de Trauttenberg (syn. of Abricotée de
Trauttenberg), 391
Abricotée Sageret (syn. of Reine Claude), 327
Abricot Princesse, 391
Abricot Verd or Vert (syn. of Reine Claude), 327
Abundance, 136
Abundance (syn. of Abundance), 136
Adair, D. L., var. orig. by, 292
Admirable, 391
Admiral, 391
Admiral Rigny or de Rigny (syn. of Rigny), 532
Admiral Dewey (syn. of Dewey), 432
Admiral Schley, 391
Advance, 392
Aechte Gelbe Eierpflaume (syn. of Yellow Egg), 386
A Fleur Double (syn. of Red Date), 322
African, 392
Agen, 138
Agen Date or Prune; Agen Datte; Agener Kaiserzwetsche or
Pflaume (syns. of Agen), 138
Aitken (syn. of Aitkin), 140
Aitkin, 140
Ak Erik (syn. of Diel Grosse Weisse Damascene), 432
Alabama, 392
Albany Beauty, 392
Alberta, 393
Albert’s Damascene; Albertus Damen Pflaume (syns. of Yellow
Egg), 386
Alderton (syn. of Victoria), 363
Alderton (syn. of Sharp), 340
Al Erik (syn. of Diel Grosse Weisse Damascene), 432
Alexander, 393
Alexander’s Late (syn. of Alexander), 393
Alhambra, 141
Alibuchari, 393
Alice, 393
Allen, 393
Allfruit, 393
Allie, 393
Aloe, 393
Aloise’s Green Gage (syn. of Reine Claude), 327
Alois Reine-Claude, 393
Alois’ Reine Claude (syn. of Alois Reine Claude), 393
Aloo Bokhara, 393
Alpha, 393
Alpha-Americana, 394
Altesse (syn. of Suisse), 549
Altesse Blanche? (syn. of White Virginal), 565
Altesse Blanche (syn. of Yellow Impératrice), 569
Altesse Double (syn. of Italian Prune), 253
Altesse du Roi (syn. of Early Orleans), 198
Altesse ordinaire (syn. of German Prune), 219
Althahn’s Rote Reine-Claude; Althan’s or Althann’s Reine
Claude (syns. of Altham), 141
Altham, 141
Amalia Pflaume (syn. of Red Diaper), 323
Amaryllis, 394
Amber, 394
Amber Primordian, 394
Amber Primordian (syn. of Early Yellow), 203
Ambre de Provence (syn. of Bernsteinzwetsche), 402
Ambre Tardif, 394
Ambrée Tardive (syn. of Ambre Tardif), 394
Amelie Blanche, 394
Amelie Noire, 394
Ameliorée, 394
America, 142
American, 143
American Cherry Plum (syn. of Myrobalan), 290
American Damson (syn. of Frost Gage), 216
American Eagle, 144
American Golden, 394
American Magnum Bonum, 394
American Prune, 394
American Prune (syn. of Dawson), 186
American Seedling (syn. of American), 143
American Violet, 394
American Wheat, 395
American Wheat (syn. of American Wheat), 395
American Yellow Gage; American Yellow Gage (syns. of Yellow
Gage), 388