My IT Report

SIWES REPORT 2023|NAU/FEG/CHE/2017214007
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Overview of SIWES
1.1.1 Meaning of SIWES
The five capitalized letters SIWES stands for the Student’s Industrial Work Experience
Scheme that was created to help students from Nigeria get practical knowledge and wide
horizons based on their future profession while they are studying at the university.
1.1.2 Brief History of SIWES
At the early stages of the development of education in Nigeria, there was a problem of the
gap between theory and practical skills of students. Therefore, there was a need to give
students the opportunity to get real work experience.
The program was created to give students experience in addition to theoretical learning. The
industrial training policy was introduced by Federal Government of Nigeria in 1973 to
improve practical skills of students.
Before establishment of the scheme, there was a growing concern among our industrialists
that graduates of institutions of higher learning lacked adequate practical background studies
preparatory for employment industries. Thus, the employers were of the opinion that the
theoretical education going on in higher institutions was not responsive to the needs of the
employers of labor. It is against this background that the rationale for initiating and designing
the scheme by the fund during its formative years –1973/74 was introduced to acquaint
students with the skills of handling employers’ equipment and machinery. The ITF, Industrial
Training Fund solely funded the scheme during its formative years. But as the financial
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involvement became unbearable to the fund, it withdrew from the scheme in 1978. The
Federal government handed over the scheme in 1979 to both the National Universities
Commission (NUC) and the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE). Later, the
federal government in November 1984 reverted the management and implementation of the
scheme to ITF and it was effectively taken over by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in July
1985 with the funding being solely borne by the federal government. (Culled from Job
Specifications on Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme).
1.2 General Objectives of SIWES
SIWES is strategized for skill acquisition. It was designed to prepare and expose students of
universities, polytechnics and colleges of education to the real-life work situation they would
encounter upon graduation from tertiary institution. The following are the outlined objectives
of SIWES:
1. To provide students with industrial skills and needed experience during the course of
study.
2. To create conditions and circumstances which can be as close as possible to the actual
workflow.
3. To prepare specialists who will be ready for any working situations immediately after
graduation
4. To teach students the techniques and methods of working with facilities and equipment
that may not be available within the walls of an educational institution.
5. To give students the ability to try and apply the given knowledge.
6. Provide students with the opportunities to apply their educational knowledge in real work
situations, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice;
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7. Enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entire educational process through
SIWES.
1.3 Organization and Operation of SIWES
The organization of the Students’ Industrial Work-Experience Scheme (SIWES) involves
many stakeholders as follows:
• Federal Government (Federal Ministry of Commerce & Industry)
• Industrial Training Fund (SIWES Division)
• Supervising/Regulatory Agencies (NUC, NBTE, NCCE)
• Industry/Employers (NECA, NACCIMA, MAN, Government Establishments)
• Tertiary Institutions (Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of Education) and
• Student Trainees (Engineering, Science, Technology, NCE Technical).
SIWES is operated as a joint venture through the contributory activities of the stakeholders
identified above.
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Figure 1.1: Relationship amongst SIWES Stakeholders.
1.4 Benefits of Industrial Training
The major benefits accruing to students who participate conscientiously in industrial training
are the skills and competencies they acquire. These relevant production skills remain a part of
the recipients of industrial training as life-long assets which cannot be taken away from them.
The Scheme exposes students to industry-based skills necessary for a smooth transition from
the classroom to the field of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the opportunity of
being familiarized to processes and exposed to the required experience in handling
machineries and equipment related to their fields of study which are usually not available in
most tertiary institutions. Listed below are some of the benefits of SIWES:
 It exposes student to the realities of the working environment even as they learn to imbibe
the ethics of their professions.
 Enabling SET students appreciate work methods and gain experience in handling
equipment and machinery which may not be available in their institutions.
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 The scheme bridges the existing gap between theoretical and practical knowledge of
discipline related principles and aids in improving the overall knowledge base of
participating students.
 It makes the transition from school to the field of work easier for many intending
engineering technologists, scientists and engineers, as well as enhances their future
excellence in their chosen field as they get to relate with already practicing professionals
in their fields.
 It enables students to improve their communication skills as well as soft skills and help
them develop inter-personal relationships at their fields of work.
 SIWES enables student to appreciate the effectiveness of their academic curriculum and
to make modifications where necessary.
 Enabling students bridge the gap between the knowledge acquired in institutions and the
relevant production skills required in work organizations.
 Enabling students appreciate the connection between their courses of study and other
related disciplines in the production of goods and services.
1.5 Company Profile
1.5.1 Brief History of Brightdiogo Industries.
Brightdiogo Industries is a registered company with Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC), it
was established in the year 2010 by Mr. Bright and Mrs. Chidiogo Nwankwo. The name
Brightdiogo was coined from Bright and Chidiogo the name of the couple that owns the
industry.
The industry started as a small company in Aba, Abia state Nigeria and continued to grow
and in 2010 the industry was relocated to Awka in Anambra State where it is currently
located.
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The industry has two brands of paint namely, Vista Superior Quality paints and Vista Best
High-Quality paints. The industry majorly deals in production based on contracts and equally
had a depot where we sell our Paints and a factory at tipper garage Nodu Okpuno.
In the year 2019 we expanded the industry, asides production and sales of paint we also
started selling the materials used in the production of paint, and has continued to do so up till
date. The industry is located at No 4 Sir Chekwube Ijeoma Street behind first bank ogbolu off
Arthur Eze Avenue Awka, Anambra State. The industry produces a wide range of products
which include:
 Vista Best High-Quality Emulsion Paint.
 Vista Best High-Quality Matt Paint.
 Vista Best High-Quality Silk Paint.
 Vista Best High-Quality Screeding Paint.
 Vista Best High-Quality Screeding Potty/Filler.
 Vista Best High-Quality Oil/Gloss Paint.
 Vista Best High-Quality Texcoat Paint.
1.5.2 Aims and objectives of Brightdiogo Industries.
The following are the aims and objectives of the industry,
 To achieve high levels of customer satisfaction
 To build long term value in decorative coatings business by alliance with established
paint companies.
 To provide high quality paints as per market demands.
 To manufacture quality products of international standard locally.
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1.5.3 Organogram of Brightdiogo Industries
Figure 1.2: Organogram of Brightdiogo Industries.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Brief Background of Paint
Paint is any pigmented liquid, liquefiable, or solid mastic composition that, after application
to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect,
color, or provide texture. Paint can be made in many colors and in many different types. Paint
is typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, but most types dry into a solid. Most paints
are either oil-based or water-based and each has distinct characteristics. Paints as a fluid is an
engineered product made of different component such as binders, solvents, extenders,
pigments and additives with their unique properties on a substrate forms an adherent opaque
solid film. The cardinal purpose of paint production ranges from its usefulness in the
protection of materials which can undergo corrosion like metallic surfaces, decoration of
artistic materials and promotion of functionality to an object or surface which it is applied
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upon. The sensual appeal paints give to any surface it is applied often borne in the mind of
the producer and extends to the end users. Paints are symbolically pigmented according to
their functionality in different occasions.
Paints is applied in a thin coating to the various surfaces such as wood, metals, plastics or
concrete walls with brush, rollers, spray gun. It provides protection for materials from
corrosion and decay and thereby save replacement costs in addition to providing aesthetic
beauty to the applied material.
2.2 Origin of Paint
Paint was one of the earliest arts of humanity. Some cave paintings drawn with red or yellow
ochre, hematite, manganese oxide, and charcoal may have been made by early Homo sapiens
as long as 40,000 years ago. Paint may be even older. The primitive paintings were done on
human, animals, diagrams, objects or art work. These early artists used natural substances
such as natural earth pigments, charcoal, berry juice, lard, blood and milk-weed sap in
producing the paints for beautification and preservation of their art work. These primitive
artists were found in different part of the world. Then the materials used were oils, red ochre,
chalk, arsenic sulfide which were mixed with binder such as Arabic gum, lime, egg albumen
and bee wax. In 2003 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave
of a 100,000-year-old human-made ochre-based mixture that could have been used like paint.
Further excavation in the same cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for
grinding pigments and making a primitive paint-like substance. The first motive for paint
production was for protective coating by the Egyptians and Hebrews. They applied pitches
and balsams to the exposed wood of their ships.
The oldest known oil paintings are Buddhist murals created circa 650 AD. The works are
located in cave-like rooms carved from the cliffs of Afghanistan's Bamiyan Valley, "using
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walnut and poppy seed oils." Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of
Ardea, which had been made prior to the foundation of Rome. He expressed great surprise
and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries.
In the 13th century, oil was used to detail tempera paintings. In the 14th century, Cennino
Cennini described a painting technique utilizing tempera painting covered by light layers of
oil. The slow-drying properties of organic oils were commonly known to early European
painters. However, the difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were
rarely used (and indeed the slow drying was seen as a disadvantage). Artists of the fifteenth
century were the first to add drying oils to paints for quicker evaporation and drying of the
coated surface they also used solvent like linseed oil which remained the most commonly
used solvent until synthetics replaced it in the twentieth century. Paint was made with the
yolk of eggs and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was
applied to. Pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils. Most paints used either
oil or water as a base (the diluent, solvent or vehicle for the pigment).
The Flemish-trained or influenced Antonello da Messina, who Vasari wrongly credited with
the introduction of oil paint to Italy, does seem to have improved the formula by
adding litharge, or lead (II) oxide. A still extant example of 17th-century house oil painting
is Ham-House in Surrey, England, where a primer was used along with several undercoats
and an elaborate decorative overcoat; the pigment and oil mixture would have been ground
into a paste with a mortar and pestle. The process was done by hand by the painters, which
exposed them to lead poisoning, due to the white-lead powder.
In Boston around 1700, Thomas Child built the first American paint mill with granite within
which a 1.6foot granite ball rolled, grinding the pigment. The first commercial paint miller
replaced Childs granite ball with a burhstone wheel, but these mills continued the practice of
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grinding only pigment (individual customers would then blend it with a vehicle at home). In
1718, Marshall Smith invented a "Machine or Engine for the Grinding of colours" in
England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that increased the
efficiency of pigment grinding dramatically. Soon, a company called Emerton and Manby
was advertising exceptionally low-priced paints that had been ground with labor-saving
technology: One Pound of colour ground in a Horse-Mill will paint twelve Yards of Work,
whereas colour ground any other Way, will not do half that Quantity.
By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution, in the mid-18th century, paint was being
ground in steam-powered mills, and an alternative to lead-based pigments had been found in
a white derivative of zinc oxide. Interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the
19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in
preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also increasingly used as an
inexpensive binder.
The first paint patent was issued for a product that improved white ash and water slaked lime
which was prominent during the early days of the United States. In 1865, D.P Flinn obtained
a patent for water-based paint which contained zinc oxide, potassium hydroxide, resins and
linseed oil. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and
invented a paint that could be used from the tin without preparation. It was until 1867 that the
manufacturers began to mix the vehicle and the pigments for their customers.
It was not until the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply
market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they also held
the color well and lasted for a long time. Today, synthetic pigments and stabilizers are
commonly used for mass production of uniform batches of paint. The current synthetic
vehicles developed from polymers like poly-urethane and styrene butadiene dominated since
1940s. Also, the synthesized alkyd resins have since then dominated in the paint production.
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Before 1930, pigments were grounded with small stone mills and these were later replaced by
steel ball, but today attritors like bead mills, ball mills, and sand mills are predominantly used
to grind very difficult colors, high speed dispersers are used to homogenously mix paint
components and grind easily dispersed pigments.
2.3 Classification of Paint
Paint can be classified into four different groups according to their production, application
and functionality.
i. Coating paint
ii. Based on function
iii. Decorative
iv. Industrial and specialty coating
Coating paint: This can be further grouped into convertible and non-convertible coatings.
When the dry film is insoluble in the solvent from which it was meant to be dissolved is
convertible while non- convertible coating is when the dry film is soluble in the solvent from
which it was dissolved.
Based on function: This describes the different roles or functions paint can play on the
substrate it is being applied. These functions include:
• Primers: It is the first coat applied on a surface and which provides adhesion of the total
coating system to the surface.
• Stopper: This is used to fill or stop holes, cracks and deep indentations in surfaces being
painted. It is applied using palette knife.
• Sealers: It is used to seal the pose and so prevent adsorption of the medium from
subsequent coats of paints.
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• Filler: It is used to fill an uneven or rough surface before the actual painting. It is usually
applied using brush, knife or spray. This is most common in automobile and other
industrial paint which involves the painting of metallic surface of different shapes.
• Undercoat: This is applied next to the primer or sealer and gives a unified color hiding
and variation in color of the surface painted. It also provides a non-absorbent in surface
which will not reduce the gloss of the finishing.
• Topcoat: This is also known as finishing coat. It provides the decoration aesthetic and the
artistic beauty on the piece/surface being painted. it is usually color and sheen and
contributes to the protective value of the painting scheme as a whole.
Industrial and specialty coatings: Oil based, this group of coatings is the most technical and
sensitive to formulate, owing to specificity of the desired properties of the end product. These
categories of paint include; Automotive/automobile paints, marine paints, radiation and
electrode position paints, can and container coating air craft coating, domestic appliances,
coil coating, textile and fabrics coating/dye.
Decorative: This group includes all top coats and under coats that are primarily intended for
decorative purpose, though along the time also provides protective purpose. This is the most
common type of paint used on building, windows doors, ceilings etc. This category of paint is
commonly produced at mission enterprises; it can further be classified into water-based paints
and oil-based paints.
 Water-based paint: These observations known as water thinned paint. This class of paint
uses water as its solvent, medium or thinner they dry by evaporation. It includes emulsion
paint, texcoat paint, semi-gloss paint and screeding bond or Plaster of Paris (POP).
• Emulsion paints: This is a type of water-based paint in which the vehicle is a binder
(PVA) or acrylic in water. Emulsion simply means any mixture of liquids that do not
normally mix together in which the internal phase is dispersed uniformly throughout a
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second continuous liquid phase. Other components that form this type of paint are
pigments, extenders like calcium carbonate and additives that enhance the properties of
the products.
• Texcoat paints: This paint differs from the emulsion paint only in the proportion of water
needed for its production and the addition of marble dust which are also extenders which
makes viscosity and texture of the texcoat paints higher than that of emulsion and any
other type of paint.
• Semi-gloss paint: This is usually a high water-based paint which does not need extenders
in its production. More of pigments like titanium oxide are usually used to enhance the
opacity and coverage on the surface application as a result; it is usually the most
expensive of all water-based paint produced at mission enterprise and chemical industry.
These give high opacity when applied on a surface.
• Screeding bond /POP: This is usually used as an under coat. It gives a uniform color
hiding; any color variation at the surface being painted and provides a non-absorbent
surface which will not reduce the gloss of the finishing coats. It contains more calcium
carbonate (extender) compared to emulsion and texcoat paints and thicker than emulsion
paint.
 Oil-based paint: This type of paint is also known as gloss paint/alkyd-based
paints/organic based paints. They are called oil paints because initially oil is used in place
of resins. Organic solvent like kerosene, mineral spirit, turpentine, alcohol etc., are its
solvent and thinner hence the name organic solvent-based paints. At Brightdiogo
industries, we use kerosene, we use kerosene as the basic solvent in oil paints. Some of
the properties include:
i. They impact shining property to a surface.
ii. They can be cleaned of dirt and stains.
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iii. They have high heat absorption property which increases the temperature of its
surroundings.
iv. They are durable and antioxidant, hence used for coating metals to avoid corrosion.
v. They dry by oxidation process.
2.4 Basic Components of Paints
The selection of components used to manufacture paint will affect its stability, application
characteristics handling, clean up, disposal and most importantly, the performance of the
product on which it is applied. Components of paint can be basically discussed under the
following:
1) Binders
2) Pigments
3) Solvents
4) Additives
5) Extenders
Binders (resins): A binder is the non-volatile and film forming portion of the vehicle of
paint; it binds or cements the pigments particles together and other components of the paint
as a whole to the material or surface it is applied. They can be synthetic or natural. Natural
resin is a glassy amorphous organic substance produced either in the metabolism of tree
growth, for example, copal. Synthetic resin originally is a number of groups of synthetic
substances which resemble and share some of the properties of natural resins, but now used
for materials which bear little resemblance to natural resins. Synthetic resins refer to a
heterogeneous group of compounds produced from simpler compounds by condensation or
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polymerization, some of the binders include alkyd resins, vinyl-based resins, silicones,
polyurethanes.
• Alkyd resins: This is a type of binder mostly used in the production of gloss paints. The
name alkyd is accredited to Kienle, who in 1927 modified polyester with mono-functional
carboxylic acids. Alkyd resins can be classified as polyesters because they are produced
through multiple etherification reactions. The commonest components of polyester resins
which are alkyd resins are glycerol and phthalic anhydride, Phthalic acid reacts as the
corresponding dibasic acid and glycerol is a trihydric alcohol. The initial reaction product
of glycerol and phthalic anhydride when heated at 150-200ºC is the half-ester, glyceryl
phthalate; there is no water of reaction in this case as an anhydride is used.
Figure 2.1: Structure of alkyd
On further heating, esterification continues and long chain molecules are produced which
contain free hydroxyl groups. As condensation proceeds and the molecules become larger,
the resins formed lose their solubility in solvents and also become infusible. Prevention of
rapid formation of very large molecules is achieved using monohydric alcohols like
cyclohexane.
• Vinyl based resins: This class of resins can be homo-polymers e.g. polyvinyl chloride or
co-polymers. Vinyl based resins can be prepared in a wide range of molecular weights.
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Higher molecular weights yield tougher films and takes longer time to complete film
integration. An example of vinyl-based resins used at Brightdiogo Industries is polyvinyl
acetate (PVA). This is a rubbery synthetic polymer with the formula (C 4H6O2)n. It is a
whitish, thermoplastic, water insoluble, resinous high polymer derived from
polymerization of vinyl acetate (its monomer) with a catalyst; used as a later binder in
water-based paints. Further research shows that polyvinyl acetate may be introduced a
benzene solution of vinyl acetate containing the desired catalyst into a jacket vessel. At a
temperature of about 72ºC, the mixture boils and the vapors are condensed and returned
to the kettle. After about 5hours at a gentle boil, the reaction mixture is run to a still; the
solvent and unchanged vinyl acetate are removed by steam distillation. The molten resin
is then either run into drums, where it solidifies or extruded into rods and sliced flakes.
Generally, the binder or resin in paint (either oil or water based) helps to bind the other
components in paint together in a cohesive, continuous film and provides the adhesive
power for paint to stick to a substrate. It is largely responsible for drying time, toughness,
adhesion, resistance to water and chemical durability, flammability and water retention of
the coating. The shell life of depends on the quality and quantity of the binder used. At
mission enterprise and chemical industry some of the brand names of PVA used are:
acrylic 557, acrylic 505.
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Figure 2.2: Drum of Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA)
Pigments: Pigments are naturally occurring or synthetically produced fine organic and
inorganic powdered solid that are dispersed in paints to provide certain characteristics to
them including color, opacity (hiding power), durability, mechanical strength and corrosion
protection for metallic substrates. Organic pigments are used for decorative purposes while
inorganic pigments are traditionally added for protective properties. Their major functions are
the color and hiding properties. They have inherent characteristics like color, thinning
strength, color fastness and opacity. Some pigments are titanium oxides, iron oxides, black
oxide, red paste, blue paste, green paste, etc. Pigments have to be uniformly dispersed in the
binder to provide consistent appearance. They have to remain in suspension or be easy to
disperse if settling occurs.
Types of pigments: Pigments used in paint production are,
• Prime pigments and colorants: These are pigment whose main function lies in
providing color and opacity (hiding power). Example is titanium dioxide and it is
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whitening chemical in powdery form. It performs main function of making sure that the
paint has coverage.
Figure 2.3: Titanium Dioxide
• Complementary pigments: They are also called titanium spacers because they enhance
the spacing of titanium dioxide in paints. They are used in colouring the paint to the
desired colour. They can either be oxides(in powder form) for example red oxide, blue
oxide, yellow oxide, black oxide, chrome yellow oxide, etc., or paste(in semi-liquid form)
for example green paste, blue paste, red paste, black paste, etc. They can also impart
special properties to the paint example is Antimony oxide which when incorporated into
water-based paint, imparts fire resistance property to the system.
Figure 2.4: Chart Showing Colour Oxides.
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Additives: Besides the main categories of ingredients, paint can have a wide variety of
miscellaneous additives, which are usually added in small amounts, yet provide a significant
effect on the product. Some examples include additives to modify surface tension, improve
flow properties, improve the finished appearance, increase wet edge, improve pigment
stability, impart antifreeze properties, control foaming, control skinning, etc. Other types of
additives include catalysts, thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, texturizers, adhesion
promoters, UV stabilizers, flatteners (de-glossing agents), biocides to fight bacterial growth
and the like. Additives normally do not significantly alter the percentages of individual
components in a formulation. Some examples of additives are listed below, they include:
• Thickeners: This is a non-ionic, water soluble powdered polymers that are added to
thicken (increase viscosity) of the coating. Thickeners used in water paints are cellulose
based and its derivatives examples are Natrosol(hydroxyethyl cellulose),
Hecellose(hydroxyethyl cellulose), Millocell(cellulose ether), etc. Thickeners are usually
added to paints in the form of solution rather than as dry powders to minimize seeding.
Figure 2.5: Thickener
• Preservatives: Preservatives are mostly used in water-based paints because they are
prone to deterioration pertaining to the water medium and cellulose based materials used
which provide nutrients for micro-organisms. The indications of these microbial activities
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include offensive odor, discoloration, and loss of viscosity. Bacteria and fungi are the
main culprit micro-organisms. The following preservatives were used at Brightdiogo
Industries:
a) Biocide: Is an antimicrobial additive and is used to keep bacteria from spoiling the paint
during storage.
Figure 2.6: 25 Liters of Biocide
b) Formalin (Formaldehyde): They serve the same function as biocide.
c) Anti-Fungi: This is used in paint production to prevent the growth of fungi.
Dispersing agent/wetting agent: This is introduced into a paint system to aid in effective
distribution of pigments and its aggregates to yield uniform mixture. At Brightdiogo
Industries a white powdery hydroscopic substance called Calgon (Sodium
Hexametaphosphate) was used. It slows down sedimentation and prevents coagulation.
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Figure 2.7: A bag of Calgon
Aluminum silicate: This is a white powdery substance which is normally used in the
production of brilliant white to add whitening effect.
Defoamer: It is used to defoam paint during production.
Genepol: It improves the wetting of the pigments used for coating formulation and the
wetting of the coated surface. It makes the paint to foam, holding the paint materials
together and more homogenous.
Texanol: provides the highest level of film integrity at low levels of coalescent, enhancing
the performance properties of the paint including low temperature coalescence, touch-up,
scrub resistance, washability, colour development, thermal flexibility, and resistance to mud
cracking. It helps the paint to be shining and durable.
Ammonia: In paint production, it serves as a catalyst that speeds up the reaction and effect of
thickener.
Marble dust: This is usually used in the production of texcoat paints. It is of two types rough
and smooth. The preference is determined by what you want to achieve. If you want sandy or
teeth texcoat i.e. the one without lining, you use only rough type. However, the combination
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of both in the same ratio gives a better result. For textured paint that will be used for printing,
use only smooth marble dust.
Figure 2.8: Marble Dust
Dryers: are those substances which are added to drying oils to accelerate the rate of drying.
They act as catalysts in the oxidation process of the drying oils. The linoleates, resinates, and
naphthalene of metals like lead, magnesium, and vanadium are commonly used dryer.
Extenders: They are also called fillers. This chemical is also in powdery form. It is packaged
in bags (paint flour). A Filler is a substance which can be added to paints to increase its bulk
volume without effecting its useful properties. These materials (Fillers) are necessarily inert
towards other components of paint. Commonly used extenders are: Calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). Calcium carbonate is of two types which are based on their colour; Off-white and
White Calcium. Both are good but white calcium is recommended if you are producing pure
white paint and off-white is better in off white (other colours) paint, kaolin, chalk, gypsum,
barite, silica and magnesium silicate.
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Figure 2.9: Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
2.5 Qualities of A Good Paint
A good paint must have the following qualities, namely;
1. Good Hiding Power: It should be capable of covering the existing surface of material
uniformly and thoroughly.
2. Colour: After its use on outer surfaces, they are exposed to the atmosphere. Due to the
exposure to the atmosphere, it may be affected by rain or various types of radiation from
sunlight, which will cause bad effects on its ‘Colour.’ Good paints must maintain its color
under all these conditions or in any other circumstance.
3. Resistance: Paints should be chemically inert to the atmosphere. This is essential if it has
to protect the underlying surface of a metal.
4. Easy Application: They might have to be used over wide surface areas. It is, therefore,
necessary that it should be of such a nature that can be spread easily, smoothly, and
uniformly.
5. Economical in Cost: Types of Paint should be selected according to the construction, and
its cost should be as low as possible. Costly paints should not be used in common
constructions.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Paint Formulation/Production
Paint formulation can be defined as the proportionate listing of all the raw materials as would
be contained in a paint composition. Some factors that are considered before formulation are
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cost, place of application (whether interior or exterior), paint type, consistency in viscosity,
appearance, durability and package conditions.
Formulation of some type of paints will be discussed below.
3.2 Production of water-based paint
The various operations needed to mix paint are wholly physical. The manufacture of paints
involves the dispersion of the pigments into part of the binder and solvents by way of a
disperser or grinding mill. The various types of paints produced are emulsion, texcoat, oil
paints silk paint, matt paint, potty(filler) and screeding bond which are based on the request
of the consumer. What differs among the various types of water-based paints are the quantity
and quality of PVA, titanium dioxide and finally quantity of additives added during
production of brand.
3.3 Types of paint produced at Brightdiogo Industries
The following are the different types of paint produced at Brightdiogo Industries,
• Vista Best High-Quality Emulsion paint.
• Vista Best High-Quality Texcoat paint.
• Vista Best High-Quality Screeding paint.
• Vista Best High-Quality Oil paint.
• Vista Best High-Quality Matt paint.
• Vista Best High-Quality Silk paint.
• Vista Best High-Quality Potty(Filler).
3.3.1 Production of Vista Best Emulsion (Brilliant White) Paint
• Aim: To produce 20 buckets of Vista Best emulsion (brilliant white) paint.
• Basis: 40 minutes
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• The quality controller technician weighs the necessary materials required for the
production.
• Apparatus used: High speed disperser (1,200 liters capacity) and weighing balance.
Figure 2.10: High Speed Disperser Machine
• Materials: The following materials are used in the production of brilliant white emulsion
paint, the include;
Table 3.1: Table showing the list of materials used in the production of brilliant white
emulsion paint.
Materials Mass(kg) Volume(liter)
Water - 180
Calcium carbonate (white) 325 -
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) 40 -
26
Titanium dioxide 10 -
Aluminium silicate 2 -
Thickener (natrosol) 2 -
Calgon 1 -
Biocide - 1
Ammonia - 1
Genepol - 10
Defoamer - 1
Production Process:
i. The apparatus needed for the mixing of the paint materials is washed and made ready for
use.
ii. Assemble 325kg (6½ bags) of calcium carbonate near the dispersing machine for easy
feed.
iii. 180 liters of water is fed into the dispersing machine.
iv. Measure 10kg of titanium dioxide and 1kg of calgon and pour into the dispersing
machine.
v. The disperser machine is switched on to run for 2 minutes before adding the calcium
carbonate.
vi. With the machine on and its shaft rotating about its axis, feed in 325kg of the calcium
carbonate.
27
vii. As the mixing proceeds the following should be added gradually:
a. 2kg natrosol (thickener), this is added in solution form.
b. 1 liter of biocide.
c. 1 liter of ammonia.
viii. After having fed the entire component, the machine is left to run for a homogenous
mixture of the paint for 15 minutes.
Figure 2.11: Produced White Emulsion Paint.
3.3.2 Production of Vista Best Silk Paint (Off White).
Aim: To produce 10 buckets of Vista Best Silk paint (Off white)
Basis: 30 minutes
The quality controller technician weighs the necessary materials required for the production.
Materials: The following materials are used in the production of off-white silk paint, the
include;
Table 3.2: Table showing list of materials used in the production of off-white silk paint.
28
Water - 30
Titan 40 (4 per bucket) -
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) 80 (8 per bucket) -
Calgon 2 -
Texanol - 10 (1 per bucket)
Genepol - 10 (1 per bucket)
Yellow oxide 1 -
Biocide - 1
Ammonia - 1
Apparatus: Electric disperser machine and mixing drum (1000) liters and weighing balance.
Production Process:
i. The apparatus to be used for the production is properly washed and is made ready to
be used.
ii. In the apparatus to be used, 30 liters of water is fed into the mixing tank.
iii. 40kg of Titanium dioxide is poured into the tank and 1.5kg of Calgon is added to the
tank and the mixture is properly stirred for 2 minutes for proper mixing.
iv. Add 80kg of polyvinyl acetate (PVA) to the mixture and stir properly for 5 minutes.
v. In a different container, dissolve 0.5kg of yellow oxide using water and 0.5kg Calgon,
then pour into the mixture and stir properly for 5 minutes.
29
vi. In the mixture, add the following additives;
a) 10 liters of texanol
b) 10 liters of genepol
c) 1kg of thickener (natrosol), the thickener is added in the form of solution.
d) 1 liter of biocide
e) 0.5 liter of ammonia
vii. After feeding in all the components, the mixture is stirred properly for 18 minutes and
the paint is ready.
3.3.3 Production of Vista Best Screeding Paint
Aim: To produce 20 buckets of vista best screeding paint.
Basis: 40 minutes
Materials: The materials used in the production of screeding paint is listed below;
Table 3.3: Table showing list of materials used in the production of Screeding paint.
Calcium carbonate 350 -
Water - 200
Ammonia - 1
Biocide - 1
30
Apparatus: Electric disperser machine and mixing drum (1000) liters and weighing balance.
Production Process;
i. The apparatus needed for the mixing of the paint materials is washed and made ready
for use.
ii. Assemble 350kg (7 bags) of calcium carbonate near the dispersing machine for easy
feed.
iii. 200 liters of water is fed into the mixing drum.
iv. Measure out 30kg of polyvinyl acetate (PVA) and pour into the mixing drum.
v. The electric disperser machine is switched on to run for 2 minutes before adding the
calcium carbonate.
vi. With the machine on and its shaft rotating about its axis, feed in 350kg of the calcium
carbonate.
vii. As the mixing proceeds the following additives should be added gradually:
a) 2kg natrosol (thickener), the thickener is added in the form of solution.
b) 1 liter of biocide.
c) 1 liter of ammonia.
viii. After having fed the entire component, the machine is left to run for a homogenous
3.3.4 Production of Vista Best Emulsion Texcoat (Dark Grey) Paint
Aim: To produce 10 buckets of Vista Best Emulsion texcoat paint (Dark Grey).
Basis: 60 minutes
31
Materials: The materials used in the production of dark grey emulsion texcoat paint is listed
below;
Table 3.4: Table showing list of materials used in the production of Texcoat paint.
Water - 60
Calcium carbonate 125 -
Titanium dioxide 5 -
Marble dust 100 -
Black oxide 1 -
Blue oxide 0.5 -
Thickener(natrosol) 1 -
Calgon 1 -
Biocide - 1
Ammonia - 1
Apparatus: High disperser machine and mixing tank (1500) liters and weighing balance.
Production Process:
i. The apparatus needed for the mixing of the paint materials is washed and made ready
for use.
32
ii. Assemble 125kg (2.5bags) of calcium carbonate(off-white) and 100kg (4bags) of
marble dust near the dispersing machine for easy feed.
iii. 60 liters of water is fed into the dispersing machine.
iv. Measure 5kg of titanium dioxide, 0.5kg of calgon, 25kg of PVA and pour into the
dispersing machine.
v. The disperser machine is switched on to run for 2 minutes.
vi. In two different containers dissolve 1kg of black oxide and 0.5kg of blue oxide using
water and Calgon. Add the colours gradually in the mixture in the mixing tank until
you get the desired colour (dark grey).
vii. With the machine on and its shaft rotating about its axis, feed in 125kg of the calcium
carbonate.
viii. As the mixing proceeds the following additives should be added gradually:
a) 1kg natrosol (thickener), the thickener is added in the form of solution.
b) 1 liter of biocide.
c) 1 liter of ammonia.
ix. In the mixture, add 100kg of marble dust.
x. After having fed the entire component, the machine is left to run for a homogenous
N/B: The colour is added before the calcium carbonate so that it does not hang and mix
properly.
3.3.5 Production of Vista Best Black Oil Paint
Aim: To produce 1 gallon (4 liters) of Vista Best black oil paint.
Basis: 20 minutes
33
Materials: The materials used for the production of black oil paint is listed below;
Table 3.4: Table showing list of materials used in the production of Oil paint.
Kerosene - 1
Alkyd 2 -
Black oil colour 0.25 -
Dryer 0.25 -
Texanol 0.25 -
Apparatus: A bucket was used and this was mixed using hand.
Production Process:
i. The apparatus needed to produce the paint is washed and made ready for use.
ii. Pour in 2kg of alkyd into the mixing bucket.
iii. Add 1 liter of kerosene and stir properly to dissolve the alkyd, this is done for 5 minutes.
iv. In the mixture, add 0.25kg of black oil colour, and continue to stir.
v. Add 0.25kg of texanol and 0.25kg of dryer, then stir properly.
vi. After adding all the components, continue to stir the mixture for 10 minutes to get a
homogenous mixture of the paint.
3.4 Brief Description and Functions of Components Used in Paint
1. Water: Water is an inorganic solvent used in water-based paints. It is the carrier for the
non-volatile components. It controls flow and application properties.
34
2. Calcium carbonate: This is a white extender pigment derived from limestone or dolomite
(which consists of calcium carbonate with up to 44% magnesium carbonate. It gives
characteristics such as easy spreading, improved anti-corrosion.
3. Calgon (Sodium hexameta-phosphate): Calgon is a dispersing agent used in paint
production. It slows down sedimentation, stabilizes water hardness.
4. Titanium dioxide: This is a white pigment used in the coatings industry. It is widely used
because it efficiently scatters visible light, thereby imparting whiteness, brightness and
opacity when incorporated into a coating.
5. Polyvinyl acetate (PVA): This is a whitish non-volatile portion of the liquid part of a
coating. It serves as the binder which holds the different components of the paint together
and sticks to the wall of the building.
6. Thickener: They are white fine powdery substance. Thickeners are used in paint systems
to achieve particular rheological properties such as shear-rate dependent behavior, to
control the viscosity at low and high shear rates, sag resistance and application viscosity.
7. Defoamer: The additive is used to prevent formation of foam or is added to break foam
already formed. In industrial processes, foams pose serious problems.
8. Marble dust: Naturally they are limestone based and gotten when crushed. They are added
to paint and mediums to create textural and bodying qualities to paint without affecting
the color.
9. Biocide: Is an antimicrobial additive and is used to keep bacteria from spoiling the paint
during storage.
10. Ammonia: In paint production, it serves as a catalyst that speeds up the reaction and
effect of thickener.
11. Kerosene: Is an organic solvent used in the production of oil-based paint. Kerosene is
used as a diluent or solvent in oil paints. It helps to thin the paint consistency, making it
35
easier to work with. Artists often use kerosene to achieve different levels of transparency
and viscosity in their paint layers.
12. Alkyd: Alkyd resins are widely used in the production of oil-based paints. They serve as a
binder or medium that holds the pigment particles together and helps them adhere to the
painting surface.
CHAPTER FOUR
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND PROBLEMS SOLUTION
4.1 Problems Encountered
36
During the course of my industrial training at Brightdiogo Industries, the following are some
of the problems I encountered when learning the process of water-based paint manufacturing.
Bubble formation: This is mostly found in water-based paints and seen when paints are
being applied on substrates, the bubbles break to form “pin holes”. It can be formed by
excessive agitation of the paint by the dispersing machine leading to generation heat causing
the molecules to try and escape.
Color consistency: Achieving consistent color from batch to batch can be challenging.
Variations in pigment sourcing, pigment dispersion, and formulation can lead to color
discrepancies. Quality control measures, such as regular color testing and adjustment, are
essential to maintain color consistency.
Settling and separation: Paint formulations can experience settling or separation of
pigments and other components over time. This can result in an uneven distribution of solids,
leading to poor color uniformity and decreased performance. Proper mixing techniques and
the use of effective dispersing agents or rheology modifiers can help prevent settling and
maintain stability.
Viscosity control: Paint needs to have the appropriate viscosity for proper application.
Inadequate control of viscosity can result in issues such as poor leveling, sagging, or
difficulty in application. Monitoring and adjusting the viscosity using suitable additives or
solvents are crucial to achieving the desired consistency.
Drying time: Paint should dry within a reasonable time frame to allow for efficient
application and curing. Problems can arise if the drying time is too fast or too slow. Factors
such as ambient temperature, humidity, formulation, and application thickness can affect the
drying characteristics. Proper formulation adjustments and optimizing drying conditions can
help address these challenges.
37
Adhesion and durability: Paint should adhere well to the intended surface and exhibit good
durability over time. Poor adhesion can lead to peeling, cracking, or flaking, while inadequate
durability can result in premature fading or deterioration. Proper surface preparation, suitable
binders, and additives designed for improved adhesion and durability are important
considerations in paint production.
Environmental and regulatory compliance: Paint production involves the use of various
chemicals, solvents, and additives, which may have environmental and regulatory
implications. Compliance with regulations regarding volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
hazardous substances, waste disposal, and worker safety is essential. Developing eco-friendly
formulations and following best practices help mitigate environmental concerns.
4.2 Problems Solution
The following problems mentioned above which I encountered in Brightdiogo Industries
were solved by these steps.
Bubble formation: Adequate amount of defoamer was used to solve this problem and also
limit the extent of agitation in order to avoid heat generated by the high-speed disperser.
Color consistency:
i. Establish and adhere to strict quality control procedures, including regular color testing
and comparison to standardized color samples.
ii. Use high-quality pigments from reliable suppliers to ensure consistency.
iii. Implement effective pigment dispersion techniques, such as high-speed mixing or milling,
to achieve uniform color distribution.
Settling and separation:
38
i. Utilize appropriate dispersing agents or rheology modifiers to prevent settling and ensure
stable formulations.
ii. Implement proper mixing techniques and equipment to maintain uniform suspension of
solids.
iii. Conduct regular testing and agitation of stored paint to prevent settling over time.
Viscosity control:
i. Monitor viscosity throughout the production process using suitable measurement tools
and adjust as needed.
ii. Incorporate viscosity modifiers or thickeners to achieve the desired consistency.
iii. Optimize formulation and solvent selection to achieve the desired viscosity and flow
characteristics.
Drying time:
i. Conduct thorough testing to determine the optimal drying time for specific paint
formulations.
ii. Adjust the formulation and drying conditions, such as temperature and humidity, to
achieve the desired drying time.
iii. Ensure proper ventilation and airflow during the drying process to facilitate faster and
more uniform drying.
Adhesion and durability:
i. Conduct thorough surface preparation, including cleaning, sanding, and priming, to
enhance adhesion.
ii. Select appropriate binders and additives designed for improved adhesion and durability.
39
iii. Conduct rigorous testing to ensure paint formulations meet the required performance
standards for adhesion and durability.
Environmental and regulatory compliance:
i. Stay updated on relevant regulations and standards regarding VOCs, hazardous
substances, waste disposal, and worker safety.
ii. Develop eco-friendly paint formulations by reducing or eliminating harmful chemicals
and substituting with environmentally friendly alternatives.
iii. Implement proper waste management practices, such as recycling or responsible disposal
of paint waste and containers.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Summary
40
Paint production involves the careful formulation and manufacturing of paint to meet specific
performance requirements. The process includes combining pigments, binders, solvents, and
additives to create a consistent and stable paint formulation. However, several challenges can
arise during paint production.
One common problem is color consistency, which can be addressed through strict quality
control procedures, the use of high-quality pigments, and effective pigment dispersion
techniques. Settling and separation of components can be prevented by using dispersing
agents and proper mixing techniques. Viscosity control is essential to achieve the desired
consistency, and it can be managed through viscosity modifiers and formulation adjustments.
Drying time is another important factor, and it can be optimized through formulation
adjustments and controlling drying conditions. Adhesion and durability issues can be tackled
by thorough surface preparation, suitable binders, and additives designed for improved
performance. Environmental and regulatory compliance is crucial, and it involves staying
updated on regulations, developing eco-friendly formulations, and implementing proper
waste management practices.
Solutions to these problems include quality control measures, regular testing, utilizing
appropriate additives and solvents, optimizing formulation and processing conditions, and
adhering to environmental and regulatory standards. Continuous research and development,
collaboration with industry experts, and staying informed about advancements in paint
technology contribute to improving paint production processes.
By addressing these challenges and implementing effective solutions, paint manufacturers
can produce high-quality, consistent, and environmentally friendly paints that meet customer
expectations and regulatory requirements.
5.2 Conclusion
41
The Students Industrial Experience Scheme has truly been a haunting one and of great benefit
to me in no finite measure. The major benefits enjoyed by students who participate
meticulously and diligently in their industrial training are the immeasurable skills and
competence they acquire. This is because the knowledge and skills acquired through training
are internalized and become relevant when required to perform future jobs or functions in
their various industries.
In conclusion paint or surface coatings are used in almost all branches of science and
technology. The most common areas of application include decorative or household paints,
marine coatings, plant and chromium plating of motor cars, thick copper coatings of printing
rollers, very thin anti reflection coatings on camera lenses, high temperature diffusion
coatings. The use of coatings cannot be over-emphasized and its production requires the
meticulous attention of scientifically trained technician and professional chemists and
chemical engineer. Also, paint production is a complex process that involves carefully
formulating and manufacturing paint to achieve desired properties and performance. The
process incorporates various components such as pigments, binders, solvents, and additives,
which must be balanced to create a stable and consistent paint formulation.
5.3 Recommendation
Also as earlier stated, SIWES is a generic program with its impact and effectiveness cutting
across all SIWES-approved disciplines including Chemical Engineering. However, two
points need to be made with respect to SIWES in Chemical Engineering.
Firstly, Chemical Engineering has the peculiar problem of scarcity of quality places of
industrial attachment. Although nearly all materials in modern civilization passes through one
form of chemical processing or the other and, therefore, placement should normally not be a
problem for chemical engineering students, the reality is that finding quality places of
42
attachment for this category of students is becoming very discouraging. This is, to a large
extent, attributable to the decline in industrial activity in the economy and the large numbers
of chemical engineering students in tertiary institutions competing for the limited available
places. With improvements in the level of industrial activity in the economy the problems of
finding quality places of attachment for students of chemical engineering and/or petroleum
and gas engineering might disintegrate.
The second point that needs to be made is that SIWES is not and cannot be a substitute for
structured professional training in Chemical Engineering as well as in other engineering
fields. At best, SIWES is a pre-qualification introduction into the chemical engineering
profession that enables the student to appreciate how the profession is practiced in real life.
Apart from passing appropriate examinations in the principles that under chemical
engineering, the professional chemical engineer must also have received practical training in
the skills and duties of an engineer and must also have obtained sufficient experience in
carrying out the duties of a professional post (The Institution of Chemical Engineers, 1974).
For the professional development of chemical engineering graduates from Nigerian tertiary
institutions, a system of practical training and garnering of experience similar to that outlined
by the Institution of Chemical Engineers, United Kingdom needs to be adopted. Such training
and experience should cover Process Plant Fabrication and Materials of Construction, Process
and Plant Development, Process and Plant Design, Process Plant Operation, Quality
Assessment of Process Materials, and General Company/Management Training.
REFRENCES
1. Allen, C. R. quoted in Craig, R. L. (1987). Training and Development Handbook, 3rd. ed.
McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 10.
43
2. COREN (1991). Supervised Industrial Training Scheme in Engineering (SITSIE).
Council of Registered Engineers of Nigeria.
3. Flick, E.W., Water Based Paint Formulations, Park Ridge N.J., 1975.
Flick, E.W Solvent-Based Paint Formulation, Noyes, Park Ridge N.J. 1977.
4. Lambourne, R; Strivens, T A (1999). Paint and Surface Coatings: Theory and Practice
(2nd ed.).
5. Rodger Talbert: Paint Technology Handbook 3rd ed, Taylor and Francis Group LLC,
2008.
6. Patton, T.C: Pigments in Paint, Noyes Park Ridgo, N.J. 1974.
7. Ramney, M.H: Powder Coatings Technology, Boyes, Park Ridge, N.J. 1975.
8. Weismentel, G: Paint Handbook, MC Graw-Hill, New York, 1981
9. Wicks, Zeno W. Jr.; Jones, Frank N.; Pappas, S. Peter; Wicks, Doublas A. (2004).
Organic Coatings: Science and Technology (3rd ed.).
44

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SIWES REPORT 2023|NAU/FEG/CHE/2017214007

1.1 General Overview of SIWES

1.1.1 Meaning of SIWES

1.1.2 Brief History of SIWES

students the opportunity to get real work experience.

industrial training policy was introduced by Federal Government of Nigeria in 1973 to

improve practical skills of students.

Specifications on Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme).

1.2 General Objectives of SIWES

that may not be available within the walls of an educational institution.

situations, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice;

1.3 Organization and Operation of SIWES

The organization of the Students’ Industrial Work-Experience Scheme (SIWES) involves

many stakeholders as follows:

• Federal Government (Federal Ministry of Commerce & Industry)

• Industrial Training Fund (SIWES Division)

• Supervising/Regulatory Agencies (NUC, NBTE, NCCE)

• Industry/Employers (NECA, NACCIMA, MAN, Government Establishments)

• Tertiary Institutions (Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of Education) and

• Student Trainees (Engineering, Science, Technology, NCE Technical).

Figure 1.1: Relationship amongst SIWES Stakeholders.

1.4 Benefits of Industrial Training

being familiarized to processes and exposed to the required experience in handling

the ethics of their professions.

equipment and machinery which may not be available in their institutions.

engineering technologists, scientists and engineers, as well as enhances their future

them develop inter-personal relationships at their fields of work.

to make modifications where necessary.

relevant production skills required in work organizations.

related disciplines in the production of goods and services.

1.5 Company Profile

1.5.1 Brief History of Brightdiogo Industries.

Brightdiogo Industries is a registered company with Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC), it

 Vista Best High-Quality Emulsion Paint.

 Vista Best High-Quality Matt Paint.

 Vista Best High-Quality Silk Paint.

 Vista Best High-Quality Screeding Paint.

 Vista Best High-Quality Screeding Potty/Filler.

 Vista Best High-Quality Oil/Gloss Paint.

 Vista Best High-Quality Texcoat Paint.

1.5.2 Aims and objectives of Brightdiogo Industries.

The following are the aims and objectives of the industry,

 To achieve high levels of customer satisfaction

 To provide high quality paints as per market demands.

 To manufacture quality products of international standard locally.

1.5.3 Organogram of Brightdiogo Industries

Figure 1.2: Organogram of Brightdiogo Industries.

2.1 Brief Background of Paint

engineered product made of different component such as binders, solvents, extenders,

artistic materials and promotion of functionality to an object or surface which it is applied

their functionality in different occasions.

beauty to the applied material.

2.2 Origin of Paint

and balsams to the exposed wood of their ships.

and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries.

exposed them to lead poisoning, due to the white-lead powder.

components and grind easily dispersed pigments.

2.3 Classification of Paint

ii. Based on function

iv. Industrial and specialty coating

which it was dissolved.

substrate it is being applied. These functions include:

coating system to the surface.

painted. It is applied using palette knife.