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i

The Oxford History of the Ancient

Near East
ii

The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East

Editors: Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, and D. T. Potts

This groundbreaking, five-volume series offers a comprehensive, fully

illustrated history of Egypt and Western Asia (the Levant, Anatolia,
Mesopotamia, and Iran), from the emergence of complex states to the
conquest of Alexander the Great. Written by a highly diverse, interna-
tional team of leading scholars, whose expertise brings to life the people,
places, and times of the remote past, the volumes in this series focus
firmly on the political and social histories of the states and communities
of the ancient Near East. Individual chapters present the key textual and
material sources underpinning the historical reconstruction, paying par-
ticular attention to the most recent archaeological finds and their impact
on our historical understanding of the periods surveyed.
Volume 1: From the Beginnings to Old Kingdom Egypt and the Dynasty
of Akkad
Volume 2: From the End of the Third Millennium bc to the Fall of
Babylon
iii

The Oxford
History of the
Ancient Near East
Volume II: From the End of the
Third Millennium bc to the Fall
of Babylon
z
Edited by
KAREN RADNER
NADINE MOELLER
D. T. POTTS

1
iv

1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2022

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Radner, Karen, editor, author. | Moeller, Nadine, editor, author. |
Potts, Daniel T., editor, author.
Title: The Oxford history of the ancient Near East /
edited by Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, and Daniel T. Potts.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2022. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Contents: Volume 2. From the end of the third millennium BC to the fall of Babylon
Identifiers: LCCN 2020002854 | ISBN 9780190687571 (v. 2: hardback) |
ISBN 9780190687595 (v. 2: epub) | ISBN 9780197601037 (v. 2: online)
Subjects: LCSH: Egypt—Civilization. | Egypt—Antiquities. |
Egypt—History—Sources. | Middle East—Civilization. |
Middle East—Antiquities. | Middle East—History—Sources.
Classification: LCC DT60 .O97 2020 | DDC 939.4—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020002854

DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780190687571.001.0001

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
v

Contents

Preface  vii
Time Chart  xi
The Contributors  xiii
Abbreviations  xix

11. Establishing an Absolute Chronology of the Middle

Bronze Age (Felix Höflmayer)  1

12. Egypt in the First Intermediate Period ( Juan Carlos

Moreno García)  47

13. The Kingdom of Ur (Steven J. Garfinkle)  121

14. The Middle East after the Fall of Ur: Isin and Larsa (Klaus
Wagensonner)  190

15. The Middle East after the Fall of Ur: From Assur to the
Levant (Ilya Arkhipov)  310

16. The Middle East after the Fall of Ur: From Ešnunna and the
Zagros to Susa (Katrien De Graef )  408
vi

vi Contents

17. Before the Kingdom of the Hittites: Anatolia in the Middle

Bronze Age (Gojko Barjamovic)  497

18. The Kingdom of Babylon and the Kingdom of the Sealand

(Odette Boivin)  566

19. Egypt’s Middle Kingdom: A View from Within (Harco

Willems)  656

20. Middle Kingdom Egypt and Africa (Kathryn A. Bard)  728

21. Middle Kingdom Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean

(Ezra S. Marcus)  777

22. Egypt’s Middle Kingdom: Perspectives on Culture and

Society (Wolfram Grajetzki)  854

Index  925
vi

Preface

This is the second volume of the Oxford History of the Ancient Near
East, which covers Egypt and Nubia, the Levant, Anatolia, Mesopotamia,
and Iran from the turn of the third to the second millennium bc and
through the first half of that millennium, broadly corresponding to the
Middle Bronze Age. The first volume (published in August 2020) closed
with the end of the Old Kingdom in Egypt and of the Akkad state in
Mesopotamia, and as we stated in its preface, future generations of schol-
ars will hopefully establish whether we should have included Egypt’s
First Intermediate Period and/​or the kingdom of the Third Dynasty of
Ur in that volume. Their discussion opens the present volume, after a
chapter devoted to the absolute chronology of the first half of the second
millennium bc and the possibilities, problems, and priorities inherent in
the different sources, including historical data, archaeological finds, and
stratigraphies, and radiocarbon-​dated, organic materials that need to be
correlated and synchronized across a vast geographical region from the
Nile to Iran.
In Egypt, the Middle Kingdom constituted a long-​lived, and rela-
tively well-​documented, state that greatly influenced the neighboring
regions in Nubia and the Levant. Further east, the political organization
of Mesopotamia and Syria after the disintegration of the kingdom of
Ur can be described as a mosaic of medium-​sized, small, and single-​city
states, with quickly changing alliances and several short-​lived attempts to
establish larger political units; the most successful project loomed large
in Iran from which the Sukkalmah Dynasty’s power at times reached as
far as northern Syria. The availability of sources for this “warring state
vi

viii Preface

period” is extremely uneven, with the events of some decades docu-

mented in great detail in certain places, while otherwise centuries can
be sketched in rough outlines only. We therefore decided to organize
this part of the volume geographically in four chapters, with a regional
focus on southern Mesopotamia; on northern Mesopotamia and Syria;
on the eastern Tigris region and Iran; and on Anatolia. The emergence
of a kingdom centered on Babylon eventually led to a brief period of
political unification under Hammurabi and his successors that came to
an end with the “Fall of Babylon”; the relevant chapter covers also the
rival southern state of the Sealand that outlived the kingdom of Babylon
by centuries. The following Time Chart (pp. xi-xii) presents a concise
overview of the chronological coverage of the volume, but note also the
detailed chronological tables accompanying Chapters 11, 14, 16, and 18.
The cover of the present volume depicts, together with its modern
impression on a strip of clay, an Old Syrian cylinder seal, which is today
housed in the collection of the Morgan Library & Museum, New York
(accession number 0967) and was acquired by Pierpont Morgan between
1885 and 1908. It shows the weather god standing on two mountains,
facing a nude goddess. A suppliant goddess on the right, further female
figures above, a tethered bull, and smaller symbols (bird, lion, celestial
signs) add complexity to a scene that is typical of Old Syrian–​style cyl-
inder seals from the early second millennium bc. After the seal of the
Old Kingdom ruler Sahura on the cover of the first volume of the Oxford
History of the Ancient Near East, it is the second of the five cylinder seals
from different parts of the Near East chosen to adorn the covers of the
individual volumes in order to highlight the region’s great cultural com-
monalities and divergences. The present seal epitomizes the universe of
ideas, cultural practices, and diverse traditions that link the regions cov-
ered in this volume.
This book brings together another distinguished group of experts in
the field, again a mix of established scholars and bright new talents from
across the globe. We are very grateful to all of them for contributing the
twelve chapters that make up this volume, covering the time “from the
end of the third millennium bc to the fall of Babylon” and showcasing
the very different approaches that the available sources necessitate, from
ix

Preface ix

the analysis of hugely diverse groups of texts to the close study of material
culture such as pottery and coffin styles. Draft manuscripts were received
between August 2018 and August 2020.
In transcribing Egyptian proper nouns, we follow the conventions
of The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw (OUP
2004, rev. ed.). While we use hyphenation to separate the components
of Sumerian personal names with two constituent elements (e.g., Ur-​
Namma) we do not do this for longer names (e.g., Ninšatapada instead
of Nin-šata-pada). We follow normal practice in marking the individual
words within Akkadian proper nouns (e.g., Dur-​Yasmah-​Addu, Rim-​
Sin). We also mark the individual words within Elamite and Amorite
names (e.g., Tan-​Ruhurater, Samsi-​Addu). Whenever a person or place is
widely known by a conventional spelling, we use that (e.g., Hammurabi
instead of Hammu-​rapi, Cutha instead of Kutiu). We do not use any long
vowels in proper nouns, including modern Arabic and Farsi place names.
Our work on the Oxford History of the Ancient Near East was greatly
facilitated by the fellowships awarded by the Center for Advanced
Studies of LMU Munich (CASLMU) to Nadine Moeller and Dan Potts,
which allowed us to come together in Munich in July 2016, 2017, and
2018, when the groundwork for this volume was laid. Much of the
joint editorial work on the chapters of the second volume was achieved
in our 2019 meetings in Chicago, Penjwin (Kurdish Autonomous
Region of Iraq), and Pouillon (Chalosse region, France). However, the
global COVID-​19 (Sars-​CoV-​2) pandemic and resultant travel restric-
tions made it impossible for us to meet in 2020. Our close collabora-
tion continued, thanks to our joint GoogleDrive folders and especially
the WhatsApp group “OHANE Editors,” which came to be our most
important communication tool.
As ever, we are greatly indebted to our editor at Oxford University
Press, Stefan Vranka, who accompanied and facilitated our work on this
volume at every step. The index was prepared by Luiza Osorio Guimarães da
Silva (Chicago), who was also instrumental in harmonizing proper nouns
across chapters and volumes. At LMU Munich, we are grateful to Denise
Bolton, who language-​edited several chapters; to Thomas Seidler, who
checked and consolidated the chapter bibliographies; and to Dr Andrea
x

x Preface

Squitieri, who created the cartography for the individual chapters. We

also thank Philipp Seyr (Liège) for harmonizing the Egyptian names and
spellings across the volume. Their work was funded by the Alexander
von Humboldt Foundation via the International Award for Research in
Germany 2015 to Karen Radner. We are very grateful for their speed and
attention to detail as well as their patience and good humor, especially in
the often difficult times of 2020 when libraries and offices were closed.
 xi

Time Chart
Egypt Mesopotamia Iran
Syria Iraq

2150 bc First Intermediate Period Lagaš

(2160–​2055)
Ninth and Tenth Eleventh ... Ur Elam
Dynasties Dynasty (2110–​2003) Sukkalmah Dynasty
Herakleopolis Thebes Gudea Ur-Namma
Khety (Nebkaura) Mentuhotep I (fictious?) ... Šulgi Ešnunna Ebarat I
Khety (Wahkara) Intef I (Sehertawy) Isin Larsa Amar-​Sin (c.2026–​c.1760) Kindattu
Khety (Meryibra) Intef II (Wahankh) (2019–​1794) (2025–​1763) Šu-​Sin ... Idattu I
Merykara Intef III (Nakhtnebtepnefer) Assur Išbi-​Erra Naplanum Ibbi-​Sin Bilalama Tan-​Ruharater
2050 bc Middle Kingdom ... Šu-​ilišu Yamsium Išar-​ramaši Ebarat II
(2055–​1650) Irišum I Iddin-​Dagan Samium Uṣur-​awassu
Eleventh Dynasty (all of Egypt) (1972–​1933) Išme-​Dagan Zabaya Azuzum Šilhaha
Mentuhotep II (Nebhepetra) ... Lipit-​Eštar Gungunum Babylon Ur-​Ninmarki
Mentuhotep III (Sankhkara) Ur-​Ninurta Abi-​sare (1894–​1595) Ur-​Ningišzida Pala-​iššan
Mentuhotep IV (Nebtawyra) Bur-​Sin Sumu-​El Sumu-​abum Ipiq-​Adad I
Twelfth Dynasty Lipit-​Enlil Šarriya Temti-​Agum I
Amenemhat I (Sehetepibra) Erra-​imitti Nur-​Adad Sumu-​la-​El Warassa
Senusret I (Kheperkara) Enlil-​bani Sin-​iddinam Belakum
 xi

Amenemhat II (Nubkaura) Zambiya Sin-​iribam Sabium Ibal-​pi-​El I Kuk-​našur I (?)

Senusret II (Khakheperra) Mari Iter-​piša Sin-​iqišam Ipiq-​Adad II ...
Senusret III (Khakaura) Yagid-​Lim Ur-​dukuga Ṣilli-​Adad Apil-​Sin Naram-​Sin
Amenemhat III (Nimaatra) Yamhad Yahdun-​ Ekallatum Sin-​magir Warad-​Sin Sin-​muballiṭ ... Širuktuh (c. 1785)
Lim Samsi-​Addu
Amenemhat IV (Maakherura) Sumu-​epuh Sumu-​ (1833–​1775) Damiq-​ilišu Rim-​Sin I Hammurabi Daduša
Yamam (1816–​1794) (1822–​1763) (1792–​1750)
Queen Sobekneferu Ibal-​pi-​El II Siwe-​palar-​huppak
1800 bc Thirteenth Dynasty Yarim-​Lim I Zimri-​Lim Ṣilli-​Sin Kudu-​zuluš I (c. 1767–​1765)
(selection of kings, in chronological order) (1774–1​ 761) (1764–​1760?) Kuter-​Nahhunte
Amenemhat Sobekhotep (Sekhemra-​khuytawy) Hammurabi I
Ameny-​Qemau
Sobekhotep II (Khaankhra) Abba-​El I Samsu-​iluna Sealand Temti-​Agum II
Hor (Awibra) (1749–​1712) (c. 1720–​c. 1480) Atta-​mera-​halki
Wegaf (Khuytawyra) Yarim-​Lim II Ili-​ma-​ilu Tatta
Khendjer (Userkara) Abi-​ešuh Kuk-​našur II
Sobekhotep III (Sekhemra-​sewadjtawy) Niqmi-​epuh (1711–​1684) Itti-​ili-​nibi Kuter-​Šilhaka
Neferhotep I (Khasekhemra)
Sobekhotep IV (Khaneferra) Irkabtum Ammi-d​ itana Dam(i)q-​ilišu Temti-​raptaš
Ay (Merneferra) (1683–​1647) Kudu-​zuluš II
Hammurabi II Iškibal Sirtuh
1650 bc ... Ammi-​ṣaduqa
(1646–​1626) Šušši Tan-​uli
1600 bc Hammurabi III Samsu-​ditana Temti-​halki
(1625–​1595) Gulkišar (c. 1595) Kuk-​našur III
... DIŠ+U-​EN (?)
Pešgaladarameš
Ayadaragalama
Ekurduana
1500 bc Melamkura
Ea-​gamil (c. 1480)
xi

The Contributors

Ilya Arkhipov (PhD, Institute of World History of the Russian Academy

of Sciences in Moscow) is associate professor at the Institute of Oriental
and Classical Studies of the HSE University, Moscow. His main fields
of interest are the history of Old Babylonian Upper Mesopotamia, and
Akkadian vocabulary and grammar. His publications include a volume
of texts from the Mari archives (Le vocabulaire de la métallurgie et la
nomenclature des objets en métal dans les textes de Mari; Peeters, 2012).
Kathryn A. Bard (PhD, University of Toronto) is professor of
Archaeology and Classical Studies at Boston University, and fellow of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. She directed excavations
at the Predynastic sites of Hu-​Semaineh in Upper Egypt (1989, 1991),
but her research interests later expanded to the relationships between
Egypt and the Horn of Africa. With Rodolfo Fattovich (University of
Naples “L’Orientale”), she co-​directed excavations at Aksum, Ethiopia
(1993–​2002), and Mersa/​Wadi Gawasis, Egypt (2003–​2011). Her most
recent book, co-​authored with Rodolfo Fattovich, is Seafaring expedi-
tions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom: excavations at Mersa/​Wadi Gawasis,
Egypt (Brill, 2018).
Gojko Barjamovic (PhD, University of Copenhagen) is a senior lecturer
on Assyriology at Harvard University. A member of the Royal Danish
Academy of Sciences, his field of research is the social and economic his-
tory of Mesopotamia with focus on the study of trade and trans-​regional
interaction in the second millennium bc. He has written and edited
several books, including A historical geography of Anatolia in the Old
xvi

xiv The Contributors

Assyrian colony period (Museum Tusculanum, 2011), and Libraries before

Alexandria (Oxford University Press, 2019).
Odette Boivin (PhD, University of Toronto) is a postdoctoral researcher
in Ancient Near Eastern Studies at Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität
Münster. Her research focuses on Babylonian history in the second
and first millennia bc. She has published a number of studies on the
mid-​second millennium Kingdom of the Sealand, including The First
Dynasty of the Sealand in Mesopotamia (De Gruyter, 2018). She is also
editing and studying mid-​first millennium bc cuneiform archives from
central and southern Iraq.
Katrien De Graef (PhD, Ghent University) is associate professor of
Assyriology and History of the Ancient Near East at Ghent University.
Her research focuses on the relations between Babylonia and Elam in
the third and second millennium bc on the one hand, and on the Old
Babylonian period on the other hand, specifically on the cities of Sippar
(Iraq) and Susa (Iran) as well as socioeconomic history, ancient topog-
raphy, and questions of gender and sealing practices. The author of two
monographs presenting some of the rich textual sources from Susa (Les
archives d’Igibuni: les documents Ur III du chantier B à Suse, 2005; De la
dynastie Simaški au sukkalmahat: les documents fin PE II—​début PE III
du chantier B à Suse, 2006), she co-​edited with Jan Tavernier the volume
Susa and Elam: archaeological, philological, historical and geographical
perspectives (Brill, 2013).
Steven J. Garfinkle (PhD, Columbia University) is professor of Ancient
History at Western Washington University, and editor of the Journal of
Ancient Near Eastern History (De Gruyter). His research focuses on the
society and economy of early Mesopotamia, with emphasis on the inter-
sections between commerce, state formation, and violence. He is the
author of numerous studies on the kingdom of Ur and the history of
the late third millennium bc, including Entrepreneurs and enterprise in
early Mesopotamia (CDL Press, 2012).
Wolfram Grajetzki (PhD, Humboldt-​Universität zu Berlin) is an hon-
orary research associate at the Institute of Archaeology of University
College London. Having gained his PhD with a study on the highest
xv

The Contributors xv

Middle Kingdom court officials, he has worked on field projects and

excavations in Egypt and Pakistan and has taught in London and Berlin.
His many books include The Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt: history,
archaeology and society (Duckworth, 2006), Court officials of the Egyptian
Middle Kingdom (Duckworth, 2009), The coffin of Zemathor and other
rectangular coffins of the late Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate
Period (Golden House, 2010), and Tomb treasures in the late Middle
Kingdom: the archaeology of female burials (University of Pennsylvania
Press, 2014).
Felix Höflmayer (PhD, University of Vienna) studied Egyptology
and archaeology and specializes in the archaeology of the eastern
Mediterranean, with a focus on interregional relations and absolute
chronology. After holding postdoctoral fellowships at the German
Archaeological Institute in Amman ( Jordan) and Berlin and the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago, he joined the Austrian Academy
of Sciences in Vienna in 2015 and currently co-​directs the Austrian exca-
vations at Tel Lachish.
Ezra S. Marcus (D.Phil., University of Oxford) is an associate researcher
at the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies in the Leon Charney
School for Marine Sciences at the University of Haifa, after previous
appointments as a lecturer in Israel and the United States. A maritime
and coastal archaeologist, he has worked both in Israel and in Turkey
and is currently directing a number of legacy projects, all focused on
the southern Levantine coast and the role of maritime trade in Middle
Bronze Age coastal settlement and its subsequent history.
Nadine Moeller (PhD, University of Cambridge) is professor of
Egyptian Archaeology at Yale University. Her research focuses on ancient
Egyptian urbanism, on which she has published the monograph The
archaeology of urbanism in Ancient Egypt (Cambridge University Press,
2016). She has participated in numerous fieldwork projects in Egypt and
since 2001 has been directing excavations at Tell Edfu in southern Egypt.
Juan Carlos Moreno García (PhD, École Pratique des Hautes Études,
Paris) is a CNRS senior researcher at the Sorbonne University in Paris,
specializing in the study of ancient Egypt’s socioeconomic history and
xvi

xvi The Contributors

the structure of the state. Recent publications include The state in ancient
Egypt: power, challenges and dynamics (Bloomsbury, 2019), Dynamics of
production in the ancient Near East, 1300–​500 BC (Oxbow, 2016), and
Ancient Egyptian administration (Brill, 2013). He is editor-​in-​chief of
The Journal of Egyptian History (Brill).
Daniel T. Potts (PhD, Harvard University) is professor of Ancient
Near Eastern Archaeology and History at the Institute for the Study
of the Ancient World, New York University. A corresponding mem-
ber of the German Archaeological Institute, he has worked in Iran, the
United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Armenia, and the Kurdish
Autonomous Region of Iraq. His numerous books include The archae-
ology of Elam: formation and transformation of an ancient Iranian state
(Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 2015) and Nomadism in Iran: from
antiquity to the modern era (Oxford University Press, 2014).
Karen Radner (PhD, University of Vienna) holds the Alexander von
Humboldt Chair of the Ancient History of the Near and Middle East at
LMU Munich. A member of the German Archaeological Institute and
the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, her numerous books
include A short history of Babylon (Bloomsbury, 2020) and Ancient
Assyria: a very short introduction (Oxford University Press, 2015), as well
as editions of cuneiform archives from Iraq, Syria, and Turkey.
Klaus Wagensonner (PhD, University of Vienna) is postdoc-
toral associate at the Department of Near Eastern Languages and
Civilizations and the Babylonian Collection at Yale University. His
research focuses on early scholarly traditions, in particular lexical texts
from the late Uruk to Old Babylonian periods. He also investigated
scribal families of Middle Assyrian Assur. Currently, he is prepar-
ing the publication of Sumerian literary texts in the Yale Babylonian
Collection, as well as of Old Babylonian letters from Kiš in various
British and US collections.
Harco Willems (PhD, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) is full profes-
sor of Egyptology at the Department of Archaeology of KU Leuven.
His research focuses on Old and Middle Kingdom Egypt, with social
xvi

The Contributors xvii

structure, landscape, and religion constituting major points of interest

that resulted, for example, in the monograph Historical and archaeologi-
cal aspects of Egyptian funerary culture (Brill, 2014). He has participated
in archaeological fieldwork in the Dakhla oasis and Shanhur and is cur-
rently the director of the excavations at Deir el-​Bersha.
xvi
xi

Abbreviations

AAE Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy

AfO Archiv für Orientforschung
AJA American Journal of Archaeology
ÄL Ägypten & Levante
AnSt Anatolian Studies
AoF Altorientalische Forschungen
ASAE Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte
BaM Baghdader Mitteilungen
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BIFAO Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale
BiOr Bibliotheca Orientalis
CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the
University of Chicago
CDLJ Cuneiform Digital Library Journal
EA Egyptian Archaeology
GM Göttinger Miszellen
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal
IrAnt Iranica Antiqua
JA Journal Asiatique
JAEI Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections
JANEH Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JAR Journal of Archaeological Research
JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt
JAS Journal of Archaeological Science
JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies
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1. Let all that are to mirth inclined

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Chorus.
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2. Let all your songs and praises be

Unto His Heavenly Majesty;
And evermore, amongst our mirth,
Remember Christ our Saviour’s birth.
For, to redeem our souls from thrall,
Christ is the Saviour of us all.

3. If choirs of Angels did rejoice,

Well may mankind with heart and voice
Sing praises to the God of Heaven,
Who unto us His Son has given.
For, to redeem our souls from thrall,
Christ is the Saviour of us all.
King Pharaoh—Part I.
THE MIRACLE OF THE COCK
Sussex Gypsies’ Carol.
 [Listen] [MusicXML]

1. King Pharaoh sat a-musing,

A-musing all alone;
There came the blessèd Saviour,
Though all to him unknown.

2. “Say, where did you come from, good man?

Oh, where did you then pass?”
“It is out of the Land of Egypt,
Between an ox and ass.”

3. “Oh, if you come out of Egypt, man,

One thing I deem thou know’st:
Is Jesus born of Mary
And of the Holy Ghost?

4. “And if the news be true, good man,

That you are telling me,
Make this roasted cock to crow three times
In the dish which here we see.”

5. Oh, it’s straight away the cock did rise,

All feathered to the hand;
Three times the roasted cock did crow
On the dish where it did stand.
 King Pharaoh—Part II.
THE MIRACULOUS HARVEST
[Listen] [MusicXML]

1. Oh, Joseph, Mary, and Jesus

Were travelling for the west;
When Mary grew a-weary
She might sit down and rest.

2. They travelled further and further,

The weather being so warm,
Till they came unto a husbandman
A-sowing of his corn.

3. “Come, husbandman,” cried Jesus,

“Cast all your seed away,
And carry home as ripened corn
What you have sowed this day.

4. “To keep your wife and family

From sorrow, grief, and pain,
And keep Christ in remembrance
Till seed-time comes again.”
The Black Decree
A Shropshire Version.
 1.

LET Christians all with one accord rejoice

And praises sing with heart as well as voice,
To God on high, for wonders He hath done
In sending us His well belovèd Son.

2.

The night before that happy day of grace

The Virgin Mother, she had no resting place;
She and her pious Joseph were so low
They scarcely knew which way or where to go.

3.

For they were forced to wander up and down

And they could find no lodging in the town;
But in an ox’s stall where beasts are fed
His mother made our Lord His lowly bed.

4.

Three wise men by a star were thither brought

And found the blessèd Babe they long had sought.
The best of spices and rich costly things
They humbly offered unto the King of kings.

5.

Then rather than the Lord of life betray

They worshipped Him and went another way,
Which so enraged the wicked Herod then
(The Jewish king, the very worst of men);

6.
He caused young harmless infants to be killed;
All under two years old, their blood was spilled.
Dear parents’ tears could not his rage prevent,
Nor pity move the tyrant to repent.

7.

The Black Decree went all the country round,

To kill and murder children both sick and sound;
They tore young infants from their mothers’ breast,
Thinking to murder Christ among the rest.

8.

But God above, Who knew what would be done,

Had sent to Egypt His Belovèd Son:
Where with His earthly parents He was fed
Until that cruel tyrant he was dead.
[Listen] [MusicXML]
Somersetshire Wassail
 [Listen] [MusicXML]

1. Wassail! wassail! all round the town,

For the cup is white and the ale is brown,
For it’s our wassail, and ’tis your wassail,
And ’tis joy come to our jolly wassail!

2. The cup is made of the ashen tree,

And the ale is made of the best barley,
For it’s our wassail, etc.

3. O maid, fair maid in holland smock,

Come ope the door and turn the lock,
For it’s our wassail, etc.

4. O master, mistress, that sit by the fire,

Consider us poor travellers all in the mire,
For it’s our wassail, etc.

5. Put out the ale and raw milk cheese,

And then you shall see how happy we be’s,
For it’s our wassail, etc.