ASCE 7-22

Wind Load Provisions

(Part 2)

by
William L. Coulbourne, P.E., F.SEI, F.ASCE
bill@coulbourneconsulting.com

1
 Agenda

◼ Design procedures
◼ Directional(all heights) Chapter 27
◼ Envelope (simplified) Chapter 28
◼ Other structures Chapter 29

◼ MWFRS and C&C

◼ MWFRS – Chapters 26, 27, 28, 29
◼ C&C – Chapter 30

2
 ASCE 7-22 MWFRS Design Procedures

◼ Chapter 27 (Directional Procedure)

◼ Buildings of all heights

◼ Chapter 28 (Envelope Procedure)

◼ Enclosed or partially enclosed low-rise buildings

◼ Chapter 29

◼ Other structures including roof top equipment, tanks, bins, silos, roof-mounted solar
panels, ground-mounted solar arrays

◼ Chapter 31 - Wind Tunnel Procedure (not discussed in this webinar)

3
 Chapter 26 Velocity Pressure

Velocity Pressure: (26.10)

qz = (.00256 V2) KzKztKe (Eq. 26.10-1)

where:
qz = velocity pressure at height z
Kz = exposure/height coefficient
Kzt = topographic coffiecient
Ke = elevation coefficient
V = wind speed (mph) 4
 Directional Procedure

◼ Chapter 27

p = qKdGCp – qiKd(GCpi) (Eq. 27.3-1)

◼ where:
◼q = velocity pressure
◼ Kd = directionality factor (Section 26.6)
◼ G = gust effect factor
◼ Cp = external pressure coefficient
◼ qi = either qh or qz depending on design condition (see standard)
◼ GCpi = internal pressure coefficient

Major change in Chapter 27 is the tabular values have been deleted

5
 Application of Loads

◼ + pressures act toward the surface (windward)

◼ - pressures act away from the surface (leeward)
◼ All pressures act normal to the surface

6
 Directional Procedure

Design Procedure (Table 27.2-1):

1. Wind Speed V (Figure 26.5-1 maps)
2. Wind Directionality Factor Kd (26.6, Table 26.6-1)
3. For each wind direction:
Exposure Category (26.7)
Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient
Kz, Kh (Table 26.10-1)
4. Elevation Factor Ke (Table 26.9-1)

7
 Directional Procedure (con’t)

Design Procedure (Table 27.2-1 continued):

5. Topographic Factor, Kzt (26.8, Table 26.8-1)
6. Gust Effect Factor G or Gf (26.11)
7. Enclosure Classification (26.12)
8. Internal Pressure Coefficient GCpi (26.13, Table 26.13-1)
9. External Pressure Coefficients Cp, GCpf
(Figures 27.3-1-3) or force coefficients Cf (Figures 27.4-4-7)
8
 Wind Directionality Factor, Kd
Structure Type Directionality Factor K d
Buildings
Main Wind Force Resisting System 0.85
Components and Cladding 0.85

Arched Roofs 0.85

Circular Domes 1.0(1)

Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures

Square 0.90
Hexagonal 0.95
Octagonal 1.0(1)
Round 1.0(1)

Solid Freestanding Walls, Roof Top Equipment and

Solid Freestanding and Attached Signs 0.85

Open Signs and Single Plane Open Frames 0.85

Trussed Towers
Triangular, square, rectangular 0.85 9
All other cross sections 0.95
 Wind Directionality Factor, Kd

◼ Kd is taken out of the velocity pressure equation (q) and is added in

the pressure equation (p) for both external and internal pressures for
determining MWFRS pressures.
◼ Kd was removed from the velocity pressure equation because this
specific element is not related to the atmospheric conditions that
control wind speed or pressure.
◼ Kd was added back into the pressure equation because it is more
related to structure shape which influences the external and internal
pressure coefficients.

10
 26.7 Exposure Categories

B Suburban, use as DEFAULT unless others apply

>60% to 80% of all buildings are in this category

C Open country, 1500 ft creates this category

D Water, including on hurricane coast!

It’s about Flow Characteristics vs. Surface Roughness

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Exposure B
Suburban

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Exposure B
Urban

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Exposure C

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Exposure C
(<1500 ft of B)

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Exposure D

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 Determining Exposure

Figure C26.7-3

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 Determining Exposure

◼ Is it Exposure B or C?
◼ Openpatches in any sector large enough to disqualify the use of
Exposure B will require use of Exposure C
◼ Within 500ft. of site, patch size = 164 ft. in either length or width
◼ Within 1500 ft. of site, patch size = 328 ft. in either length or width
◼ Within 2600 ft. of site, patch size = 500 ft. in either length or width

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 Determining Exposure

◼ When patch area exceeds 25% of sector area but is less than 50% of
sector area in any sector, than the exposure can be determined by
taking average of Exposures B and C
◼ When patch area exceeds 50% of sector area in any sector, than the
exposure will be Exposure C

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 Table 26.11-1 Terrain Exposure
Constants
1. Velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz may be determined from the following formula:
For z < 15 ft Kz = 2.41 (15∕zg)^2∕α
For z < 4.6 m Kz = 2.41 (4.6∕zg)^2∕α
For 15 ft (4.6 m) ≤ z ≤ zg Kz = 2.41 (z∕zg)^2∕α
For zg < z ≤ 3,280 ft (1,000 m) Kz = 2.41
2. α and zg are tabulated in Table 26.11-1.
3. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height z is acceptable.
4. Exposure categories are defined in Section 26.7.
Table 26.11-1
Exposure α zg (ft.) α^ b^ α bar b bar c l (ft.) ε bar zmin
(ft.)
B 7.5 3280 1/7.5 0.84 1/4.5 0.47 0.30 320 1/3.0 30
C 9.8 2460 1/9.8 1.00 1/6.4 0.66 0.20 500 1/5.0 15
D 11.5 1935 1/11.5 1.09 1/8.0 0.78 0.15 650 1/8.0 7

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Fig. 26.8-1 Topographic Factors, Kzt

ASCE 7-22 change

removed restriction
that table of values
are to be used on
only Exposure C.
Values may be used
for any exposure.

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Fig. 26.8-1 Topographic Factors, Kzt

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 Topographic Factor Example

◼ Proof that same results obtained with table of values and calculations.
Topographic Kzt Multiplier
Example Problem for 2D Ridge
Exposure B
H (ft.) 480
Lh (ft.) 1750
x (ft.) 0
z (ft.) 15
μ 1.5 upwind 1.5 downwind
γ 3
H/Lh 0.274286 K1 0.388 and
K2 1
K3 0.974614
Kzt = (1+K1*K2*K3)^2 1.899298
rounded 1.9
From Table K1 H/Lh 0.388
K2 x/Lh 1
K3 z/Lh 0.98
23
Kzt 1.905062
 26.12 Enclosure Classification

Buildings, Open:

A building having each wall at least 80% open.

Mathematically, Ao > 0.8Ag where:
Ao = Total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external
pressure, in sq. ft.
Ag= Gross area of that wall in which Ao is identified in sq. ft.

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 26.12 Enclosure Classification

Buildings, Enclosed:
If the following two conditions are satisfied:

1. Ao < 0.01Ag or

2. Ao < 4 sq. ft whichever is smaller

where:

Ao = The sum of the areas of openings in each wall that receives positive
external pressure in sq. ft.

Ag = The gross surface area of each wall that receives positive external
pressure in sq. ft.
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 26.12 Enclosure Classification

Buildings, Partially Enclosed:

If the following two conditions are satisfied:

1. Ao > 1.1Aoi

2. Ao > 4 sq. ft or >0.01Ag, whichever is smaller, & Aoi< 0.2Agi

where:

Aoi = The sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope

(walls & roof) not including Ao, in sq. ft.

Agi = The sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope
(walls & roof) not including Ag, in sq. ft.
26
 26.12.3 Wind-borne Debris Regions

◼ Glazed openings in Risk Category II, III, IV buildings requires protection. For
RC II and III buildings, except health care facilities, the wind-borne design wind
speed shall be that shown on the map in Figure 26.5-1B.

◼ Region is defined as location within 1 mile of mean high water line where an
Exposure D condition exists upwind of the waterline and basic wind speed is
equal to or greater than 130 mph, or any location where basic wind speed is
equal too or greater than 140 mph.

◼ Exception – Glazing located over 60 ft. above ground and over 30 ft. above
aggregate-surfaced roofs shall be permitted to be unprotected.

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Table 26.13-1 Internal Pressure Coeff, GCpi

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Fig. 27.4-1
Building Surfaces
External
for which Pressure
Cp
coefficients must
Coefficient, Cp for
be selected
MWFRS

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MWFRS Design Load Cases

30
 Aerodynamic Effects on Buildings

◼ Shape factor summarizes aerodynamic effects

◼ Shape factor in ASCE 7 is designated external pressure coefficient, Cp
◼ Cp - Geometry specific parameter for each surface of the building that
indicates the relative magnitude of the + or - pressure on that surface
due to the wind
◼ + coefficient means wind acts toward surface; - coefficient means wind
acts away from surface
◼ Values for Cp have been determined experimentally in the wind tunnel

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 Aerodynamics and Wind Tunnel

Courtesy Colorado State University

Actual flow around a building is complex.

32
ASCE 7 tries to accommodate the various features with some success.
Wind Flow and the Building Envelope (1)

Courtesy CPP, Inc.

Intensity effect is very

sensitive to the angle of
attack α

33
Wind Flow and the Building Envelope (2)
“Roof” corner vortex

External Pressure
(psf)

ASCE 7-95 150

(edge)

>100
90-100
80-90
ASCE 7-95
70-80
(interior)
60-70
50-60
40-50
30-40
<30
Courtesy CPP, Inc.

West Elevation

Vortices can occur anywhere there are significant competing lines of flow separation.
34
 Wind Flow and the Building Structure

Wind flow around a

building is distinctly
different from smooth
uniform flow around an
infinite two-dimensional
cylinder

Courtesy of Daryl Boggs

3-D picture illustrates how ASCE 7 simplifies complex wind loads on a building.

35
 ASCE Shape Coefficients

◼ ASCE uses wind tunnel studies to convert results seen in previous slides to pressure coefficients that
cover most wind directions for the shape that was studied in the tunnel.

◼ For building shapes not covered by the standard, the practitioner must use existing shapes and
coefficients to estimate what the pressure effect will be for a non-standard shape.

◼ There are some databases available from NIST and universities that can be accessed that show wind
tunnel results from that entity on pressure coefficients obtained on various shapes.

36
 DATABASE-ASSISTED DESIGN

Vortex-Winds is a gateway to several database sites (www.vortex-winds.org)

◼ NIST (USA)
◼ Rigid, low-rise gable-roof buildings
◼ Uses wind-tunnel-measured pressure time series in conjunction with structural influence coefficients to
compute peak values of the structural responses of interest, such as shear forces, bending moments,
and displacements at various locations.

◼ NatHaz (Notre Dame U, USA)

◼ Highrise base moments on variety of rectangular prisms from high-frequency balance tests
◼ Calculate overall loads, deflections, accelerations

◼ Tokyo Polytechnic University (Japan)

◼ Lowrise and highrise pressure tap data on variety of rectangular prisms
◼ Dynamic response
◼ Load distributions by floor

◼ Tamking University (Taiwan)

◼ Pools wind tunnel data from multiple laboratories

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 NIST Database-Assisted Design (lowrise)

Provides time history/peak values of any structural action

◼ User specifies structural layout and influence coefficients
◼ Incorporates database of WT-measured pressure time histories at large no. of tap locations

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Fig. 27.3-1 Cp for MWFRS: Walls

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Fig. 27.3-1 Cp for MWFRS: Roofs

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Notes for Fig. 27.3-1 Cp for MWFRS

41
 Shapes that have External Pressure
Coefficients in ASCE 7-22

◼ Domes with circular bases

◼ Arched roofs
◼ Open buildings with monoslope free roofs
◼ Open buildings with pitched free roofs
◼ Open buildings with troughed free roofs
◼ Elevated buildings (new – Section 27.3.1.1)

42
 MWFRS Envelope Procedure

◼ Chapter 28

p = qhKd[(GCpf) – (GCpi)] (Eq. 28.3-1)

◼ where:
◼ qh = velocity pressure at mean roof height h
◼ Kd = directionality factor
◼ GCpf = external pressure coefficient
◼ GCpi = internal pressure coefficient

Major change in Chapter 28 is the tabular values have been deleted

43
Fig. 28.3-1 GCpf for MWFRS: h < 60 ft

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External Pressure Coefficients for
Load Case 1 and 2

45
Fig. 28.3-1 GCpf for MWFRS: h < 60 ft (2)

46
External Pressure Coefficients for
Load Case 3 and 4

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 Chapter 29 Other
Structures/Appurtenances
◼ Design Force – Solid freestanding walls and solid signs:

F = qhKdG Cf As (Eq. 29.3-1)

◼ Design Force – Other Structures

F = qzKdG Cf Af (Eq. 29.4-1)

◼ where:
◼ q = velocity pressure
◼ Kd = directionality coefficient
◼ G = gust effect factor
◼ Cf = force coefficients
◼ As = gross area of solid sign or wall
◼ Af = projected area normal to wind
48
 Roof Top Equipment

Fh = qhKd(GCr)Af (Eq. 29.4-2)

Lateral load

Vertical load

◼ Use roof top equipment loads for roof-mounted mechanical screens

◼ Risk Category for roof top equipment is required to be not less than
that for the building

49
 Other MWFRS External Pressure Coefficients

◼ Domed Roofs– Figure 27.4-2

◼ Arched Roofs – Figure 27.4-3
◼ Monoslope Roofs (and other shapes) – Figure 27.4-4-7
◼ Chimneys, Tanks, & Roof Equip – Figure 29.4-1
◼ Walls and Solid Signs – Figure 29.3-1
◼ Open Signs & Lattices – Figure 29.4-2
◼ Trussed Towers – Figure 29.4-3
◼ Bins, silos, tanks – Figure 29.4-4
◼ Roof top solar panels – Figure 29.4-7
◼ Ground mount solar panels – Figure 29.4-9
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 C&C Definition MWFRS

◼ Cladding receives wind load directly Component

Component
◼ Components receive wind load
directly or from cladding Cladding

◼ Wind load
is transferred to other
components or to MWFRS
Cladding

Cladding

MWFRS 51
 What Building Elements Are C&C?

◼ Cladding: wall coverings, roof

coverings, curtain walls, windows,
skylights, doors (both entry and
overhead), parapet coping, gutters,
edge flashing, protective covers for
windows and doors
◼ Components: truss chords, roof
sheathing, exterior masonry or
concrete wall, attachments for
sheathing, wall studs, girts and
purlins for metal buildings
52
 Important Distinctions Between C&C and
MWFRS

◼ C&C pressures are enveloped for all directions and possible

discontinuities between the component and nearby building edges
◼ C&C pressures are very localized since the wind pressure is acting
on a small area thus the spatial distribution of wind load is smaller
than the MWFRS making the pressure coefficients larger than for
MWFRS
◼ Inorder to be considered a component or a cladding element, the
wind pressure must act on that component or cladding directly – so
for cladding it means primarily the covering on the building envelope,
and for a component it means a part of a system that is being loaded
from a cladding element 53
 Effective Wind Areas (1)

◼ ASCE 7-22 defines the area that wind loading occurs on C&C as an effective wind area (EWA)

◼ The EWA is required to find the external pressure coefficient (GC p)

◼ There are 2 load cases for EWA

◼ 1. Uses the tributary area over which the wind loading occurs (span x effective width);
examples include a cladding panel or a cladding fastener
◼ 2. Uses the span x 1/3 of the span; examples include roof trusses, wall studs, roofing panels

◼ The larger area may be used for determining the (GCp) while the tributary area is used for the
application of the wind pressure

◼ This definition is meant to allow the use of larger areas due to wind pressure distribution that
occurs between members that are closely spaced

◼ Single ply roofing membranes and solar panels have some special EWA considerations; consult
Chapter 26 commentary for the definition of EWA
54
Effective Wind Areas (2)

◼ Examples of EWA determination:

◼ Roof joists span 30 ft. and are 5 ft. on center – EWA is larger of 30x5 = 150 ft 2 or 30x(30/3) =
300 ft2, so 300 ft2 is used for determining (GCp)
◼ CMU wall that is 15 ft. tall – EWA is larger of 15x1 = 15 ft2 or 15x(15/3) = 75 ft2 , so 75 ft2 is
used for determining (GCp)
◼ Roof panels are 2 ft. wide and span 5 ft. – EWA is larger of 5x2 = 10 ft2 or 5x(5/3) = 8.3 ft2, so
10 ft2 is used for determining (GCp) (this is also the tributary area)
◼ Glazing panel is 5 ft. x 5.5 ft. – EWA is larger of 5x5.5 = 27.5 ft 2 or 5x(5/3) = 8.3 ft2, so 27.5 ft2
is used for determining (GCp) (this is also the tributary area)

◼ Components with tributary areas > 700 ft 2 may be treated as MWFRS

55
 C&C Pressure Equations

◼ Low-rise buildings with h ≤ 60 ft. based on Envelope Procedure

p = qhKd[(GCp) – (GCpi)] (Eq. 30.3-1)

◼ Buildings with h ≥ 60 ft. based on Directional Procedure

p = qKd(GCp) – qiKd(GCpi) (Eq. 30.4-1)

56
Fig. 30.3-1 GCp for C & C-Walls:
h < 60 ft

57
 Fig. 30.3-1 GCp for C & C-Walls

Equations for developing (GCp) coefficients are in Chapter 30 Commentary

58
Figure 30.3-1A C&C for Areas Beneath
Elevated Buildings (new)

59
Fig. 30.3-2A GCp for C&C-Gable/Flat Roofs:θ ≤ 70,
h < 60 ft (unchanged from 7-16)

60
 Fig. 30.4-2C GCp for C & C – Gable Roof:
200 < θ < 270, h ≤ 60 ft (revised in 7-22)

Comparison between ASCE 7-16 and 7-22

1. Fewer roof zones
2. Standard small EWA’s
3. Fewer large EWA’s
61
4. Revised C&C method for overhangs
Fig. 30.4-2E, F, G GCp for C & C – Hip Roof:
70 - 450, h ≤ 60 ft (revised in 7-22)

62
Parapets – Chapter 27

63
 Parapets – Chapter 27

pp = qpKdGCpn
where:
pp = combined net pressure on parapet
qp = velocity pressure at the top of parapet
Kd = directionality factor
GCpn = combined net pressure coefficient
= +1.5 for windward parapet
= - 1.0 for leeward parapet
h = hp = height at top of parapet 64
Canopies (h ≤ 60 ft.)

(Eq. 30.9-1)
65
Bins, Silos, and Tanks, h < 120 ft.

(Eq. 30.10-1)
66
 Solar Panels

ASCE 7 addresses low-profile solar panels on low-slope roofs because

these are prevalent types that have been studied in wind tunnels.
67
Questions ???

68
 Future Seminars

June 14
◼ Part III - Examples

69
 Resources

◼ Email for Speaker:

◼ bill@coulbourneconsulting.com

◼ Guide to the Use of the Wind Load Provisions of ASCE 7-16

◼ www.pubs.asce.org

◼ Guideto the Use of the Wind Load Provisions of ASCE 7-22 (being
prepared now)
◼ Basic Wind Engineering for Low-rise Buildings
◼ www.atcouncil.org

◼ SEAW commentary on wind code provisions – SEAW/ATC 60 -

www.atcouncil.org 70