UCMP UNIT I

ADITYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT, TEKKALI
Mech.Engg.Dept.
B.Tech. III Year II Semester
Un-Conventional Machining Processes (R20)
Subject Code: 20MEE432 (2023-24)
UNIT I
Contents:
 Need for non-traditional machining methods
 Classification of modern machining processes
 Considerations in process selection and applications
 Ultrasonic Machining:
 Elements of the process
 Mechanics of material removal
 MRR process parameters
 Economic considerations, applications and limitations

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
III Yr. B.Tech., II-Sem (2023-24) (UNIT-I) SUBJECT: UCMP
Need for non-traditional machining methods:

The present day manufacturing scenario is characterized by
(i) growing demand for high performance parts made of very hard, high strength materials,
(ii) need for economic manufacture of high-quality precision parts in small batches and large
variety,
(iii) increasing parts complexity, and
(iv) growing trend towards miniaturization of parts with high degree of reliability.
In conventional machining processes, the work hardness has a direct bearing on the productivity
of the process. Larger the work hardness, lower would be the machining productivity. In
addition, it is difficult to specify a tool material for economic machining of materials such as,
super alloys, ceramics, tungsten carbides, composites etc. The traditional machining methods in
case of such materials are unable to meet the requirements of the surface finish, production rate,
close tolerances etc. Moreover, in case of production of complex shaped parts in small numbers,
the conventional machining processes do not exhibit competitiveness in terms of overall
production rate, cost etc.
Use of high performance parts made from extremely hard materials is on the increase. Aero-
space, transport, automobiles, electronics etc. are some of the industries which are required to
use high performance, complex shaped parts manufactured to very close tolerances and high
surface finish.
Advanced machining processes are based on the direct application of energy for metal removal
by mechanical or thermal erosion or electro-chemical dissolution. These processes do not rely on
metal removal due to stressing of the part by the cutting tool leading to plastic deformation and
chip formation.
These machining processes become still more important when one considers the precision
machining and ultra precision machining. Such accuracy can be achieved by some of the non-
conventional techniques whereby the material is removed in the form of atoms or molecules
individually or in groups.
However, these processes have limited applicability and hence their suitability for a particular
application must be examined critically against a set of criteria.
Non-conventional machining methods form a group of processes which removes excess material
by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical chemical energy or combination
of these energies. There is no cutting of metal with the help of metallic tool having sharp cutting
edge. The major reasons of development and popularity of modern machining methods are listed
below.
(a) Need of machine newly developed metals and non-metals having some special properties like
high strength, high hardness and high toughness. A material possessing the above-mentioned
properties are difficult to be machined by the conventional machining methods.
(b) Sometimes it is required to produce complex part geometries that cannot be produced by
following conventional machining techniques. Non-conventional machining methods also
Page 2
provide very good quality of surface finish which may also be an encouragement to these
methods.
Classification of Modern Machining Processes:

There can be a very long list of non-conventional machining methods. These methods can be
classified as the basis of their base principle of working.
Following table gives a classification of the machining processes based on the type of energy
used, the mechanism of metal removal, the source of energy requirements, etc.
Table 1: Classification of Modern machining processes
Type of Mechanism of Transfer Energy Processes
energy metal removal media source
Abrasive Jet Machining
High Pneumatic/ (AJM), Ultrasonic
Erosion velocity hydraulic Machining (USM),
Mechanical particles pressure Water Jet Machining
(WJM)
Physical Cutting Conventional
Shear
contact tool machining
Electrochemical Machining
Ion High
Electrochemical Electrolyte (ECM), Electrochemical
displacement current
Grinding (ECG)
Ablative Reactive Corrosive Chemical Machining
Chemical
relation environment agent (CHM)
Ion Beam Machining
Ionized
Hot gases (IBM), Plasma Arc
material
Fusion Machining (PAM)
High Electric Discharge
Electrons
Thermoelectric voltage Machining (EDM)
Amplified Laser Beam Machining
Radiation
light (LBM)
Vaporization
Ionized Plasma Arc Machining
Ion stream
material (PAM)
Differences between Conventional and Non conventional machining processes

S. Conventional Process Non-Conventional Process
No.
1 The cutting tool and work piece are There is no physical contact between the tool
always in physical contact with relative and work piece, In some nontraditional process
motion with each other, which results in tool wear exists.
friction and tool wear.
2 Material removal rate is limited by NTM can machine difficult to cut and hard to
mechanical properties of work material.
cut materials like titanium, ceramics, nimonics,
SST, composites, semiconducting materials
3 Relative motion between the tool and Many NTM are capable of producing complex
Page 3
work is typically rotary or reciprocating. 3D shapes and cavities

Thus the shape of work is limited to
circular or flat shapes. In spite of CNC
systems, production of 3D surfaces is
still a difficult task.
4 Machining of small cavities , slits ,blind Machining of small cavities, slits and
holes or through holes are difficult Production of non-circular, micro sized, large
aspect ratio, shall entry angle holes are easy
using NTM
5 Use relative simple and inexpensive Non traditional processes require expensive
machinery and readily available cutting tools and equipment as well as skilled labour,
tools which increase the production cost significantly
6 Capital cost and maintenance cost is low Capital cost and maintenance cost is high
7 Traditional processes are well Mechanics of Material removal of some of
established and physics of process is NTM process are still under research
well understood
8 Conventional process mostly uses Most NTM uses energy in direct form. For
mechanical energy example : laser, Electron beam in its direct
forms are used in LBM and EBM respectively
9 Surface finish and tolerances are limited High surface finish(up to 0.1 micron)and
by machining inaccuracies tolerances (25 Microns)can be achieved
10 High metal removal rate Low material removal rate
Before selecting the process to be employed, the following aspects must be studied:
(i) Physical parameters.
(ii) Properties of the work material and the shape to be machined.
(iii) Process capability.
(iv) Economic considerations.
When comparing the physical parameters of modern machining processes (Table. 1), it may be
noticed that both EDM and USM require approximately the same power, whereas ECM
consumes roughly forty times more power than EDM. In Table 2, it can be seen that although
ECM consumes much greater power, it is an excellent method for drilling long slender holes
with length/dia ratio > 20.
Page 4
Table 1
Table 2
Page 5
Materials applications of the various machining methods are summarized in Table 3. It can be
seen that for the machining of electrically non-conducting materials, both ECM and EDM are
unsuitable, whereas the mechanical methods can achieve the desired results.
Table 3
Table 4
Page 6
The process capabilities of modern machining methods have been compared in Table 4. It is to
be noted that although ECM results in excellent surface finish, it can cause extensive surface
damage as compared to AJM or USM. ECM has another advantage of a very low tool wear ratio
(Table 5) but it has certain fairly serious problems regarding the contamination of the electrolyte
used and the corrosion of machine parts.
A comparison of the process economy and their relative efficiencies are given in Table 6 and
Fig. 1 respectively
Table 5
Table 6
Page 7
Fig. 1. Comparison of some modern machining processes
Ultrasonic Machining:
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) is a mechanical type non-traditional machining process. It is
employed to machine hard and / or brittle materials (both electrically conductive and non-
conductive) having hardness usually greater than 40 RC. It uses a shaped tool, high frequency
mechanical motion and abrasive slurry. In USM, material is removed by the abrasive grains
which are driven into the work surface by a tool oscillating normal to the work surface. In USM,
the throwing force is contributed by the tool oscillating at ultrasonic frequency. The particles are
of different sizes and they are thrown many times per second. In some cases, they are hammered
also through the slurry.
The word ultrasonic describes a vibratory wave having frequency larger than upper frequency
limit of human ear (usually greater than 16 kc/s). Waves are usually classified as shear waves
and longitudinal waves. High velocity longitudinal waves can easily propagate in solids, liquids
and gases. They are normally used in ultrasonic applications.
Elements of Process
The four main elements of this process are:
(i) Work material.
(ii) Tool cone and tool tip (vibration amplifier).
(iii) Abrasive slurry.
(iv) Ultrasonic machine.
Work Material
There appears to be no limitation to the range of materials that can be machined, except that they
should not dissolve in the slurry media or react with it. Soft and ductile materials, however, are
usually cut more economically by other methods.
Page 8
Tool Cone and Tool Tip

The tool cone (also called ‘horn’) amplifies and focuses the mechanical energy produced by the
transducer and imparts this to the work piece in such a way that energy utilization is optimum. It
is simply a velocity transformer with the exception that it is made slightly shorter than the half
wavelength.
The horn mechanically modifies the vibratory energy to give the required force-amplitude ratio.
Being a half wave resonator, the two ends of the horn move in opposite directions about a nodal
plane; this requires that the material of the cone be of adequate strength to withstand stresses at
the nodal plane. Titanium is a good material for the tool cone.
Abrasive Slurry
Some of the many types of abrasives in use are:
(i) Aluminium oxide (alumina).
(ii) Boron carbide.
(iii) Silicon carbide.
(iv) Diamond dust.
Boron is the most expensive abrasive material but is best suited for cutting tungsten carbide, tool
steel and precious stones. Silicon finds maximum application. The problem with alumina is that
it wears fast and soon loses its cutting power. Alumina is best for cutting glass, germanium and
ceramics. Diamond and rubies are nicely cut by using diamond powder which ensures good
accuracy, surface finish and cutting rates.
Coarse grades are good for roughing, whereas finer grades (say 1000 grit) are used for finishing.
The extremely fine grades of 1200 to 2000 grit are used only for a finishing pass over jobs of
extreme accuracy. The typical surface roughness resulting from two different grain sizes are:
280 grit 0.5 micron surface roughness.
800 grit 0.2 micron surface roughness.
In actual practice, the surface roughness of the machined face is governed by the work material,
roughness on tool surface, vibration amplitude, fineness of abrasive grit and efficient slurry
circulation.
Liquid Media
The abrasive is suspended in liquid. The liquid performs many functions:
(i) Acts as an acoustic bond between the work piece and the vibrating tool.
(ii) Helps efficient transfer of energy between the work piece and tool.
(iii) Acts as a coolant.
(iv) Provides a medium to carry the abrasive to the cutting zone,
(v) Helps to carry away the worn abrasive and swarf.
The characteristics of a good suspension media (the liquid) are:
(i) Density, approximately equal to that of abrasive.
(ii) Good wetting properties to wet the tool, work and abrasive.
(iii) High thermal conductivity and specific heat for efficient removal of heat from the cutting
zone.
(iv) Low viscosity to carry the abrasive down the sides of the hole between the tool and work
piece.
(v) Noncorrosive properties to avoid corrosion of the work piece and tool.
Water is frequently used as the liquid carrier since it satisfies most of the requirements. Some
Page 9
inhibitor is generally added to the water.

Ultrasonic Machine
Its main parts are:
(i) Acoustic head.
(ii) Tool feed mechanism.
(iii) Abrasive feed system.
(iv) Generator.
Acoustic head The magnetostriction type of transducers which utilize the effect of longitudinal
magnetostriction are now very common. These maybe made of nickel, iron-cobalt (permendur)
or iron-aluminium (alfer).Nickel finds maximum application because of high strength and good
insulating properties of the nickel oxide film.
An alternating electromagnetic field of ultrasonic frequency is produced by a conventional tube
generator. Under the action of this field, the magnetostrictor is periodically magnetized and its
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of ultrasonic machining process
length changes. Since the deformation is independent of the direction of the electromagnetic
field, the frequency of the vibrations of the magnetostriction assembly is twice that of the driving
field. Premagnetization of the vibrator is done to remove this frequency doubling and to obtain
maximum deformation. To prevent the passage of direct current through the output transformer
of the generator and the shorting of the A.C. circuit by the direct current, a choke and capacitor is
used.
A fair amount of the energy input to the transducer appears as heat; a good cooling system is,
therefore, a necessity. Air cooling is used in machines up to 50 W capacity, but for high power
rating machines, water cooling is a must.
Page 10
Tool feed mechanism The feed mechanism of an ultrasonic machine must perform the
following functions:
(i) Bring the tool very slowly close to the work piece.
(ii) Provide adequate cutting force and sustain this during cutting.
(iii) Decrease the force at a specified depth.
(iv) Overrun a small distance to ensure the required hole size at the exit.
(v) Return the tool
For accurate working, it is vital that the feed mechanism be precise and sensitive. Figure 3 (a),
(b), (c) and (d) show the principles of different types of feed systems. In the systems shown in
Fig. 3 (a) and (b) counter weights are used, the force being the difference between the weight of
the head and that of the counterweight attached through a pulley or lever system. The force is
adjusted through the weights. Though simple, such a system is insensitive and inconvenient to
adjust. Figure 3 (c) shows a compact spring-loaded system which is quite sensitive. For high
rating machines, pneumatic [Fig. 3 (d)] or hydraulic systems may be used.
Some means of reading tool displacement is often incorporated in the design of machines. The
guides and other moving parts are designed to have low friction.
Fig. 3 Schematic representation of some types of tool feed

systems in ultrasonic machining
Abrasive feed system The abrasive slurry can be supplied by hand in a small machine but for
machines of higher power, a pump (usually centrifugal type) is used to supply the slurry through
a nozzle. A good method is to keep the slurry in a bath in the cutting zone. This ensures a good
supply and reduces any tendency of the tool to scatter the slurry when amplitude is large.
Another effective method of supplying the slurry to the cutting zone is via a hollow tool or holes
in the work piece. .
Generator The main requirements of a generator are reliability, efficiency, simplicity in design
and low cost. Vacuum tube generators are employed usually. Small generators usually consist of
a master oscillator, a buffer amplifier and an output stage. These have a wide tuning range but
low efficiency. The master oscillator is often of the RC type. The buffer amplifier employs
transistors and the output stage employs vacuum tubes.
Various half-excited systems may be used in high power generators.
Page 11
Economic Considerations
The process has the advantage of machining hard and brittle materials to complex shapes with
good accuracy and reasonable surface finish. Considerable economy results from the ultrasonic
machining of hard alloy press tools, dies and wire drawing equipment on account of the high
wear resistance of tools made of these alloys. The machines have no high speed moving parts.
Working on machines is not hazardous, provided care is taken to shield ultrasonic radiations
from falling on the body. The power consumption of ultrasonic machining is 0.1 W-h/mm3 for
glass and about 5 W-h/mm3 for hard alloys. The cost of the manufacture and use of the tools,
particularly if they have complicated contours, is very high. Another item adding to the cost of
ultrasonic machining is abrasive. The abrasive slurry has to be-periodically replaced because
during use the particles are eventually broken and blunted.
Ultrasonic machines are not yet completely reliable; failure sometimes occurs on account of
faults in acoustic head, pump or generator.
It is probable that with more research in the near future on techniques and machines, the process
will have more economic advantages.
Applications of Ultrasonic Machining
When compared with other modern machining techniques, this method of machining is not
limited by the electrical or chemical characteristics of work materials, which makes it suitable
for application on to both non-conductive
and conductive materials. Tungsten and
other hard Carbides and gem stones, such
as synthetic ruby (for the preparation of
jewels for watch and timer movements)
are being successfully machined by this
method.
The process is particularly suited to make
holes with a curved axis of any shape that
can be made on the tool. The range of
shapes can be increased by moving the
work piece during cutting. Fig. 4. shows
various operations that can be performed
Fig. 4:Some applications of Ultrasonic Machining with ultrasonic machining.
The smallest hole that can currently be cut by the ultrasonic machining method is 0.050 mm in
diameter, the hole size being limited by the strength of the tool and the clearance required for the
flow of abrasive. The largest diameter solid tool reported to have been employed in some
applications is 100 mm in diameter.
The major limitation of the process is its comparatively low metal cutting rates. The depth of
the cylindrical holes is presently limited to 2.5 times the diameter of the tool. Tool wear
increases the angle of the hole, while sharp corners become rounded. This implies that tool
replacement is essential for producing accurate blind hole.
Due to the problem of fewer active grits coming under the tool’s centre on account of ineffective
slurry distribution, the bottom of a cavity cannot usually be machined flat. Sometimes the
accuracy of a machined surface is lost due to the presence of strong lateral vibrations which are
set up if the shape of the tool cross section is such that the centre of gravity is not on the centre
line.
Page 12
MECHANICS OF CUTTING
Various mechanisms of material removal have been proposed by different researchers. Theory
proposed by M.C. Shaw is briefly given here.
Model Proposed by Shaw:
Material removal during USM due to cavitation under the tool and chemical corrosion due to
slurry media are considered insignificant. Hence, material removal due to these two factors has
been ignored. Contributions to the material removal by abrasive particles due to ‘throwing’ and
‘hammering’ actions have been analysed.
Abrasive particles are assumed to be spherical in shape having diameter as ‘d’ units. Abrasive
particles (suspended in carrier) move under the high frequency vibrating tool. There are two
possibilities when the tool hits an abrasive particle. If the size of the particle is small and the gap
between the bottom of the tool and work surface is large enough, then the particle will be thrown
by the tool, to hit the work surface (throwing model). Under the reverse conditions, the particle
will be hammered over the work surface. In the both cases, a particle after hitting the work
surface generates a crater of depth ‘h’ and radius ‘r’. It is also assumed that the volume of the
Fig. 5:Throwing
Fig. 6:Hammering
particle removed is approximately proportional to the diameter of indentation (2r). The volume
of material (Vg) removed (shown by dashed lines in Fig. 5 and 6, assuming hemi-spherical
crater) due to fracture per grit per cycle is given by
1 4
Vg = ( 𝜋𝑟 3 )
2 3
From the geometry of the Fig.6, it can be shown that
d 2 d 2
r 2 = ( ) − ( − h)
2 2
= dh (neglecting h terms as h << d)
Page 13
3
1 4
 Vg = ( π(hd)2 )
2 3
3
Vg = K1(hd)2
where, K1 is a constant.
Number of impacts (N) on the workpiece by the grits in each cycle will depend upon the number
of grits beneath the tool at any time. This is inversely proportional to the diameter of the grit
(assumed spherical) as given below.
1
N = 𝐊𝟐 2
d
where, K2 is a constant of proportionality.
All abrasive particles under the tool need not be necessarily effective. Let K3 be the probability
of an abrasive particle under the tool being effective. Then volume(V) of material removed per
second will be equal to the frequency (f) times the amount of material removed per cycle (Vc).
h3
V = Vc × f = K1 K2K3 √ .f
d
To evaluate the depth, of penetration ‘h’ of an abrasive particle, Shaw proposed two models.
Model 1 considers that when a particle is hit by the tool it is thrown (Fig.5) on the workpiece
surface. Model 2 assumes that a particle is hammered (Fig.6) by the tool into the workpiece.
Both these models are discussed below.
Model 1 (Grain Throwing Model)
It is assumed that a particle is hit and thrown by the tool onto the workpiece surface. Assuming
sinusoidal vibration, the displacement (Y) of the tool is given by the following equation in which
‘t’ is time period and a/2 is amplitude of oscillation.
𝑎
Y = sin(2πft)
2
Velocity of the tool Ẏ = πaf cos(2πft)
Maximum velocity of the tool Ẏmax = πaf
Let us assume that the grits also leave the tool with the same maximum velocity, i.e., Ẏmax. Then
kinetic energy (KE) of a grit is given by
1
KE = mπ2 a2 f 2
2
1 π 3
= ( d ρa ) π2a2 f 2
2 6
A grit penetrates to the depth equal to ‘h’ into
the workpiece. It is assumed that full KE of the
grit is absorbed by the workpiece before it
comes to rest. Then the work done by a grit
(assuming triangular variation of force (F) with
the depth of penetration) is given by
Work done,
1
Wg = Fhth
2
Work done by the grit should be equal to the
Fig. 7:Variation of force (F) with a change kinetic energy of the particle
in depth of penetration
Page 14
1 1 π 3
Fhth = ( d ρa ) π2a2 f 2
2 2 6
π3 a2 f2 d3 ρa
or hth =
6 F
‘F’ can be written in terms of workpiece property that can be known before hand. Mean stress
acting on the workpiece surface (σw ) is given by
F F F
σw = = =
A πr2 πhth d
 F = πσw hth d
Substituting F value in hth equation,
π3 a2 f2 d3 ρa
hth =
6πσw hth d
ρ
h2th = π2a2 f 2 d2 a
6σw
ρa
or hth = πafd√
6σ w
Volumetric material removal rate due to throwing mechanism
𝟑
𝟓
𝛑𝟐 𝐚𝟐 𝛒𝐚 𝟒
𝐕𝐭𝐡 = 𝐊𝟏 𝐊𝟐 𝐊𝟑 [ ] 𝐝𝐟 𝟐
𝟔𝛔𝐰
Model 2 (Grain Hammering Model)

When the gap between the tool and the workpiece is smaller than the diameter of the grit it will
result into partial penetration
in the tool (htl) as well as in
the workpiece (hw) (Fig.8).
The values of hw and htl will
depend on the hardness of the
tool and workpiece material,
respectively. Force ‘F’ acts on
the abrasive particle only for a
short time (ΔT) during the
cycle time ‘T’. During this
period, the abrasive particle is
in contact with the tool and
workpiece both(Fig.9). The
mean force (Favg) on the grit
Fig. 8:Partial penetration of the grit in the tool as well as in can be expressed by the
the work following equation,
1 T
Favg = ∫ F(t)dt
T 0
Here, F(t) is the force at any instant of time ‘t’. Force on the grit by the tool starts increasing as
soon as the grit gets in contact with both the tool and the workpieceat the same time. It attains
Page 15
Fig. 10:Variation of force (F) with time (T)

Fig. 9:Grain Hammering during ΔT
maximum value and then starts decreasing until attains zero value. Hence, the momentum
equation can be written as
T F
∫ F(t)dt = ( ) ΔT
0 2
Total penetration due to hammering (hh)
(Fig.8) is given as
hh = hw + htl
a/2 is amplitude of oscillation of the tool. The
mean velocity of the tool during the quarter
cycle (from O to B in Fig.12) is given by (a/2)
/ (T/4). Therefore, time(ΔT) required to travel
from A to B is given by the following
equation:
hh T
ΔT = a ×
⁄2 4
hh T
= ( )
Fig. 11:Assumed model of tool vibration a 2
𝟏𝑭
 𝑭𝒂𝒗𝒈 = ΔT
𝑻𝟐
1 F hh T
Favg = ( )
T2 a 2
4a
F = Favg
hh
Let ‘N’ be the number of
grains under the tool. Stress
acting on the tool (σtl )
andthe workpiece (σw ) can
be found as follows:
Fig. 12:Various positions of tool while hitting workpiece with a grit
Page 16
F
σw =
N(πhw d)
F
σtl =
N(πhtl d)
hw
 σtl = σw
htl
4a
Favg
hh
σw =
Nπhw d
4ad2
σw = Favg
hh K2 (πhw d)
4Favg ad
σw =
πK2 hw (hw +htl )
4Favg ad
= h
πK2 h2w (h tl +1)
w
htl σw
But = =j
hw σtl
j can be taken as the ratio of hardness of workpiece material to the hardness of tool material.
4Favg ad
hw = √
σw πK2 (j+1)
Volumetric material removal rate from the workpiece due to hammering mechanism
(Vh):
3⁄
4Favg ad 2
√( σw πK2 (j+1)
)
Vh = K 1 K 2 K 3 ∙f
d
3⁄
4Favg a 4 1⁄
Vh = K 1 K 2 K 3 [ ] d 4 ∙f
σw πk2 (j+1)
From computational results obtained using, it is observed that Vh >> Vth.
Page 17

UCMP UNIT I

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ADITYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT, TEKKALI

 Need for non-traditional machining methods

 Classification of modern machining processes

 Considerations in process selection and applications

 Elements of the process

 Mechanics of material removal

 MRR process parameters

 Economic considerations, applications and limitations

Need for non-traditional machining methods:

Classification of Modern Machining Processes:

Differences between Conventional and Non conventional machining processes

work is typically rotary or reciprocating. 3D shapes and cavities

Fig. 1. Comparison of some modern machining processes

Tool Cone and Tool Tip

inhibitor is generally added to the water.

Fig. 2 Schematic representation of ultrasonic machining process

Fig. 3 Schematic representation of some types of tool feed

Model 2 (Grain Hammering Model)

Fig. 10:Variation of force (F) with time (T)

From computational results obtained using, it is observed that Vh >> Vth.

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