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Microscopy Methods in
Nanomaterials Characterization
Volume 1
Edited by
Sabu Thomas
Raju Thomas
Ajesh K. Zachariah
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers may always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
xiii
xiv List of Contributors
R.K.N.R. Manepalli
Hindu College, Machilipatnam, India
Raghvendra Kumar Mishra
Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
Aristeidis Papagiannopoulos
National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, Greece
Sabu Thomas
Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
Thomas Walther
University of Sheffield, Sheffield, England, United Kingdom
Ajesh K. Zachariah
Mar Thoma College, Tiruvalla, Kerala, India
Editor Biographies
Professor (Dr.) Sabu Thomas is the Director of International and
Interuniversity Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma
Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India. He is also a full professor of
Polymer Science and Engineering and School of Chemical Science of the
same University. He is a fellow of many professional bodies. Professor
Thomas has co-authored many papers in international peer-reviewed
journals in the area of polymer processing. He has organized several
international conferences. Professor Thomas’s research group is in
specialized areas of polymers, which includes polymer blends, fiber-filled
polymer composites, particulate-filled polymer composites and their
morphological characterization, aging, and degradation, pervaporation
phenomena, sorption, and diffusion, interpenetrating polymer systems,
recyclability and reuse of waste plastics and rubbers, elastomeric cross-
linking, and dual porous nanocomposite scaffolds for tissue engineering.
Professor Thomas’s research group has extensive exchange programs with
different industries, research, and academic institutions all over the world
and is performing world-class collaborative research in various fields. The
Professor’s Center is equipped with various sophisticated instruments and
has established state-of-the-art experimental facilities which cater to the
needs of researchers within the country and abroad. He has more than 700
publications, 50 books, H Index-78 and 3 patents to his credit. He is a
reviewer to many international journals. Professor Thomas has attained
5th Position in the list of Most Productive Researchers in India in 2008e16.
xv
xvi Editor Biographies
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 2
1.2.1 Principle 2
1.2.2 Vacuum System 3
1.2.3 Electron Beam Generation and Electron Optics 5
1.2.3.1 Electron Beam Generation 5
1.2.4 Signals, Detectors, and Image Formation 8
1.2.5 Sample Preparation 12
1.2.5.1 Mounting 12
1.2.5.2 Fracture Surfaces 13
1.2.5.3 Microtomed Sections and Cross Sections 13
1.2.5.4 Target Preparation 14
1.2.5.5 Focused Ion Beam 14
1.2.5.6 Drying 15
1.2.5.7 Conductive Coating 15
1.2.6 Examples 16
1.3 Energy Dispersive X-ray Microanalysis 18
1.3.1 Signal Generation and Detection 18
1.3.2 Examples 19
1.4 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy 20
1.4.1 Principle and Advantages 21
1.4.2 Instrumentation 22
1.4.3 Examples 22
1.5 Cryo Scanning Electron Microscopy 25
1.5.1 Instrumentation 25
1.5.2 Examples 25
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is probably one of the most versatile
tools for the analysis of micro- and nanostructures with a wide range of
applications. SEM techniques provide information on the topography and
composition of surfaces by the collection and processing of signals that
are generated by a sharp electron probe within a certain interaction volume.
The main advantages can be summarized as follows: First, SEM provides
the imposing visualization of structures (“image to imagination”). This is
due to the capability to produce pictures with high plasticity and almost ste-
reoscopic appearance, and, depending on imaging conditions, a large depth
of focus even for samples with bold relief. Second, there is the huge range
of adjustable magnifications from reading-glass magnification (approxi-
mately 10 times), e.g., for overview mapping of large sample areas or to
identify regions of interest, and the possibility to zoom into the range of
some nanometers, depending on the instrument (standard vs. high resolu-
tion) and sample properties. Third, there is the analytical power to achieve
information on the material composition by the selection of signals origi-
nating from specific interactions, as there are, for instance, characteristic
X-ray quanta or backscattered electrons.
The chapter is based on a lecture series addressed to students as well as to
SEM users from academia and industry. The aim of the lecture is to demon-
strate the opportunities and limitations of SEM applications. It should
enable the potential user (or customer of SEM service facilities) to formu-
late the aim of the investigation more precisely, identify proper sample
preparation techniques, and perform a qualified image interpretation based
on the knowledge of general principles of the image formation and basic
mechanisms of contrast generation.
n FIGURE 1.1 Historic photograph of Manfred von Ardenne’s first “Raster-Elektronenmikroskop hoher Auflösung” [1] and schematic drawing of the SEM function [2].
4 CHAPTER 1 Scanning Electron Microscopy, ESEM, and X-ray Microanalysis
10-11
10-10
10-9
10-8
10-7
10-6
10-5
10-4
10-3
m
resolution
10 pm
100 pm
1 nm
10 nm
100 nm
1 µm
10 µm
100 µm
1 mm
scanning tunnelling (force) microscope
techniques
scanning electron microscope
optical microscope
eye
n FIGURE 1.2 Range of resolution of scanning electron microscopy compared to other microscopic techniques [2].
1 102 torr. For that reason, a mechanical pump is used to pump down
the chamber to the pressure at which the diffusion pump can begin to
operate. Such a setup is normally used in SEMs that are operated with a
thermionic tungsten cathode. In turbo pumps, gas molecules are pushed
in a particular direction by the action of rotating blades. The rotor blades
transport molecules from the microscope chamber side to the subsequent
pump in the pumping cascade. Ion pumps can achieve higher vacuum
levels that are necessary for the operation of thermionic lanthanum
hexaboride (LaB6) guns (106 to 107 torr) or field emission guns (109
to 1010 torr).
n FIGURE 1.3 Scanning electron spectroscopy images of various electron sources: tungsten filament (A), LaB6 emitter (B), tungsten field-emitting tip (C), and
schematic diagrams of a thermionic gun (D) and a field-emission gun (E). From G.H. Michler, Electron Microscopy of Polymers, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg Berlin,
2008.
vacuum has to be 10e100 times better than that for tungsten cathodes.
LaB6 cathodes are susceptible to thermal shock, so it is important to take
care when heating and cooling.
In field-emission guns (FEGs), free electrons are generated by extraction
from the material, e.g., tungsten, by quantum tunneling. Under ultrahigh
1.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 7
Data for an accelerating voltage of 20 kV. TE, thermionic emission gun; FE, field-emission electron gun; SE, Schottky emission electron gun.
From Scanning electron microscope A to Z: basic knowledge for using the SEM, JEOL USA http://www.jeolusa.com/RESOURCES/Electron-Optics/
Documents-Downloads.
8 CHAPTER 1 Scanning Electron Microscopy, ESEM, and X-ray Microanalysis
and they are more expensive than tungsten or LaB6 cathodes. On the other
hand, they provide electron probes of much higher brightness, much lower
energy spread, and a much lower spot size allowing higher resolutions.
n FIGURE 1.4 Schematic drawing of the function of an EverharteThornley detector. Redrawn from G.H.
Michler, Electron Microscopy of Polymers, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg Berlin, 2008; Scanning electron
microscope A to Z: basic knowledge for using the SEM, JEOL USA http://www.jeolusa.com/RESOURCES/
Electron-Optics/Documents-Downloads.
(60%e80% of the energy of the PEs), they are able to escape from deeper
regions of the interaction volume. The signal that is usually detected by a
semiconductor device is strongly dependent on the average atomic number
of the interacting atoms.
Semiconductor BSE detectors consist of two or four semiconductor diodes
which are symmetrically arranged around the opening of the pole piece of
the objective lens. BSEs generate electronehole pairs, and their quantity de-
pends on the energy and the number of the electrons. The output signal is
proportional to the BSEs reaching the detector. Depending on the processing
of the signal outputs from the different diodes, it is possible to generate both
topography-sensitive and material-specific signals [2].
Signals may also be created by processes in which electrons are knocked
out of (inner) electron shells of an atom due to the impact of PEs. Atoms
enter an excited energy state. The empty electron orbitals have to be filled
by an electron from outer shells. The energy can be released through the
emission of a photon. Alternatively, in X-ray emission, energy is released
through the emission of an Auger electron (AE). As AEs possess relatively
low energies, similarly to SEs, they can only escape from a depth of a few
nanometers. If the above mentioned vacant electron state is an outer state
(outer electron shells), the energy difference is smaller, and the emitted
photon will be in the visible wavelength range. The cathodoluminescence
(CL) phenomenon can be exploited as a signal for image formation
(Fig. 1.5).
Because the incident electrons are able to penetrate into the sample volume,
interactions between the PEs and atoms of the material take place within a
certain interaction volume (Fig. 1.6). The penetration depth and, hence,
10 CHAPTER 1 Scanning Electron Microscopy, ESEM, and X-ray Microanalysis
n FIGURE 1.5 Schematic drawing of the interactions between primary electrons (PEs) of the incident
electron probe and an atom. From G.H. Michler, Electron Microscopy of Polymers, Springer-Verlag,
Heidelberg Berlin, 2008.
the size of the bulblike interaction volume strongly depend on the energy of
the PEs that is defined by the accelerating voltage as well as on the material
properties (composition, average atomic number). The complex character of
the interaction, the energies and escape depths of the detectable signals, and
the consequences concerning the resolution of SEM imaging are described in
detail in a book by Reimer [6].
There are different types of contrast mechanisms that are exploited in SEM.
Of course, the intensity of signals strongly depends on the average atomic
number of the elements that are at hand inside the interaction volume,
causing a material contrast. Similarly, signals can strongly depend on the
orientation of crystalline structures (grain structure, texture of the crystal-
line material). Moreover, the signal intensity strongly depends on topo-
graphic features of the sample surface. The important mechanisms of
topographic contrast formation are the following:
Topographic contrast is obtained because the intensity of SE emission is a
function of the tilt angle between the incident electron beam and the sample
surface area under investigation. The smaller the angle, the bigger is the
streaking path for the interaction of PEs and the surface layer from which
SEs and BSEs are able to escape, and the bigger is the cross-sectional
1.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 11
n FIGURE 1.6 Schematic of the interaction volume with the representation of the origin of the different
signals. Redrawn from RÖDER, lecture script Martin Luther University HalleeWittenberg.
area of the interaction volume. Thus, the signal intensity increases with
smaller incident angles (Fig. 1.7A).
If the detector is placed laterally with respect to the sample, contrast can be
obtained by a shadowing effect. Electrons that are escaping from areas that
are facing toward the detector are more easily detected than electrons that
emerge from surfaces that are far from the detector or that are facing to
n FIGURE 1.7 Visualization of two effects of topographic contrast generation: (A) tilt effect, (B) edge
effect. From L. Reimer, Scanning Electron Microscopy: Physics of Image Formation and Microanalysis,
Springer Science & Business Media, 1998.
12 CHAPTER 1 Scanning Electron Microscopy, ESEM, and X-ray Microanalysis
the opposite direction. Thus, object areas that are turned away from the
detector appear darker than areas faced toward the detector. For that reason,
it is essential to know the position of the detector with respect to the direction
of observation!
Edge effect is similar to the abovementioned tilt effect. It is more pro-
nounced in samples consisting of lighter elements. Here, sharp edges that
stand out of smooth areas or between tilted areas appear exceptionally bright.
This effect is caused by the steep shoulders of an extreme tilt angle. On the
other hand, pits and reentrant edges (notches) appear dark (Fig. 1.7B).
Roughness-induced contrast is a consequence of the edge effect: A surface
having (microscopic) roughness will appear brighter than a (microscopi-
cally) smooth surface of the same material due to the multitude of small
edges with high signal intensity.
1.2.5.1 Mounting
Samples are mounted on SEM stubs of a size and material specified by the
instrument supplier. Note that the sample must not exceed the size given by
1.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 13
the chamber size or lock (door) size. The height of the sample is crucial: It
defines the possible range of working distance that can be achieved. The
sample itself can be clamped mechanically, or it can be glued by a special
(conductive, vacuum compatible) glue or by means of double-sided adhe-
sive SEM pads. The samples should be fixed well to avoid any movement
under electron beam irradiation due to heating or charging. Smaller bulk
samples and powders can be mounted and observed directly. Small amounts
of a powder, for example, can be pressed slightly on double-sided adhesive
pad, and residual powder can be removed carefully, e.g., by compressed air.
The material should be fixed in a manner that a contamination of the micro-
scope column is avoided. Special care should be taken with magnetic items/
particles.
Mutta neiti Kulwiecin suonissa virtaili ritariverta. Heti kun hän kuuli
Sakowiczin sanat, hänen pelkonsa muuttui epätoivoksi ja
vihastukseksi.
Näin sanoen hän taitavasti kuin rosvo kietoi neiti Kulwiecin pään
huiviin, sitoi silmänräpäyksessä vyöllä hänen kätensä ja jalkansa ja
paiskasi hänet sohvalle.
— Tiesin kyllä, että jos asia ei onnistu, niin minä saan syyn
niskoilleni, — vastasi Sakowicz.
— Neuvo oli hyvä, mutta jos niillä on jokin piru suojelijanaan, joka
heidät auttaa kaikesta selviytymään, niin en minä siitä ole vastuussa.
— Olisiko se mahdollista?
— Näyttäkää!
— Minä kerron nyt, mitä minulle eilen tapahtui… Riensin tytön luo
kuin mielipuoli. En muista, mitä puhuin… sen vain tiedän, että tyttö
huudahti: "Mieluummin syöksyn tuleen!" Tiedätte, että siellä on hyvin
suuri takka. Hän hyppäsi siihen. Minä hänen jäljessään, sain hänet
osittain vedetyksi pois tulesta. Hänen vaatteensa olivat jo tulessa.
Minun piti sammuttaa ja samalla pidellä häntä kiinni. Silloin tunsin
taudinkohtauksen tulevan, hampaani kiristyivät, oli kuin joku olisi
kuristanut kurkusta. Sitten näyttivät kipinät, jotka lentelivät
ympärillämme, muuttuvan mehiläisiksi ja surisevan kuin mehiläiset…
— Entä senjälkeen?
— Ei käy päinsä!
— Miksi?
— On.
— Amen!
Kun nuoren upseerin terveys tuli siinä määrin entiselleen, että hän
jo saattoi hoitaa virkaansa, kutsutti Oleńka hänet luokseen.
Oleńka oli vähän aikaa vaiti, mutta katsoi sitten häneen lempeästi
kauniilla silmillään ja sanoi: