BHU

UNIT ONE
Conceptual Frameworks
Definition of leadership
1 . Directing
1.1. Basic Concepts of Directing
● It refers to the issuance of directives and the guidance and overseeing
subordinates that they are doing their job to the best of their ability.
● It is a managerial function that concerns itself with the total manner in
which a manger influences the action of his/her subordinates.
● Directing deals exclusively with people (that is, the human element), thus
it is a very delicate or sensitive function that mangers must take extreme
care.
● There is a high degree of correlation between directing and work
performance.
. The importance of the directing function
● It initiates actions by giving directives and guidance to employees.
 It integrates employees’ effort by coordinating actions of the members
and leading toward the objectives.
 It attempts to get the maximum out of individuals by providing ways
to utilize the potentials and cafullypabilities of employees.
 Directing facilitates changes by incorporating (adopting)
environmental and internal changes into the organization.
 It also provides stability by balancing the different parts of the
organization so that it exists for a long period and its parts work in a
harmonious ways.
Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 1

● The directing function enables subordinates to contribute their best to
attain the goal of the organization. ● Educational leadership and managers
should motivate their subordinates (teachers and other staffs) to volunteer
themselves for the accomplishment of educational organizations objectives.
Conceptual Frameworks
1. 2. Leadership and similar concept
Groups like
sports teams,
✔️social club,
✔️study group,
✔️work unit-there could be a person who is more influential than the others.
✴️
The most influential person in these groups is usually called a leader .
Any organizations (both formal and informal) need leaders to accomplish
their objectives.
Indeed, organizations would be less efficient without leaders, and in
extreme cases, they would be unable to accomplish goals.
1.2.1. Leadership Defined
Many definitions of leadership as there are researchers who have studied the
topic.
Few of them are as following
➜ Leadership is about bringing about useful change,
➜ This definition helps us to contrast leadership with the management role
i.e. leadership being about change and management about creating stability.
➜ This reflects the primary challenge of modern organizations in that they
need both change and stability at the same time.

➜ This is sometimes called dynamic equilibrium i.e. an organization needs
to match its pace of change relative to the pace of change in the environment
in which it operates.
Mindset and behaviors required in acting as a leader, thar is what we think,
what we feel and what we do.
➜ Engaging with feelings, as a leader, is often a challenge within the
prevailing culture of many organizations.
 Leadership is about moving towards a challenge.
 Leadership is about recognizing and responding to the
challenges facing us in our organizations and communities.
 Leadership means moving towards difficult and challenging
situations, rather than avoiding them, even when we have no
clear idea how to proceed.
1.2.2. Concept of Leadership
 Leadership is the art of influencing others to act in order to
accomplish specific objectives.
 Leadership is an attempt at influencing the activities of followers
through the communication process and toward the attainment of
same goal or goals.
 Leadership is the process of inspiring and empowering others to
voluntarily commit themselves to achieving the leaders vision.
 Leadership is the process of influencing others to facilitate the
attainment of organizationally/members relevant goals.
Perhaps the following points may be noted from the above definitions:
 Leadership involves the use of influence and that all relationships can
involve leadership.

 A second element in the definition involves the importance of
communication process. The clarity and accuracy of communication
affect the behavior and performance of followers.
 The led will voluntarily commit themselves to achieve the leader’s
vision.
 Leadership focuses on the accomplishment of goals.
 Whether a leader is effective or not is measured by the degree, to
which she/he achievers individual/group and organizational goals.
1.3. Meaning and Characteristics of Leadership
● The art or process of influencing employees so that they will strive
willingly toward the realization of common goals (personal goals and
organizational goals).
● The leadership process consists of three elements the leader, the follower,
and specific situation in which leadership is exercised. And the essence of
leadership is follower ship.
The important characteristics of leadership are:
 Leadership is a personal quality
 Leadership presupposes the existence of a group. It is only when there
is group of followers that the leadership can exist.
 Leadership aims at influencing people.
 Leadership can exist only when it is for the realization of common
goals.
1. 4. Significance of Leadership
Leadership is said to have the following significance:
i) Improves employee motivation and morale

Leadership creates confidence in employees and sustains their moral and
involvement in organizational goals.
A motivated employee is comparatively free from moral problems.
ii). Leads to higher performance
Motive power to group efforts.
iii) It is an aid to authority
The use of authority may not always ensure high performance.
But leadership facilitates the use of formal authority.
iv). Determines organizational effectiveness
The main task of leadership is to direct and unify the efforts and inclinations
of the members of a work group toward the achievement of desired common
goals.
In any situation in which someone is trying to influence the behavior of

another individual or group, leadership is occurring.
Is leadership Distinct from Management ?
1.5. Leadership is a mindset and an attitude not a role

🔶 Leads inspire others to follow them by their actions. Leaders are not
appointed but end up inspiring follower ship by their mindset and actions.
● Leadership deals with the interpersonal aspects of a managers job,
whereas planning, organizing, and controlling deal with the functional
aspects.
● Leadership deals with change, inspiration, motivation, and influence.
Management deals more with carrying out the organizations goals and
maintaining equilibrium.

● The key point in differentiating between leadership and management is the
idea that employees willingly follow leaders because they want to, not
because they have to.
● Mangers may have to rely on formal authority to get employees to
accomplish goals.
● Managing and leading both involve getting things done through other
people.
● However, the mangers role tends to emphasize setting up and using
systems and controls, along with interpersonal activates like influencing and
motivation.
compare and contrast leadership and management
Subject Leader Manager
Essence Change Stability
Focus Leading people Managing work
Have Followers Subordinates
Horizon Long-term Short-term
Seeks Vision Objectives
Approach Sets direction Plans detail
Decision Facilitates Makes
Power Personal charisma Formal authority
Appeal to Heart Head
Energy Passion (enthusiasm) Control (have power
over)
Dynamic Proactive Reactive
Persuasion Sell Tell
Style Transformational Transactional
Exchange Excitement for work Money for work

Likes Striving Action
Wants Achievement Results
Risk Takes Minimizes
Rules Breaks Makes
Conflict Uses Avoids
Direction New roads Existing roads
Truth Seeks Establishes
Concern What is right Being right
Credit Gives Takes
Blame Takes Blames
Leadership and Power

1.3. Leadership, power and authority
There is no doubt that the concepts of leadership, authority and power are
related. Educational mangers should be able to note the existing differences
so as to be able to apply them appropriately and factitively.
1.4.1. Leadership
Leadership has been seen as the ability one individual has to elicit response
from another person that goes beyond expected or mechanical compliance
with routine directives. This voluntary in behavior between a leader and the
followers is what makes leadership different from authority and power.
1.4.2. Power
● According to Max Weber,defined power as the probability that one actor
within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will
despite resistance.

● Robins defines power as the capacity that A has to influence the
behavior of B, so that B does something he or she would not other wise do.
● Leaders are a particular kind of power holder.
● All leaders are actual or potential power holders, but not all power holders
are leaders.
The following are some of the differences between the power and
leadership concepts:
Goal compatibility. Power does not require goal compatibility,

merely dependence. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some
congruence between the goals of the leader and the led.
The direction of influence. Leadership focuses on the downward

influence of one’s subordinates. It ignores lateral and upward
influence patterns. Power does not.
Research emphasis. Leadership research, for the most part,

emphasizes style. It seeks answers to such questions as: How
supportive should a leader be? How much decision-making should be
shared with subordinates? In contrast, the research on power has
tended to encompass a broader area and focus on tactics for gaining
compliance. It has gone beyond the individual as exerciser because
power can be used by groups as well as by individuals to control
other individuals or groups.
1.4.2.1. Sources of Power
There are five interpersonal bases of power:
legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, and referent.

1. Legitimate power This refers to a persons’ ability to influence others
because of the position within the organization that person holds. This
formal power is what we call authority.
2. Reward power When the source of power is a person’s control over
rewarding outcomes,
3. Coercive Power When power arises from control over administering
undesirable outcomes. The source of power is not controlling rewards but
punishments.
4. Expert power Power that arises from a person’s expert knowledge or
talent
5. Referent power Some people influence others through the force of their
attractiveness or charisma.
1.4.2.1.6. Sources of Power in Education
Distinguish and state the various sources of power in education
Power may be regarded as the ability to determine the behavior of others
or to decide the outcome of conflict. Where there is disagreement it is
likely to be resolved according to the relative resources of power
available to the participants. There are many sources of power but in
broad terms a distinction can be made between authority and influence.
Authority is legitimate power, which is vested in leaders within formal
organizations. Influence depends on personal characteristics and
expertise
The five sources of power can be divided into two major categories:
organizational and personal.
Legitimate, reward, and coercive power are primarily prescribed by the
organization, the position, or specific interaction patterns.

A persons legitimate power can be changed by transferring the person,
rewriting the job description, or reducing the power by restructuring the
organization.
expert and referent power are very personal.
They are the result of an individuals personal expertise or style and, as such,
are grounded in the person and not the organization.
Unit Summary
The most influential person in these groups is usually called a leader.
Leaders are extremely important in a variety of organizational setting. Any
organizations (both formal and informal) need leaders to accomplish their
objectives. Indeed, organizations would be less efficient without leaders, and
in extreme cases, they would be unable to accomplish goals. For these and
similar reasons, leadership has been the center of attention. In this lesson,
students will be made to examine a number of, somewhat distinct,
perspectives of leadership as well as styles of leadership.
Leadership is about bringing about useful change, John Kotter and many
other modern management writers emphasis this definition of leadership.
This definition helps us to contrast leadership with the management role i.e.
leadership being about change and management about creating stability.
This reflects the primary challenge of modern organizations in that they need
both change and stability at the same time. This is sometimes called
dynamic equilibrium i.e an organization needs to match its pace of change
relative to the pace of change in the environment in which it operates

Leadership has been seen as the ability one individual has to elicit response
from another person that goes beyond expected or mechanical compliance
with routine directives. This voluntary in behavior between a leader and the
followers is what makes leadership different from authority and power.
Power can be derived from many sources. The literature in management
suggests five interpersonal bases of power: legitimate, reward, coercive,
expert, and referent. Each of these sources is briefly discussed below.
Chapter Two
2.1. Leadership Theories and its classification
Leadership theories can be classified into different categories or principal
phases.
a) Trait,
b) Behavioral.
c) Situational.
d) The path-goal.
e) Transactional and transformational theories
A, Trait Theories Before 1945,
Treit Theory
● Simlar in some ways Great man theory
most common approach to the study of leadership concentrated on
leadership was traits of a person.

● Much of the early work on leadership focused on identifying the traits of
effective leaders. This approach is based on the assumption that a finite
number of individual traits of effective leaders could be found.
2.1.1.1. Major Assumptions of Trait Theory
 This is probably the first academic theory of leadership.
 The earliest theories of leadership believed that leaders are
born, not made.
 Later theorists began to accept that leadership theories are not
completely inborn, but can be also acquired through learning
and experience.
 Trait theory suggests that leaders have certain personality,
social, and physical characteristics, know as traits that influence
whether a person acts as a leader.
 Intellectual Traits- include dimensions of intelligence such as
decisiveness, judgmental ability, knowledge, and verbal abilities.
Leaders were believed to be more intelligent than their followers.
 Personality Traits- suggest such traits as alertness, originality,
personal integrity, and self-confidence that are associated with
effective leadership.
 Physical Traits- include physical characteristics such as age, height,
weight, and appearance.
proponents of the trait approach usually list leadership qualities, assuming
certain traits or characteristics will tend to lead to effective leadership.
i. Cognitive Skills Includ
Problem-solving ability
Insight into people and situations

Technical and professional competence
ii. Personal traits and characteristics:
Self-confidence
Need for achievement
Sense of humor
Enthusiasm
Assertiveness
iii. Relationship with followers:
Interpersonal skills
Leading by example
Sensitivity and tact
Supportiveness
Maintaining high expectations
Criticism to trait theory
➤ leaders do not have to be great men or women by being intellectual,
geniuses or omniscient prophets to succeed, but they do need to have the
right stuffand this stuff is not equally present in all people.
➤ leadership is a dynamic process, varying from situation to situation with
changes in the leader, the followers, and the situation. B .Behavioral
Theories
Accordingly, in response to the criticism of the trait approach, theorists
began to:
 Research leadership as set of behaviors.
 Evaluating the behavior of ‘successful’ leaders,

 Determining behavior taxonomy i.e focusing in the action of leaders
rather than mental qualities or internal conditions and
 Identifying broad leadership styles.
TRAIT VS BEHAVIORAL L/SHIP THEORY
➤ Under the trait theory of leadership people are nuturally born with
leadership skill/characteristics to be a good leader are inherited .
➤ With the behavioral theory of leadership people who are not nuturally
born with leadership characteristics will have to learn them by observing
leadership behaviors.
In this part, we will look specifically at three behavioral approaches to
leadership:
1. The Ohio State studies;
2. The Michigan studies, including Resins Linker’s work; and
3. The Managerial Grid
1. Ohio State Leadership Studies
TheThe leadership studies initiated in 1945 by the Bureaus of Business
Research at Ohio State University attempted to identify various dimensions
of leader behavior.
▶ These studies narrowed the description of leader behavior to two
dimensions: initiating structure and consideration.
Initiating structure refers to a type of leader behavior that describes
a.
the extent to which a leader is task oriented and directs subordinates’
work activities toward goal achievement.

Consideration refers to “a type of leader behavior that describes the
b.
extent to which a leader is sensitive to subordinates, respects their
ideas and feelings, and establishes mutual trust.
▶ It was during these studies that leader behavior was first plotted on two
separate axes rather than on a single continuum.
▶ Quadrants were developed to show various combinations of initiating
structure and consideration.
2. Michigan Leadership Studies
▶ Researchers at the University of Michigan conducted leadership studies
starting in 1945.
▶ The studies identified two concepts, which the researchers called
employee orientation and production orientation
1. Leaders who were described as employee-oriented emphasized the
relationships aspect of their job.
Production-oriented leaders emphasize production and the technical
2.
aspects of the job; employees are seen as tools to accomplish the goals
of the organization.
3. The Managerial Grid
▶ In the Managerial Grid, five different types of leadership based on
concern for production (*task) and concern for people (relationship) are
located in four quadrants.
▶ Concern for production is illustrated on the horizontal axis. Production
becomes more important to the leader as the rating advances on the
horizontal axis.
The effectiveness of a particular leadership style is contingent upon the
situation in which it is used. The most effective leaders… exhibit a degree

of versatility and flexibility that enables them to adapt their behavior to the
changing and contradictor demands made on them.
The five leadership styles are described as follows:

1. 1.1 Impoverished Management. Exertion of minimum effort to get
required work done is appropriate to sustain organization
membership.
2. 1.9 Country Club Management. Thoughtful attention to the needs of
people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly
organization atmosphere and work tempo.
3. 9.1 Authority-Obedience Management. Efficiency in operations
results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human
elements interfere to a minimum degree.
4. 5.5 Organizational Management. Work accomplishment. Adequate
organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity
to get work out while maintaining moral of people at a satisfactory
level.
5. 9.9 Team management. Work accomplishment is from committed
people; interdependence through a “common stake” in organization
purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.
High 1.9 9.9

Country club management Team Management
9 Thoughtful attention to needs of Work accomplishment is from committed
people; interdependence through a
people for satisfying relationships
“common stake” in organization purpose
leads to a comfortable, friendly leads to relationships of trust and respect.
organization atmosphere and
8
6
5
5.5
Organization Man Managements
Adequate organization performance is
possible through balancing the necessity to
get out work with maintaining morale of
people at a satisfactory level
1.1 9.1
Impoverished Management Authority-Obedience
Exertion of minimum effort to get required Efficiency in operations results from
work done is appropriate to sustain arranging conditions of working in such a
organization membership way that human elements interfere to a
minimum degree.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Law Figure 7: The leadership gird
C. Situational Leadership Theory
▶ The focus in situational approaches to leadership is on the observed

behavior of leaders and their group members (followers) in various
situations,
▶ Situational approaches to leadership examine the interplay among these

variables in order to find causal relationships that will lead to predictability
of behavior.

▶ All situational approaches require the leader to behave in a flexible
manner, to be able to diagnose the leadership style appropriate to the
situation, and to be able to apply the appropriate style.
▶ Although there are many situational models and theories, most scholars
focus on the following situational leadership models that have received wide
attention in leadership research.
1. The Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum of Leader Behavior,
2. Fiedlers Contingency model.
3. The Paul Heresy and Kenneth H. Blanchard model.
2.2.3.3.1. Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum of leader Behavior

▶ In this model the leader selects one of seven possible leader behaviors
depending upon the forces among the leaders, follower, and situation.
The following Figure indicates, the range of choices is between democratic
or relationship oriented behaviors and authoritarian or task oriented
behavior.
(Democratic)
(Authoritarian)
Relationships Oriented Task Oriented

Area of freedom for followers
Use of Authority by the Leader
Leader Leaders Leaders Leaders Leader Laeder

pemits define presents present present Leaders
followers to limits problem tentative idea and "sells make
1 function 2 Asks 3 , gets 4 decision 5 invites 6"diction decision
7
with in group and suggetio subject to questions and
limits make n, and change
defined by decision make announc
superior decision ed it
2. FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY MODEL

Widely respected as the father of the contingency theory of leadership,
● He developed the Leadership Contingency model.
● He suggested that three major situational variables determine whether a
given situation is favorable to leaders:
1. Their personal relations with the members of their group (leader-
member relations).

2. The degree of structure in the task that their group has been assigned
to perform (task structure), and.
3. The power and authority that their position provides (position power).
According to Fiedler
s contingency Model; he most favorable situation for
leaders to influence their groups is one in which they are well liked by the
members (good leader-member relations), have a powerful position
(strong position power), and are directing a well-defined job (high task
structure).
▶ On the other hand, the most unfavorable situation for leaders is one,
which they are disliked, have little position power, and face an unstructured
task.
In a reexamination of old leadership studies and an analysis of new studies,
Fiedler concluded that.
1. Task-oriented leaders tend to perform best in-group situations that
are either very favorable or very unfavorable to the leader.
2. Relationship-oriented leaders tend to perform best in situations that
are intermediate in favorableness.
PAUL HERESY AND KENNETH H. BLANCHARD
SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL CENTER FOR
LEADERSHIP STUDIES.
● This was developed by Paul Heresy and Kenneth H. Blanchard at the
center for leadership studies in the late 1930s.
● According to situational leadership, there is no one best way to influence
people.

Situational leadership style is based on interplay among the following
variables:
1. The amount of guidance and direction (task behavior) a leader gives;
2. The amount of socio-emotional support (relationship behavior) a
leader provides and.
3. The readiness level that favorers exhibit in the performing a specific
task, function, or objective.
i. Task Behavior is defined as the extent to which the leader engages in
spelling out the duties and responsibilities of an individual or group.
These behaviors include telling people what to do it, and who is to do it.
Task behavior is characterized by one-way communications from the
leader to the follower. The person is not so much concerned with
feelings, but with how to help you achieve your goal.
ii. Relationship Behavior is defined as the extent to which the leader
engages in two-way or monitoring, facilitating and supportive
behaviors.
The listening, encouraging and facilitating a leader does in this
example is an illustration of relationship behavior.
Task behavior and relationship behavior are separate and distinct

dimensions.
They can be placed on separate axes of a two dimensional graph, and the
four quadrants can be used to identify four basic leadership style. No one
style is effective in all situations.
Each style is appropriate and effective depending on the situation.
The following descriptions apply to the four styles:

Style-1/51/. This leadership style is characterized by above average
amounts of task behavior and below- average amounts of relationship
behavior.
Style-2 /s2/. This leadership style is characterized by above average
amounts of both task and relationship behavior.
Style-3/s3/ The style III characterized by above average amounts of
relationship behavior and below average amounts of task behavior.
Style-4/s4/ This style is characterized by below-average amounts of both
relationship behavior and task behavior.
Fig 8: The Four Leadership style and Effective Leader Behavior

(Providing High relationship and low High task and High
supportive task relationship
behavior) S3 S2
Relationship Law relationship and task High task and Low
behavior-(low) S4 relationship
(High) S1
TASK BEHAVIOR (Providing Guidance)

III. READINESS OF THE FOLLOWERS
The more leaders can adapt their behaviors to the situation, the more
effective their attempts to influence will be.
Effective leaders believe that people have the potential to grow and that,
given an opportunity, they can and will respond.

There is no leadership without someone following.
● Readiness in situational leadership is defined as the extent to which a
follower demonstrates the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific
task.
● Readiness is how ready a person is to perform a particular task. This
concept of readiness has to do with specific situation-not with any total
sense of readiness.
● All persons tend to be more or less ready in a relation to a specific task,
function or objective that a leader is attempting to accomplish.
The two major components of readiness are ability and willingness.
1. Ability is the knowledge, experience, and skill that an individual or
group brings to a particular task or activity.
2. Willingness is the extent to which an individual or a group has the
confidence, commitment, and motivation to accomplish a specific
task.
3. The term unwilling might be most appropriate when for same reason;
the individuals have slipped, or lost some of their commitment and
motivation.
Continuum of Follower Readiness

The continuum of follower readiness can be divided into four levels. Each
represents a different combination of follower ability and willingness or
confidence
1. Readiness level 1(R1): Unable and unwilling. The follower is
unable and lacks commitment and motivation, or, Unable to insecure.
The fallowed is unable and lack confidence.

2. Readiness level 2 (R2): Unable but willing. The follower lacks
ability. But is motivated and making an effort. Or Unable but
confidant. The follower lacks ability, but is confident as long as the
leader is there to provide guidance.
3. Readiness level 3(R3): Able but unwilling. The follower has the
ability to perform the task, but is not willing to use that ability. Or
Able but insecure. The follower has the ability to perform the task, but
is insecure or apprehensive about dong it alone.
4. Readiness level 4 (R4): Able and willing. The follower has the
ability to perform and is committed. Or Abelard committed. The
follower has the ability to perform and is confident about doing it.
Selecting Appropriate Styles
1. Matching readiness level -1 with leadership style1: TELLING
 For a follower or group that is at readiness level-1 for a specific task,

it is Willingness is the extent to which an individual or a group has
the confidence, commitment, and motivation to accomplish a specific
task. The term unwilling
 Appropriate to provide high amounts of guidance but little supportive
behavior.
 A word that describes this specific leadership style is telling- telling
the follower what to do, where to do it, and how to do it.
 This style is appropriate when an individual or group is low in ability
and willingness and needs directions.
 Other one-word descriptors for this leadership style include guiding.
Directing, or structuring.

2. Matching readiness level 2 with leadership style-2: SELLING
The next range of readiness is readiness level 2. This is an individual or

group that is still unable, but they are trying. They are willing or confident.
The high probability styles are combinations of high amounts of both task
and relationship behaviors. But since they are trying, it is important to be
supportive of their motivation and commitment. This style is selling. It is
different from telling in that the leader is not only providing the guidance but
it also providing the opportunity for dialogue and for clarification, in order
to help the person ‘buy in’ psychologically to what the leader wants.
If a leader simply says, ‘Go stand by the door and keep people from coming
through’ that is telling. On the other hand if the leader suggests, ‘Id sure
appreciate it if you would be willing to stand by the door to guide people
around the classroom because people coming through here have been
disruptive,” this would be an example of selling. One of the differences
between telling and selling is that selling answers why questions.
3. Matching readiness level 3-with leadership style 3-

PARTICIPATING
Readiness level 3 would include a person or group that’s able but has just
developed ability and has not had an opportunity to gain confidence in
doing it on his or her own. The appropriate behavior would be high amounts
of two-way communication and supportive behavior but low amounts of

guidance. Because the group has already shown that they are able to perform
the task, it is not necessary to private high amounts of what to do, where to
do it, or how to do it. Discussion, supportive, and facilitating behaviors
would tend to be more appropriate for solving the problem or soothing the
apprehension. Other descriptors for this style of leadership include
collaborating. Facilitating, and Committing. Each of these terms implies
high relationship, low task behaviors.
4. Matching readiness level 4 with leadership style 4-DELEGATING
Readiness level 4 is where the individual or group is both able and willing or
able and confident. They have had enough opportunity to practice, and they
feel comfortable without the leader providing direction. It is unnecessary to
provide direction about where, what, when, or how because the followers
already have the ability. Similarly, above-average amounts of encouraging
and supportive behaviors are not necessary because the group is confident,
committed. In other word for this leadership style includes observing and
monitoring.
Remember:-
- Some relationship behavior is still needed, but it tends to be less
than average.
- It is still appropriate to monitor what is going on, but it is
important to give these followers an opportunity to take
responsibility and implement on their own.
2.2.5. Determining Appropriate Leadership Styles
The appropriate leadership styles for the four-readiness designation are: _

Low (R1), low to moderate (R2), moderate to high (R3), and high (R4) - are
telling (S1), selling (S2), participating (S3) and delegating (S4), respectively.
That is, low readiness needs a telling style; low to moderate readiness needs
a selling style, and so on.
The probability of success of each style for the four readiness levels,
depending on how far the style is from the high probability style along the
prescriptive curve in the style, lf leader portion the model, tends to be as
follows:_
- R1. S1 high, S2 2nd, S3 3rd, S4 low probability.
- R2. S2 high, S1 2nd S3, 3rd, S4 low probability
- R3, S3 high S2 2nd, S43rd, S1 low probability
- R4, S4 high S3 2nd, S2 3rd, S1 low probability
In situational leadership it is the follower who determines the

appropriate leader behavior. The follower can get any behavior desired
depending up on the follower’s behavior. Regardless of the level of
readiness of an individual or group, change may occur. Whenever a
follower’s performance begins to slip-for whatever reason-and ability or
motivation decreases, the leader should reassess the readiness level of this
follower and move backward through the leadership curve, providing
appropriate socio emotional support and direction.
Concept of Styles of Leadership based on Authority
Styles of Leadership based on Authority

Autocratic style
➣ This style involves very little sense of the leader being accountable to

anyone; he or she may do very much what they like.
➣ The head who subscribes to this style of management determines school
policy alone and assigns duties to staff without consulting them.
➣ Directives are issued and must be carried out without question and in the
prescribed manner.
➣ Where people are coerced, controlled, directed and threatened, individual
initiative may be stifled and self-motivation may be discouraged.
➣ On the other hand, an autocratic style may provide a degree of certainty
for those beneath the leader.
➣ They may feel safe because they do not have to be involved in solving
problems.
➣ The autocratic leader usually has great self-confidence, a clear vision of
what needs to be done, and the power to get things done.
➣ Many great figures in world history have been autocrats.
Democratic style
✔️This style is based on the belief that where people are committed to the
service of ideas which they have helped to frame, they will exercise self-
control, self-direction and be motivated.
✔️ In this style, the head believes that the staff should be involved in
decision-making processes.
✔️Decisions are arrived at after consultation with the staff, and even with the
pupils.
✔️A democratic style allows freedom of thought and action within the
framework of the mission and objectives of the school.
✔️But democracy may not always work very well, when, for example, there

is a lack of clarity as to how binding decisions will be reached.
Laissez- faire style
➤ In theory, the head who uses this style of management believes that there
should be no rules and regulations since everyone has as `inborn sense of
responsibility`.
➤ Such a situation may well exist amongst mature, experienced teachers,
but how would it work with new, young teachers fresh from the `freedom
years` of university or college?
➤ This style of management, where the head sits back and allows everyone
to do as they please, might lead to anarchy and chaos, which would hardly
be conducive to the provision of quality education.
➤ But as the laissez-faire (literally let-do) style is opposite to the autocratic
style, many of the criticisms of the latter become arguments in favor of the
former.
➤ Thus individuals have to think for themselves and individual initiative
and hard work may be well rewarded.
➤ A laissez-faire environment many be more creative and fulfilling for
those involved.
To determine what leadership style you should use with a person in a given
situation, you must make several decisions.
1. What Objective (s) do we want to Accomplish?

- First, you must decide what areas of an individual’s or a group’s activities
you would
like to influence.
- Specifically, what objectives do you want to accomplish?
Before managers can begin to determine the appropriate leadership style to
use with a group, they must decide what aspect of that group’s job they want
to influence
2. What is the Group’s Readiness?
- The key issue is how ready or receptive is the group to accomplish these
tasks?
- If the group is at high level of readiness, only a low amount of leadership
intervention
will be required.
- If, on the other hand, the group is at a low level of readiness, considerable
leadership intervention may be required.
3. What Leadership Action should be taken?

- Suppose the manager has determined that the group’s readiness level in
terms of accomplishing all of these tasks is high that is, the group is able and
willing (R4). Using continuum of follower readiness, the manger would
know that when working with this group, a delegating (S4) style (low task-
low relationship behavior) should be use.
Some members of the group may be lower in readiness than the group as a
whole with respect to specific tasks. For example, a team member may be
R3 (able but insecure) with regard to responding to service problems on a

new line of equipment. The manager would use an S3 (high relationship-
low task) leadership style to build that members confluence and self-esteem.
4. What was the Result of the Leadership Intervention?

- This step requires assessment to determine if results match expectations.
- Development involves positively reinforcing successive approximation as
the individuals or group approaches the desired level of performance.
- Therefore, after a leadership intervention, the manager must assess the
result through rechecking the objectives, re-diagnosing readiness, and
ascertaining if further leadership is indicated.
5. What follow-up (if any) is required?

- If there is a gap between present performance and desired performance of
the individual or group, then follow-up is required in the form of additional
leadership interventions, and the cycle starts again. In a dynamic
environment such as the leadership environment, follow-up is almost a
certainty.
- Leadership under modern competitive conditions means hitting moving
targets.
- Tasks, readiness, and result are all continually changing; follow-up is a
must.
Leading is a full-time job that must be practiced every hours of every day

TASK BEHAVIOR
The extent to which the leader
LEADER BEHAVIOR S2 DECISIO
engages in defining roles, i.e. S3 FOLLOWER DIRECTED LEADER DIRECTED
Explain
telling what, how, when, where, and decision making decisions leader-m
if more than one person, who is to and provide
do what in: leader-m
opportunity with dia
 Goal-setting for explanati
 Organizing (Supp
 Establishing time lines ortive Leader
Beha
 Directing vior) HR made d
Controlling REL LT clarification encourag
ATIO leader
RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOR NSHI HT
The extent to which a leader P HR Follower
BEH
engages in two-way (multi-way)
AVIO LR S4 S1 HT decision
communication, listening, R LT LR
facilitation behavior, Turn over Provide specific ABILITY
socio-emotional support: Responsibility Instructions and necessary
for decision and Closely supervise experienc
implementation Performance
 Giving support WILLIN
 Communicating TASK BEHAVIOR necessary
 Facilitating interactions (guidance) commitm
 Active listening FOLLOWER READINESS motivatio
 Providing feed back
R4 R3 R2
R1
Able and Able but Unable Unable and
wiling or Unwilling or but unwilling or
confident insecure willing insecure
or
confiden
t
FOLLOWER DIRECTED LEADER DIRECTED
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY

▶ The transactional theory of leadership was first
described by Max Weber in 1947 and then by Bernard
Bass in 1981.
▶ This style is most often used by the managers.
▶ It focuses on the basic management process of
controlling, organizing, ánd short-term planning.
▶ Transactional leader brings followers together on a joint
purpose of the goal.
▶ They are the managerial leaders who supervise and that the organize
the followers in such a way performance of the team is not affected and
the goal is achieved, for every achievement there are some reward
and punishment on the failure
▶ Transactional leadership involves thotivating and directing followers
primarily through appealing to their .owWD sell-
interest.
▶ The power of třansactional leaders comes from their formal
authority and responsibility in the organization.
▶ The main goal of the follower is to obey the instructions of
the leader.
▶ The style can also be mentioned as a 'telling style'
▶ The leader believes in motivating through a system of rewards
and punishment.
▶ If a subordinate does what is desired, a reward will follow, and if he
does not go as per the wishes of the leader, a punishment
will follow.
▶ Here, the exchange between leader and follower takes place to

achieve routine performance goals.
● These exchanges involve four dimensions/ approaches to transactional

leadership are:
● Contingent Rewards: Transåctional leaders link the goal to rewards,
clarify expectations, provide necessary resources, set mutually agreed
upon goals, and provide various kinds of rewards for successful
performance.
4. They set SMART (Spccific, mneasurable, attainable, realistic, and
timely) goals for their subordinates.
● Active Management by Exception: Transactional leaders actively
monitor the work of their subordinates, watch for deviations from rules
and standards and taking corrective action to prevent mistakes.
Passive Management by Exception:
✔️Transactional leaders interveņe dnly. when standards are not met or
when the performance is not as per the expectations.
♦️ They may even use punishment as a response to unacceptable
performance.
Laissez-faire:
✔️️
The leader provides an environment where the subordinates get many
opportunities to make decisions.
♦️ The leader himself abdicates responsibilities and avoids making decisions
and therefore the group often lacks direction
ASSUMPTIGNS OF TRANSACTIONAL THEORY

Employees are motivated by reward and punishmient.

● The subordinates have to obey the orders of the superior.
● The subordinates are not self-motivated.
They have to be closely monitored and controlled to get the work done from
them.
Subordinate must follow clearly defined goals;
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEÔRY

Definition - Transformational
● The style of leadership in which the leader uses his influencing power
and enthusiasm to motivate his followers to work for the benefit of the
organization.
● The leader seeks the requirement for a change in the existing
organization culture, gives a vision to his subordinates, incorporates
mission and implement the change with the dedication of his followers.
● The leader inspires his people to increase their abilities and
capabilities, build up self-confidence and promotes innovation in the
whole organization.
● The main idea of this leadership style is that both the superior and
subordinate work for lifting each other for improving their morale and
motivation.
● James MacGregor Burns first proposed the concept of this leadership
style in the year 1978.
➨ Transformational leadershíp is a leadership theory where a leader

works with followers to identify the changes necded, create a vision

through inspiration, and execute the change with a group of highly
committed followers.
➨ Transformational leadership offering administrators the opportunity to
drive organizational change and to create strong schools by fostering a
culture of learning and growth in educators that then gives children an
offers environment in which to grow.
➨ The idea of transformational leadership was first developed by James

McGregor Burns in 1978 and later extended by Bernard Bass, Bass and
Riggio, Leithood, Kouze and Posner as well as others
➨ Neither Burns nor Bass studied schools but rather based their work on
political leaders, Army officers, or business executives.
➨ Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that
causes change in individuals and social systems.
➨ In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive change in the followers
with the end goal of developing followers into leaders
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
● Followers "buy-in" to the leaders values, mission, and vision for the
organization
● Intrinsic Motivatio
● Performance based on organizationa success not individual rewards or
punishmnent
● Minimal research on how transformational leaders emerge

▶ Transformational leaders, who are charismatic and visionary, can
inspire followers to transcend their own self-interest for the good. of the
Inspirational
organization. motivation
▶ Vision is the ability of the leader to bind people together with an idea
▶ Transforimational leaders are relevant to today's workplace because they
are flexible and innovative
A TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADER'S GOAL
🔶 To inspire followers to share the leaders' values and connect with
the leader's vision
Transformational leadership was initially conceived of as a proccss
wherehy leaders strategically' transform the system or organization
to a higher level by increasing the achievenment and motivation of their
followers.
KoUzes and Poisoner Leadership behavior

Transformational Leadership Behaviors
Model the way Inspire to

Challenges
shared vision Enable
the process Encou
others to rage
act the
heart
Bass and Riggio Variables

Transformati
Intellectual
onal Idealised
stimulation
leadership influence
Individualized
consideration
Barnad Bass TL Behaviors

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
TRANSFORMARONAL LEADERSHIP IN EDUGATION

▶ Although there have been few studies of such leadership in
schools and the definitioh of transformational leadership is still
vague, evidence shows that there are similarities in
transformational leadership whether it is in a school setting or
a business environmént
▶ The issue is more than simply who makes which decisions,
rather it is finding a way to be successful in collaboratively
defining the essential purpose of teaching and learning and then
empowering the entire school community to become energized
and focused.
▶ In schools where such a focus has been achieved, we found that
teaching and learning became transformative for everyone.
What are the goals of tranşformational leadership in

education?
Leithwood finds that transformational leaders pirsue three
fundarméntal goals:
1. Helping staff develop and maintain a collaborative, professional
school culture
2. Fostering teacher development
3. Helping teachers solve problems more effectively
Assumption
People will follow a leader who inspires them

➤ Person with vision and passion can achieve great things
➤ Energy and enthusiasm are the tonics that get things done
Key Differences b/nTransformational vs Transactional
● Transactional Leadership is a type of leadership whereby
rewards and punishment are used as a basis for initiating the
followers.
Transformational Leadership isa leadership style in which the
leader uses his charisma and enthusiasm to influence his followers.
● In transactional leadership, leader lays stress on his
relationship with followers. Conversely, in transformational
leadership leader lays stress on the values, beliefs and needs of his
followers.
● Transactional Leadership is reactive whereas
Transformational Leadership is proactive.
Transactional Leadership is best for a settled environment, but
Transformation is good for the turbulent environment.
Key Differences
Transactional Leadership works for improving the present
conditions of the organization. On the other hand,
Transformational Leadership works for changing the present
conditions of the organization.
Transactional Leadership is bureaucratic while
Transformational Leadership is charismatic.

● In Transactional Leadership, there is only one leader in a
group. In contrast to transformational leadership, in which there
can be more than one leader in a group.
Transactional Leadership is focused towards planning and
execution as comparedto transformational leadership which
promoted innovation.
Transactional vs Transformationtal Leadership
ASIS FOB
COMPARON
Categry Transactional Transformational

Leader's Rank Positior Character
Source Cornpetence
of Power
Follower Coplance Commitmenet
Reaction
Time Short term Long term
Frame
Rewards Pay Promobon, Pride, Sell.esteem,

etc etc
Supervision important Less important
TRANSFORMETIONAL
LEADERSHIP
.
Concept Leader lays LEADERSHIP

TRNSACTIONAL emphasis Leader lays emphasis
on his on the
relation with followers values, ideals, morals
and needs
of the followers.
Nature Reactive Proactive

Best suited Settled Environment Turbulent Environment
for
Works for Developing the Changing the existing

existing organizational culture.
organizational culture.
Style Bureaucratic Charismatic

No of leaders Only one More than One
Focused on Planning and Innovation

Execution
Motivational Attracting followers by Stimulating followers

tool putting by setting
their own self interest group interest as a
in the first priority.
place.

Chapter Three
3. Leadership styles
The term “leadership style”, in simple terms, refers to the pattern of

behavior, which a leader adopts in directing the behaviors of employees
toward the attainment of organizational and personal goals. The concept of
leadership style focuses on the behavior patterns of leaders when integrating
organizational and personal interests in the pursuit of some objectives.
Patterns of leadership behavior that a manger exhibits to influence their
employees to follow a given course of action depends on different factors
involved in mangers themselves, the employees, and the environment. In the
following discussion, four leadership styles are presented.
3.1. Factors affecting Leadership styles

The leadership style of a leader is affected by a number of factors. The most
common ones are:
3.1.1. Manager’s management philosophy

- Family & early school Environment
- Experience and Training in the area of Leadership
- Theory X and Y
3.1.2. The Followers’ Maturity Level

 The state of a Person’s drive
 Need for Achievement

 Maturity= ability + Willingness
3.1.3. The situation faced by managers

 The nature of the work
 The types of Assignments
 The functioning of the Organization/unit
3.2. Classification of Styles of Leadership Include:

1. Autocratic
2. Participative
3. Laissez Faire
3.2.1. Autocratic or Authoritarian Leadership style
An autocratic leader is one who helps the decision-making authority within
his exclusive province and makes his subordinates (employees) act simply
according to his direction. Employees working under the leadership of such
a manager do not have the chance to influence the decision of the boss. Such
a leadership style may take two forms: oppressive or dictatorial style and
benevolent-autocratic style.
i) Oppressive- Autocratic Style. Under the oppressive style, the manager
carries out his decisions through an exercise of fear, threats, punishment,
penalty, etc. over the employees. In other words, his method of influencing
employees’ behavior is through negative motivation. Thus, under this
leadership style, the manager is unjust with unlimited power and the
manger-employee relation consists of subordinates doing what they are told
without questioning their superior.

ii.) The Benevolent- Autocratic Style. The benevolent-autocrat, like the
oppressive-autocrat, mainly emphasizes on the attainment of the goal of the
organization, and also has unlimited power. Such a leader tries to take into
account the wishes, feelings, and needs of subordinates, as assessed by him
or her.
In general, autocratic leadership cannot be good for the development of

either the organization or its employees. This style of leadership appears to
appeal to three types of manages (a) those that are untrained and
incompetent and know of no better way of directing subordinates` behavior,
(b) those that are self centered and need such a style in order to feel
important, and (c) those whose creed is authoritarianism. Such mangers are
`convinced fascists` and are strong believers of MgGregor`s Theory X
assumptions.
Characteristics of Autocratic or Authoritarian Leaders

 Under the autocratic leadership styles, all decision-making powers are
centralized in the leader. Such leaders are dictators.
 They do not entertain any suggestions or initiative from subordinates.
 The autocratic management has been successful as it provides strong
motivation to the manger.
 It permits quick decision-making as only one person decides for the
whole group, and keeps it to them until they feel it is needed by the
rest of the group. An autocratic leader does not trust anybody.
Advantages:

 Management takes the initiative in coordinating work.
 Tasks, situations and relationships are clearly defined.
 Decision-making is fast with management at the center of operations.
 Staffs receive and immediate assistance to wards achieving their
goals.
Disadvantages:
 The knowledge, skills and experience of the staff are not fully used.
 It suppresses staff members’ initiative.
 Employees cannot develop to their maximum potential.
 Absence of the leader may mean that important work is not
completed.
3.2.2. Paternalistic Style

Paternalistic mangers are heavily work-centered but they also have
considerations for their subordinates. They tend to look after employees of
the way a father does his family. Their basic philosophy is best described
with a cliché` “Work hard and I will take care of you”, Such as leader helps,
guides, protects and keeps the followers happily working together as
members of a team. However, the leader wants his subordinates follow his
direction
Employees, under paternalistic style, feel free to frequently meet the leader
and look towards the redressal of their grievances, and also feel secure about

their service, and so on. However, with the ever-increasing consciousness of
employees, this leadership style is being resented and resisted. The main
ground of its criticism is the realization in the part of the subordinates that
they wok and exist in the organization in their won right and not out of the
organization’s gratitude.
3.2. 3. Democratic (Participative Style)
Managers adopting this leadership style fully involve their subordinates in
the decision-making process. The final decision is the end product of
combined efforts of both the manager and his subordinates. Democratic
leaders have a high concern for both employees’ interests and the interest of
the organization.
Democratic leadership is characterized by delegation authority in which
decentralization of and decision-making power is exercised. Democratic
leadership is often considered to be more effective than autocratic and
paternalistic styles of leadership, although it should be pointed out that the
over all situation dictates the actual effectiveness of the styles. For instance,
if employees like working under a paternalistic manager, they will not
perform as well for a democratic leader. However, most employees like a
democratic leadership style.
Democratic style of leadership is believed to offer many advantages of
which some are the following:
i. Improved decision
Managers often make better decisions when they involve their
subordinates in the process.
ii. Willingness to accept decisions
Getting employees involved in decision-making creates a greater
likelihood that they will be willing to accept and implement decisions.

iii. Leadership identification
Democratic leadership helps to develop a feeling of trust and confidence
among employees, which reduces defensiveness and promotes a positive
relationship between managers and employees.
iv. Improves organizational stability
Since democratic leadership will help in motivating employees and
developing their moral they will remain loyal to organization. An
experienced work force is an important asset to the organization. Thus,
effort should be made to retain willing and able workforce.
 The democratic leadership style favors decision-making by the group

as shown, such as leader gives instruction after consulting the group.
 He/she can win the cooperation of his group and can motivate them
effectively and positively.
 The decisions of the democratic leader are not unilateral as with the
autocrat because they arise from consultation with the group members
and participation by them.
Advantages
 Staff morale can be improved
 Job satisfaction of staff may be increased
 Knowledge and problem-solving skills of members of staff are
utilized
 Only reasonable goals are set.
Disadvantages
Decision-making may be time-consuming.

 Disagreements can occur and staff may not wish to become involved
in a tug of-war
 Lack of positive and clear direction may hinder the attainment of
objectives.
 There might be some members of staff who are not capable of
working without close supervision.
Laissez-faire or free-rain Style
. the laissez-faire leadership style, the entire decision-making authority is
entrusted to subordinates. Such a leader does not direct. He is, in fact,
incapable of commanding because he has totally abdicated his authority.
This is also known as permissive style of leadership, where there is the
least intervention by the manager, allowing the group to operate entirely
on its own.
The laissez-fair leadership style can work in organizations whose
subordinates are highly competent, duty conscious and motivated to such an
extent that they can do, and do better, without a leader-manager. Such
instances are, of course, rarely existent. If laissez-fair leadership style is to
exist, it must be so with the utmost care. Otherwise, he result would be total
disorganization, conflation, and chaos because, in the absence of a
centralized authority, subordinates are likely to put themselves and their
efforts in different directions.
Finally, one should ask a question: which leadership style to choose? As has
been indicated earlier in this unit, different leadership styles have their
merits and limitations. The adoption of a particular leadership style depends
upon the consideration of a host of factors. Some of the very important
factors are the following:

i) Forces in the managers. These are determining forces consisting of
the manager’s value system, confidence in subordinates, own
leadership inclinations, and feelings of security in an uncertain
situation.
ii) Forces in the employees/subordinate/. Such factors as employees’
need fro independence, readiness to assume responsibility, for
decision making, tolerance for ambiguity, interest in problem at
hand, understanding and identification with the goals of the
organization, knowledge and experience to deal with the problem,
and their expectation of sharing in the decision-making process are
included in forces involved in employees.
iii) Forces in the situation. The situation in which leadership would be
exercised includes the type of organization, group effectiveness, the
complexity of the problem itself, pressure of time on the situation,
etc.
An intelligent manager would always consider the long-term effects of the
style of leadership before adopting the final style.
 A free rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself
as shown; such a leader allows maximum freedom to subordinates.
 They are given a freehand in deciding their own policies and methods.
 Free rein leadership style is considered getter than the authoritarian
style. But it is not as effective as the democratic style.
Advantages

 Many of the criticisms of the autocratic style become
arguments in favor of laissez-faire approaches.
 A laissez-faire environment may be more creative and fulfilling
for those involved.
Disadvantages
It may lead to:
 Anarchy and
 Chaos
3.3. Other classifications of Leadership styles
 Directive-leaders, who take control, make decisions and are self-

reliant.
 Coaching-leaders who focus on developing and involving others.
 Influencing-leaders who are confident in their own ability, convincing
and drive to achieve.
 Collaborative-leaders who create harmony and work with and through
others.
 Much is written about leadership style: whether one is more
autocratic, democratic, charismatic, collaborative, individualistic, etc.
 Current and recent research suggests that no one leadership style is
best. However, two key messages do emerge:
 Successful leaders have the ability to vary their style according to the
context.
 A more participative style seems to be most effective
 Real effectiveness depends upon leaders creating and developing their
own unique style.

 Understanding your preferred leadership style is important.
 It also helps you to understand the effect your style has on others and
when it is most effective.
 However, in today’s complex, rapidly changing and multifaceted
business environment it is more important to be able to adapt and vary
the style to suit:
 The people involved.
 The situation you are in and
 The prevailing business environment.
The various theories of educational management and leadership reflect

different ways of understanding and interpreting events and behaviors in
schools and colleges. The models that will be discussed in this chapter are
compilations of the main theories of educational management and
leadership. In this chapter, we will deal with six management models and
their links with parallel leadership models.
Management model Leadership model

Formal Managerial
Collegial Participative
Political Transactional
Subjective Post-modern
Ambiguity Contingency
Cultural Moral

3.4. Typology of management and leadership models
(Adapted from Bush and Glover, 2002)
1A. Formal Models
Formal models assume that organizations are hierarchical systems in which

managers use rational means to pursue agreed goals.
This model has seven major features:

1) They tend to treat organizations as systems.
2) Formal models give prominence to the official structure of the
organization.
3) In formal models the official structures of the organization tend to be
hierarchical.
4) All formal approaches typify schools as goal-seeking organizations.
5) Formal models assume that managerial decisions are made through a
rational process.
6) Formal approaches present the authority of leaders as a product of
their official positions within the organization.
7) In formal models there is an emphasis on the accountability of the
organization to its sponsoring body.
These seven basic features are present to a greater or lesser degree in each of
the individual theories, which together comprise the formal models. These
are:
 Structural models;
 Systems models;
 Bureaucratic models;
 Rational models;
 Hierarchical models.

The limitations of formal models
There are five specific weaknesses associated with formal models:
a) It may be unrealistic to characterize schools and colleges as goal-

oriented organizations.
b) The portrayal of decision-making as a rational process is fraught with
difficulties.
c) Formal models focus on the organization as an entity and ignore or
underestimate the contribution of individuals.
d) A central assumption of formal models is that power resides at the
apex of the pyramid.
e) Formal approaches are based on the implicit assumption that
organizations are relatively stable.
1B. Managerial Leadership
The type of leadership most closely associated with formal models is

“Managerial leadership.” Managerial leadership assumes that the focus of
leaders ought to be on functions, tasks and behaviors and that if these
functions are carried out competently the work of others in the organization
will be facilitated. Most approaches to managerial leadership also the
organization will be facilitated. Most approaches to managerial leadership
also assume that the behavior of organizational members is largely rational.
Authority and influence are allocated to formal positions in proportion to the
status of those positions in the organizational hierarchy. It is significant to
note that this type of leadership does not include the concept vision, which is
central to most leadership models.

Managerial leaderships focused on managing existing activities successfully
rather than visioning better future for the school. This approach is very
suitable for school leaders working in centralized systems as it prioritizes the
efficient implementation of external imperatives, notably those prescribed by
higher levels within the bureaucratic hierarchy.
One example of managerial leadership is ‘scientific management.

Managerial leadership has certain advantages, notably for bureaucratic
systems, but there are difficulties in applying it too enthusiastically to
schools and colleges because of the professional role of teachers. If
principals and educators do not ‘own’ innovations but are simply required to
implement externally imposed changes, they are likely to do so without
enthusiasm, leading to possible failure (Bush, 2003).
2A. Collegial Models

Collegial models include all those theories that emphasize that power and
decision making should be shared among some or all members of the
organization. Collegial models assume that organizations determine policy
and make decisions through a process of discussion leading to consensus.
Power is shared among some or all members of the organization who are
thought to have a shared understanding about the aims of the institution.
Collegial models have the following major features:
1) They are strongly normative in orientation.
2) Collegial models seem to be particularly appropriate for organizations
such as schools and colleges that have significant numbers of
professional staff.

3) Collegial models assume a common set of values held by members of
the organization.
4) The size of decision-making groups is an important element in
collegial management.
5) Collegial models assume that decisions are reached by consensus.
Limitations of Collegial Models
Collegial models have been p0opular in the academic and official literature
on educational management since the 1980s. However, their critics point to a
number of limitations:
a) Collegial models are so strongly normative that they tend to obscure
rather than portray reality.
b) Collegial approaches to decision-making tend to be slow and
cumbersome.
c) A fundamental assumption of democratic models is that decisions are
reached by consensus.
d) Collegial models have to be evaluated in relation to the special
features of educational institutions.
e) Collegial approaches to school and college decision-making may be
difficult to sustain because principals remain accountable to various
external groups.
f) The effectiveness of a collegial system depends in part on the

attitudes of staff.
g) Collegial processes in schools depend even more on the attitudes of
principals than on the support of teachers.
2B. Participative Leadership

The leadership model most relevant to collegiality is “participative
leadership,” which assumes that the decision-making processes of the group
ought to be the central focus of the group. Participative leadership assumes
that the decision-making processes of the group ought to be the central focus
of the group. Because policy is determined within a participative framework,
the principal is expected to adopt participative leadership strategies.
3A. Political Models
Political models embrace those theories that characterize decision-making as
a bargaining process. Analysis focuses on the distribution of power and
influence in organizations and on the bargaining and negotiation between
interest groups. Political models assume that in organizations policy and
decisions emerge thought a process of negation and bargaining. Political
models have the following major futures:
1) They tend to focus on group activity rather than the institution as a
whole.
2) Political models are concerned with interests and interest groups.
3) Political models stress the prevalence of conflict in organizations.
4) Political models assume that the goals of organizations are unstable,
ambiguous and contested.
5) As noted above, decisions within political arenas emerge after a
complex process of bargaining and negotiation.
6) The concept of power is central to all political theories.
. The Limitations of Political Models
a) Political models are immersed so strongly in the language of power, conflict
and manipulation that they neglect other standard aspects of organizations.
b) Political models stress the influence of interest groups on decision-making.

c) In political models there is too much emphasis on conflict and a neglect of
the possibility of professional collaboration leading to agree outcomes.
d) Political models are regarded primarily as descriptive or explanatory
theories.
3B. Transactional Leadership
Bush (2003) links transactional leadership to his political model.

Transactional leadership is leadership in which relationships with teachers
are based upon an exchange for some valued resource. To the teacher,
interaction between administrators and teachers is usually episodic, short-
lived and limited to the exchange transaction.
Principals posses authority arising from their positions as the formal leaders
of their schools. However, the head requires the cooperation of educators to
secure the effective management of the school. An exchange may secure
benefits for both parties to he arrangement. The major limitation of such a
process is that it does not engage staff beyond the immediate gains arising
from the transaction. Transactional leadership does not produce long-term
commitment to the values and vision being promoted by school leaders.
4A. Subjective Models
Subjective models focus on individuals within organizations rather than the
total institution or its subunits. These perspectives suggest that each person
has a subjective and selective perception of the organization. Organizations
are portrayed as complex units, which reflect the numerous meanings and
perceptions of all the people within them, participants are thought to
interpret situations in different ways and organizations have different
meanings for each of their members and exist only in the experience of those
members.

Subjective models have the following major features:
1. They focus on the beliefs and perceptions of individual members of

organizations rather than the institutional level or interest groups.
2. Subjective models are concerned with the meanings placed on events by
people within organizations.
3. The different meanings placed on situations by the various participants
are products of their values, background and experience.
4. Subjective models treat structure as a product of human interaction
rather than something that is fixed or predetermined.
5. Subjective approaches emphasize the significance of individual purposes
and deny the existence of organizational goals.
The Limitations of Subjective Models
a) Subjective models are strongly normative in that they reflect the

attitudes and beliefs of their supporters.
b) Subjective models seem to assume the existence of an organization
within which individual behavior and interpretation occur but there
is no clear indication of ht nature of the organization.
c) Subjective theorists imply that meanings are so individual that
there may be as many interpretations as people.
d) Subjective models they provide few guidelines for managerial
action.
4B. Postmodern Leadership
Post-modern leadership aligns closely with his subjective model of

management. It suggests that leaders should respect, and give attention to,

the diverse and individual perspectives of stakeholders. They should also
avoid reliance on the hierarchy because this concept has little meaning in
such a fluid organization. Subjective theorists prefer to stress the personal
qualities of individuals rather than their official positions in the organization.
The subjective view is that leadership is a product of personal qualities and
skills and not simply an automatic outcome of official authority.
5A. Ambiguity Models

Ambiguity models assume that turbulence and unpredictability are dominant
features of organizations. There is no clarity over the objectives of
institutions and their processes are not properly understood. Participation in
policy making is fluid as members opt in or out of decision opportunities.
Many things are happening at once; technologies are changing and poorly
understood; alliances, preferences, and perceptions are changing; problems,
solutions, opportunities, ideas, people, and outcomes are mixed together in a
way that makes their interpretation uncertain and their connections unclear.
Ambiguity models have the following major features:
1) There is a lack of clarity about the goals of the organization.
2) Ambiguity models assume that organizations have a problematic
technology in that their processes are not properly understood.
3) Ambiguity theorists argue that organizations are characterized by
fragmentation.
4) Within ambiguity models organizational structure is regarded as
problematic.
5) Ambiguity models tend to be particularly appropriate for professional
client-serving organizations.

6) Ambiguity theorists emphasize that there is fluid participation in the
management of organizations.
7) A further source of ambiguity is provided by the signals emanating
from the organization’s environment.
8) Ambiguity theorists emphasize the prevalence of unplanned decisions.
The lack of agreed goals means that decisions have no clear focus.
Problems, solutions and participants interact and choices somehow
emerge from the confusion.
9) Ambiguity models stress the advantages of decentralization.
The Limitations of Ambiguity Models
Ambiguity models add some important dimensions to the theory of
educational management. The concepts of problematic goals, unclear
technology and fluid participation are significant contributions to
organizational analysis. Most schools and colleges possess these features to
a greater or lesser extent, so ambiguity models should be regarded primarily
as analytical or descriptive approaches rather than normative theories.
However, it does have four significant weaknesses:
a) It is difficult to reconcile ambiguity perspectives with the customary
sutures and processes of schools and colleges.
b) Ambiguity models exaggerate the degree of uncertainty in educational
institutions.
c) Ambiguity models are less appropriate for stable organizations or for
any institutions during periods of stability.
d) Ambiguity models offer little practical guidance to leaders in
educational institutions.
5B. Contingent Leadership

The models of leadership examined earlier in this section are all partial.
They provide valid and helpful insights into one particular aspect of
leadership. Some focuses on the form of the process by which influence is
exerted while others emphasize one or more dimensions of leadership.
However, none of these models provides a complete picture of school
leadership. The contingent model provides an alternative approach,
recognition the diverse nature of school contexts and the advantages of
adapting leadership styles to he particular situation, rather than adopting a
‘one size fits all’ stance.
Leadership requires effective diagnosis of problems, followed by adopting

the most appropriate response to the issue or situation. This reflexive
approach is particularly important in periods of turbulence when leaders
need to be able to assess the situation carefully and react as appropriate
rather than relying on a standard leadership model.
6A. Cultural Models

Cultural models emphasize the informal aspects of organizations rather then
their official elements. They focus on the values, beliefs and norms of
individuals in the organization and how these individual perceptions join
together into shared organizational meanings. Cultural models are
manifested by symbols and rituals rather than through the formal structure of
the organization.
Cultural models assume that beliefs, values and ideology are at the heart of
organizations. Individuals hold certain idea and vale-preferences, which
influence how they behave and how they view the behavior of other

members. These norms become shared traditions, which are communicated
within the group and are reinforced by symbols and ritual.
Cultural model has the following central features.
1) It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of

organizations.
2) The cultural model focuses on the notion of a single or
dominant culture in organizations but this does not necessarily
mean that individual values are always in harmony with one
another.
3) Organizational culture emphasizes the development of shored
norms and meanings.
4) These group norms sometimes allow the development of a
monoculture in a school with meanings sheared throughout the
staff- “the way we do things around here.”
5) Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies,
which are used to support and celebrate beliefs and norms.
6) Organizational culture assumes the existence of heroes and
heroines who embody the values and beliefs of the
organization.
6B Moral Leadership
The leadership model most closely linked to organizational culture is that of
moral leadership. This model assumes that the critical focus of leadership
ought to be on the values, beliefs and ethics of leaders themselves. Authority
and influence are to be derived from defensible conceptions of what is right
or good.

Moral leadership is consistent with organizational culture in that it is based
on the values, beliefs and attitudes of principals and other educational
leaders. It focuses on the moral purpose of education and on the behaviors to
be expected of leaders operating within the moral domain.
This model assumes that the critical focus of leadership ought to be on the
values, beliefs, and ethics of leaders themselves. Authority and influence are
to be derived from defensible conceptions of what are right or good.
Excellent schools have central zones composed of values and beliefs that
take on sacred or cultural characteristics. Subsequently, he/she adds that
‘administering’ is a ‘moral craft’.
Benefits are martial or non-material rewards that one receives after having
performed a given job or task. Thus, extrinsic motivation is external to the
individual employee.
An employee who gains a sense of achievement and takes pride in his job
performance or receives recognition from his superiors, subordinates and
others for a job well done, experiences internal rewards which have their
greatest effect in long run job satisfaction. These rewards constitute intrinsic
motivation. On the hand, rewards for performing a job come in a form of
pay, bonuses, vacations, etc, which are enjoy from the job are examples of
extrinsic motivation.
If an organization has inadequate working conditions, wages, salary benefits
or job security, etc, that is extrinsic motivators, it will have difficulty in
hiring competent employees and turnover, absenteeism and grievances will
be high. It should also be noted that management cannot emphasizes on
intrinsic motivation, neglecting extrinsic motivation, because actually both

are essential to a sound motivational climate that would help in integration
of employees` need satisfaction and attainment of organizational objectives.
3.4. Typology of management and leadership models

(Adapted from Bush and Glover, 2002)
The previous topic introduces you basic concepts on the models of

leadership. Now you will get some concepts on the importance of union
management relations.
The nature and significance of the function of integration are well
exemplified by the problem of labor-management relations. The successful
human resource manager is the one who has effectively integrated the
interests of the labor union with the interests of the organization.
A labor union or trade union is an organization of workers formed to
promote, protect, and improve, through collective action, the social,
economic, and political interests of its members.
The labor-management framework consists of three major actors: workers

and their representatives (unions); managerial personnel (management); and
government representatives. Each of these parties depends upon the others;
however, they are not equal. Government is a dominant force because it
defines the roles of management and labor unions through laws. Within
these laws, unions and management use their respective powers to shape
their relationships. For example, a powerful union may force management to
make concessions in order to avoid worker’s strike. Likewise, when the
union is weak, management can get concessions from the union because
worker’s strike does not threaten management. The power of each actor
depends on the capacity of each to influence or threaten the other

Unit Summary
The concept of leadership style focuses on the behavior patterns of leaders
when integrating organizational and personal interests in the pursuit of some
objectives. Patterns of leadership behavior that a manger exhibits to
influence their employees to follow a given course of action depends on
different factors involved in mangers themselves, the employees, and the
environment. In the following discussion, four leadership styles are
presented
However, in today’s complex, rapidly changing and multifaceted business
environment it is more important to be able to adapt and vary the style to
suit:
 The people involved.
 The situation you are in and
 The prevailing business environment.
The various theories of educational management and leadership reflect
different ways of understanding and interpreting events and behaviors in
schools and colleges. The models that will be discussed in this chapter are
compilations of the main theories of educational management and
leadership. In this chapter, we will deal with six management models and
their links with parallel leadership models.
Chapter Four
4. Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership blends the behavioral theories with a little dab
of trait theories. Transactional leaders, such as those identified in

contingency theories, guide followers in the direction of established goals by
clarifying role and task requirements. Transactional leadership is based on
an exchange of services (from a teacher, for instance) for various kinds of
rewards that the leader controls, at least in part. However, transformational
leaders, who are charismatic and visionary, can inspire followers to
transcend their own self-interest for the good of the organization.
Transformational leaders appeal to followers` ideals and moral values and
inspire them to think about problems in new or different ways. Leader
behaviors used to influence followers include vision, framing, and
impression management. Vision is the ability of the leader to bind people
together with an idea. Framing is the process whereby leaders define the
purpose of their movement in highly meaningful terms.
Impression management is a leader’s attempt to control the impressions that
others form about the leader by practicing behaviors that make the leader
more attractive and appealing to other. Research indicates that
transformational, as compared to transactional, leadership is more strongly
correlated with lower turnover rates, higher productivity, and higher
employee satisfaction.
A transformational leader instills feelings of confidence, admiration and

commitment in the followers. He or she is charismatic, creating a special
bond with followers, articulating a vision with which the followers identify
and for which they are willing to work. Each follower is coached, advised,
and delegated some authority.
The transformational leader stimulates followers intellectually, arousing

them to develop new ways to think about problems. The leader uses

contingent rewards to positively reinforce performances that are consistent
with the leader’s wishes. Management is by exception. The leader takes
initiative only when there are problems and is not actively involved when
things are going well. The transformational leader commits people to action
and converts followers into leaders.
Transformational leaders are relevant to today’s workplace because they re
flexible and innovative. While it is important to have leaders with the
appropriate orientation defining tasks and managing interrelationships, it is
even more important to have leaders who can bring organizations into
futures they have not yet imagined. Transformational leadership is the
essence of creating and sustaining competitive advantage.
4.1. Transformational Leadership in Education
The idea of transformational leadership was first developed by James
McGregor Burns in 1978 and later extended by Bernard Bass as well as
others. Neither Burns nor Bass studied schools but rather based their work
on political leaders, Army officers, or business executives.
Although there have been few studies of such leadership in schools and the
definition of transformational leadership is still vague, evidence shows that
there are similarities in transformational leadership whether it is in a school
setting or a business environment.
The issue is more than simply who makes which decisions, rather it is
finding a way to be successful in collaboratively defining the essential
purpose of teaching and learning and then empowering the entire school
community to become energized and focused. In schools where such a focus
has been achieved, we found that teaching and learning became
transformative for everyone.

Leithwood finds that transformational leaders pursue three
fundamental goals:
4.1.1. Helping staff develop and maintain a collaborative, professional
school culture
This means staff members often talk, observe, critique, and plan together.
Norms of collective responsibility and continuous improvement encourage
them to teach each other how to teach better. Transformational leaders
involve staff in collaborative goal setting, reduce teacher isolation, use
bureaucratic mechanisms to support cultural changes, share leadership with
others by delegating power, and actively communicate the school’s norms
and beliefs.
4.1.2. Professional growth
This process, is facilitated when they are strongly committed to a school
mission. When leaders give staff a role in solving non-routine school
improvement problems, they should make sure goals are explicit and
ambitious but not unrealistic.
4.1.3. Helping teachers solve problems more effectively

Transformational leadership is valued by some, because it stimulates
teachers to engage in new activities and put forth that “extra effort”.
Transformational leaders use practices primarily to help staff members
work smarter, not harder. These leaders shared a genuine belief that their
staff members as a group could develop better solutions than the
principal could alone.
Here are specific ideas, selected from several sources on transformational
leadership:

 Visit each classroom every day; assist in classrooms; encourage
teachers to visit one another’s classes.
 Involve the whole staff in deliberating on school goals, beliefs, and
visions at the beginning of the year.
 Help teachers work smarter by actively seeking different
interpretations and checking out assumptions; place individual
problems in the larger perspective of the whole school; avoid
commitment to preconceived solutions; clarify and summarize at key
points during meetings; and keep the group on task but do not impose
your own perspective.
 Use action research teams or school improvement teams as a way of
sharing power. Give everyone responsibilities and involve staff in
governance functions. For those not participating, ask them to be in
charge of a committee.
 Find the good things that are happening and publicly recognize the
work of staff and students who have contributed to school
improvement. Write private notes to teachers expressing appreciation
for special efforts.
 Survey the staff often about their wants and needs. Be receptive to
teachers’ attitudes and philosophies. Use active listening and show
people you truly care about them.
 Let teachers experiment with new ideas. Share and discuss research
with them. Propose questions for people to think about.
 Bring workshops to your school where it’s comfortable for staff to
participate. Get teachers to share their talents with one another. Give a

workshop yourself and share information with staff on conferences
that you attend.
 When hiring new staff, let them know you want them actively
involved in school decision-making; hire teachers with a commitment
to collaboration. Give teachers the option to transfer if they can’t
wholly commit themselves to the school’s purposes.
 Have high expectations for teachers and students, but don’t expect
100 percent if you aren’t also willing to give the same. Tell teachers
you want them to be the best teachers they possibly can be.
 Use bureaucratic mechanisms to support teachers, such as finding
money for a project or providing time for collaborative planning
during the workday. Protect teachers from the problems of limited
time, excessive paperwork, and demands from other agencies. Let
teachers know they are responsible for all students, not just their own
classes.

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UNIT ONE

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 1

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 2

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 3

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 4

In any situation in which someone is trying to influence the behavior of

Is leadership Distinct from Management ?

1.5. Leadership is a mindset and an attitude not a role

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 5

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 6

Leadership and Power

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 7

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 8

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 9

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 10

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 11

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 12

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 13

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 14

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 15

The five leadership styles are described as follows:

High 1.9 9.9

Law Figure 7: The leadership gird

C. Situational Leadership Theory

▶ The focus in situational approaches to leadership is on the observed

▶ Situational approaches to leadership examine the interplay among these

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 17

2.2.3.3.1. Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum of leader Behavior

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 18

Use of Authority by the Leader

Leader Leaders Leaders Leaders Leader Laeder

2. FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY MODEL

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 19

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 20

Task behavior and relationship behavior are separate and distinct

The following descriptions apply to the four styles:

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 21

Fig 8: The Four Leadership style and Effective Leader Behavior

TASK BEHAVIOR (Providing Guidance)

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 22

Continuum of Follower Readiness

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 23

 For a follower or group that is at readiness level-1 for a specific task,

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 24

The next range of readiness is readiness level 2. This is an individual or

3. Matching readiness level 3-with leadership style 3-

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 25

2.2.5. Determining Appropriate Leadership Styles

The appropriate leadership styles for the four-readiness designation are: _

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 26

In situational leadership it is the follower who determines the

Styles of Leadership based on Authority

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 27

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 28

1. What Objective (s) do we want to Accomplish?

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 29

3. What Leadership Action should be taken?

Tadesse Regassa (Jimma Uuniversity) 30

4. What was the Result of the Leadership Intervention?