The Oxford Handbook of the Bible and

Ecology (Oxford Handbooks) Hilary

Marlow (Editor)
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-the-bible-and-ecology-oxford-
handbooks-hilary-marlow-editor/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

The Oxford Handbook of the History Phenomenology

(Oxford Handbooks)

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-the-history-
phenomenology-oxford-handbooks/

The Oxford Handbook of Polling and Survey Methods

(Oxford Handbooks)

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-polling-and-
survey-methods-oxford-handbooks/

The Oxford Handbook of Daniel Defoe (Oxford Handbooks)

Seager

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-daniel-
defoe-oxford-handbooks-seager/

Trapped: Brides of the Kindred Book 29 Faith Anderson

https://ebookmass.com/product/trapped-brides-of-the-kindred-
book-29-faith-anderson/
The Oxford Handbook of Jonathan Edwards (Oxford
Handbooks) Douglas A. Sweeney

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-jonathan-
edwards-oxford-handbooks-douglas-a-sweeney/

The Oxford Handbook of China Innovation (OXFORD

HANDBOOKS SERIES) Xiaolan Fu

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-china-
innovation-oxford-handbooks-series-xiaolan-fu/

The Oxford Handbook of Luxury Business (Oxford

Handbooks) Pierre-Yves Donzé

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-luxury-
business-oxford-handbooks-pierre-yves-donze/

The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy and Race (Oxford

Handbooks) 1st Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-philosophy-
and-race-oxford-handbooks-1st-edition-ebook-pdf/

The Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the

Classical World (Oxford Handbooks) Paul Keyser

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-science-and-
medicine-in-the-classical-world-oxford-handbooks-paul-keyser/
 The Oxford Handbook of

THE BIBLE AND

ECOLOGY
The Oxford Handbook of

THE BIBLE AND

ECOLOGY
Edited by
H I L A RY M A R L OW
and
M A R K HA R R I S

1
 3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
© Oxford University Press 2022
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Marlow, Hilary, editor. | Harris, Mark, 1966- editor.
Title: The Oxford handbook of the Bible and ecology /
edited by Hilary Marlow and Mark Harris.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, [2022] |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2021057626 (print) | LCCN 2021057627 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780190606732 (hardback) | ISBN 9780190945053 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Human ecology—Biblical teaching. |
Human ecology—Religious aspects—Christianity.
Classification: LCC BS660 .O94 2022 (print) | LCC BS660 (ebook) |
DDC 231.7/652—dc23/eng/20220106
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021057626
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021057627
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190606732.001.0001
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
 Contents

Acknowledgments  ix
List of Contributors  xi
List of Abbreviations  xiii

Introduction  1
Hilary Marlow and Mark Harris

PA RT 1 : I S SU E S A N D M E T HOD S

1. The Historical Roots of the Ecological Crisis  9

Jeremy H. Kidwell
2. Ecological Hermeneutics: Origins, Approaches, and Prospects  19
David G. Horrell
3. Ecological Feminist Hermeneutics  35
Anne Elvey
4. Ecological Hermeneutics and Postcolonialism  49
Madipoane Masenya [Ngwan’a Mphahlele]
5. Literary Ecocriticism and the Bible  63
Timothy J. Burbery

PA RT 2 : SP E C I F IC B I B L IC A L T E X T S

6. Genesis  81
Theodore Hiebert
7. Leviticus  95
Deborah Rooke
8. Deuteronomy  111
Raymond F. Person Jr.
vi   Contents

  9. Reading from the Ground Up: Nature in the Book of Isaiah  123
Hilary Marlow
10. Re-​Viewing the Book of Jeremiah: An Ecological Perspective  136
Emily Colgan
11. God’s Good Land: The Agrarian Perspective of the
Book of the Twelve  148
Laurie J. Braaten
12. “Deep Calls to Deep”: The Ecology of Praise in the Psalms  166
William P. Brown
13. The Book of Job  184
Kathryn Schifferdecker
14. The Ecotheology of the Song of Songs  197
Ellen Bernstein
15. Synoptic Gospels  211
Mark Harris
16. John’s Gospel  228
Susan Miller
17. Pauline Epistles: Paul’s Vision of Cosmic Liberation and Renewal  241
Vicky S. Balabanski
18. Revelation  256
Micah D. Kiel

PA RT 3 : T H E M AT IC S T U DI E S

19. Attitudes to Nature in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East  269
Ronald A. Simkins
20. The Image of God in Ecological Perspective  284
J. Richard Middleton
21. Ecology and Eschatology in the Second Temple Period  299
Christopher Rowland
22. Stewardship: A Biblical Concept?  310
Mark D. Liederbach
 Contents   vii

23. The Sea and Ecology  324

Rebecca S. Watson
24. City as Sustainable Environment  339
Mary E. Mills

PA RT 4 : C ON T E M P OR A RY I S SU E S A N D
P E R SP E C T I V E S

25. The Bible and Ecotheology: A Jewish Perspective  355

Julia Watts Belser
26. The Bible and Wildlife Conservation  371
Dave Bookless
27. The Bible and Environmental Ethics  385
Celia Deane-​Drummond
28. The Bible and Animal Theology  401
David L. Clough
29. Creation Care and the Bible: An Evangelical Perspective  413
Daniel L. Brunner and A. J. Swoboda
30. Climate Skepticism, Politics, and the Bible  425
Benjamin S. Lowe, Rachel L. Lamb, and Noah J. Toly

Author & Subject Index 445

Index of Bible and Other Ancient Sources 457
 Acknowledgments

The editors of an Oxford Handbook inevitably ask for a great deal from their contributors.
Not only must the contributors be possessed of great expertise and erudition in their
chosen fields, but also they must be people of patience in the face of long silences from the
editors, and of efficiency when the silence is shattered by a shotgun burst of detailed edi-
torial requests. Our contributors have been exemplary in all of these regards, for which we
express our immense gratitude. Moreover, to write with authority in an emergent field such
as this one—​with relatively little secondary literature for guidance compared to other areas
which are more established—​requires impressive qualities of imagination and intuition.
Again, our contributors have taught us a great deal here, and we are thankful for all that we
have learned from you about the relationship between the Bible and ecology, hoping that
this Handbook will stand as a durable reference point for the coming years.
We also wish to thank Steve Wiggins, our editor at OUP, for similar qualities of patience
and vision, Esgrid Sikahall for his painstaking assistance with proofreading, formatting,
and referencing of the manuscript and Agana-Nsiire Agana for his invaluable help with
the proofs, including the preparation of the indexes. Finally, we are grateful to the School
of Divinity at Edinburgh, which has provided some valuable research funds to support the
editing process.
Hilary Marlow and Mark Harris
March 26, 2021
 Contributors

Madipoane Masenya (Ngwan’a Mphahlele), PhD, is Professor of Old Testament Studies in

the Department of Biblical and Ancient Studies at the University of South Africa, Pretoria.
Rev. Vicky S. Balabanski, PhD, is Director of Biblical Studies at Uniting College for
Leadership and Theology and Senior Lecturer at Flinders University of South Australia and
the Adelaide College of Divinity.
Julia Watts Belser, PhD, is Associate Professor of Jewish Studies in the Department of
Theology and Religious Studies at Georgetown University.
Rabbi Ellen Bernstein Rabbi Ellen Bernstein founded the first national Jewish environ-
mental organization in 1988; she writes and teaches widely on Judaism, Bible and ecology,
and is an advisor to the Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology.
Rev. Dave Bookless, PhD, is Associate Lecturer at the Faraday Institute, Cambridge, and
All Nations Christian College, Herts, and Director of Theology at A Rocha International.
Laurie J. Braaten, PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Biblical Studies at Judson University.
William P. Brown, PhD, is William Marcellus McPheeters Professor of Old Testament at
Columbia Theological Seminary, Decatur, Georgia.
Daniel L. Brunner, PhD, is Professor of Christian History and Formation at Portland
Seminary of George Fox University in Portland, Oregon.
Timothy J. Burbery, PhD, is Professor of English, at Marshall University, Huntington,
West Virginia.
David L. Clough, PhD, is holds the Chair in Theology and Applied Sciences at the
University of Aberdeen.
Emily Colgan, PhD, is Senior Lecturer in Biblical Studies at Trinity Theological College,
Auckland, Aotearoa New Zealand.
Celia Deane-​Drummond, PhD, is Director of the Laudato Si’ Research Institute and Senior
Research Fellow in Theology at Campion Hall, University of Oxford.
Anne Elvey, PhD, is Adjunct Research Fellow at the School of Languages, Literatures,
Cultures & Linguistics, Monash University, and Honorary Research Associate at Trinity
College Theological School, University of Divinity, Melbourne, Australia.
Rev. Mark Harris, PhD, is Professor of Natural Science and Theology at the University of
Edinburgh.
xii   Contributors

Theodore Hiebert, PhD, is Francis A. McGaw Professor of Old Testament and Dean of the
Faculty Emeritus at McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago.
David G. Horrell, PhD, is Professor of New Testament Studies and Director of the Centre
for Biblical Studies in the Department of Theology and Religion at the University of
Exeter, UK.
Jeremy H. Kidwell, PhD, is Associate Professor in Christian Ethics in the Department of
Theology and Religion at the University of Birmingham.
Micah D. Kiel, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Theology at St. Ambrose University,
Davenport, Iowa.
Rachel L. Lamb, PhD, is a State Science Policy Fellow and postdoctoral associate at the
University of Maryland.
Mark D. Liederbach, PhD, is Professor of Ethics, Theology, and Culture and Vice President
at Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary.
Benjamin S. Lowe, PhD, works with A Rocha International and his research focuses on the
human and religious dimensions of environmental change and conservation.
Hilary Marlow, PhD, is Vice-​Mistress, Director of Studies and Tutor at Girton College,
Cambridge and teaches Hebrew Bible in the Faculty of Divinity, University of Cambridge.
J. Richard Middleton, PhD, is Professor of Biblical Worldview and Exegesis, Northeastern
Seminary at Roberts Wesleyan College, Rochester, New York.
Susan Miller, PhD, is Teaching Fellow in New Testament at the University of Aberdeen.
Mary E. Mills, PhD, is Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Manchester.
Raymond F. Person Jr, PhD, is Professor of Religion and Director of Interdisciplinary
Studies at Ohio Northern University.
Deborah Rooke, DPhil, is Lecturer in Old Testament Hermeneutics at Regent’s Park
College, Oxford; Visiting Tutor in Old Testament at St Stephen’s House, Oxford; and Senior
Associate of the Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies.
Christopher Rowland, PhD, is Dean Ireland Professor Emeritus of the Exegesis of Holy
Scripture at the University of Oxford.
Rev. Kathryn Schifferdecker, ThD, is Professor and Elva B. Lovell Chair of Old Testament
at Luther Seminary, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Ronald A. Simkins, PhD, is Professor of Theology (Hebrew Bible and Near Eastern Studies)
at Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska.
A. J. Swoboda, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Bible, Theology, and World Christianity at
Bushnell University; he also leads a Doctor of Ministry program around the Holy Spirit and
Leadership at Fuller Seminary.
Noah J. Toly, PhD, is Provost at Calvin University in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Rebecca S. Watson, DPhil, is Tutor in Old Testament and Director of Studies at the Eastern
Region Ministry Course, within the Cambridge Theological Federation, UK.
 Abbreviations

ANQ Andover Newton Quarterly

ARC Alliance of Religions and Conservation
ASV American Standard Version
AThR Anglican Theological Review
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research
BCE Before Common Era
BibInt Biblical Interpretation
BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands Library
CAFOS Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CE Common Era
CEB Common English Bible
ChrLit Christianity & Literature
CHS College of Human Sciences, University of South Africa
Colloquium Colloquium: The Australian and New Zealand Theological Review
CTJ Calvin Theological Journal
CurTM Currents in Theology and Mission
EABS European Association of Biblical Studies
EPA Environment Protection Agency (USA)
ET English Text versification
EvQ Evangelical Quarterly
ExAud Ex auditu
ExpTim Expository Times
GNB Good News Bible
HALOT Holladay, William Lee. 1971. A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon
of the Old Testament. Leiden: Brill
HAR Hebrew Annual Review
HB Hebrew Bible
HB/​OT Hebrew Bible/​Old Testament
HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology
HTR Harvard Theological Review
IKS Africa’s Indigenous Knowledge Systems
IKZ Internationale kirchliche Zeitschrift
ISLE Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
JAAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
xiv   Abbreviations

JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JR Journal of Religion
JRE Journal of Religious Ethics
JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSSR Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
JTSA Journal of Theology for Southern Africa
KD Kerygma und Dogma
KJV King James Version
LVC La Vίa Campesina
LXX Septuagint
ME Material Ecocriticism
MT Masoretic Text
MTSR Method and Theory in the Study of Religion
NASB New American Standard Bible
NedTT Nederlands theologisch tijdschrift
NET New English Translation
NIDB New International Dictionary of the Bible
NIV New International Version
NovT Novum Testamentum
NRC National Research Council
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
NT New Testament
NTS New Testament Studies
OT Old Testament
OTE Old Testament Essays
RevExp Review and Expositor
RRelRes Review of Religious Research
RSV Revised Standard Version
SDC Sustainable Development Commission
SJT Scottish Journal of Theology
ThTo Theology Today
TynBul Tyndale Bulletin
UN United Nations
VT Vetus Testamentum
WTJ Westminster Theological Journal
WW Word & World
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
YHWH /​Yhwh sacred name of Israel’s deity in the Hebrew Bible
Tetragrammaton
ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
Note: Journal titles that appear in the SBL Handbook of Style are abbreviated in the
essay bibliographies and listed here. All other journal titles are written in full in the
bibliographies.
 I n t rodu ction

Hilary Marlow and Mark Harris

Setting the Scene

This volume sits within a small but growing field of study addressing ecological hermeneu-
tics. Increasing concerns over the environmental future of the planet, and criticism of the
Judeo-​Christian tradition for its part in the crisis, have exercised the minds of theologians
and philosophers in recent decades, as well as climate scientists and ecologists. Since the
1960s the field of ecotheology, which explores this interface between religion and the envi-
ronment, has produced a wealth of diverse and creative reflection on the place of humanity
within the world (Gottlieb 2006). For their part, an increasing number of biblical scholars
have been engaged in developing environmentally focused readings of key biblical texts,
and in exploring the ways in which the Bible has both reflected and influenced cultural and
theological attitudes toward the environment down the ages. As a result, ecological herme-
neutics has been a recognized area of research in the discipline of Biblical Studies for the
past two decades or so, and a similar trend has occurred in other humanities subjects such
as Classics and English Literature. The inclusion of ecological hermeneutics since 2004 as a
program unit at the Society of Biblical Literature annual meetings has further established its
capacity to make an important contribution to the world of Biblical Studies.
The pace of development in ecological hermeneutics has been rapid, partly because of
the relative youthfulness of the area, but also because of the urgency injected into ecolog-
ical concern by the science, which has been ever more effective at uncovering the precar-
iousness of our situation. For example, as we write this Introduction in 2021 the world is
in the grip of the COVID-​19 pandemic, which has had a devastating effect on the physical,
social, and mental welfare of entire nations of people, not to mention a frightening death
toll. Determining the origins of this virus has proved difficult to date, but it is clearly an
environmental emergency as well as a medical and social one, not least because conser-
vation biologists widely acknowledge that habitat destruction and industrialized animal
husbandry are major drivers in the rise of new infectious diseases such as COVID-​19 (Roe
et al. 2020). Prolonged encroachment by human populations on areas of high biodiver-
sity, together with the use of intensive farming methods and the rise of “agribusiness” have
resulted in a global crisis whose effects will likely be long-​lasting.
2    Hilary Marlow and Mark Harris

This pandemic, and the myriad other more-​localized environmental catastrophes across
the planet give us pause for thought on several important counts. First, they remind us that
human beings are part of the biosphere, not separate from it, and we depend on the global
ecosystem for our survival. Second, they demonstrate that actions have consequences: We
are paying the price for the human tendency over the past two centuries to exploit the re-
sources of the natural world, often motivated by profit and greed. Third, in spite of our ad-
vanced technology, we are realizing our powerlessness in the face of the natural forces we are
unwittingly unleashing. Finally, a fear of death and dying, coupled with uncertainty about
the future provokes existential questions and anxieties as well as personal grief and loss.
It is our contention that all of these issues—​our dependence on the natural world, the
ecological sequence of cause and effect, the humbling effect of human powerlessness in
the face of environmental disaster, and our fears for the future—​feature in significant ways
in the Bible and are addressed in its pages. This volume of essays aims to go some way in
exploring the connections—​and disconnections—​between the ancient world of the bib-
lical authors and our modern environmental predicament. It goes without saying that the
conditions of the ancient world differ vastly from our own, so in one sense Cyril Rodd is
correct to caution us against regarding the Israelites as ancient environmentalists (Rodd
2001, 249). Yet, as some of the exegetical chapters in this Handbook demonstrate, many
of the principles governing human behavior within the natural world that are found in
the Bible are also transferable to modern society, as noted by Christopher Wright (Wright
2004, 144) . Moreover, while we often discuss how society causes environmental problems,
our present situation is one in which, as Jeremy Kidwell notes in his essay in this volume,
“events coming from the natural environment can foment social crises” [p. 14], something
the biblical authors are very familiar with. Inevitably though, negotiating the historical gulf
between biblical times and our own requires hermeneutical sensitivity and nuance, quali-
ties that are immediately apparent when we consider the basic terminology and worldview
presupposed by much ecological thought.

Terminology and Worldview

In public discourse, the terms “nature,” “the natural world,” and “the environment” are used
almost interchangeably to denote the physical world in which we live, a convention adopted
by a number of our contributors. While this is an acceptable and useful shorthand, these
terms are not necessarily identical in meaning and their use in modern contexts is not
without difficulties. In particular, they may suggest a false dichotomy between “nature” (the
natural world apart from humanity) and “culture” (the world of human society), one that
denies the strong relationship between ecological and social concerns. As biblical scholar
William Brown puts it, “Sustaining such polarisation [between environmental issues and
social justice] is still the prevailing assumption that creation consists of exclusively natural
elements while the realm of social relations is of a different category altogether” (Brown
1999, 3).
In the Hebrew Bible there is no specific term for “nature,” which could imply that this
term arises from a modern understanding of the world (a “worldview”) that we anach-
ronistically impose on the text. Von Rad suggests that “nature” was something “of which
 Introduction   3

Israel was quite definitely unaware,” so that by using it we “falsify something that was quite
specific to Israel’s view” (von Rad 1972, 71). In response, John Rogerson suggests that bib-
lical experiences of nature differ very little from modern experiences, but that whereas an-
cient authors explained natural phenomena in terms of God’s actions in the world, modern
science attributes them to the laws of nature (Rogerson 1977, 68–​73). Moreover, the aware-
ness of the miraculous in the Hebrew Bible, the “supernatural,” is predicated on there being
a regularity and order to the created world that could be broken. The miraculous events
in, for example, the stories of Elijah and Elisha or the plagues of Egypt are meaningless
without an understanding of what is “natural” about the way the world works (Rogerson
1977, 76). On balance, therefore, we consider that use of modern terminology (“nature,” “the
natural world,” “the environment,” etc.) is helpful when exploring biblical attitudes to the
nonhuman world, as long as care is taken to avoid false dichotomies and anachronism. One
such anachronistic concern arises when the modern terminology (“nature,” etc.) is used in
a universalizing context to refer to the entire created universe, since this can have the effect
of imposing a modern scientific cosmology on ancient thought regarding “creation.” As we
shall see shortly, this concern is particularly relevant in the New Testament.
There is no individual Hebrew word for “creation” in the Hebrew Bible, even though the
idea of YHWH, Israel’s God, as creator of the world is pervasive in the text and is assumed
throughout. Instead, the merism šāmayîm vā’āreṣ “heavens and earth” functions as an over-
arching term to depict the created world under YHWH’s governance, and the most fre-
quently used generic term for the physical world is hā’āreṣ “the earth/​the land.”1 Within this
generality, many biblical authors distinguished between different landscapes, for example
hāśādeh “the field,” hāmidbār “the desert.” They also categorized species according to their
primary location (we might say their ecosystem): “the beasts of the field, the birds of the
air and the fish of the sea” (Ps 8:8[MT 9]). This “primary level taxonomy” (Whitekettle
2001) suggests that the biblical authors were careful observers of the world they lived in.
In addition, they drew on the rich diversity of landscape and physical features that char-
acterize the land of Israel. So, it is reasonable to conclude that an awareness of the physical
environment is not foreign to the Bible’s authors; rather, it is a key part of their worldview
and this is evident in the writing they left us.
The New Testament is more limited than the Hebrew Bible for ecological interpreta-
tion, since it is overwhelmingly focused on Christological questions, but insofar as it shows
awareness of its physical environment we find a similar picture. This is hardly surprising,
since the New Testament authors inherited the worldview of the Hebrew Bible, albeit tinged
with apocalyptic and Hellenistic influences, and couched within Greek terminology. For
instance, we now find that the Greek term “creation” appears explicitly (ktisis; especially
in Rom 8:19–​23), but the more traditional Hebrew formula (“heavens and earth”) is also
retained (e.g., Matt 5:18; 2 Pet 3:7), along with an interesting expansion on the merism to
include the sea and waters—​“the heavens and the earth and the sea and all that is in them”
(Acts 4:24; 14:15; Rev 14:7). This latter device—​which equally appears in the Hebrew Bible
(e.g., Exod 20:4)—​shows that “ ‘heavens and earth” can be as much a statement of cosmo-
logical structure as a belief in God’s governance of the created world. In particular, the
heavens/​earth/​waters formula reflects the ancient cosmology which appears in texts such as

1
See Marlow 2012 for an analysis of hā-​āreṣ in the biblical prophets.
4    Hilary Marlow and Mark Harris

Genesis 1, where the earth and sky are created by the separation of cosmic waters to form a
“bubble” in the heart of the waters, so that life can develop safely. The point to be made here
is that earth, air, and water represent cosmological and symbolic structures in this ancient
worldview, and do not automatically translate into our modern “natural” categories without
requiring some care to be taken. And while this caution is relevant for ecological inter-
pretation of cosmological and creational statements in the Hebrew Bible, it is particularly
important in many New Testament texts because of the heavy influence on early Christian
thought of Jewish apocalyptic, and especially the latter’s implicit cosmic dualism. Hence, we
find in the New Testament that what might appear to be value-​free and “natural” categories
to us, such as the “world” (kosmos), can take on a symbolic significance in the cosmic battle
between good and evil, between the Creator and those forces in opposition. Our modern
concept of “the natural world”—​by definition excluding the supernatural—​therefore has no
automatic parallel in apocalyptic thought. All of this is not to ringfence the New Testament
from ecological interpretation, but to introduce some of its special difficulties, many of
which are explored in the chapters in this Handbook.

Scope of This Volume

The essays in this collection cover a range of biblical texts and ecological topics, written by
biblical scholars, theologians, and environmentalists. Contributors include recently quali-
fied PhDs with a demonstrable research interest in ecological hermeneutics as well as ex-
perienced scholars with a proven track record of contribution to this academic field. The
authors were each invited to offer a contemporary critical analysis of a particular topic or
text, reflecting their own interests and engagement with the issues, but also drawing in
other theories and opinions. The result is a broad-​ranging and stimulating collection of
essays that aims to provoke debate on the relationship between the Bible and contemporary
ecological concerns.
The essays in the volume are grouped into four parts, reflecting the four main areas in
this emerging area of biblical scholarship.
Part 1, “Issues and Methods,” offers some historical background and an overview of the
development of the field of ecological hermeneutics. It also examines the relationship be-
tween the Bible and ecology from particular methodological perspectives (e.g., feminist,
postcolonial, ecocritical).
Part 2, “Specific Biblical Texts,” comprises thirteen essays on individual Bible books or
groups of books (nine Hebrew Bible, four New Testament). The texts included span a wide
range of biblical literature and genres (for the Hebrew Bible: Pentateuch, prophets, Psalms,
and wisdom literature; for the New Testament: gospels, epistles, and apocalypse), and have
been selected on the basis of their relevance to ecological hermeneutics. This is not to
suggest that other parts of the biblical tradition have nothing to contribute on this score.
Indeed readers will find references to a much wider range of texts in some of the thematic
essays.
Part 3, “Thematic Studies,” examines a number of key biblical themes and concepts con-
cerning the natural world that are relevant to contemporary ecology. These include ancient
Near Eastern and Second Temple perspectives, ecology as it relates to the sea and to city
 Introduction   5

life in the Bible, and the significance for ecological sustainability of the much used terms
“image of God” and “stewardship.”
Part 4, “Contemporary Issues and Perspectives,” includes essays on the application of
biblical texts to contemporary environmental issues, from scholars in both the Jewish and
Christian traditions. This includes consideration of some practical and ethical issues arising
in contemporary ecology and the examination of controversial and divisive topics such
as climate change denial and the antienvironmental stance taken by some in the religious
Right in the United States.
The essays vary in depth and scope of the material covered. Some adopt a broad brush
approach, giving an overview of a topic that serves as a good introduction for the reader
unfamiliar with the subject matter. Others offer a close-​grained, detailed examination of
the subject matter, particularly (though not exclusively) in Part 2, “Specific Biblical Texts.”
And still others reflect the diversity of interpretive methods which are active in biblical
scholarship today. The historical-​critical method still retains a wide degree of respect in
this volume, but it is by no means adhered to universally, and some of our contributors
have espoused more contextualized and reader-​focused methodologies, while others have
departed from customary academic prose to offer a more informal and personally reflec-
tive style.

Critical Evaluation and

Concluding Reflections

As several essays in this volume demonstrate, and the work of the Earth Bible Project has
brought to the fore, not all texts in the Bible are “ecologically friendly.” Indeed there are
numerous “gray” texts that seem to adopt an ambiguous or even negative attitude toward
the physical world. In the Hebrew Bible, Israel’s God, YHWH, is sometimes portrayed as
disrupting or even damaging creation (as noted by Braaten in Chapter 11), while the New
Testament’s eschatological emphasis can seem to advocate the cataclysmic end of the mate-
rial world, ostensibly undermining our own ecological concerns to protect the same world.
How do we make sense of these problem texts in the light of ecological concerns? And how
do we account for the fact that—​as we highlighted earlier in the section “Terminology and
Worldview”—​ecological wisdom does not just “fall out” of the Bible’s texts in any case?
In the light of these and other important interpretive questions, the emerging scholarship
reflected in this Handbook has shown a marked concern to develop hermeneutical princi-
ples suitable for ecological interpretation. Several essays discuss these theoretical issues to a
greater or lesser extent. David Horrell, one of the leaders in this area, contributes an over-
view of ecological hermeneutics, while Anne Elvey illustrates how the theoretical questions
can be integrated with others of topical relevance, such that we can envision a feminist
ecological hermeneutics. Still other essays, such as Mark Harris’s essay on the Synoptic
Gospels, grapples with some of the particularly problematic texts from the perspective of
ecological appropriation.
Finally, it is worth noting the influence of Lynn White Jr.’s controversial and much
debated 1967 essay “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis” on the body of thought
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 DAHOMAN WEAPONS.
⁂ For a description of these Weapons, the reader is referred to
the List of Illustrations at the commencement of this Volume.
 Next came the King’s second son’s female soldiers, from a part
called Kakagee’s country, in consequence of having the government
of that country. These soldiers, about six hundred, went through the
same ceremony as the others. His Majesty always anxiously
explained every thing to me, and sent to the palace for paper for me
to make notes upon. During the day about six thousand women-
soldiers passed successively before the King, who frequently
introduced the principal officers of this corps to me, relating their
achievements. This seemed to give them great satisfaction. Amongst
them, he introduced me to one of his principal wives, a stout, noble-
looking woman, of a light brown complexion. She commanded the
whole of the King’s wives, who are all soldiers, amounting to six
hundred, present on this occasion. The King introduced her to me as
my mother. I was for some time at a loss to comprehend the
meaning of this, but soon found that his Majesty had appointed this
favourite wife to furnish all English or white men with provisions
during their sojourn in this country.
The term mother is, in many cases, misapplied in Abomey; for
instance, if a man has a wife, or a number of them, they are called
mothers, no one being allowed to call them wives but the King. My
inquiries relative to the meaning of this were often erroneously
answered, till I observed an old man, whose name was given me,
and soon after a young woman was pointed out to me as his mother,
though the woman was at least twenty-five years younger than her
supposed son. Owing to this, I was very incredulous, telling my
informant that he must be mistaken. It may appear singular in a
civilized part of the world, to learn that no distinction is made in the
term mother between the wife and real mother. After introducing me
to a number of his chiefs or captains, some of whom are very fine
well-built men, the King informed me that I had better go home, as it
was now getting dusk. After drinking again with his Majesty, I retired
to my house, where I was visited by many of the principal people of
Dahomey, and also received the canes of a great many Spaniards
and Portuguese (as they call themselves), liberated slaves from
Whydah, and who were here attending the custom, or holiday.
 In this country it is customary, when a servant or messenger is
sent to inquire after the health of any person of rank, to send your
cane or stick, which the messenger delivers into the hands of the
person addressed. When the King sends his messenger in the
morning to make his compliments and inquire after my health, both
my people and the messenger-attendants prostrate themselves and
kiss the ground to the King’s cane.
Next morning, June 12th, as early as seven o’clock, I was again
summoned to attend the review. On approaching his Majesty, the
same ceremony was observed as on my introduction yesterday. He
again asked me to ride, and told me he should like the principal
officers in command of the male soldiers to be present at this day’s
review to see me. Accordingly, some of the principal ministers came
with me to show me where to stand, to allow the passing soldiery to
have a full view of the King’s visitor, or King’s stranger, as they called
me. The soldiers were now fast arriving from all quarters; each
regiment preceded by its band, whose instruments produced the
most discordant sounds that can be imagined—drums, elephants’
teeth, bullocks’ horns, and a sort of triangular iron tube, which they
beat with a small stick, and which gave forth sounds like a sheep-
bell.
The commander rides in the centre of his regiment, if provided
with a horse (which is not stronger than a Shetland pony), with two
men holding him on. Others who have no horses are carried in
hammocks. After about four thousand men had passed me,
marching without any discipline or form, I returned to the King’s
canopy to await the commencement of the review. In a short time the
female soldiers made their appearance in full marching order, with
provisions, amounting to about seventeen hundred. This corps was
preceded by its band. The drum is carried on the head, one end to
the front and the other to the rear; the person beating it walks behind
the carrier. The drum belonging to the corps was ornamented with
twelve human skulls. The women carrying provisions march in the
rear, each of them having a certain portion of baggage; some carry
mats for the female officers to lie upon, and one woman carries a
large umbrella for the commanding officer. Those carrying provisions
have large calabashes on their heads, weighing about sixty pounds
each, containing different sorts of provisions, such as fowls cooked
in palm-oil, kankie, dab-a-dab, made of the same material as kankie,
but boiled instead of baked. This is the principal food used here for
general consumption, as well as on the march. Seven standards are
also carried with this regiment, the tops of which are ornamented
with human skulls. This regiment belongs to Megah, the King’s
principal jailor.
About two hundred marched past as I have described, followed in
succession by the King’s women, to-day amounting to six hundred,
all from the King’s palace. These were headed by Dagbyweka. The
drum was also ornamented by twelve skulls of traitors, or men
caught in arms against the King. This corps observed certain
regulations on the march not customary with the others: nine women
and an officer marched in front as an advance guard, at a short
interval fifty supporters, then followed the main body. One individual
officer is always appointed to lead the attack, who is distinguished by
a sword of different pattern. An attack is, if possible, always made in
the night, or very early in the morning.
Next followed the female soldiers from Apadomey, commanded by
Knawie (or white man’s mother). Next, Icandee people, a country
distant one day’s journey to the W.N.W. of Abomey.
After this procession, which consisted altogether of about eight
thousand women, well armed and clothed, had passed, the King
asked me to go and see what his women-soldiers were about to
perform. I was accordingly conducted to a large space of broken
ground, where fourteen days had been occupied in erecting three
immense prickly piles of green bush. These three clumps, or piles, of
a sort of strong briar or thorn, armed with the most dangerous
prickles, were placed in line, occupying about four hundred yards,
leaving only a narrow passage between them, sufficient merely to
distinguish each clump appointed to each regiment. These piles
were about seventy feet wide and eight feet high. Upon examining
them, I could not persuade myself that any human being, without
boots or shoes, would, under any circumstances, attempt to pass
over so dangerous a collection of the most efficiently armed plants I
had ever seen. Behind these piles already mentioned, were yards, or
large pens, at the distance of three hundred yards, fenced with piles
seven feet high, thickly matted together with strong reeds. Enclosed
therein were several hundred slaves belonging to the King.
It may be well to state that this affair was entirely got up to
illustrate an attack upon a town and the capture of prisoners, who
are of course made slaves. After waiting a short time, the Apadomey
soldiers made their appearance at about two hundred yards from or
in front of the first pile, where they halted with shouldered arms. In a
few seconds the word for attack was given, and a rush was made
towards the pile with a speed beyond conception, and in less than
one minute the whole body had passed over this immense pile, and
had taken the supposed town. Each of the other piles was passed
with equal rapidity at intervals of twenty minutes; after which we
again returned to our former station in the market-place. Here we
found his Majesty waiting for us. He anxiously inquired how I was
pleased with the performance of his female soldiers, and asked if I
thought the same number of Englishwomen would perform the
same. I, of course, answered, no: we had no female soldiers in
England, but we had females who had individually and voluntarily
equally distinguished themselves.
In a short time after our return, the Apadomey regiment passed,
on their return, in single file—each leading in a string a young male
or female slave, carrying also the dried scalp of one man supposed
to have been killed in the attack. On all such occasions, when a
person is killed in battle, the skin is taken from the head, and kept as
a trophy of valour.[16] I counted seven hundred scalps pass in this
manner. The captains of each corps, in passing, again presented
themselves before his Majesty, and received the King’s approval of
their conduct. After all had passed, each regiment again formed in
column before the King, and each officer was presented to me, and
their deeds of valour recorded, for which they were promoted. No
promotion takes place unless merited on account of some act of
distinguished merit. When the King’s household troop or regiment
formed up, his Majesty asked me if I observed the form of an animal
worn on the white cotton skull-cap of this corps. I replied in the
affirmative. This animal, he informed me, was killed by some of his
women when in the bush during the last war, a few months ago; and
he had ordered the figure to be worn on the cap as a badge of
distinction.
One officer of this corps of King’s soldier-wives was introduced to
me. Her name was Adadimo. This female had, during the two last
years’ war, taken, successively, each year a male prisoner, for which
she was promoted, and his Majesty had also presented her with two
female slaves. Adadimo is a tall thin woman, about twenty-two years
of age, and good-looking for a black, and mild and unassuming in
appearance. The King also introduced her to an Ashantee prince
and some attendants, who were here on a visit, of which I was not
before aware. No doubt the King of Ashantee had sent them as
spies to ascertain whether I really did pass through Dahomey to the
Kong Mountains or not, as it will be recollected that, upon the King of
Ashantee refusing to allow me to pass, the Governor of Cape Coast
(Captain Hill) told the King’s messenger that I should pass to the
mountains in spite of him (the King of Ashantee). After presenting
Adadimo to the Ashantees, he addressed her and the regiment to
the following effect, the regiment being now on their knees:—He told
them that I was one of the Queen of England’s soldiers, sent on a
friendly mission or visit, to collect information respecting his
kingdom; and he himself felt proud and much gratified to be able to
inform them all of the circumstance, more especially as he could
assure them that the Queen of England was the greatest and most
powerful sovereign in the world, and far surpassed all countries in
war, as well as in the manufacture of guns and cloth, the two British
articles best known in the country. He repeated that the highest
possible compliment was paid to Adadimo, by her being introduced
to me, and having her name registered in my book. During this
speech she remained on her knees, and returned me repeated
thanks. The same example was followed by the whole regiment.
Next came a regiment belonging to a country called Ginoa,
commanded by a female of the same name. This regiment consisted
only of three hundred women. This corps make no prisoners, but kill
all. After all this ceremony was over, the principal male officers
prostrated themselves, and went through the regular form of
harangue, as if this review had been actual service. They informed
his Majesty that they were happy to congratulate him upon the return
of his victorious army and capture of a great number of slaves.
His Majesty, then turning to me, addressed me in a loud voice to
the following effect: “You come from the greatest and richest country
in the world, and I am truly gratified at seeing you in my country. The
only thing I regret is that so few Englishmen come to see me. I
should at all times feel proud to do any thing in my power to
accommodate an Englishman, and endeavour to make him
comfortable in my country. I am aware,” he added, “that I have not in
my power all the necessaries required by Englishmen, but if I were
more frequently visited by them I would take care to procure
everything necessary for their comfort. You have travelled much in
Africa,[17] and from what you have seen you are now aware that I am
as far superior in Africa, as England is to Spain or Portugal, not,” he
said, “excepting the Ashantees, some of whom he observed were
present, and could judge for themselves: although in former times,”
he remarked, “the Ashantees surpassed him as far as he now
surpassed them.”
I do not know how the Ashantee relished this observation, but I
suppose not well, as he is a conceited fop, and upon the whole a
sharp, shrewd young man. I put some questions to him respecting
his country, but his answers were both evasive and untrue, thinking
no doubt that I was quite ignorant on the subject. He informed me
that Coomassie was four moons’ journey from Dahomey; and also in
order to make his country look great, told me and the King that there
were no less than one hundred English merchants in Coomassie
buying gold when he came away. Upon which I flatly contradicted
him, and told him that only one white man resided in Ashantee, Mr.
Chapman, a missionary, who had lately been ill-treated by a set of
ruffians. This mortified him very much; and he remarked to the King
that white men only came to Ashantee for what they could get, and
boasted of the great presents his father had made to Mr. Freeman;
but I informed his Majesty that the King received ten times more from
Mr. Freeman than he ever received or expected in return; that
Englishmen never expected any return for a present. The Ashantee
persisted in what he had stated, and declared that any present
received by the King of Ashantee was made merely through fear.
Upon this the King, in an angry tone, ordered him to be silent. He
was aware that England feared no nation, and he would not suffer an
Englishman to be insulted in his country.[18] This terminated my
conversation with the Ashantee on that day.
It will, doubtless, seem singular, that the male soldiers are not
mentioned as taking any part in the two days’ review, but they
remained inactive the whole time, except when eating. At this part of
the ceremony they played their part, being amply supplied with
provisions. In fact, every one present, on both days, although so
numerous, was supplied with plenty. No person, however, except
myself, was furnished with a table, not even the Spaniards nor
Portuguese, although many visitors of both nations, who were
present at the custom, still remained here, knowing that I was
expected. The Ashantee prince objected to drink out of a calabash,
seeing that I was supplied with tumblers, but he was told by one of
the King’s headmen that he was only a black man, and that if he did
not choose to drink from the calabash he might go without. He
preferred the former, and drank out of what he had used all his life—
the calabash. The male soldiers were seated on the ground without
any regularity, forming a crescent in the rear of his Majesty.
Before breaking up, the King assembled all his principal officers,
and introduced them to me, describing their rank and office.
Amongst them were some of his cousins—Hadabadja, Agerbee, and
Gadypapo, three captains of the male troops, remarkably fine men,
with good craniums and heads much of the Moorish cast, although
darker—not so dark, however, as the genuine negro character.
Egboza is commander-in-chief of all the King’s army, and son of
Kakagee, the principal of the King’s house, being both treasurer and
chamberlain. After many more introductions to inferior officers the
principal officers were desired to drink the Queen of England’s
health. This was to be drunk out of a human skull, apparently not
long before it had been useful to the original possessor. However, as
this was considered the highest compliment that can be paid to any
person, I drank my sovereign’s health from the bony goblet. The
King also joined. I then proposed his Majesty’s health, which was
drunk from the same vessel. This concluded the second day’s
performance.
I may be permitted to make a few remarks on the army of women.
It is certainly a surprising sight in an uncivilized country. I had, it is
true, often heard of the King’s female soldiers, but now I have seen
them, all well armed, and generally fine strong healthy women, and
doubtless capable of enduring great fatigue. They seem to use the
long Danish musket with as much ease as one of our grenadiers
does his firelock, but not, of course, with the same quickness, as
they are not trained to any particular exercise, but, on receiving the
word, make an attack like a pack of hounds, with great swiftness. Of
course they would be useless against disciplined troops, if at all
approaching to the same numbers. Still their appearance is more
martial than the generality of the men; and if undertaking a
campaign, I should prefer the females to the male soldiers of this
country. From all I have seen of Africa, I believe the King of
Dahomey possesses an army superior to any sovereign west of the
Great Desert.

FOOTNOTES:
[15] The higher officers of the household are allowed to adopt
their official title as their family name, Mayho being in the
Dahoman language Prime Minister.
[16] It must not be supposed that these female warriors kill
according to the number of scalps presented; the scalps are the
accumulation of many years. If six or seven men are killed during
one year’s war, it is deemed a great thing: one party always run
away in these slave-hunts; but when armies meet the slaughter is
great.
[17] It is a surprising fact, that my last visit to Africa, in the Niger
expedition, was well known to him, though by what means I
cannot tell, unless through the Ashantees, as we brought the
Ashantee princes to Africa.
 [18] The King told the Ashantee to take back his father’s
present, a gold-hilted sword, and tell him that all the gold in
Ashantee would not induce him to intercept an Englishman.
 CHAPTER XII.
Visit to the King at his Palace—Description of it—Reception
by his Majesty—Gaudy Dress of the Attendants—Masks,
Ornaments, &c.—Occasion of the War between the Mahees
and Dahomans, and its Result—The King’s Walking-staffs—
Dance performed by his Majesty—Another Review of Female
Troops—Execution of Four Traitors—Horrible Occurrence—
Disgusting office of the Blood-drinker—Ludicrous Scene—
The King’s Mother and Grandmother—Dance performed by
them—Costume of the King’s Favourite Wives—I perform on
the Jew’s Harp—I dance with his Majesty—His Message to
the Queen of England—Ridiculous Customs—Court of
Appeal established at Abomey—Character of the King—
Domestic Slavery—A Slave-hunt—Military Distinctions—Want
of natural Affection in the Natives—Roguery of my Servant—
The King’s Commissions to me—An Interesting Incident—
Murderous Attack on me by my Servant—Inquiry into the
Occurrence—My Servant compelled to accompany me.
June 13th.—To-day I attended at the King’s house or palace. After
passing through two quadrangles of about sixty yards by thirty, we
entered the principal square. This square is formed of three sides of
houses or long sheds; and on the opposite side to the principal part
or side is a high wall of clay, with human skulls placed at short
intervals on the top. All the quadrangles were filled with a mob of
armed men, some sitting, some lying down asleep, others walking
about smoking.
This palace, for the King has many, is divided into different
apartments, all on the ground-floor; for though the ridge of the roof is
of sufficient height for two stories, yet the thatch is brought down so
low as to reach to within four feet of the ground. Along the front is a
low piazza, extending the whole length of the building. The main
entrance is in the centre of the side of the square. In this entrance
the King lay on a fine crimson carpet, trimmed with gold lace.
At first I could not perceive his Majesty, as he was placed so far
back under this low dark piazza, although I was told that he was
paying his respects to me by motioning with his hand. However, I
returned the compliment towards the spot where, according to
appearance, he was, surrounded by numbers of his favourite wives.
Upon being desired to approach nearer, I was directed by Mayho
and some more headmen, who accompanied me, who advanced
slowly on their hands and knees, myself in the centre, till within a few
yards of his Majesty, whom I could now perfectly see. The King
raised himself to a sitting posture from the large crimson silk velvet
cushion on which he had been reclining, and very kindly asked me
how I felt after sitting with him so long on the previous day. He then
ordered a very large canopy, or huge umbrella, richly ornamented, to
be stuck up. A hole was accordingly dug in the ground, and the
handle of the umbrella placed therein, the earth beat tightly round it,
similar to a large mushroom. A table was also placed under it, with
plenty of refreshment, both of solids and liquids.
After I was comfortably seated, his Majesty advanced towards me
to drink my health, which was accompanied with loud hurrahs from
his people. Provisions were then distributed in all directions, after I
had been furnished. At some distance behind me were some
Portuguese gentlemen, whom I had observed on the two previous
days, but his Majesty seemed to take no notice of them more than of
his own people. They were furnished with food in the same manner
as his own people, without table or spoon, or any other implement
beyond the calabash containing the food. I was a little surprised at
this, particularly as I was aware that the Portuguese were the
purchasers of many of the King’s slaves; but through my interpreter,
Mayho thus explained the matter. He said the King was well aware
that the pretended friendship of the Portuguese was entirely for
selfish and pecuniary motives, whereas the English were not slave-
dealers; moreover, that England was an independent nation, and the
greatest in the white man’s world, as he himself was of the black
man’s world; and declared that the friendship of one Englishman was
worth that of a thousand Portuguese, and that the King’s father had
always taught him to respect an Englishman. His Majesty desired me
to drink the health of the Queen of England and all her family. I then
proposed his Majesty’s health in the name of the Queen of England.
At this he seemed much pleased, and asked me if the Queen
allowed me to drink his health. I replied certainly: and that when a
genuine compliment is paid to the Queen of England, she always
returns it to the meanest of her subjects. This drew a general shout
of applause from all his Majesty’s head people.
The King now retired to his previous position; and after I had
partaken of some eatables, the day’s amusement commenced. All
the principal men in his Majesty’s service were ordered to the front.
They were all dressed in their most gaudy dresses, of various
shapes and colours, according to the taste of the wearer; but all of
the headmen wore silver gauntlets, and a profusion of beads and
anklets, generally made of a common small iron chain, in substance
similar to a horse-collar chain used in England, but the links merely
closed, not welded. Others of lower rank, or second, as they are
called (for each headman has his second), were dressed in their
military dress. Several of the principal men were also disguised in
masks and clowns’ dresses, who performed antics and all manner of
buffoonery. Some had on masks resembling the head of a bear,
others that of a monkey. Some also displayed a pair of silver horns
fixed on the forehead by a bandeau. About ten yards in front of the
place where his Majesty lay, three skulls were placed on the ground,
forming an equilateral triangle, about three feet apart. At a little
distance from the three last-named skulls a calabash was placed,
containing several skulls of distinguished men taken or killed in war.
On a low stool was also placed a large imitation of a skull in silver,
but a very indifferent imitation, of Portuguese manufacture; and
seven standards, with ridiculous devices rudely cut from different-
coloured cloth, and sewed on them, chiefly relating to their defeat of
the Makee or Mahee[19] people, a country about six days’ journey to
the northward of Dahomey. The pole of each standard was mounted
with the skull of a caboceer, or ruler of a town.
 It would appear that the Mahees had many skirmishes with the
Dahomans. On one occasion a trading party went from Dahomey to
the Mahee country to traffic, but were robbed of their goods and
murdered. This circumstance so enraged the King of Dahomey that
he immediately collected all his soldiers, male and female, and
marched them into the enemy’s country. His army, however, returned
without either a negotiation or gaining a victory. Whereupon the King
ordered his soldiers to return immediately, with orders to destroy the
capital within three days. Accordingly, they returned by forced
marches, and reached the capital of the Mahee country, which was
found to be strongly fenced round with the same prickly bush I have
already mentioned. The same night, or early on the following
morning, the female soldiers took the place, with the King and his
wives, and a great number of his headmen, without any resistance,
and in three days the Dahomans (according to their own account)
took one hundred and twenty-six towns, making the greater part of
the enemy prisoners, and putting to death those who offered any
resistance. This was the last great war in which the Dahomans had
been engaged.
Near the King were placed several large staffs or walking-sticks,
with a skull fixed on the upper end of each, the stick passing through
the skull so as to leave about seven inches of the stick above the
skull for the hand when walking. The stick is about four and a half
feet long, and is used as the ancient pilgrim’s staff, being grasped
perpendicularly, thumb upwards.
In a short time his Majesty expressed his wish to dance, which
was approved of by all the people by loud yells and the firing of
muskets. The King then came forward to the open space in front,
where the three skulls were placed, and commenced a dance, or
rather elephantine motion, the movement being all in the hips and
shoulders. After moving in this way about one minute, his Majesty
took one of the staffs and skulls, and recommenced dancing
amongst the three skulls, which lay on the ground. He then ordered
a cigar to be lighted for him, and began smoking; at the same time
he folded his arms, with the staff under his arms, resting with his
breast on the top of the skull, and displaying all the indifference
possible. He then advanced towards me and gave me a cigar, and
again desired me to drink his health. He asked me if I should like to
be present on the following day to witness the execution of four
(men) traitors, and proffered me the honour of being the executioner.
This honour, however, I declined; but he pressed me, observing he
should like to see the capability of my sword, which he admired
much. I told him that I would rather save a man’s life than take it,
unless in my own defence. This he admitted was all very good, but
asked me whether I should like to save the life of a person who had
attempted the life of my Queen? I, of course, replied, Certainly not.
Then he told me that the crime of these men was similar. His Majesty
now retired, and shortly afterwards sent me a second supply of
provisions in several large calabashes, as wide as the old
Winchester bushel, containing fowls, mutton, and pork.
The soups made here are very superior, though perhaps too hotly
seasoned for European palates. Owing to the great concourse of
people the heat was so great as to cause a drowsiness to come over
me in consequence of sitting so long. His Majesty, observing this,
very condescendingly forwarded to me a fine silver snuff-box,
desiring me to take a pinch, at the same time directing his prime
minister to tell me not to remain any longer than I felt inclined; but as
I was aware that the whole affair had been got up at an enormous
expense, entirely on my account, I returned my thanks, and informed
the messenger that I enjoyed it much, and remained a considerable
time longer, after which I begged leave to retire. He sent a
messenger with his cane, in the evening, to ask how I was after
sitting so long.
14th.—Again I visited the palace at half-past eight o’clock. The
head, or commander, of one of his Majesty’s female regiments,
named Godthimay, placed herself on her knees close to the three
human skulls; and a regiment (before mentioned) who killed the
alligator, presented themselves on their knees in tens, and
Godthimay, as their spokesman, harangued the multitude and the
King, extolling the valour of these women. When the harangue was
over, Godthimay passed along the kneeling rank, and placing a hand
in succession upon the head of each, dismissed them, and ten more
occupied their place until this tedious ceremony was completed.
The ceremonies of this day were nearly a repetition of those of
yesterday, till the time arrived (an hour before sunset) when the four
traitors were brought into the square for execution. They marched
through the mob, or assembled crowd, apparently as little concerned
as the spectators, who seemed more cheerful than before the
prisoners made their appearance, as if they were pleased with the
prospect of a change of performance. The prisoners were marched
close past me in slow time, consequently I had a good opportunity of
minutely observing them, particularly as every person remained on
his knees with the exception of myself and the guard who
accompanied the prisoners.
They were all young men of the middle size, and appeared to be
of one family, or at least of the same tribe of Mahees, who are much
better looking than the people of the coast. Each man was gagged
with a short piece of wood, with a small strip of white cotton tied
round each end of the stick, and passed round the pole. This was to
prevent them from speaking. They were arranged in line, kneeling
before the King. The head gong-gong man then gave four beats on
the gong, as one—two, and one—two, the upper part of the gong-
gong being smaller than the lower, and thus rendering the sounds
different, similar to our public clocks in England when striking the
quarters. After the four beats, the gong man addressed the culprits
upon the enormity of their crime and the justice of their sentence.
During this lengthened harangue the gong-gong was struck at short
intervals, which gave a sort of awful solemnity to the scene. After
this, the men were suddenly marched some distance back from his
Majesty, who on this occasion refused to witness the execution. The
men were then ordered to kneel in line about nine feet apart, their
hands being tied in front of the body, and the elbows held behind by
two men, the body of the culprit bending forward. Poor old Mayho,
who is an excellent man, was the proper executioner. He held the
knife or bill-hook to me, but I again declined the honour; when the
old man, at one blow on the back of the neck, divided the head from
the body of the first culprit, with the exception of a small portion of
the skin, which was separated by passing the knife underneath.
Unfortunately, the second man was dreadfully mangled, for the poor
fellow, at the moment the blow was struck having raised his head,
the knife struck in a slanting direction, and only made a large wound;
the next blow caught him on the back of the head, when the brain
protruded. The poor fellow struggled violently. The third stroke
caught him across the shoulders, inflicting a dreadful gash. The next
caught him on the neck, which was twice repeated. The officer
steadying the criminal now lost his hold on account of the blood
which rushed from the blood-vessels on all who were near. Poor old
Mayho, now quite palsied, took hold of the head, and after twisting it
several times round, separated it from the still convulsed and
struggling trunk. During the latter part of this disgusting execution the
head presented an awful spectacle, the distortion of the features,
and the eyeballs completely upturned, giving it a horrid appearance.
The next man, poor fellow, with his eyes partially shut and head
drooping forward near to the ground, remained all this time in
suspense; casting a partial glance on the head which was now close
to him, and the trunk dragged close past him, the blood still rushing
from it like a fountain. Mayho refused to make another attempt, an
another man acted in his stead, and at one blow separated the
spinal bone, but did not entirely separate the head from the body.
This was finished in the same manner as the first. However, the
fourth culprit was not so fortunate, his head not being separated till
after three strokes. The body afterwards rolled over several times,
when the blood spurted over my face and clothes.
The most disgusting part of this abominable and barbarous
execution was that of an old ill-looking wretch, who, like the
numerous vultures, stood with a small calabash in his hand, ready to
catch the blood from each individual, which he greedily devoured
before it had escaped one minute from the veins. The old wretch had
the impudence to put some rum in the blood and ask me to drink; at
that moment I could with good heart have sent a bullet through his
head. Before execution, the victim is furnished with a clean white
cloth to tie round the loins. After decapitation the body is immediately
dragged off by the heels, to a large pit at a considerable distance
from the town, and thrown therein, and is immediately devoured by
wolves and vultures, which are here so ravenous, that they will
almost take your victuals from you.
June 20th.—I again visited the palace, to attend the custom or
holiday. The commencement of this day’s amusement presented a
most ludicrous scene. Four tall men, singularly dressed, and with
bullocks’ tails tied so as to hang over their hips behind, arranged
themselves in line, in front of his Majesty, and by passing at the side
step, lowering and poising the body by the bend of the knee, caused
the tail to make a circular motion of a disgusting appearance. This
was considered one of the most interesting parts of this performance
of buffoonery.
I forgot to mention that the palace which I visited this day was
different from that which I visited on the two previous days. In the
entrances of the doors, human skulls were built in the walls, about
half the skull projecting beyond the surface of the walls. After a
number of introductions, similar to those on the former days, the
King’s mother entered the court, preceded by six women, carrying
large brass pans filled with skulls, with shank bones fixed
perpendicularly to the outside of the pans. Another pan, covered with
scarlet cloth, as also two other pots of an oval shape, were carried
on the heads of females, with a skull placed on the top, or over the
mouth of each. After parading these different vessels round the
palace-yard, they were placed on the ground, in front of several
calabashes (previously placed there), containing a number of scalps.
The King’s mother is a stout old lady of about eighty years of age,
and was dressed in a rich silk velvet tunic of crimson, with a large
robe or train supported by two women. Her head is covered with an
immense large Spanish beaver hat of nine inches brim, trimmed with
gold lace. The mother placed herself in front of the King, and
prostrated herself, throwing dirt or earth over her old grey hair; like
all the others, no distinction being made in her case. The old woman
then got up and danced before his Majesty; and at this moment, the
King’s grandmother arrived. She is still more stout than the mother,
and although about one hundred years of age, still preserves her
plumpness and symmetry.
 These two ancient dames both joined in the dance, and it was
certainly surprising to see with what agility they moved, considering
their years. They again prostrated themselves, and advanced
towards his Majesty on their knees. After a short conversation they
distributed a large quantity of cowries amongst their head people.
The cowries are all strung on a piece of grass, forty cowries on each
string. Fifty strings is a head, and the value of a dollar of silver. The
King’s principal or favourite wives wear coronets of silver, as well as
the wives of his principal ministers. Some of the King’s wives also
wear a short dagger, similar to those worn by young midshipmen in
the British Navy, stuck between a bandeau and the head, point
downwards. His Majesty came, as usual, to my canopy and shook
hands with me, inquiring after my health, and desired to drink to me;
but, after a moment’s consideration, proposed the health of the
Queen of England first. After drinking to Her Majesty, the King drank
my health, and in return I drank his health. His Majesty then desired
all his headmen to draw near, and begged me to play the Jew’s harp,
with one of which I had presented him. This ancient Israelitish
instrument afforded much sweeter music than their bullocks’ horns
and elephants’ teeth, and was consequently much admired. The
King next desired me to play while he danced to my music, and
afterwards desired me to dance with him and play the while. It was
rather a difficult task to dance and play the Jew’s harp at the same
time. However, as this was considered the highest mark of honour
which could possibly be conferred upon me, civility would not allow
me to refuse; and although I never was an excellent dancer, I did my
best on this occasion, and gained the applause of his Majesty, as
well as the deafening applause of all present, except the Ashantees
and some Portuguese, who were extremely jealous of me,
particularly as the King never condescended to notice any of them
during their stay at Dahomey, farther than by sending them
provisions daily, as is the King’s habit during this annual festival or
custom.
This day his Majesty gave away to his people eight hundred head
of cowries, and gave me five head and a gallon of rum for dancing
with him. He then desired me to play to and dance with his favourite
wives, after which he sent plenty of provisions for myself and people.
The amusement terminated in a similar way to those on the
preceding day, and in the evening I returned home, through a dense
crowd of people scarcely passable for the space of half a mile.
After this I did not visit the palace till the 19th, when his Majesty
desired my presence. The ceremony on this day was much the same
as on the previous mentioned days, but the King seemed rather
disinclined to let me proceed any farther, until I should take a
message from him to England for the Queen of England, and that
upon my return I should be welcome to go through any part of his
kingdom, together with as many Englishmen as I thought proper to
bring with me. However, I informed him that it was impossible for me
to do so, as I could not return till I had visited and passed over the
Kong Mountains; and that my objects were purely scientific, and as
much for his benefit as that of others. This, he said, he doubted not,
for he would never suspect an Englishman of any thing unjust, or
unbecoming the character of so great a nation; but as he himself
could not write, he was anxious to send me as his messenger to the
Queen of England, I informed him that the Queen of England never
received any communication of importance verbally, but that it must
be reduced to writing, and I volunteered to be his scribe for that
purpose. For this he returned me thanks, and then at once
consented to allow me to proceed, promising also to send a guard of
honour with me through the Mahee country, with whom the
Dahomans have of late been at war. He seems very doubtful of my
safety beyond his capital, although he does not confess it. He has so
lately conquered that country, that I do not believe the King has great
confidence in them, farther than their dread of the law compels them.
However, he informed me that I must wait a week or ten days, till he
could arrange which of the caboceers, or headmen, to send with me.
From this period till my march for the Kong Mountains I passed my
time heavily, rarely taking any exercise, on account of the ridiculous
custom of being obliged to turn out of the road if any of the King’s
wives should meet you. They are in all parts of the town and
neighbourhood, employed on different domestic occupations, but
principally in carrying food in immense gourds or calabashes on the
head, containing provisions for the King’s ministers and principal