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CONCRETE
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
PETROGRAPHY
PETROGRAPHY
PETROGRAPHY
A HANDBOOK OF
A handbook of
INVESTIGATIVE TECHNIQUES
investigative techniques
A handbook of
investigative techniques
SECOND EDITION

SECOND EDITION
SECOND EDITION

Alan B. Poole and Ian Sims

A
Alan Poole
lAn B. Poole And IAn SImS
and Ian Sims
vi Contents

2.5.3 X-ray powder diffraction techniques 33

2.5.4 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 34
2.5.4.1 Sample preparation 35
2.5.4.2 Spectral interpretation 37
2.5.5 Thermal methods of analysis 37
2.5.6 Chemical methods of analysis 38
2.5.6.1 Chemical analysis of unhydrated blended cements 38
2.5.6.2 Chemical analysis of hardened cement
pastes in concrete 39
2.5.6.3 Identification of polymer additions
in mortars and concrete 41
2.6 Computer-aided petrographic methods 42
2.6.1 Quantitative image analysis 42
2.6.1.1 Acquisition 43
2.6.1.2 Enhancement 45
2.6.1.3 Segmentation and thresholding 45
2.6.1.4 Measurement 46
2.6.2 Case study applications of image analysis 47
2.6.2.1 Estimation of pyrite content in mudstone aggregate 47
2.6.2.2 Modal analysis of a mortar specimen 47
2.6.2.3 Quantitative investigation of fractures 49
2.6.2.4 Evaluation of shape and distribution of voids 49
References 52

3 Sampling and specimen preparation 57

3.1 Sampling concrete and related materials 57
3.2 Inspection of structures 57
3.2.1 Surface expression of concrete deterioration 58
3.3 Representative sample 59
3.3.1 Particulate materials 59
3.3.2 Statistical considerations 61
3.3.3 Examination of particulate materials 64
3.3.4 Solid samples 65
3.3.5 Practical sampling methods for solids 69
3.3.6 Preparation of subsample specimens for investigation 70
3.4 Preparation of thin sections and finely ground or polished surfaces 75
3.4.1 Laboratory methods of cutting concrete 76
3.4.2 Laboratory preparation of ground surfaces 78
3.4.3 Laboratory preparation of polished surfaces 82
3.4.4 Resins for impregnation and mounting concrete specimens 82
3.4.5 Preparation of petrographic thin sections 86
3.5 Specimen preparation for special purposes 91
3.5.1 Small selected specimens 92
3.5.2 Powdered specimen 92
 Contents vii

3.5.3 Preparations involving etches, stains and dyes 93

3.5.4 Dyes for use with resins 94
3.5.5 Stains for identification of minerals 95
3.5.6 Etching procedures for cement clinkers 96
References 99

4 Composition of concrete 103

4.1 Scope 103
4.2 Cement types and binder content 103
4.2.1 Anhydrous Portland cement phases and clinker 103
4.2.1.1 Calcium silicates (C 3S, C 2S) 106
4.2.1.2 Calcium aluminates and calcium
aluminoferrites (C 3A, C 4AF) 108
4.2.1.3 Lime and periclase (CaO, MgO) 108
4.2.1.4 Other phases and gypsum 109
4.2.2 Identification of cement type in concrete 110
4.2.2.1 General principle of optical microscopical methods 111
4.2.2.2 Microscopical procedure 111
4.2.2.3 Interpretation of the findings and some difficulties 113
4.2.2.4 SEM and other methods 115
4.2.3 Hydrated cement phases 116
4.2.3.1 CSH and the microstructure of cement paste 118
4.2.3.2 Degree of hydration 120
4.2.3.3 Portlandite (Ca(OH)2) 121
4.2.3.4 Ettringite and some other complex phases 124
4.2.4 Blended and special cements 131
4.2.4.1 Portland–limestone cements 131
4.2.4.2 Ggbs and Portland blastfurnace cements 131
4.2.4.3 Pfa, fly ash and Portland pozzolanic cements 135
4.2.4.4 High-alumina cement 138
4.2.4.5 Supersulphated and other special cements 145
4.2.5 Building lime and cement/lime mixtures 146
4.2.5.1 Building lime 147
4.2.5.2 Cement/lime mixtures 153
4.2.6 Cement or binder contents in concrete 156
4.3 Aggregate types and characteristics 157
4.3.1 Petrographic identity of aggregate 157
4.3.1.1 Typical aggregate combinations 158
4.3.1.2 Crushed rock coarse aggregates 158
4.3.1.3 Natural gravel coarse aggregates 161
4.3.1.4 Crushed rock and natural sand fine aggregates 161
4.3.1.5 Recycled aggregates 162
4.3.2 Particle size and aggregate size grading 163
4.3.3 Particle shape 171
viii Contents

4.3.4 Particle shape recognition 173

4.3.4.1 Form and sphericity 173
4.3.4.2 Roundness and angularity 174
4.3.4.3 Irregularity 175
4.3.4.4 Use of desktop flat-bed scanners 176
4.3.5 Other particle characteristics 182
4.4 Water/cement ratio 186
4.4.1 Definitions and relationship to concrete properties 186
4.4.2 Indicators of water/cement ratio 188
4.4.2.1 Water voids and bleeding 189
4.4.2.2 Capillary porosity 189
4.4.2.3 Mineralogical features 192
4.4.3 Determination of water/cement ratio by the physico-chemical method 193
4.4.4 Determination of water/cement ratio by fluorescence microscopy 195
4.4.4.1 Principle of the method 195
4.4.4.2 Transmitted and reflected light procedures
for determination of equivalent
water/cement ratio using thin sections 196
4.4.4.3 Reflected light procedure for the determination
of equivalent water/cement ratio using
ground polished specimens 204
4.4.5 Determination of water/cement ratio using
scanning electron microscopy 207
4.5 Air-void content and air entrainment 209
4.5.1 Types of voids in concrete 209
4.5.1.1 Entrapped air voids 210
4.5.1.2 Entrained air voids 211
4.5.2 Quantification of air-void content in hardened concrete 216
4.5.2.1 Visual assessment of excess voidage 216
4.5.2.2 Other methods for assessing air-void content 219
4.5.2.3 Use of desktop flat-bed scanners 220
4.5.3 Microscopical measurement of the air-void system 224
4.5.4 Aerated and foamed concrete 231
4.6 Mineral additions and pigments 233
4.6.1 Fly ash and pulverised-fuel ash 233
4.6.1.1 Identifying fly ash or pfa 234
4.6.1.2 Quantifying the content of fly ash or pfa 235
4.6.2 Blastfurnace slag materials 238
4.6.2.1 Identifying ggbs 240
4.6.2.2 Quantifying the content of ggbs 243
4.6.3 Ultra-fine additions 244
4.6.3.1 Microsilica (condensed silica fume) 245
4.6.3.2 Metakaolin 249
 Contents ix

4.6.4 Natural pozzolanas and other additions 250

4.6.5 Pigments 251
4.7 Chemical admixtures 253
4.8 Fibre reinforcement 256
4.8.1 Steel fibres 260
4.8.2 Glass fibres 262
4.8.3 Polymer and other organic fibres 262
4.9 Analysis of concrete 265
4.9.1 Quantitative analysis of concrete composition 265
4.9.2 Estimation of cement replacement by pfa or ggbs 268
4.9.3 Applications of concrete composition by petrography 270
4.9.3.1 Comparison of actual and design concrete mixes 270
4.9.3.2 Concrete in a murder case 273
References 274

5 Appearance and textures of cementitious materials 297

5.1 Introduction 297
5.2 Optical observations of the hardened Portland cement paste matrix 298
5.2.1 Typical composition of hardened Portland cement 300
5.2.2 Remnant or oversize cement clinker grains 301
5.2.3 Colour of hardened concrete 304
5.2.4 Ettringite in hardened concrete 305
5.2.5 Calcium hydroxide in hardened cement paste 307
5.2.6 Modification of calcium hydroxide in
Portland cement concretes 314
5.3 Concretes containing mineral admixtures 317
5.3.1 Portland limestone cement concrete 317
5.3.2 Pozzolanic and Portland slag cements 317
5.3.3 Petrographic examination of slags and pozzolanas 325
5.4 High-alumina or calcium aluminate cement concretes 327
5.5 Carbonation of Portland cement concretes 331
5.5.1 Effects of carbonation on porosity and strength 333
5.5.2 Typical textures of carbonation 334
5.5.3 Carbonation of the outer layers of concrete 336
5.5.4 Carbonation associated with crack systems 337
5.5.5 Carbonation associated with aggregate types in concrete 338
5.5.6 Surface exudations and efflorescence 339
5.6 Interfaces within concrete 341
5.6.1 Aggregate/cement paste interface 342
5.6.2 Steel reinforcement/cement paste interfaces 344
5.6.3 Fibre reinforcement/cement paste interfaces 345
5.6.4 Render interfaces 346
5.6.5 Other cementitious interfaces 346
x Contents

5.7 Voids in concrete 347

5.7.1 Entrapped air voids 349
5.7.2 Entrained air void systems 350
5.7.3 Capillary and gel pores 352
5.7.4 Other air voids in concrete 352
5.7.5 Aerated and no-fines concretes 354
5.8 Cracking in concrete 355
5.8.1 Cracks resulting from tensile strain 356
5.8.2 Differentiating between structural and non-structural cracks 356
5.8.3 Non-structural cracks in concrete 358
5.8.3.1 Cracking subparallel to, and
restricted to, the near surface 358
5.8.3.2 Cracking approximately perpendicular to,
and restricted to, the near surface 361
5.8.3.3 Cracking reflecting interior expansion of the concrete 365
5.8.3.4 Cracking limited to the interior of the concrete 368
5.8.4 Petrographic examination and the interpretation of crack systems 370
5.8.5 Cracking as artefacts of sampling and preparation 373
References 375

6 Examination of deteriorated and damaged concrete 385

6.1 Introduction 385
6.1.1 Background to concrete durability 385
6.1.2 Durability investigation and classification 387
6.1.3 Quantification of deterioration and damage 390
6.1.3.1 Methodology 391
6.1.3.2 Interpretation and reproducibility 393
6.1.3.3 Alternative methods 395
6.2 Plastic and drying shrinkage 396
6.2.1 Overview 396
6.2.2 Macroscopic effects of plastic and drying shrinkage 396
6.2.3 Petrographic examination of shrinkage cracking 397
6.2.4 Shrinkage of aggregates in concrete 398
6.3 Corrosion of steel reinforcement 402
6.3.1 Role, depth and quality of concrete cover 404
6.3.2 Steel reinforcement corrosion mechanisms and factors 406
6.3.3 Carbonation, loss of alkalinity and corrosion of reinforcement 409
6.3.4 Chlorides and corrosion of steel reinforcement 411
6.3.5 Prevention of reinforcement corrosion 416
6.4 Frost and freeze–thaw action 416
6.4.1 Freeze–thaw mechanisms and factors 418
6.4.2 Macroscopic and microscopic evidence of freeze–thaw action 418
6.5 Sulphate actions 422
6.5.1 Overview 422
6.5.2 Ground and groundwater sulphates 423
 Contents xi

6.5.3 Conventional sulphate attack 429

6.5.3.1 Properties of concrete relating to sulphate attack 429
6.5.3.2 External appearance of concrete attacked by sulphate 430
6.5.3.3 Internal textures of concrete attacked by sulphate 432
6.5.4 Seawater attack 439
6.5.5 Sulphate attack in sewerage systems 443
6.5.6 Thaumasite sulphate attack (TSA) 450
6.5.6.1 Nature of TSA 450
6.5.6.2 Petrography of TSA 454
6.5.7 Internal sulphate attack 461
6.5.8 Mundic problem 466
6.5.8.1 Background to the mundic problem 466
6.5.8.2 Petrographic examination of mundic concrete 469
6.5.8.3 RICS classification scheme 471
6.5.9 Delayed ettringite formation (DEF) 475
6.5.9.1 Background and mechanism of DEF 477
6.5.9.2 Petrographic investigation of DEF 481
6.6 Acid and alkaline attacks 489
6.6.1 Natural acid waters and ‘aggressive carbonation’ 491
6.6.1.1 Petrographic textures 493
6.6.1.2 Estimation of rates of attack 496
6.6.2 Carbonation and corrosion by geothermal fluids 501
6.6.2.1 Textures of grouts exposed to geothermal fluids 501
6.6.3 Acid-type attack from sulphates, sulphides, brine
and microbial action 503
6.6.4 Industrial chemical attack 504
6.6.4.1 Petrographic investigation 506
6.7 Weathering and leaching 507
6.7.1 General aspects of weathering and deterioration 507
6.7.2 Water leaching 508
6.7.3 Salt weathering 509
6.8 Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) 510
6.8.1 Overview 510
6.8.2 Chemistry of the alkali–silica reaction 512
6.8.3 External appearance of concrete affected by ASR 514
6.8.4 Microscopic textures and features of concrete affected by ASR 519
6.8.4.1 Observations on cores and polished slices 521
6.8.4.2 Observations on thin sections 523
6.8.4.3 Reactive aggregates 531
6.8.4.4 Lightweight aggregates 542
6.8.5 Examination of concretes suspected of ASR 544
6.8.5.1 Interpretation of ASR textures 544
6.8.5.2 Practical examination 547
6.8.5.3 Other considerations 548
6.8.6 International schemes for assessment, diagnosis and specification 550
xii Contents

6.9 AAR involving carbonate aggregates 553

6.9.1 Background and current position on ‘ACR’ 554
6.9.1.1 De-dolomitisation 554
6.9.1.2 Alkali–silica reaction 555
6.9.1.3 De-calcitisation 556
6.9.1.4 Natural de-dolomitisation 557
6.9.2 Practical examination of concretes suspected of ACR 558
6.9.2.1 General features 559
6.9.2.2 Reaction rims in aggregates 560
6.9.2.3 Carbonate haloes in cement paste 562
6.9.2.4 Alkali–silica gel 563
6.9.2.5 Cryptocrystalline quartz 565
6.9.3 Ancillary techniques for assessing ACR potential 566
6.9.3.1 Acid-insoluble residues 566
6.9.3.2 Crystallinity index (CI) of quartz 567
6.9.3.3 Uranyl fluorescence method 567
6.9.3.4 Chemical test 567
6.9.3.5 Rock cylinder test 568
6.9.3.6 Concrete and mortar expansion tests 568
6.10 Damage from thermal cycling and fire 569
6.10.1 Thermal expansion and cracking of concrete 570
6.10.2 Effects of fire damage on concrete 572
6.10.2.1 Colour changes 573
6.10.2.2 Surface spalling 574
6.10.3 Investigation of fire-damaged concrete 576
6.10.3.1 Petrography 576
6.10.3.2 Other methods of investigation 580
References 582

7 Precast and special concretes 613

7.1 Standard precast concrete units 613
7.2 Precast, block, brick, tile and pavers 614
7.3 Precast concrete pipes 617
7.4 Reinforced precast concrete units 620
7.5 Steam-cured precast concrete units 621
7.6 Composite precast concrete units and reconstituted (artificial) stone 622
7.7 Fibre-reinforced products 624
7.7.1 Asbestos–cement products 624
7.7.2 Synthetic fibre–reinforced concrete products 629
7.7.3 Natural fibre–reinforced concrete products 632
7.8 Polymer cement products 633
7.9 Special floor coatings 635
7.10 Self-compacting concrete 637
7.11 Lightweight aggregates and concretes 637
References 643
 Contents xiii

8 Portland cement mortar, screeds, renders and special cements 647

8.1 Mortar and related materials 647
8.2 Floor screeds 647
8.2.1 Terrazzo 651
8.2.2 Tiled surface finishes 652
8.3 Renders and cementitious plasters 654
8.3.1 Cementitious plasters 654
8.3.2 Petrographic methods of examination 655
8.4 Jointing and bedding mortars 656
8.5 Special cements and grouts 657
8.5.1 Cementitious grouts 658
8.5.2 Oil-well cements 659
8.5.3 Petrographic investigation of oil-well cements 660
8.5.4 White and coloured Portland cements 661
8.5.5 Other Portland-based cements 662
8.6 Sprayed concrete 662
8.7 Cementitious repair materials 665
8.8 Cementitious levelling compounds 665
8.9 Cementitious adhesive compounds 666
References 666

9 Non-Portland cementitious materials, plasters and mortars 669

9.1 Lime-based materials and products 669
9.1.1 Limestone and lime 669
9.2 Lime plasters, mortars and screeds 671
9.3 Gypsum-based wall plasters and plasterboard 675
9.3.1 Petrographic investigation of hemihydrate and anhydrite products 679
9.3.2 Gypsum and plaster finishes 679
9.4 Historic materials 681
9.5 Calcium silicate products 686
9.6 Special flooring finishes 690
9.7 Surface coatings 690
References 691

Glossary of minerals 695

Foreword

In the past, many a book opened with a foreword written by a grand old man in the author’s
subject who took it upon himself to promote the work and to laud the author, not infre-
quently his protégé. Nothing could be further from the truth in the present case.
First of all, by no stretch of the imagination am I grand, although I am undoubtedly old.
Furthermore, I am not a concrete petrographer, although in my study of concrete and of
concrete structures I often rely on petrographic information and I have used the first edition
of Concrete Petrography. As Poole and Sims rightly say, petrographic techniques provide
insights into mineralogical, chemical and microstructural features of concrete. The very
wide range of these techniques makes them very valuable but, at the same time, creates dif-
ficulties for a non-petrographer.
The authors have done an admirable job of presenting in a clear and orderly manner the petro-
graphic methods and procedures, starting with sampling and including statistical treatment.
The concretes considered are wide-ranging, including fibre-reinforced concrete, polymer
concrete, terrazzo, as well as oil-well cements. In addition, lime-based materials, of interest
in the repair of historic buildings, are discussed by A. Leslie.
What impressed me is the cohesion of the book: unlike books written by several authors,
this one seems seamless, and this makes it particularly valuable. It is not my task to be an
advertiser or a salesman, but I have to praise the quality of the English and the rarity of
spelling mistakes – a situation unusual in this day and age.
So, the book is encyclopaedic in character but very lucid and readable and I can truly rec-
ommend it to those who seriously investigate concrete, and especially problems in concrete
in service. I know no better book on concrete petrography.

Adam Neville, CBE, TD, DSc, FREng, FRSE

London, England

Background note: Dr Adam. M. Neville was, before retire-

ment, professor of civil engineering at Leeds and then Dundee
Universities, also principal and vice principal at the University
of Dundee, United Kingdom, and now a civil engineering con-
sultant. He is a CBE, DSc (Eng.), DSc, PhD, FIStructE, FICE,
FEng and FRSE.

Portrait of Adam Neville (2009)

xv
Preface

Since the three authors completed the first edition of Concrete Petrography in 1998, there
have been major advances in the understanding of concrete and its problems. The interven-
ing years have also brought remarkable improvements in equipment and the methods of
petrographic investigation relevant to concrete. Additionally, the variety of cementitious
materials available and the range of applications they now cover have similarly increased
dramatically.
Consequently, the first edition, though still providing a sound basic review of concrete
petrography, has increasingly been in need of revision, updating and indeed improvement.
With the passage of years, Don St John did not feel able to embark on a second edition.
The remaining two authors, who readily recognised the important contribution Don St John
made to the first edition, considered that the new petrographic information, methods and
techniques, including a number of critical discoveries and developments in concrete tech-
nology since the first edition was published, merited a complete reappraisal of the original
book. They discovered that the magnitude of the task they had set themselves was just
as formidable as it was with the first edition. Nevertheless, thanks to the encouragement,
unstinting help and advice from numerous experts from around the world, the task has
been completed and provides a new and up-to-date balanced review of concrete and related
materials, together with the modern petrographic approaches used in their investigation.
As with the first edition, the authors have emphasised the value and importance of the
polarising microscope and the related petrographic techniques as fundamental to the under-
standing of cementitious materials and as basic tools for the scientific investigation of these
materials and their properties. However, they have also included increased reference to the
allied use of scanning electron microscopy and integral microanalysis as this powerful tech-
nique has become much more accessible to practising petrographers since the preparation
of the first edition.
The authors believe that this book will be of practical value to the professional petrog-
rapher, providing both background information and details of some of the specialist tech-
niques necessary for the petrographic investigation of cementitious materials. They hope
that, as with the first edition, it will also be of value to the technologist, professional engi-
neer and technical legal expert who may have to address materials problems with concrete
and similar materials, interpret petrographic findings or decide on the most effective means
of investigation of such materials.
Although in general terms cementitious materials are composed of crystalline and
amorphous mineral constituents with a range of optical properties similar to those of rock-
forming minerals that are familiar to all geological petrologists, differences arising from the
methods of manufacture, chemical composition, time-dependent factors and environmental
effects make the petrographic study of these materials different both in technical detail and
in philosophy of approach.

xvii
xviii Preface

Additional to reviewing the specialist laboratory techniques appropriate to the optical

and electron-microscopical examination of cement-based materials, this book addresses
the practical problems associated with the inspection and sampling of concrete structures
and the special techniques appropriate to the preparation of the material for laboratory
examination.
The principal area covered in this book is concerned with the use of the optical polarising
microscope in the detailed study of concretes and related materials. It is anticipated that the
trained petrographer will already be familiar with the use of the microscope for the exami-
nation of rocks in thin section, and so the emphasis is given to the cementitious phases and
artificial materials, rather than the natural rock aggregates and fillers that are also used and
encountered.
Where appropriate, case study examples taken from around the world are included in the
text to illustrate particular points or to show the interrelationships between observed petro-
graphic features, construction history and local environmental conditions.
Two undeniable disappointments of the first edition were the severe limitation on the
number of colour photographs and the poor reproduction of a number of the other images
in black and white. Thus, the authors are delighted that with the publisher’s support, this
second edition is illustrated in colour by a very much larger number of photographs except-
ing some older photographs and figures which remain in monochrome.
It was found that many petrographers used the first edition as a reference source in rela-
tion to a particular problem, in order to identify a particular mineral or form of deteriora-
tion. Consequently, the glossary introduced in the first edition has been retained, updated
and extended with reference to photomicrographic illustrations where appropriate.
This second edition has been greatly enhanced by the contributions, advice and support
from numerous internationally acknowledged experts from around the world, several of
whom played a significant role in helping to update and improve particular sections of the
book. The authors offer them all their sincere and very grateful thanks. These contributors’
names and affiliations are recorded in the acknowledgements, and some individuals are also
recognised in association with particular areas of expertise.
Notes
1. Note the use of the internationally accepted cement chemists’ shorthand notation:
C = CaO, S = SiO2 , A = Al2O3, and F = Fe2O3, so that, for example, C3S = 3CaO ∙ SiO2 .
This notation is included for individual phases in the glossary.
2. Some petrographers prefer to use the terms ‘alite’ and ‘belite’ instead of the chemical
terms C3S and C2S respectively.

Alan B. Poole
Ian Sims
Acknowledgements

Although Don St John felt unable to embark on drafting this new revised edition, his excel-
lent and major contributions to the first edition formed a foundation on which large parts
of this edition are built. They have proved invaluable as an aid to the present authors as an
initial basis for their extensive revisions, updating and enhancement of this new edition.
A number of Don St John’s classic case study examples are still very relevant today, and
some of these have also been retained to illustrate particular points. Consequently, the pres-
ent authors are indebted to Don for these examples and for his work on the petrographic
examination of concrete, which has formed a valuable background that underlies this cur-
rent edition.
The authors have also been most fortunate in receiving unstinting help and assistance
from internationally acknowledged experts from around the world. This help has taken
the form of specialist contributions to the text, advice and help with additional up-to-date
information on a host of topics, innumerable new photomicrographs and many case study
examples. These have been built into the text and have greatly enhanced the value of this
book. All this assistance has of course been acknowledged below, and the authors owe a
debt of gratitude to all concerned.
The current authors particularly thank the experts who have contributed significant
­sections of text or equivalent assistance in the various chapters. These contributors, many
of whom helpfully also provided images for the book, include the following (in alphabetical
order):

Dr Tony Asbridge (IMERYS Minerals LLP): mineral additives, including metakaolin

Paul Bennett-Hughes (formerly RSK Environment Ltd): concrete fire damage
Dr Alan Bromley (consultant, ex-University of Exeter): computer-aided petrography and
mundic sulphate attack
Dr David B Crofts (RSK Environment Ltd): chemical and infrared analyses of concrete
materials
Dr Alison Crossley (OMCS, Oxford University, Department of Materials): scanning elec-
tron microscopy and microanalysis
Mike A Eden (Sandberg LLP, formerly Geomaterials Research Services Ltd): sample
preparation, delayed ettringite formation and micrometric analysis
Dr Paddy E Grattan-Bellew (consultant, ex-NRC Canada): general advice and damage
rating index
Dr Viggo Jensen (NBTL, Norway): alkali-silica reaction
Dr Tetsuya Katayama (Taiheiyo Cement Corporation, Japan): carbonate aggregate
reactivity
Dr Darrell Leek (Mott Macdonald Ltd): reinforcement corrosion
Dr Alec Leslie (ex-BGS, Edinburgh, now Historic Scotland): historic mortars

xix
xx Acknowledgements

Anthony Meyers (Microscopes Plus Ltd): petrographic laboratory

Dr Mario R de Rooij (TNO Built Environment, Delft, Netherlands): fluorescence and
other microscopy
Dr R G ‘Ted’ Sibbick (W R Grace & Co, USA, also ex-BRE, UK): general advice, plus
especially thaumasite sulphate attack and aggressive carbonation
Dr Graham F True (GFT Materials Consultancy): scanning for aggregate shape and con-
crete air content
Nick B Winter (WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd): scanning electron microscopy
and lime–cement mixtures.

Numerous other experts from around the world have also kindly offered advice, specific
information, images and editorial comments and made valuable additions to improve sec-
tions of the text after reading early drafts. These contributions have proved vital to the
authors in ensuring that this book is as accurate and as fully up to date as possible. Reading
drafts is an arduous and time-consuming procedure, so the authors owe them a debt of
gratitude for this invaluable assistance. In addition to the experts listed earlier, the numer-
ous additional individual experts and companies who have helped the authors in this way
include the following (in alphabetical order):

Dr Ian G Blanchard (RSK Environment Ltd)

Dr Maarten A T M Broekmans (Geological Survey of Norway)
Prof Nick Buenfeld (Imperial College, University of London)
Dr Sarah Denton, formerly Huntley, née Hartshorn (Vinci Construction UK Ltd)
Prof Isabel Fernandes (Lisbon University, ex-Porto University, Portugal)
James Ferrari (RSK Environment Ltd)
Prof Benoit Fournier (Université Laval, Québec, Canada)
Martin Grove (retired, formerly of the Cement & Concrete Association, now BCA)
Peter Laugesen (Pelcon Materials & Testing ApS, Denmark)
David F Lawrence (Technical Consultant, Sandberg LLP)
James McAneny (Logitech Ltd)
Chris A Rogers (Consultant, ex-Ministry of Transportation, Ontario, Canada)
Prof Peter Scott (University of Exeter)
Dr Ahmad Shayan (ARRB Group Ltd, Melbourne, Australia)
Prof Mike D A Thomas (University of New Brunswick, Canada)
Richard Wagner (Buehler Ltd)
Dr Barrie Wells (Conwy Valley Systems Ltd)

Readers of this book will soon be aware of the value of the illustrations and of the case his-
tory examples. Some of the colour illustrations and photomicrographs that were used in the
first edition could not be bettered, so these have been reused. However, a large number of
new colour illustrations were required for this edition and the authors have been most fortu-
nate in being allowed to use photographs that other petrographers have provided, sometimes
being able to select from lifetime collections. In other instances, special photographs have
been taken for the authors in order to show particular features. Although acknowledgements
are given where the material appears in the text, the authors thank all the organisations that
have provided willing help with the photographic material.
This book could not have been produced without the technical and practical assistance of
the publishing team at Taylor & Francis Group and the technical expertise of colleagues at
RSK Environment Ltd. Individuals who were of great assistance to the authors during the
preparation of this book include A. Hollingsworth, R. Griffiths, M. Cash, A. Moore, and
 Acknowledgements xxi

A. Blalock of Taylor & Francis Group and the tireless organisational, collating and comput-
ing skills of especially Claire Bennett, but also Clare Skakle and Siobhan Anderson of RSK
Environment Ltd.
The authors have endeavoured to recognise everyone who has helped them during the
several years of this revision; should we have inadvertently overlooked anyone, we apologise
most sincerely to them and ask for their understanding and forgiveness.

Alan B. Poole
Ian Sims
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 CONCRETE PETROGRAPHY

Concrete is an essential and irreplaceable constructional material in the modern world. In

recent times, technological advances in the manufacture of cements and the expansion of
the use of concretes and related materials in civil engineering have led to a need for a prac-
tical, science-based understanding of these materials and the relationships between their
compositions and properties.
The very nature of concrete and its innate variability on very small scales requires investi-
gative techniques which allow examination and analysis at microscopic and submicroscopic
levels. A wide range of petrographic techniques are currently available, with the polaris-
ing and scanning electron microscopes in particular being well-established geological tech-
niques. These same methods have been extended and developed to investigate concrete and
related materials. They are unique in providing insights into the mineralogical, chemical and
microstructural features of these materials and thus provide a scientific basis of understand-
ing that allows the physical and mechanical behaviour of concrete and related materials to
be evaluated and their future behaviour predicted.

1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The cementitious properties of materials such as slaked lime have been known and used
since antiquity. The first record of a concrete floor comes from a hut in Yugoslavia dated
5600 BC (Stanley 1979). Slaked lime slowly carbonates and hardens in the atmosphere.
It has been used, for example, as a mortar between the masonry blocks in the pyramids.
The Greeks and Romans further developed the use of lime by mixing it with pozzolana
(volcanic ash) and aggregate to produce the earliest durable concrete, examples of which
still stand today (Figure 1.1). Although Smeaton undertook systematic studies of hydrau-
lic lime for construction of the Eddystone Lighthouse commissioned in 1756, the begin-
ning of the modern development of cement and concrete is usually identified with the
patent taken out by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 (Gooding and Halstead 1952). Contemporary
technological developments have greatly extended the variety and types of cement and
concrete available for construction, while the use of cement additives and admixtures
have further increased the range of applications of concrete in civil engineering. The
investigation of the mineralogy and properties of all these materials form the subject of
concrete petrography.

1
2 Concrete petrography

(a) (b)

Figure 1.1 ( a) The Roman Pantheon, the exterior view and (b) part of the interior of the dome, possibly the
first lightweight concrete structure. The 50 m diameter dome was built with pumice aggregate
in 27 BC. (Courtesy of A. Ellam.)

The optical compound microscope was first demonstrated in London by Cornelis Drebbel
in 1621. It was developed and used by Robert Hooke who published his Micrographia in
1665. Improvements to lens design in general and the invention of the achromatic lens in
particular provided a basis for the development of the petrographic microscope which first
appeared in 1856. Its ability to polarise and analyse light led to its extensive use, first as a
‘chemical microscope’ and soon as an essential tool for geologists in their examination of
rock-forming minerals. As early as 1849, Sir Henry Clifton Sorby had prepared the first rock
optical thin section by hand (Figure 1.2, Humphries 1992).
The first application of the polarising microscope to cement clinkers is usually ascribed
to Le Chatelier (1882). In the early twentieth century, the microscope was being used to
investigate hardened concrete by scientists such as Johnson (1915), but difficulties of the

 photograph of the first rock thin section by Sir Henry Clifton Sorby, made in 1849 by manual
Figure 1.2 A
grinding to transparency with emery and mounted in Canada Balsam complete with a cover slip.
(Courtesy of the Royal Microscopical Society, Oxford Science Publications, Microscopy Handbook,
24, Humphries 1992.)
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 CHAPTER III.
Suitable Breeds. Group Three—Medium-Sized
Dogs.

As with the terrier varieties, there is a wide field for selection among
the medium-sized dogs, both sporting and non-sporting;
consequently much depends upon what the dog is intended for. If
any of the members of the household are inclined to sports afield,
then one of the many varieties of spaniels would make a suitable
house companion, for aside from being an alert watch dog, he is a
natural all round hunter and is equally good on upland game as on
water fowl. Spaniels make excellent retrievers, very good grouse and
quail dogs where the mere questing for and finding of game is
desired, but naturally the dog should be educated for the purpose.
Unlike the pointer, the setter, or the griffon, the spaniel does not
point, but finds the game and flushes it in front of the sportsman; in
view of this fact he must be trained to quest within gun range. This,
however, is easily taught the spaniel, for all of the many varieties are
intelligent animals and therefore easily educated. A spaniel makes
an excellent dog for ladies who enjoy field shooting, for the reason
that he is so much more easily handled than any of the bird dog
varieties, and peculiarly amenable to the gentler sex.
As a guardian of the home the spaniel might not strike terror to the
hearts of unwelcome intruders, like some of the terrier or other
breeds, but they are good watch dogs, quick to give the alarm upon
the approach of strangers, and besides, they are very docile and
cleanly about the premises. There may be some objection to the
long coat, on the ground that if the animal is shedding, he is prone to
leave stray hairs on rugs and furniture, but in this connection it might
be said that daily grooming will ameliorate this evil to a great extent,
for after all is said, a dog that is allowed to frequent the house even
during only a small part of the day, must be kept clean whether he is
a long or a short-haired one.
 THE COCKER SPANIEL, CHAMPION OBO II.
Of the many varieties of spaniel, the Cocker is the most popular.
They come in all colors; solid blacks, reds, creams, orange and
browns, but if of the latter color, it should be of a rich liver and not the
washed out shades which sometimes crop out in a litter. These off-
color ones should be eschewed if one wishes to conform to the
standard. Neither should the whole-colored dogs have white on
them, but a strip of this color on the chest, while objectionable,
should not disqualify. The parti-colors are also very handsome
animals. These are white and black, liver and white, orange and
white, cream and white, and roans; either blue or red.
The standard weight calls for cockers ranging from eighteen to
twenty-four pounds. Here of late it has become fashionable to breed
them down to the minimum weight, but this is almost making toys of
what was once considered one of the principal sporting breeds. If the
prospective purchaser intends to use his dog for sporting purposes
he is advised to select one from stock that will come nearer reaching
the maximum rather than the minimum weight, for the eighteen
pound cocker is entirely too small for utility purposes. As a matter of
fact, some years ago twenty-eight pounds was the standard
maximum weight of working cockers which is really more logical in a
dog that is intended for field work. At all events, it is better to have a
cocker over, than under the weight allowed by the standard, if one
expects to make use of him afield.
The cocker should be a neat-headed, wide-awake, serviceable
looking little dog, with rather large dark eyes and an intelligent
expression. He should stand on strong, well-boned, but short legs
absolutely straight in front, with well bent stifles behind. His quarters
should be muscular and powerful, especially when viewed from
behind; short in body when viewed from above, yet standing over
considerable ground. He should, in short, give one the impression of
a massive little dog, yet at the same time, he must have
considerable speed and endurance. The coat is flat or slightly wavy,
silky and very dense, with ample feather on legs and his feet should
also be well supplied with hair, but the coat should never be curly.
The stern is usually docked to a length of about two or three inches.
This should be carried just below the level of the back and when the
dog is working or animated, its action should be merry, but never
carried gaily.
The Field Spaniel may be described as a larger edition of the cocker;
longer and lower in body in proportion to his general make-up, but a
well-knit, massive dog, the males weighing from thirty-seven to forty-
five pounds, the bitches about five pounds less. The true field
spaniel is always black, though his near kin is the springer which
comes in parti-colors also. There are various strains of the springer
spaniel, as for instance the Welsh and the English, but in all
essentials they are identical. The difference between the springer
and the field spaniel is that the former is usually shorter in body and
higher on the leg. In the matter of intelligence he is fully the equal of
the cocker or the field spaniel and for field work he is probably the
most practical of the three, especially when it comes to retrieving
waterfowl.
The Clumber Spaniel is the largest of the land spaniels, the weight in
males ranging from fifty-five to sixty-five pounds, the females from
thirty-five to fifty pounds. He is a strong, sturdy, compact dog, with
profuse coat, but a smaller ear of the V-shaped variety. In color he
must always be white and lemon or white and orange, ticks on the
head or fore legs add to his beauty. He should have few, if any
markings on his body. This variety is not very numerous in this
country, though in many parts of England he is used quite regularly
as a sporting dog.
The Sussex is another variety of the large land spaniels, smaller,
however, than the Clumber, weighing from thirty-five to forty-five
pounds. In color he is a rich golden liver. In this country he is
practically unknown, but he is numbered as among the oldest of
breeds in England.
The Irish Water Spaniel scarcely comes within the province of this
book. He is a large dog, standing well up on the leg. It is said that he
is a cross between the Irish setter and the large poodle, but this may
be all conjecture. At all events he stands as high at the shoulder as
an Irish setter. In color he is liver; any white except on chest or toes,
disqualifies. His coat is a mass of short curls back to his tail which
should be entirely free from feather. On his skull he has a well-
defined top-knot; indeed, this is one of the distinguishing marks of
the breed. As a house dog he is almost too large though for wild fowl
retrieving under any and all weather conditions, he is par excellence.
 THE CHOW, LORD CHUMLEY.
Among the non-sporting medium-sized breeds, the Chow Chow
stands preeminently to the forefront. He is a Chinese breed, like the
Pekingese, and considering that he breeds very true to type, it is
possible that he is of more ancient origin than many of our much
lauded “pure breeds” of England. The chow is given credit for being
a very intelligent animal; he is a good house dog and a faithful
companion. In size he is about like the old-fashioned Spitz dog from
which the Pomeranian is descended. In color he should be either
black, red, yellow, blue, or white, but the shade should run uniform
except that the underpart of the tail and inside of thighs are
frequently of a lighter shade. He carries his tail curled over his back;
his coat should be abundant, dense, straight and somewhat coarse
in texture, with a soft, wooly undercoat. His ears are carried erect.
He has a rather peculiar sour expression and his eyes are dark and
small in all but the blues, in which a light color is permissible. One of
the distinguishing features of a chow is his tongue, which in pure
specimens is blue-black. His nose should also be black, large and
wide.
The chow became popular about a quarter of a century ago, then for
a time the interest lagged, but of late years his popularity seems to
be increasing once more. The dog is perhaps among what one might
call the high-priced varieties, but it is always possible to buy a
“waster” which will answer the same purpose for a companion as the
perfect show dog. A breeder of chows once said to me: “This breed
has all the oriental mysticism about it that one finds in everything that
comes from the Far East; they seem to know what you are thinking
about and at times, as they lie there on the rug, one imagines they
are actually going to speak and tell you what they have on their
minds. But once your friend, a chow is always your friend.”
 THE FRENCH BULLDOG, CH. GUGUSSE, JR.
The French Bulldog is another breed that has come into great
popularity during the past fifteen years, especially among the ladies.
As far as his actual usefulness is concerned, we cannot say much,
although his admirers might probably take one to task if this
statement were made in their presence. He makes a delightful
companion, smooth of coat and clean in his habits. For the house he
is probably one of the most desirable breeds among the many, even
though his real utility might be questioned. However that may be, the
dog is popular and good specimens command high prices.
In appearance the French bulldog resembles the Boston in many
respects—that is, a Boston of the heavier type and with uncut ears,
but he is more muscular and substantial in appearance. His ears
must be of the pronounced “bat” variety; his head, large, square and
broad; skull almost flat; the underjaw, like the English bulldog, is
large, powerful, and undershot, with the muzzle well laid back and
the muscles of the cheeks fully developed. The tail should be either
straight or screwed (but not curly) short, and hung low. The eyes are
wide apart set low down in the skull, as far away from the ears as
possible. Back must be short, the chest broad, the forelegs straight
and muscular and wide apart, while the hind legs should correspond
in the matter indicating strength. The French bulldog standard calls
for two weights; dogs under twenty-two pounds and those of twenty-
two pounds and not exceeding twenty-eight. The colors are any
shade of brindle, though the darker the better. The novice looking for
a good specimen, however, should be careful about the absolute
disqualifying points as for instance, other than bat ears, any
mutilation, solid black, black and white, black and tan, liver and
mouse color, eyes of different color (as they will come sometimes),
nose other than black and hare lip, which is also a fault that
frequently crops up and many unscrupulous breeders are apt to foist
such undesirable specimens upon the unsuspecting novice who
might be none the wiser.
The English Bulldog is another of the “manufactured breeds” so
grotesquely ugly that he is beautiful in the eyes of some. The bulldog
will attract attention anywhere, but as to his sphere of usefulness in
these days of his grotesque appearance, there is always room for
doubt. There was once a time when the bulldog was a shifty and
useful animal, but as he is at present bred, this quality has, to a great
extent disappeared with his “improvement,” although his admirers
will claim stoutly that he is a good watch dog and quite intelligent.
His very artificiality makes him a dog which is difficult to rear, being
susceptible to various diseases to a much greater degree than most
of the more normal breeds.
 THE BADGER BITCH BERTHA VON STROMBERG.
This breed was formerly known as the dachshund.
Everyone, even he who is only remotely interested in dogs, knows
the Badger Dog, if not under this name, at least under his old
appellation of dachshund, by which he was known up to the time of
the World War when his Teutonic origin was expediently disguised
under the name that he now bears. Owing to his length of body and
his abbreviated legs he has always been known as the original
“sausage” dog, for his length of body is several times his inches in
height, which should be, at shoulder, only from 7 1/8 to 8 1/5 inches.
The weight is divided at bench shows, as for instance, dogs under
sixteen and one-half pounds, bitches under fifteen and one-half
pounds. Middleweights from the maximum lightweight division to
twenty-two pounds. Heavyweights, dogs and bitches over twenty-two
pounds.
The badger dog, while not classified among the terriers, has the
characteristics of that family, for he goes to ground for his quarry,
and in every other way shows his terrier characteristics. On the other
hand, he is also a fairly good trailer and, like the beagle, will hunt
rabbits. As a house companion he is intelligent and cleanly; his
short, satiny coat fitting him eminently for a ladies’ dog. The breed
comes in a variety of colors: black and tan, all tan, all red, yellowish
red and spotted in various shades.

THE BEAGLE HOUND CH. IMPORTED CRUISER.

The Beagle, while not to be considered a house dog, is small and
may be kept very nicely in a small place, provided he is allowed to
run and exercise in the open every day and is given the opportunity
to hunt his favorite game—rabbits—frequently. As a keen-nosed dog
for his own sphere he has no equal, and having been bred for years
with this sole purpose in view, his intelligence is concentrated along
these lines and not toward making him an allround home companion,
but given the opportunity and the human companionship, his
intelligence may be improved to a wonderful degree. The beagle is in
every sense of the word a miniature foxhound, ranging in height from
nine to fifteen inches which is the maximum; dogs over this height
are disqualified at bench shows and beagle trials. The classification
in vogue at the present time is dogs thirteen inches and under, and
dogs over thirteen and not over fifteen inches.
The Whippet, which is a miniature English greyhound, is a neat,
cleanly dog, not perhaps a desirable companion when all essentials
of an intelligent dog are taken into consideration, but he is a trim
animal, very distinguished in appearance, and short of coat, hence
he is worth considering on this account, if for no other. At the present
time the whippet is coming into greater popularity, mainly because of
the fact that bench show clubs are giving him ample classification
and further, because as a racing dog he has gained quite a vogue in
some parts of the country.
 THE CURLY POODLE, CH. ORCHARD MINSTREL
Among the many intelligent non-sporting dogs is the Large Poodle, a
dog somewhat larger than the chow. He is in every sense of the
word a larger edition of the toy poodle, but a much more useful dog
because of his size and superior intelligence. The poodle is one of
the most readily trained dogs in existence today. As a trick dog he
has no equals and he may be broken to retrieve from land and water
with the same facility as any of the sporting retrievers or spaniels.
There are two varieties of the poodle; the corded and the curly. The
latter is the more common and also the more practical, for the
corded poodle’s coat is the most difficult of any among the canine
race, to care for. The hair on the latter hangs from the dog in long
rope-like strands, almost touching the ground and unless it is given
daily attention it is likely to become matted and soiled. The corded
poodle is covered with short curls all over his body. It is customary to
clip them about one-third; that is, the coat is left on head, neck and
front, extending well back of the shoulders while the loin, hips and
back legs are closely clipped, leaving a tuft here and there and on
the end of the docked tail. A well cared for poodle makes a unique
appearance. The breed comes in all black, all white, all blue and all
red. The colors should be solid—that is, on blacks there should be
no white and vice versa.
A breed that promised to come into popularity some years ago is the
foreign born Samoyede. Although it is not so many years ago that
this breed lived in a semi-wild state in Siberia where reclaimed
specimens were used for hunting bear, and by the natives of
Lapland, he was used for rounding up tame elk. The samoyede is
peculiarly amenable to civilization and the companionship of human
beings. Fifteen or twenty years ago the breed was seen in fairly large
numbers on the show benches of this country and England. After
that there came a lull, but of late he seems to be gaining in
popularity. In the far north he was used as a sledge dog like the
husky and other arctic breeds. The dog is long-coated and in many
respects resembles the Spitz, though he is larger than the average
of those specimens. He may not be the ideal dog to have about in
the home where there are children as he is of uncertain
temperament, but he is a rather unusual looking animal for which
reason he has gained a certain amount of notoriety.
 THE DOBERMAN PINSCHER CH. BETEL DOBERMAN.
The Doberman Pinscher, which is really a terrier possessing
characteristics of the Airedale, is another dog which, when he once
becomes fully known and appreciated for his sterling qualities, will
become a more general home favorite. He is smooth coated, prick-
eared and black and tan in color, weighing in the neighborhood of
thirty-five to forty pounds. He is very intelligent and is as easily
taught to perform the duties of an allround “varmint dog” as any
breed in existence. As a police dog he is said to be even more
readily trained than the breed which is supposed to be a specialist in
that sphere—namely the shepherd dog—until lately known as the
German or Belgian shepherd dog.
While on the subject of the latter breed, it might be said in passing,
that this dog is gaining in popularity each year. He is said to be
intelligent, in fact he is easily trained, but here also is a breed which
is somewhat uncertain in temper despite the stories to the contrary.
As a watch dog he cannot be surpassed. For those having country
estates or large enough out-door space, this dog is a very desirable
one, but it is scarcely possible to keep one of these in limited
quarters.
The same may be said of any of the larger breeds, and as this book
is devoted to the dogs that are suitable for the large towns and cities
we shall refer the aspiring fancier who is bent upon going in for the
large dogs to procure a copy of “Dogcraft,” a former work of mine
which gives the standards of all breeds, large and small.
 CHAPTER IV.
Housing Problems.

The proper housing of a dog is one of the important, if not the most
important questions in dog keeping. We are assuming that the
budding dog fancier has decided upon what breed he wants to own
and has found an individual to his liking. Perhaps the purchase has
been made and he has brought his canine acquisition home to find
that he has never given the question of housing him any thought.
Under such circumstances he is in a dilemma. His new charge is like
a white elephant on his hands. Naturally, if the dog is still a young
puppy some make-shift arrangement may be made, perhaps in
some odd corner of the house, but it must be remembered that all
puppies, aside from the fact that they are not house-broken are also
a nuisance in many other ways, for they have a special predilection
for the master’s slippers or some article of wearing apparel
belonging to the mistress of the house, and they take special delight
in tearing such things to pieces for the mere amusement of the thing
and because they must have an outlet for their excess of energy.
Another chapter will be devoted to the early training lessons, so let
us, therefore, in this chapter, take up the question of sleeping
quarters and a playground for the youngster.
Where the dog is a medium-sized one, or a toy, perhaps, it will not
be necessary to provide out-door quarters except for exercising, and
therefore, an arrangement may be made for the new dog to occupy a
place in the kitchen or basement, but it must be a place where he will
learn to go either for the night or during the day time when he wishes
a quiet nap all to himself. Personally, I am no advocate for keeping a
dog in the house night and day. It is true, many dog lovers do this
and when the breed is no larger than say, a fox terrier or even a
chow, the arrangement may be satisfactory enough, but never, under
any circumstance, allow a dog to have the run of the house at all
hours of the day or night. If you have decided to allow him to sleep in
the house, provide a box or basket large enough for the purpose. Put
this in some corner in the kitchen or even in the basement, though
unless this latter place is absolutely dry and subject to ventilation, it
is not a desirable place for sleeping quarters. In providing a sleeping
place, whether it be basket, box or bench, it should be raised several
inches above the floor. This is to obviate draughts which are sure to
prevail in cold weather, for no matter how tight a door may fit there is
always a certain amount of cold air blowing in through the crevice at
the bottom, and incidentally, this is one of the most frequent causes
for colds, catarrh or even pneumonia. If you have your doubts about
it, try sleeping upon the floor on a cold night yourself. If the dog be a
toy breed, a shallow basket provided with a pillow filled with pine of
cedar shavings, or pine needles is a most suitable bed. The pillow
should be covered with some coarse, heavy material that will not
tear easily and should be a covering that goes over the pillow proper;
the material inside whether shavings or pine needles should be
encased in another cover. The idea being that the outer covering can
be removed and washed frequently, for no matter how clean a dog
may be, the canine smell will in time permeate the cover and it must
be changed and washed at least once every two weeks if absolute
cleanliness is desired. For most of the larger breeds, a carpet or rug
will be sufficient bedding. Loose bedding, such as shavings or straw
is not to be thought of in the house.
The box or basket provided for the bed should be large enough to
permit the dog to lie at his ease. If a box is used, the better plan is to
remove one side with the exception of a small strip at the bottom to
hold the bedding in and of course, the top should also be removed.
These sleeping boxes or baskets should be put out in the sun and air
every week or so and when necessity demands, they should be
scrubbed with warm soap water, to which a few drops of Creolin-
Pierson may be added. This will keep the sleeping box clean and
obviate any possibility of vermin, for once fleas infest a place where
a dog frequents, then all thought of housing indoors must be
abandoned.
Far the better plan, however, is to provide sleeping quarters in the
garage or stable, especially for the larger breeds; in fact, all breeds
except toys. In cold weather these boxes may be closed on top and
on all sides, leaving only a small opening for entrance or exit. The
advantage of this being that such boxes can be filled with good,
clean straw in cold weather and there are very few dogs who cannot
sleep comfortably and warmly in such a bed, even when the mercury
is down close to the zero mark. Terriers, as a matter of fact, are very
hardy and will really do better in an out-building of this kind than in
the house or basement. Naturally, one must be governed according
to circumstances and if the owner of a dog has no building on the
premises, part of which may be used for his pet’s quarters he can
build a small house out of doors and provide a runway in connection.
Nearly all of the wire, or long-haired breeds will do well in these out-
door kennels the year round, provided the bedding is warm, the box
free from draughts, and a piece of carpet or burlap is tacked over the
opening in the coldest of weather. This should be arranged in such a
way that it is loose on the sides and bottom, so as to permit of easy
entrance and exit.
In building an out-door house for the dog it is well to adopt more
modern plans than the old-time “dog house” closed on top and all
sides with the exception of the door in front. This style has been in
vogue and has answered the purpose for many a high-bred dog, but
if the owner wishes to have something more elaborate he might build
a small house having a hallway or vestibule before reaching the
sleeping quarters proper. Such a house must be built double the size
of the ordinary one to allow for the extra “room.” It should also be so
constructed that it may be opened from the top, either by supplying
hinges to the roof which make it possible to raise either side, or the
roof may be so constructed that the entire top of the house can be
lifted off. This will permit of easy cleaning of the interior. It is well to
keep the interior whitewashed. A coating of this every few months
will aid very materially in keeping the place free from vermin.
When it is possible to provide a runway or small enclosure where the
dog may exercise in at any time he desires, it is far better than to
chain him. These runways can be constructed cheaply, of heavy
mesh wire. In constructing this it must be with a view of making them
high enough to prevent the dog from leaping or climbing over. A
good plan to adopt is to build the fence and then put another strip of
wire mesh a foot or eighteen inches wide horizontally from the top of
the posts, allowing this to go on the inside, thus even though the dog
is inclined to jump or climb, when he reaches the top of the fence,
this extra width of wire will prevent him from going over. Another
precaution must be taken against burrowing out. This is easily done
by digging a trench and allowing the wire to go into the ground a foot
or more, then filling this trench up with stones or brick and covering
with earth. No dog will be able to dig under such a fence.
If a dog must be chained to his kennel, as sometimes is the case, he
should be given at least two hours of freedom every day. Far the
better way is to extend a wire close to the ground, from the kennel to
a post thirty or forty feet (more if possible) from this. The post at the
far end should be driven or planted in the ground, allowing only
enough above the surface to attach the wire to, for dogs have a
faculty of getting their chains twisted about a post that might be
dangerous or even fatal to them. A ring should be put on this wire to
which the swivel of the chain may be attached. This gives the animal
a certain amount of freedom and exercise, and it will soon become
noticeable how he takes advantage of it. It is needless to say that all
kennels out of doors should be built of matched boards dove-tailed
together so as to admit no draughts, furthermore, the kennel should
be placed on a foundation or on piles several inches from the
ground. For more elaborate plans of kennels when more dogs are
kept, the reader is referred to an earlier work of mine entitled
“Practical Dog Keeping for the Amateur.”
 CHAPTER V.
Becoming Acquainted—Early Lessons.

While most any breed of dog under one year old will soon learn to
adapt himself to new friends and environment, and therefore no
stipulated time is imperative as to what age he should be, at the time
of his purchase, there is something about the wee youngsters of
eight or ten weeks old that appeals to all, and the general thing is to
obtain your puppy shortly after he is weaned.
It is true, there are some objections to this plan, principally because
a puppy of this tender age is still unbroken to the house and is also
more susceptible to the ordinary ills that beset the young life of
practically all canines, but on the other hand, there is something
particularly interesting in a wee puppy and he will, as a rule, soon
become the pet of the entire household. As for the ills, with ordinary
care, one can tide the youngster over these much more easily than
the novice may imagine. As a matter of fact, I would rather begin
with a twelve weeks old puppy and break him to cleanliness about
the house than I would a dog of one year old, for in a majority of
cases, when purchasing a puppy of the latter age, you will be told
that he is house-broken, when as a matter of fact he is not,
consequently this education must begin at a rather late age. Another
reason why the very young puppy is more satisfactory is because
there is a greater interest in watching him develop physically as well
as mentally; therefore, all things considered, I would advise selecting
your dog when he is still a mere baby; which means under three
months of age.
As for breed, that is a matter to decide according to your own
inclinations. The young of all animals are interesting, but this is
particularly so of dogs, irrespective of the breed. Even the veriest
mongrel, as a small puppy, is a most engaging creature.
Assuming that you have purchased your puppy and taken him home
and he is one of those innocent-looking balls of fluffy hair from which