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Emotion and the History of Rhetoric
in the Middle Ages
Emotion and the History
of Rhetoric in the
Middle Ages
R I TA C O P E L A N D
1
1
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© Rita Copeland 2021
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2021
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
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You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2021948827
ISBN 978–0–19–284512–2
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192845122.001.0001
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contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
For David, Evelyn, and Beryl, immeasurable love
Acknowledgments
What Aristotle says about friendship in the Rhetoric is profound and true. But
even with that example before me, I find it daunting to express the depth of grati-
tude and wonder that I have when I count up the many people who have sus-
tained me during my work on this book.
Five colleagues read this book in its long entirety, offering honest, hard-won,
and probing advice: Martin Camargo, Peter Mack, Alastair Minnis, James
Simpson, and Nicolette Zeeman. One could not ask for greater models in medie-
val studies and the history of rhetoric. Collectively they have made this a better
book. I am also greatly indebted to Ardis Butterfield and Christopher Cannon,
the series editors at Oxford University Press, who read the manuscript with their
discerning judgment and offered the strongest support to the project. In this book
I hope that all of these readers will find a grateful record of their expertise, their
conversation, and their willingness to answer and argue queries.
My intellectual life has flourished among students and colleagues at the
University of Pennsylvania. I particularly want to mention several friends who
have contributed in fundamental ways to my thinking, at once broadening and
sharpening it. Emily Steiner’s incomparable creative energy gives new life to
medieval studies and deepens my understanding of connections waiting to be
drawn. Ralph Rosen welcomed me into the Classical Studies department and
through his boundless curiosity has introduced me to entirely new perspectives
on classical reception. Darielle Mason’s unparalleled knowledge of the art and
architecture of premodern India has opened new aesthetic vistas to me as some-
one trained in Western traditions. My special gratitude to David Wallace for
his abiding friendship and capacious knowledge is noted in the dedication to
the book.
I have written this book in several institutional settings, but most of the
research and writing was done at the Warburg Institute in London, in shorter and
longer periods over five years. There I was welcomed as a visiting fellow, and it
gives me pleasure to record the stimulating exchanges I had with colleagues at the
Institute: Charles Burnett, Jill Kraye, Peter Mack, Michelle O’Malley, Sara
Miglietti, Bill Sherman, and John Tresch. These conversations have changed what
I know and the way that I think. The Warburg is famously a place of felicitous
discovery, not only of essential books, but more importantly of essential friends
who give their expertise. I have especially valued the generosity of Cornelia Linde,
Fiammetta Papi, and Eugenio Refini.
x Acknowledgments
expertise to creating the photo on the cover. I have found warm hospitality abroad
and companionship at home from Vicki Behm, Elaine and Howie Nixon, Ahuva
Passow-Whitman, Ellen Rosen, and Street Thoma. I also owe a great debt to
Michelle Gentile, Emily Ko, and Wanda Ronner.
I have appreciated the experts at libraries where I have worked most: Raphaële
Mouren, Clare Lappin, and Jonathan Rolls of the Warburg; John Pollack and
Rebecca Stuhr of the University of Pennsylvania Library; and the staff of the
British Library. This book was written during several sabbatical leaves that
made possible sustained periods of research and writing. For these I thank the
Guggenheim Foundation, the University of Pennsylvania’s School of Arts and
Sciences, and the Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies. An early version of
part of Chapter 1 was published as “Affectio in the Tradition of the De inventione:
Philosophy and Pragmatism,” in Georgiana Donavin and Denise Stodola, eds.,
Public Declamations: Essays on Medieval Rhetoric, Education, and Letters in Honor
of Martin Camargo (Turnhout: Brepols, 2015), pp. 3–20. Parts of Chapters 4 and 7
were previewed in “Pathos and Pastoralism: Aristotle’s Rhetoric in Medieval
England,” Speculum 89 (2014): 96–127. A section of Chapter 3 appears under
slightly different form in Vladimir Brljak and Micha Lazarus, eds., Poetics Before
Modernity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, forthcoming).
This book emerged out of a commitment to longue durée history. Its direction
was set by an encounter with a manuscript nearly two decades ago as I was pursu-
ing questions about rhetoric that I had been asking for a much longer time. The
book was written during a period of tremendous upheaval in the world culminat-
ing in a pandemic whose future effects on societies, economies, and academic
institutions I cannot at this moment know. I hope at least that we will continue to
reflect on those long histories of thought that have shaped our public discourse as
well as the ways we articulate our private experience.
Contents
List of Abbreviationsxv
Introduction1
1. Before the Middle Ages: Emotion from Invention to Style 22
1.1 Affectio in the Tradition of the De inventione: Rhetorical
Reasoning and Moral Philosophy 24
1.2 Pity and Indignation in the Tradition of De inventione 36
1.3 Masters of Style in Late Antiquity 47
2. Christian and Literary Rhetorics of the Early Middle Ages:
Emotion as the Property of Style 58
2.1 Augustine’s De doctrina christiana Book 4 59
2.2 Macrobius’ Saturnalia: Inculcating Love for Virgil 69
2.3 Cassiodorus’ Expositio psalmorum: Shared Affection
for the Psalms 74
2.4 From Isidore to Bede: Regression and Internalization 85
2.5 Ambiguous Impact: Onulf of Speyer 96
3. Emotion in the Rhetorical Arts and Literary Culture
c.1070–c.1400 104
3.1 Teaching Emotional Style in the Arts of Poetry and Prose
c.1070–c.1215 112
3.2 Anthologies of Style: Love Letters and Poetry 134
3.3 Literary Impact: Chaucer, Petrarch, Chaucer 147
4. Aristotle’s Rhetoric in the Latin West: The Fortunes of
the Pathē 156
4.1 Pathos and Enthymeme in Aristotle’s Rhetoric 158
4.2 The Fortunes of the Rhetoric in Context: Ancient Philosophies
of the Passions 169
4.3 Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes on Emotion in the Rhetoric 175
4.4 The Latin Rhetoric and Its Reception: Moral Philosophy and
Giles of Rome’s Commentary 182
4.5 Giles’ Commentary in Context: The Rhetoric and Medieval
Philosophies of the Passions 194
5. De regimine principum: Emotion, Persuasion, and
Political Thought 203
5.1 Figuralis et grossus 208
5.2 A Political Rhetoric of the Emotions 215
5.3 Enthymematic Reasoning 227
OUP CORRECTED AUTOPAGE PROOFS – FINAL, 14/10/21, SPi
xiv Contents
Bibliography 369
Index of Historical Persons and Titles of Works 405
General Index 411
OUP CORRECTED AUTOPAGE PROOFS – FINAL, 14/10/21, SPi
List of Abbreviations
AL Aristoteles latinus
BRUO A. B. Emden, Biographical Register of the University of Oxford. 3 vols. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1957–9.
CBMLC Corpus of British Medieval Library Catalogues
CCCM Corpus Christianorum continuatio medievalis
CCSG Corpus Christianorum series graeca
CCSL Corpus Christianorum series latina
CIMAGL Cahiers de l’Institut du Moyen-Âge grec et latin
CSEL Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum
EETS Early English Text Society
MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica
ODNB Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2004, https://www.oxforddnb.com
PL Patrologia latina, ed. J.-P. Migne (Paris, 1844–64)
RLM Rhetores latini minores, ed. Karl Halm (Leipzig: Teubner, 1863; rpt. Frankfurt:
Minerva, 1964)
SATF Société des anciens textes français
Martin Camargo’s complete edition of the Tria sunt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 2019) was published when this book was all but finished. I have incorporated it into
the notes where possible.
Translations from Latin and other languages are my own unless otherwise noted.
List of Abbreviations
AL Aristoteles latinus
BRUO A. B. Emden, Biographical Register of the University of Oxford. 3 vols. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1957–9.
CBMLC Corpus of British Medieval Library Catalogues
CCCM Corpus Christianorum continuatio medievalis
CCSG Corpus Christianorum series graeca
CCSL Corpus Christianorum series latina
CIMAGL Cahiers de l’Institut du Moyen-Âge grec et latin
CSEL Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum
EETS Early English Text Society
MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica
ODNB Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2004, https://www.oxforddnb.com
PL Patrologia latina, ed. J.-P. Migne (Paris, 1844–64)
RLM Rhetores latini minores, ed. Karl Halm (Leipzig: Teubner, 1863; rpt. Frankfurt:
Minerva, 1964)
SATF Société des anciens textes français
Martin Camargo’s complete edition of the Tria sunt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 2019) was published when this book was all but finished. I have incorporated it into
the notes where possible.
Translations from Latin and other languages are my own unless otherwise noted.
Introduction
Emotion and the History of Rhetoric in the Middle Ages. Rita Copeland, Oxford University Press. © Rita Copeland 2021.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192845122.003.0001
2 Emotion and the History of Rhetoric in the Middle Ages
has been no lack of such work for the Middle Ages. Research on emotions in
ancient and medieval philosophy—from the perspectives of both moral philosophy
and cognitive theory—is particularly well advanced.1 But one of the explicit tasks
of rhetoric is to deal with the spectrum of emotions that color judgment, to
explain how the passions are best captured and opinions swayed. Thus in its overt
and dedicated purpose, rhetoric is closer to the contingencies of experience than
virtually any other field. Because of its pragmatic focus on communication,
rhetoric obligates itself to different and often deeper levels of belief and practice
than philosophy, theology, and other fields can afford. Rhetoric does not give us
an unmediated access to the subjective feelings of the past, but its affordance is
pragmatism rather than ideal conditions.
But emotion does not figure the same way across all rhetorical doctrine. This
issue, the different roles that emotion plays in rhetorical thought, has never been
treated comprehensively from antiquity all the way through the Middle Ages.
Research on rhetoric in antiquity, the early modern period, and up into contem-
porary studies, has yielded impressive understandings of the emotions and
persuasion.2 Classical theory stands out for its rich, dedicated explorations of the
political and ethical roles of emotion in persuasion: Aristotle’s Rhetoric, Cicero’s
De oratore, Quintilian’s Institutio oratoria, and from Christian late antiquity,
Augustine’s De doctrina christiana. But even in the fullest historical accounts of
1 Recent works with an emphasis on philosophy and philosophical theology include: Simo
Knuuttila, Emotions in Ancient and Medieval Philosophy (Oxford: Clarendon, 2004); Henrik Lagerlund
and Mikko Yrjönsuuri, eds., Emotions and Choice from Boethius to Descartes (Dordrecht: Kluwer,
2002); Bernard Besnier, Pierre-François Moreau, and Laurence Renault, eds., Les passions antiques et
médiévales (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 2003); Damien Boquet, L’ordre de l’affect au moyen
âge: autour de l’anthropologie affective d’Aelred de Rievaulx (Caen: Publications du CRAHM, 2005);
Giannina Burlando, ed., De las pasiones en la filosofía medieval (Santiago: Pontificia Universidad
Católica de Chile, Instituto de Filosofia, 2009); Christian Schäfer and Martin Thurner, eds., Passiones
animae: die “Leidenschaften der Seele” in der mittelalterlichen Theologie und Philosophie (Berlin:
Akademie Verlag, 2009).
2 On antiquity, see, for example, Jamie Dow, Passions and Persuasion in Aristotle’s Rhetoric (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2015); David Konstan, The Emotions of the Ancient Greeks: Studies in Aristotle
and Classical Literature (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006); Ruth Webb, Ekphrasis,
Imagination, and Persuasion in Ancient Rhetorical: Theory and Practice (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2009);
Susanna M. Braund and Christopher Gill, eds., The Passions in Roman Thought and Literature
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Matthew Leigh, “Quintilian on the Emotions
(Institutio oratoria 6 Preface and 1–2),” The Journal of Roman Studies 94 (2004): 122–40. Among many
studies on rhetoric and emotion in the Renaissance, see Heinrich F. Plett, Rhetorik der Affekte.
Englische Wirkungsästhetik im Zeitalter der Renaissance (Tübingen: M. Niemeyer, 1975); Lawrence
Green, “Aristotle’s Rhetoric and Renaissance Views of the Emotions,” in Peter Mack, ed., Renaissance
Rhetoric (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994), pp. 1–26; Debora K. Shuger, Sacred Rhetoric: The
Christian Grand Style in the English Renaissance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988); Kathy
Eden, The Renaissance Rediscovery of Intimacy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012); Lucía
Díaz Marroquín, La retórica de los afectos (Kassel: Reichenberger, 2008). Representative of different
approaches to rhetoric and emotion in modernity are Daniel M. Gross, The Secret History of Emotion:
From Aristotle’s Rhetoric to Modern Brain Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007); Michel
Meyer, Le philosophe et les passions (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 2015) (in the tradition of
Chaim Perelman); and Robert Perinbanayagam, The Rhetoric of Emotions: A Dramatistic Exploration
(London: Routledge, 2016) (in the tradition of Kenneth Burke).
Introduction 3
rhetoric and emotion, the Middle Ages occupies a very small space. This is because
the period between about 600 and 1450 has not seemed to have much to bring to
the theoretical table of rhetoric and the emotions. Yet rhetoric in the Middle Ages,
as in other periods, constituted the gateway training for anyone engaged in emo-
tionally persuasive writing. In order to appreciate what the Middle Ages contrib-
utes fundamentally to a rhetorical dynamic that is part of our own modern
understanding, it is necessary to sift slowly and carefully down through the sedi-
mented layers of the centuries. This book seeks to color in what has largely been a
blank space between late antiquity and the cusp of early modernity.
* * *
Because this book is about medieval rhetoric and the emotions, not about rheto-
ric and the emotions at large, its parameters must be what the Middle Ages had
available by way of rhetoric, both what it inherited from antiquity and what it
produced for itself. Since the history recounted here is a long one, it will help at
the start to sketch in the sources that came down to the Western Middle Ages and
the order in which they found their ways into medieval dossiers. In this book
I observe the chronology of a reception history. Readers familiar with the outline
of the history of rhetoric as a whole may be surprised not to find extensive
accounts of some of the major treatises of antiquity and their aesthetics and ethi-
cal principles. But my concern here is not with the emotional theory of classical
rhetoric in general; rather, I focus on the theory that the Middle Ages derived
from its limited legacy of classical rhetoric. Most medieval writers did not have
De oratore or Quintilian’s Institutio, and it was not until quite late that they had
access to Aristotle. They certainly did not have Hellenistic Greek rhetoricians and
theorists of style except as these were filtered through some Latin sources. But
what moderns might view as a narrow canon was to prove remarkably fruitful for
medieval rhetoricians. As we will see, they continually reinvented the rhetorical
understanding of emotion for their own purposes, and their teaching was espe-
cially responsive when texts previously unknown came on the scene. This book is
about the continual transformations of a legacy, the making of new rhetorical
perspectives on emotions and the practices that embodied them.
It is well known that the medieval West built its tradition of rhetorical teaching
on an essentially Roman textual canon, and moreover on only a small number of
those texts that we would now consider central to Roman rhetorical thought.
Because of, or perhaps simply in conjunction with, the preferences of late antique
commentators for the more technical accounts of the art, the authoritative text
dominating curricula for many centuries was Cicero’s De inventione (c.89 bce). It
is a truncated text, covering only the first canon of rhetoric, invention, in exhaus-
tive technical detail. Yet it was the mainstay of rhetorical education during the
early Middle Ages, the Carolingian period, and right through the late Middle
Ages. It survives in slightly over 400 manuscripts (including extracts and
4 Emotion and the History of Rhetoric in the Middle Ages
incomplete texts, and glossed and unglossed copies), many of these produced
over the course of the twelfth century, and thus rivaling Virgil’s Aeneid as one of
the most copied classical texts.3 Its influence stands behind the medieval remak-
ing of classical rhetoric over the course of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
although superficially the medieval treatises (the arts of poetry and letter-writing)
seem to have little in common with the Ciceronian text. Cicero’s mature and
expansive De oratore, appreciated in modern times for its powerful meditation on
the orator’s own capacity for feeling the emotion that he will generate, had so little
circulation in the Middle Ages as to be without significant influence. Cicero’s
Orator, another work of his mature years, had an indirect reception in the Middle
Ages through book 4 of Augustine’s De doctrina christiana, which quotes its doc-
trine on the levels of style, and later through Hrabanus Maurus’ De institutione
clericorum, which quotes at length from Augustine’s De doctrina.4
Another work contemporary with the De inventione was the anonymous
Rhetorica ad Herennium (c.86–82 bce), a complete and admirably balanced art
of rhetoric which was attributed to Cicero until the fifteenth century. This gained
influence only around 1050. It was known to some degree in late antiquity:
Martianus Capella seems to rely on the Ad Herennium for some of his account of
invention (in the rhetoric book of his De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii), and its
comprehensive treatment of style seems to have remained available to authors up
through at least the fourth century ce.5 But it soon fell out of use. Why the Ad
Herennium ceased being copied regularly, and all but disappeared from teaching
until the second half of the eleventh century, remains a mystery. This is especially
curious because once it regained traction over the course of the twelfth century, it
outstripped De inventione as the preferred classical resource for teaching and
commentary, its circulation steadily increasing with an explosion of copying
during the fourteenth century. One possible explanation for this late burst of pop-
ularity was its appeal to preachers, being at once comprehensive and relatively
compact. The Ad Herennium survives (complete or incomplete, glossed and
unglossed) in over 700 manuscripts, mostly from the twelfth, fourteenth, and
fifteenth centuries.6 Its account of style became extremely influential for studies
3 John O. Ward, Classical Rhetoric in the Middle Ages: The Medieval Rhetors and Their Art 400–1300,
with Manuscript Survey to 1500 CE (Leiden: Brill, 2019), p. 46.
4 On the limited presence of De oratore and Orator in medieval libraries, see L. D. Reynolds, ed.,
Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics (Oxford: Clarendon, 1983), pp. 102–9; on reasons
for their limited influence, see John O. Ward, “Ciceronian Rhetoric and Oratory from St. Augustine to
Guarino da Verona,” in Nancy van Deusen, ed., Cicero Refused to Die: Ciceronian Influence Through the
Centuries (Leiden: Brill, 2013), pp. 163–96.
5 Gualtiero Calboli, “The Knowledge of the ‘Rhetorica ad Herennium’ from Later Roman Empire to
Early Middle Ages in Northern Italy,” Papers on Rhetoric 9, ed. Lucia Calboli Montefusco (Rome:
Herder, 2008), pp. 33–52.
6 Ward, Classical Rhetoric, p. 46.
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all his early German experience and training, with all his substantial
Teutonic technical foundation gained thereby, he was first and last a
Celt in spirit. Over the heavy bog of German harmony and
counterpoint his sensitive fancy danced like restless thistledown,
following the lightest whimsey of the breeze and the most tremulous
maneuverings of shadow-play. In his more powerful tone painting it
is the elements, rather than the passions, that command him. The
old nature-worship which is so ineradicable an element of the
psychic constitution of the Celt, and which leads him to commune
with the innumerable and elusive hosts of the land of faery, never
forsook the soul of MacDowell, or ceased to direct the course of his
genius. Impatient of the restraints of the outer world, and of its
weight of poetry-quenching affairs and transactions, his spirit hurried
ever to a communion with the moods and mysteries of nature, and to
that corresponding dream-world of intensified nature-perceptions
within the soul to which these are the appointed and the alluring
gateway. MacDowell's dream-world was directly conjoined with that
of 'Fiona Macleod,' whose subjective nature-pictures offer a close
literary parallel to the tone-pictures of the composer. These two
traversed the same region, which is that of the psychic perceptions,
but the account of it brought back by MacDowell presents one
striking fundamental difference from all accounts rendered by poetry-
making Celts who have remained upon their native soil. In the
American the soul no longer cries out from under an age-long
burden of poverty and oppression; the heartache and the world-
weariness have been sloughed off in the new-world birth. No outcry
of the heart is the music of MacDowell, but an eager self-
surrendering to the interpretation of the facts and moods of nature,
the rocking of a lily-pad on cool waters, the lonely drift of an
iridescent iceberg, the mad sudden impact of a hurrying gust. Often
are these interpretations of an almost uncanny intimacy, so subtle
and sensitive is their touch.
The 'Indian Suite' (opus 48) has been the most frequently heard of
MacDowell's orchestral works, which have, as a class, been
somewhat overshadowed by the piano compositions. In it the
composer has touched but lightly upon his Indian thematic sources,
building from his own fertile imagination a work of substantial
character in five movements, depicting his conception of various
phases of Indian life. The fourth movement, a dirge, has won great
favor through its sheer imaginative beauty, but the work as a whole
has not proved wholly convincing, and is far less true to the Indian
than the sonatas are to the Gaelic genius. It represents, however, a
matured mastery of orchestration and the formal presentation of
ideas. An earlier orchestral suite (opus 42) is a less notable work,
reflecting the influence of Raff, and is seldom heard. 'The Saracens'
and 'The Lovely Alda,' two colorful orchestral fragments from a once-
projected 'Roland' symphony, are not infrequently heard, and with
pleasure, but, while characteristic of the composer's genius, are
scarcely representative of it. An earlier 'Hamlet and Ophelia' overture
has fared rather less well.
II
One of the rocks upon which the high character of modern American
music is founded is the art-activity of Edgar Stillman-Kelley (b. April
14, 1857). While he has not given forth his compositions in rapid
succession or in great quantity, he has, nevertheless, struck a series
of telling blows for the honor and dignity of creative musical art in
America. Especially is this true in view of the fact that he has
formulated, maintained and promulgated definite ideals of music
throughout a period which has been characterized mainly, in this
respect, by confusion and groping, and, too frequently, even by
grovelling. In a post-Wagnerian period in which vacillation, obscurity,
and disorder have reigned throughout a large part of the musical
world, he has steadily advanced the standard of lucidity, order, and
faith. Lofty in imagination, of a high sense of beauty, and at the same
time exceptional in scholarship and breadth of intellectual vision, he
combines qualities which must necessarily single him out as a leader
of importance in the musical movement to which America has given
birth. The same qualities have also fitted him to exercise a
beneficent influence, in certain directions, upon more recent and
newly appearing phases of native musical evolution. It has been
Stillman-Kelley's fate that both his name and his influence have
outdistanced the general knowledge of his works. Two
circumstances may be held accountable for this: the fact that he has
given out no quantity of works in small forms through which his
music might become accessible to music-lovers everywhere through
the universal medium of the piano, and the further fact that it is
particularly in just such forms as Stillman-Kelley has produced that,
as a nation, we are slow in giving our own composers a wide
hearing. The American symphony, on American programs, must
wait, first, and perhaps rightfully, upon the classics, and, second, and
often with bitter wrong, upon the sensational European novelties of
the hour.
The thought can almost be ventured that Stillman-Kelley was the first
composer to use the post-Wagnerian harmonic vocabulary without
the result sounding like Wagner. If a heroic instinct for thematic
development in the face of the harmonic orgies of the time
contributed to this achievement, it was secondary to a contribution of
even greater distinction. This more original contribution may be
termed the application of a geometrical poetic sense to the new
harmony. Of the tyrant that enslaved the composers of the time
Stillman-Kelley promptly made himself the master. Out of the new
material he generated for his use harmonic motives, symmetrical
blocks of harmony, bearing a particular relation to his thematic
material, and, by the application of these well-defined and well-
rounded harmonic motives to his formal structure, he attained, at a
stroke, the employment of the new medium, the preservation of
clarity and order, and thereto a new musical personality. He did not
recede to an archaic classical purism and offer the familiar excuse of
those who found in Wagner the ruination of pure music. He
advanced bravely on to the dangerous ground of the new territory
and made it his own without sacrificing the fundamental classical
character of his ideals and without losing his wits.
The 'Aladdin' suite has perhaps been less infrequently heard than
Stillman-Kelley's other orchestral works. In this work the composer
availed himself of certain Chinese themes, of which he made a
characteristically thorough study while in San Francisco (and which
resulted also in his widely known song 'The Lady Picking
Mulberries'). This suite is in the composer's most genial vein and is a
tour de force of piquant orchestration. Its movements depict 'The
Wedding of Aladdin and the Princess,' 'A Serenade in the Royal Pear
Garden,' 'Flight of the Genie with the Palace,' and 'The Return and
Feast of the Lanterns.'
III
Among the most earnest and advanced leaders of American music
stands Arne Oldberg (b. 1874), a musical personality of the highest
nobility and idealism, and a consummate master of his art.
Unquestionably as fully equipped master of thematic development in
the cyclic forms as America has produced, his loftily conceived
chamber music and orchestral works present themselves in a
spiritual and technical serenity, artistic authenticity and
completeness, which baffle the critical beholder. Indeed, it is with the
music-makers who wrote before relentless Beethoven forced the
skyey goddess down into the world-struggle that Oldberg has the
closest spiritual kinship. Never since Mozart has music been more
bafflingly 'absolute' than in the bulk of his works in orchestral and
chamber music, and piano forms. The appearance of these works,
so modern from the standpoint of thematic and formal development
in this epoch, seems to call for a revision of modern musical
psychology and philosophy. Much of modern 'pure' music is too
dramatic to endure a comparison in this respect, or else too
philosophical and too deeply involved in the world-problem. To
Brahms' technical system that of Oldberg more nearly corresponds
than to any other.
The two quintets for piano and strings (opera 16 and 24) present a
joyous and upspringing lyricism all but unknown to the music of the
day, together, especially in the latter and more mature work, with a
thematic involution that would be appalling were it not for the
exuberant spontaneity of their inspiration. A string quartet in C minor
(opus 15) is a less complete revelation of the composer's powers. A
woodwind quintet in E flat major (opus 18), on the other hand, is a
miracle of gladness and of grave and haunting loveliness.
The first symphony, 'Youth and Life' (opus 25), is highly characteristic
of the buoyancy, the nervous energy, and the imaginative fertility of
the composer. The second, 'The Four Seasons' (opus 30), is a
delicate balance, within the classical form, of romanticism,
impressionism, and symbolism. It is romanticism that predominates,
however, although such distinct impressions as those of wintry blasts
and falling autumn leaves are happy and noteworthy features of the
work. The languor and sun-warmed luxuriance of mid-summer finds
poignant and beautiful expression. The third symphony, in B minor
(opus 60), seems to be less well known than the others. The fourth
symphony, 'North, East, South, West' (opus 64), was received with
enthusiasm when produced under the direction of the composer at a
meeting of the Litchfield County Choral Union, on June 6, 1911.
Hadley indulges in a little aboriginal Americanism in the 'South' and
'West' movements, though his only definitely discernible 'nationalism'
lies in his inherent temperamental character. The four symphonies
reveal a constantly progressive growth in modern harmonic vision
and in orchestral mastery. The only American composer to enter the
field of symphonic conducting as a profession, Hadley, in his
technical development, has made the most of his contact with the
orchestra.
There are three overtures, 'Hector and Andromache,' the jubilant 'In
Bohemia,' and one of sombre character to Stephen Phillips' 'Herod.'
A tone-poem, 'Salome,' finds him at his nearest to Strauss in ideals,
even if not in style. His most recent orchestral work, produced in
1914, is entitled 'Lucifer.' From earlier days are several 'Ballet
Suites,' an 'Oriental Suite' and a 'Symphonic Fantasie.' The still more
recent 'Culprit Fay,' after Rodman Drake's poem, has won various
and deserved honors. Hadley's one grand opera, 'Safie,' dating from
his incumbency as opera conductor in Mainz, Germany, was
produced there on April 4, 1909, but has not been heard in America.
There are songs in great number and variety, several cantatas, a
number of works in different small forms, and considerable church
music.
Mr. Converse has made two heroic ventures onto the still unwon but
yielding field of American grand opera. 'The Pipe of Desire,' with text
by George E. Barton, a one-act opera, is in mood a reflection from
the poets of the Celtic twilight. It was given a special production of
three performances in Boston, in 1906, and experienced a brief
revival, in March, 1910, at the Metropolitan Opera House in New
York, and in the following January in Boston. A second opera, in
three acts, 'The Sacrifice,' dealing with a romantic Spanish-
Californian subject, is regarded as showing a marked advance in
operatic style. It was produced by the Boston Opera Company in
March, 1911, with a measure of success, but the scope of its
bearings has not yet been extended. Mr. Converse's most recent
large work was the composition of the music for the 'Pageant and
Masque of St. Louis,' May 28-31, 1914, a broad and vigorous piece
of writing. In general, his music is of strong fibre, harmoniously and
melodically and warm in color, though his style has not yet broken
wholly away from its academic moorings. For several years after
1902 he served as instructor and professor in the musical
department of Harvard University.
IV
A very substantial and influential personality in American musical life
is that of Ernest R. Kroeger, who was born in St. Louis, Mo., August
10, 1862, and whose activities have ever since been identified with
that city. The list of his published compositions is enormous and
comprises works in many forms. As is the case with most American
composers, his orchestral and chamber music works remain in
manuscript, and consist of three 'symphonic overtures,'
'Sardanapalus,' 'Hiawatha,' and 'Atala,' the first Oriental in character,
the two latter Indian, overtures on the subjects of 'Thanatopsis' and
'Endymion,' a 'Lalla Rookh' suite, two string quartets, and, for piano
with strings, a trio, quartet, and quintet.
Leaning somewhat more heavily upon the classic than the romantic
aspects of German tradition, the work of Rubin Goldmark (b. 1872)
makes serious claim to a place of high regard in the field of
American music. While having had the advantages of European
study, Goldmark also reflects a measure of the considerable
influence exerted by Dvořák upon composition in America, having
been one of those under the guidance of the Bohemian composer
during his period of teaching in New York. In so far as this influence
is discernible in one of Goldmark's well-defined musical personality,
it is to be sought in the general nature of his musical ideals, and only
very slightly in the specific Americanism encouraged by Dvořák
(1841-1904). A firm emotional texture, gained by warmth of both
harmony and melody, and a virility arising from a marked rhythmic
sense characterize Goldmark's music. His creative impulse is guided
more by emotional sincerity and verity than by the element of charm,
though it is not without moments of tender and limpid beauty.
Brockway did, in fact, give out a quantity of small works, songs and
piano compositions, on his return to America, all of which, it may be
said, reveal a sensitive and truly poetic musical nature, capable of
lifting itself well up through the dense and earthy atmosphere of
technique into the realm of poetic perception and expression. The
outcome of his return to large forms it is a bit early to predict. The
knowledge of a manuscript quintet for strings and piano, and a piano
concerto, under his highest opus numbers, 36 and 37, adumbrates
an auspicious future for his expression in large forms. Meanwhile a
suite for 'cello and piano (opus 35) has been given out, and an
admirable cantata, 'Sir Olaf,' has been heard. From his earlier
portfolio credit is to be given him for the beautiful violin sonata (opus
9) and the significant 'Ballade' and 'Sylvan Suite' (op. 11 and 19),
both for orchestra.
V
Generations of composers succeed each other quickly in America
with, however, but the flimsiest of boundaries, chronological and
artistic. We now come to a group of composers, in general slightly
younger than those already considered, who in the romantic and
neo-classical fields may be regarded as 'runners up,' whose 'arrival'
is well under way and who press hard for the highest rank and
honors in their field in the national and even in the international
musical life. No order of precedence will be attempted in making
note of their achievements, as none has been made hitherto with a
few exceptions in favor of seniority and fame.
One of the staunchest and most uncompromising upholders of a
severe classical ideal is Daniel Gregory Mason (b. 1873). With
sureness, if not over-rapidly, he has developed a mode of expression
singularly lucid, symmetrical and thorough in its formal unfoldment.
Thoughtful in the extreme, modest in the nature and statement of his
themes, he seeks the source of power in completeness and
symmetry of outline, in the bringing of his themes to the fullest and
most rounded development, and in clarity of harmonic structure. Not
even the strictest of classicists, in these days, can wholly escape the
influence of the romantic epoch, and if a sympathy with the ideals of
Schumann has in a measure qualified Mason's musical outlook in
the first instance, it has yielded to a stronger leaning to the artistic
creed of Brahms. Some of the composer's pages bear a marked
Brahms-like aspect. These earlier influences have been broadened
and enriched in Mason's later work by a studious devotion to the
music of César Franck and of Vincent d'Indy, the composer having
studied with the latter in 1902 and later. These latter influences have
produced a very evident effect upon his harmonic scheme, which
presents a conservative use and treatment of thoroughly modern
resources, though with a characteristic avoidance of anything
approaching to the harmonic sensationalism of much latter day
music. In all ways, in fact, Mason's music is a protest against the
sensational tendency of the time.