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Organized Time
OXFORD STUDIES IN MUSIC THEORY
Series Editor Steven Rings

Studies in Music with Text, David Lewin

Music as Discourse: Semiotic Adventures in Romantic Music, Kofi Agawu

Metric Manipulations in Haydn and Mozart: Chamber Music for Strings, 1787–​1791, Danuta Mirka

Songs in Motion: Rhythm and Meter in the German Lied, Yonatan Malin

A Geometry of Music: Harmony and Counterpoint in the Extended Common Practice, Dmitri Tymoczko

In the Process of Becoming: Analytic and Philosophical Perspectives on Form in Early Nineteenth-​Century
Music, Janet Schmalfeldt

Tonality and Transformation, Steven Rings

Audacious Euphony: Chromaticism and the Triad’s Second Nature, Richard Cohn

Mahler’s Symphonic Sonatas, Seth Monahan

Beating Time and Measuring Music in the Early Modern Era, Roger Mathew Grant

Pieces of Tradition: An Analysis of Contemporary Tonal Music, Daniel Harrison

Music at Hand: Instruments, Bodies, and Cognition, Jonathan De Souza

Organized Time: Rhythm, Tonality, and Form, Jason Yust

ORGANIZED TIME
Rhythm, Tonality, and Form
JASON YUST

1
 1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
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Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data
Names: Yust, Jason author.
Title: Organized time : rhythm, tonality, and form / Jason Yust.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 2018. | Series: Oxford
studies in music theory | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018006558| ISBN 9780190696481 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9780190696511 (oxford scholarly online)
Subjects: LCSH: Musical meter and rhythm. | Musical form. | Musical analysis.
Classification: LCC ML3850 .Y87 2018 | DDC 781.2/2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018006558
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
This volume is published with the generous support of the AMS 75 PAYS
Endowment of the American Musicological Society, funded in part by the National Endowment
for the Humanities and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.
Dedicated to my traveling companions, Kelly and Henry
 Contents

Acknowledgments ix 3 Formal Structure 59

Introduction 1 3.1 Elements of Form: Repetition, Contrast,

Fragmentation 60
Time and Landscape 1 3.2 Small Baroque Forms 67
Dimension 5 3.3 Expositions and the Secondary
Theme 70
1 Rhythmic Hierarchy and the 3.4 Interactions of Form and Tonal
Network Model 12 Structure 81
1.1 Metrical and Rhythmic Structures as
Temporal Hierarchies 12
4 Structural Networks and the
1.2 Rhythmic Classes and
Experience of Musical Time 91
Transformations 16 4.1 Depth, Distance, and Classification
1.3 Inferring Rhythmic Hierarchies 19 of Structural Shapes 91
1.4 Metricality 24 4.2 A Phenomenology of Structure 98
4.3 Center, Skew, and Bias 103
2 Tonal Structure 28 4.4 Splitting and Disjunction 105
2.1 Melodic Structure 29
2.2 Backgrounds 35
5 Timespan Intervals 109
2.3 Repetition 43 5.1 Large-​Scale Rhythmic Design in Bach’s F
2.4 Keys 47 Minor Fugue 110
2.5 Tonal Models for Binary Forms 53 5.2 Classification of Timespan Intervals 113

• vii
 5.3 Hypermetrical Hemiola in a Bach 11 Reforming Formal Analysis 266
Prelude 115
5.4 Transformations of Rhythmic 11.1 Tonal-​Formal Disjunction and the
Structures 118 Phrase 266
11.2 Ritornello Form in the
6 Hypermeter 123 Eighteenth-​Century Symphony 269
11.3 Form(s) and Recipes 282
6.1 Hypermeter in the Eye of the 11.4 Beyond the Frame 290
Beholder 123
6.2 Some Criteria for Hypermetrical 12 Tonal-​Formal Disjunction 309
Analyses 126
6.3 Functions of Hypermetrical Shift in 12.1 High-​Level Tonal-​Formal Disjunction in
Haydn’s Symphonies 133 Sonata Form 309
6.4 Indefinite Hypermeter and Hypermetrical 12.2 Alternate Subordinate Keys 311
Reinterpretation 140 12.3 Disjunction in the Exposition:
Modulating Subordinate Themes 320
7 Hypermeter, Form, and Closure 145 12.4 Off-​Tonic Recapitulations 327

7.1 Hypermetrical Placement in Cadential 13 Graph Theory for Temporal

Syntax 146 Structure 342
7.2 Mozart’s Afterbeat Melodic Ideas 151
7.3 Main Theme Endings in Haydn’s 13.1 Planarity and Cycles 342
Symphonies 159 13.2 Direction and Confluence 347
7.4 Elided Cadences and Expositional 13.3 Holes 352
Closure 162 13.4 MOPs as Trees 353
7.5 Beethoven’s Open Expositions 170 13.5 Reduction Trees, Event Trees, and
Spanning Trees over MOPs 359
8 Syncopation 177 13.6 Spanning Trees and the Cycle/​Edge-​Cut
Algebras 363
8.1 Contrapuntal and Tonal versus Structural
Syncopation 178 14 A Geometry of Temporal
8.2 Contrapuntal Syncopation and Metrical Structure 373
Dissonance 180
8.3 Hypermetrical Syncopation and 14.1 Associahedra 373
Contrapuntal Displacement 188 14.2 Higher Dimensional Associahedra and
8.4 Rhythmic Process as Formal Process in their Facets 381
Beethoven 191 14.3 Evenness 387

9 Counterpoint 203 Epilogue 393

9.1 Rhythmic Counterpoint 203 Bibliography 397
9.2 Brahms’s Use of Rhythmic Irregularity and Index of Works 411
Rhythmic Counterpoint 208 Index 415
9.3 Counterpoint of Tonal Structures 219
9.4 Formal Counterpoint 225

10 Harmony Simplified 232

10.1 Harmonic Syntax and Structure 232
10.2 Voice leading on the Tonnetz 243
10.3 Enharmonicism 250

viii • C ontents
 Acknowledgments
AS IN any work of the scope of this one, the
debts are many and impossible to fully enu-
merate. All of the many music theorists whose
work is discussed in this book have challenged
and enriched my understanding of tonal music
with their work, and many of them have helped
me along the way with many pivotal personal
communications and interactions at many
question-​and-​
answer sessions at conferences
and invited lectures. Despite my fear of leaving
the list incomplete, Fred Lerdahl, Bill Caplin,
Janet Schmalfeldt, Lewis Lockwood, Alan
Gosman, Mary Farbood, Dmitri Tymoczko,
and Richard Cohn come immediately to mind
as those who have been generous in sharing
their knowledge and to whom the ideas of this
book bear a direct debt in large and small ways.
I must thank Steven Rings especially for his tre-
mendous support for the project and invaluable
comments on earlier drafts, as well as the anon-
ymous reviewers engaged by Oxford University
Press, whose work on the proposal chapters
went beyond the call of duty and many of whose
comments were transformational to the even-
tual form and content of the book. In addition,
I thank Fred Lerdahl for his encouragement and
helpful comments on some of chapters, and
David Kopp for his selfless professional support
without which this project never would have
materialized.
All of the (many!) musical examples in the
book are set using Lilypond (lilypond.org).
Although I have never directly interacted with
the members of the Lilypond development com-
munity, I am heavily indebted to their work
on this open-​ source software, which, in my
opinion, surpasses any commercial software
in the attractiveness of its results. I also would
not have been able to access all the many scores
needed for the analyses and surveys that make
up the bulk of this book without the vital re-
source of the International Music Score Library
Project (imslp.org), which has made it possible
to view manuscripts (such as Johann Gottlieb
Graun’s F major Symphony, Av.49, analyzed
in ­chapter 11) that would have ten years ago
• ix
required prohibitive international travel to
access. Behind every choice I have made of pieces
to discuss and analyze in the following pages
are tens of scores that I consulted but may not
ever mention specifically by name.
Finally, and most importantly, I thank my
loved ones, Kelly and Henry, whose sacrifices,
though hidden, are no less directly responsible
x • A cknowledgments
for the completion of this book than my own,
and my parents, for whose constant love and
support I am ever in gratitude. I hope that,
even if you never read it (and please don’t feel
obliged to), you take as much pride in seeing it
finished it as I do. To Henry in particular, I think
Example 14.7 is the prettiest. You can skip
straight to that.
Organized Time
 Introduction
What a hearer perceives in the tones—​and rests—​of a musical work is not simply time but shaped
and organized time.
—​Victor Zuckerkandl1
TIME AND LANDSCAPE
Let us begin with a walk on the beach. The
beach is a landscape, something conceptually
atemporal, existing only in space. A walk on the
beach, however, temporalizes the landscape. Our
beach is shown on the map in Example 0.1. It is
a stretch of wilderness coast on the Olympic pe-
ninsula in Washington state. Our walk will begin
from Third Beach. The destination is a campsite
at Toleak Point.
Temporalizing space by blazing a path through
the forest, charting a route to the summit of
a mountain, or walking on the beach: these
are perfectly ordinary, dare I say pedestrian,
human activities. What makes such activities
occasionally sublime are the views. Our walk on
the beach will feature some captivating views.
The first one, from Third Beach, for instance, is
reproduced in Example 0.2, from an overcast day
in June of 2016. From Third Beach we can see, in
1. 1956, 258–​59.
the distance, our destination at Toleak Point, as
well as Strawberry Point, one of the other places
along the route. We see these because they are
the most prominent points in the shape of the
coastline. Indeed, we chose Toleak Point as a
goal for precisely this reason. Strawberry Point
is somewhat less prominent than Toleak, but we
see it because it is closer, and there is nothing
else in between to obscure it.
There are many other places along our route
that cannot be seen from Third Beach, such as
Scott’s Bluff. These places will be visible at other
points in the journey, depending on how close
they are, how far they jut out into the ocean, and
whether there is anything else obscuring them.
As we walk, our view of the coastline changes.
This is also a temporalizing of the landscape, but
a more multilayered one than the walk itself. As
humans, we constantly look ahead on a journey
like this, assessing our long term goals as well as
more proximate ones. If we did not, if we looked
• 1
EXAMPLE 0.1 The coastline from Third Beach to Toleak Point
EXAMPLE 0.2 The view from Third Beach
down at our feet the whole way, our experience
of it would lack the narrative structure that we
crave, and which constantly urges us forward to
reach each nearby point, step-​by-​step, in pursuit
of the final destination.
The way that viewing the landscape structures
our temporal experience of it depends essen-
tially on the shape of the landscape, which
distinguishes the different locations along our
walk according to prominence. A more prominent
point can be seen from more other locations,
and, equivalently, when we are at that location
there is also more to see. As Example 0.3 shows,
all of the views, taken together, are organized as
a layered series of paths, starting from one that
summarizes the whole trip (the view from Third
2 • O r g a n ize d T i m e
Beach to Toleak Point) and ending at one that
lists every point along the walk in sequence. Like
the retelling of a football game on the nightly
news, each path is a possible story we might tell
in recounting the trip, depending on how long or
short of a story we wanted to tell. A newscaster
without much time might just show the pivotal
touchdowns, but given a little more time, she
might also include some of the turnovers that
led to those touchdowns. A terse description of
our hike might simply be “from Third Beach to
Toleak Point.” A long-​winded one could list each
point on the coastline in order. Between these
extremes are paths that summarize the trip
with some number of intermediary points. From
Third Beach we hike to Strawberry Point before
EXAMPLE 0.3 (a) Sightlines between points on the beach, (b) The sightlines as a network
(a)
(b)
getting to Toleak Point. This is a summary of the
trip with three points. Between Third Beach and
Strawberry Point is an unnamed point. Adding
this, we have a summary of the trip involving
four points. In order to include Scott’s Bluff,
we must also include Taylor Point, since Taylor
Point obscures Scott’s Bluff from Third Beach.
Our walk on the beach is what I will call a
temporal structure throughout this book. The
elements of a temporal structure are:
(1) Some points in a space.
(2) A definite temporal ordering of those
points.
(3) Non-​crossing connections between tem-
porally non-​adjacent points.
By “non-​crossing,” I mean that if A connects to C
and B is in between them, B cannot then connect
to something before A or after C. The temporal
ordering of the points, (2), is one kind of path,
a path that touches every point in the space.
Shorter paths are possible using the connections
in (3) to skip over certain points. These paths are
hierarchically organized, from the simplest to
the most complex, because there are no crossing
connections.
There are many types of temporal struc-
ture, because there are many kinds of space in
which the points of the structure might exist.
In our walk on the beach, the space is an ac-
tual landscape. The plots of most stories also
involve temporal structures, where the land-
scape may consist of possible states involving
the characters of the story (Hermia loves
Lysander, but Lysander loves Helena who
loves Demetrius . . .). This book is about mu-
sical landscapes, those created by relationships
between durations (rhythm), pitches and
harmonies (tonality), and melodic motives and
ideas (form). While listening to music we trav-
erse these musical landscapes, and as we listen
we look ahead, just as we do while walking
the beach, seeing proximate and more distant
goals, and some of those in between.
Musical goals are a bit like points on a beach
in that we often can see ahead to important
destinations, but it can difficult to gauge their
distance when we cannot see all the events
in between. Our eyes assess distance mostly
by comparing objects, but often a sweeping
view of a landscape, particularly one on the
open ocean, lacks a clear line from objects di-
rectly in front of us to those on the horizon.
From Third Beach, Toleak Point appears to be
just past Strawberry Point. But it’s hard to tell
how far behind it really is, and we have no idea
how deeply the coastline cuts back between
them, or what obstacles there might be along
the way. As Barack Obama said on the morning
Introduction • 3
EXAMPLE 0.4 Mozart, Piano Concerto no. 19, mm. 25–​54
of November 9, 2016, “we zig and zag.” The
situation is similar in the opening ritornello
of Mozart’s Piano Concerto no. 19, K. 459.
Example 0.4 begins from the second theme.
At this point, we have just had a half cadence
and are looking ahead to a PAC in F major. We
can see directly in front of us that a second
theme is underway, and it appears that as soon
as the theme is complete, after eight measures or
so, we should reach our goal. This goal looks like
it is just beyond the cadential dominant, which
arrives in the seventh measure of the theme
(m. 31). Zen master Han Ong might then ask,
“What is luck?” When we get to the dominant,
we realize our eyes have deceived us and we have
4 • O r g a n ize d T i m e
climbed a false summit: where we thought the
final tonic would be, there is instead a first-​inver-
sion tonic that leads into a long, unforeseen di-
gression. The cadential dominant does not come
back into view until we get to the IV chord in
measure
‸ 37. From this predominant chord, with
4 firmly in the bass, a cadence once again appears
imminent. The dominant arrives in the form of
a cadential 46 in measure 41, but once there we
realize we have again been fooled. The coastline
veers even further back as the bass continues up
by half step to C♯ to tonicize vi. The tonic that
had appeared so close at hand ten measures ago
is still miles away. Mozart is not done toying
with us there either: another false promise is
denied in measure 49, and not until measure 54
does a cadential dominant finally take us to our
long awaited goal, a PAC in F major.
Like the devious machinations of Puck in the
forest, which thwart the marriage of Lysander
and Hermia that had just a moment before
seemed inevitable and imminent, a good story
often builds content by throwing up seem-
ingly insurmountable obstacles to a prom-
ised outcome. In a similar way, the unforeseen
impediments that Mozart throws up in front
of his promised PAC are routine in tonal music.
The reason for going on the voyage is not to get
to the destination. It is for the experiences and
the magnificent things we see along the journey.
The beauty of a destination is often enhanced by
disappointments and detours that must be over-
come to get there.
That music is, above all else, an inherently
temporal art is a commonplace. It is true that
music can only be experienced in time. And, as
a young John Cage observed, neither harmony
nor melody, nor even pitch, belong strictly
speaking to the essence of music, whereas
time does. However, without being too glib,
one might point out that even visual art is not
observed in an instant but in time. The ceiling of
the Sistine chapel certainly cannot be taken in
all at once, and even the quickest glance at the
smallest painting surveys the image by scanning
its components in a definite order over a finite
period of time, a process that may happen so
quickly that the viewer is not even aware of it.
An essential skill of a great painter is the ability
to put together a composition that leads the eye
around in a definite way. The beauty of Cezanne’s
still-​lifes is paradoxically in how they move, with
their undulating, swirling lines, rather than
in the commonplace objects they depict. Like
our walk on the beach, the process of looking
temporalizes the space of the painting. What,
then, is distinctive about music? While a painter
may strive to control the temporal aspect of her
art, a composer has little choice but to do so.
Music whose temporal arrangement is indefi-
nite (as in some semi-​improvised contemporary
works) is the rare exception, just as the rigidly
predetermined temporalizing of the stations of
the cross or a graphic novel is the exception in
visual art. While a painting may succeed simply
by communicating a vague quality of motion, the
composer shapes a musical landscape to, above
all else, carefully control the temporal experience
of traversing that landscape. The materials that
constitute the landscape, keys and harmonies,
melodies, rhythms, dynamics, or timbres, are
secondary.
DIMENSION
The concept of dimensionality is so ingrained
in music theorist’s habits of thought that it
pervades our discourse often largely unno-
ticed, only sporadically scrutinized. It is implicit
whenever we talk about musical parameters.
Dimensionality is a mathematical as well as a
spatial metaphor. It is not a neutral concept. It
implies independence and separability. A point’s
unique location is specified by its position in
each dimension, and the possible positions in
one dimension are not altered or restricted by
values in another dimension. We can project
points onto one dimension, ignoring the others.
The metaphor of dimension also implies mallea-
bility. So long as the number of dimensions re-
main the same, we can rotate and shift our frame
of reference, redefining the parameters.
To the physicist, sound is essentially two-​
dimensional. The physical parameters of sound
are amplitude and time, the dimensions of a
sound signal, patterns of varying sound pressure
over time. To the musician, the two most basic
parameters of music are pitch and rhythm, the
schematic dimensions of the musical score.
While pitch is certainly not the same thing as
sound pressure level, we might nonetheless im-
agine that the musician’s dimensions simply
represent a slight tilt of the physicist’s axes.
The apparent similarity between our musical
concepts and a physical description of sound
tempts us into a false equivalence, the equation
of music as a cognitive object and as a physical
object. This temptation is so basic to musical
thinking that the entire history of music theory
may be viewed through its lens, so ever-​present
and fundamental is the need to reconcile them.
(One need only cite the constant revisions of a
Jean-​Phillipe Rameau or Hugo Riemann to their
own theories of harmony.)
But upon closer examination, the physical
and cognitive spaces of music are quite different.
The two parameters, pitch and time, certainly
do not give a complete description of musical
space. Such a description would also necessarily
include factors of loudness and timbre. And
timbre itself is not itself a simple parameter, but
a placeholder for everything about a sound that
is not its loudness, pitch, or duration. Perception
thus transforms the space of music from that of
sound into one of a different dimensionality, a
Introduction • 5
EXAMPLE 0.5 Mozart, Symphony no. 36 (“Linz”), ii (Andante), mm. 25–​32
fundamentally different space. What is constant
in this transformation is experienced time—​
that is, time on the scale of conscious human
experience.
We are still dealing with a relatively low-​level
description, though, when we speak of the per-
ceptual musical space. When we speak of musical
structure, the topic of this book, we are dealing
in yet another entirely different realm, music as
a higher-​cognitive object, or, to use Schoenberg’s
term, the musical idea. The perceptual space of
music is the medium out of which the musical
idea is shaped. But, just as the space of physical
sound does not transfer directly to music percep-
tion, we should not assume that the musical idea
exists in the same kind of space as the objects of
perception.
Musical structure is one of the most im-
portant concerns of music theorists studying
tonal music. By definition, musical structure
is hierarchical and temporal. That is, like lin-
guistic grammar, structural relationships in
music exist at multiple levels and are organ-
ized in well-​ formed hierarchies, and those
relationships are dependent upon the temporal
arrangement of musical events. For example,
consider the passage in Example 0.5, the final
cadential phrase in the exposition of this slow
movement from one of Mozart’s symphonies.
The harmonies in measures 26 and 27 have im-
portant roles as predominant and dominant in
the cadential function of the phrase. Yet, the ca-
dence is not completed as expected in measure
28. Instead, Mozart redirects the progression to
a remote harmony, V/​ii, works his way back to
the cadential harmony at the end of measure 29,
6 • O r g a n ize d T i m e
then repeats the progression before finally re-
solving to tonic (C major). There are clear struc-
tural distinctions between harmonies in this
situation: some are essential to the cadential
function of the phrase (IV, V, and I). The initial
V56/IV is dependent upon the cadential IV for
its meaning. The V/​ii is even more distant from
the harmonic essentials of the phrase: it is de-
pendent upon the following V/​V, which is itself
dependent upon the following V56. Furthermore,
this V56, as an unstable inverted dominant, is not
a cadential chord at all, but needs to resolve to
the tonic before the cadence can proceed in the
second half of the measure.
The temporal arrangement of these harmonies
is essential to their structural meaning. Applied
chords (like the V56/​IV and V/​ii) move to their
implied goals to realize their subsidiary struc-
tural role. Cadential predominant and domi-
nant, which occur multiple times because of
the repeated deferrals of the final tonic, are
also differentiated in function by their temporal
placement. The ii6–​Cad46–​V in the last beat of
measure 31 fulfills the cadential function of the
phrase because it is directly followed by the final
tonic. Other instances of predominant and dom-
inant harmony, in measures 26–​27 and measure
29, ultimately are of a lower structural order
because their resolutions are deflected.
In addition to the hierarchical syntax of har-
monic progression, the phrase has a clear meter,
which also imparts structure to the harmonies
and individual melody notes. This structure is
also temporal, but it is in many places uncoor-
dinated with the harmonic structure. While
meter is based on quantifiable duration whereas
harmony is not, both are inherently temporal.
This latter sense of time as the basis of ordering
events and conceiving of them as motions is
equally indigenous to all of the varieties of tem-
poral structure discussed here, those of rhythm,
tonality, and form. The physicist’s sense of
quantifiable time, as a dimension independent
of space in which distances can be measured,
belongs exclusively to the domain of rhythm.
The fact that rhythm and meter in Mozart’s
theme structure time differently than the logic
of the harmonic progression is most evident in
measures 28–​29. The V/​ii chord is harmonically
dependent upon the following V/​V, but it occurs
in a stronger metrical position on the first beat.
The same is true in measure 29, where the un-
stable V56 occurs on the downbeat, but here the
chord of resolution, I, does not occur on a beat
at all, but on the weak eighth. In the melody,
there are dissonant non-​harmonic tones on both
beats of measure 28. Like the accented V56 in the
following measure, these accented dissonances
reverse the structural order of harmony and
meter. This structural disjunction is essential to
fulfilling the phrase’s role in the aesthetic idea of
the piece. It is a dispute between musical struc-
ture in two modalities, one tonal (harmony) and
one rhythmic (meter). The same musical event
(melodic note or chord) may have a different
status according to the two different structuring
principles. This momentary dispute intensifies
the sense of satisfaction upon reaching the ca-
dential goal at the end of the phrase, where
structures are brought back into alignment.
If it seems cognitively implausible that
a listener maintains multiple independent
structural descriptions of a musical passage,
updating them online as the music proceeds,
a linguistic analogy is perhaps instructive. It
is well known that the grammatical structure
of sentences is inherently hierarchical, some-
thing Chomsky (1957, 1965) demonstrated
at the dawn of modern linguistics. Linguistic
grammar is thus a temporal structure, a hierar-
chical structure that unfolds in time and whose
objects are temporal, like the elements of music.
Suggestive comparisons have been often drawn
between linguistic and musical syntax. These, as
Patel (2008, 2012) shows, can be misleading if
located at too literal a level but do reflect real
deep similarities and suggest shared underlying
neural processes. Less well-​known is that an-
other aspect of language, called prosody, also has
a hierarchical structure. Prosody more directly
relates to the sound of a linguistic utterance,
in particular the pitch envelopes, changes in
loudness, and durations of syllables. It is es-
sential to the comprehensibility of utterances,
and, like grammar, it displays hierarchical orga-
nization. Lerdahl (2001a) has shown underlying
similarities between the temporal structures
of linguistic prosody and musical rhythm and
grouping. Prosodic structure relates to gram-
matical structure, but is also fundamentally
independent of it. The prosodic and grammat-
ical structures operate according to different
principles and in different modalities, and do
not always line up. Both are completely intui-
tive to speakers of a language and are processed
simultaneously when listening to speech. The
analogy to the rhythmic and harmonic lan-
guage of Mozart’s musical utterance is easy to
see: Mozart uses rhythmic structure as a kind of
prosody, one that enhances the meaning of the
grammatical progression of harmonies, putting
special emphasis on important but more struc-
turally remote chords. The rhythmic setting of
this conventional harmonic/​voice-​leading pro-
gression is like the dramatic reading of a poem,
creating tension by making prosodic shapes that
conflict with the harmonic grammar.
Music theorists tend to focus their efforts on
one musical dimension or another, and partly
for this reason it is tempting to assume that
there is just a single temporal structure for a
piece, and that different musical factors compete
to define that structure. A theorist interested in
tonal structure might treat the rhythm as one
potential factor—​and a weak one at that—​to
take into account when deciding the tonal struc-
ture of the piece. This, I would argue, would rad-
ically misconstrue a passage like the one above.
The tonal hierarchy of cadential harmonies is not
made in any way ambiguous by Mozart’s coun-
tervailing metrical structure, nor is the meter
any less clear for the accented dissonances. On
the contrary, both structures are quite definite,
and thus produce a quite definite picture of con-
flict and striving.
For these reasons, in my pursuit of musical
structure in the following pages, I have found it
necessary to operate on multiple fronts. At the
level of the individual piece, a one-​dimensional
analysis will often (to mix metaphors) come out
flat. In the passage above, little of value could
be discovered by simply describing the meter.
Nor is the tonal structure, by itself, especially
remarkable. More often than not, the real mu-
sical action of a piece is somewhere between and
among dimensions. Yet, as Kofi Agawu says, “in
Introduction • 7
Another random document with
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"It must be true, Robwood. Neither you nor Taat could have killed
him, and Taat's got the film to prove it."
Robwood unstrapped himself and pushed himself to the
companionway with some determination.
"Well, I'm not going to take over the ship and I'm not going to put you
in irons," he said spiritedly. "I couldn't handle the ship on a twenty-
four-hour basis for the next hundred and eighty-six days, and I'd
rather think Makki killed himself."
He paused at the top of the companionway.
"Don't forget," he said. "The Earth transit ought to be at midpoint in a
couple of hours."
Then he disappeared below.
Lefler took the magnetized pencil from the memorandum pad and
wrote a reminder: "E.T. midpoint. Should check 28:16:54."
Lefler leaned back gloomily in the control chair. Had he killed Makki?
It seemed the only way it could have happened, unless Makki had,
indeed, committed suicide. And he just didn't think Makki had.
The chronometer said 1839. Exactly twenty-four hours ago, he had
awakened from a nightmare and had come up to find Makki dead in
this same chair. It seemed a century.
He glanced idly back at the memorandum pad. 28:15:64. He'd have
to make an entry in the log in a little under two hours. How could he
check accurately when the time of entry into transit was estimated?
Twenty-four plus two. Twenty-six.
He sat bolt upright, straining at his straps. He snapped down the
communicator button.
"Robwood, come back up here!" he bellowed.
Unbuckling himself hastily, Lefler headed across the room toward the
heat-gun rack.
Taat was playing solitaire, waiting patiently for Robwood, when Lefler
and Robwood came down to the centerdeck together.
Lefler pointed a heat-gun at Taat.
"Go below and get the irons, Robwood," he said. "Taat, I'm sorry, but
I'm arresting you for the murder of Makki."
Taat raised an eyebrow and continued shuffling cards.
"I don't think you want to do anything like that, Robwood," he said
mildly. "Do you?"
Robwood hesitated and cast an anxious glance at him, but turned
and headed for the companionway to the storage deck.
"You've convinced him, have you, Lefler?" said Taat. "I didn't believe
you were guilty, but this makes me think you are."
Lefler said nothing, but held the gun steadily on Taat. Taat appeared
relaxed, but Lefler sensed a tension in him.
"What makes you think I did it, Lefler?" sparred Taat. The light glinted
from his spectacles as he turned his eyes from Lefler's face to watch
the shuffling cards.
"Two things," said Lefler. "If I'd killed him in a half-asleep daze, I
wouldn't have put gloves on him to make it look like suicide. Second,
your film started at 1500—a strangely precise hour—and Makki was
killed before then."
"The first point is good psychology," conceded Taat. "Since Robwood
couldn't have done it, I'll admit it looks like suicide. But your second
point doesn't hold water. Medical examination is accurate almost to a
fine point on the time of death so soon afterward."
"Medical evidence may not lie, but the examiner can, Taat," said
Lefler.
The clank of the chains resounded up the companionway. Robwood
was coming back. The spring in Taat uncoiled.
With a single sweep, he hurled the deck of cards at Lefler's head and
surged upward. Lefler lost his balance and fell sidewise as he dodged
the improvised missile. But even as he lost his equilibrium, he
pressed the trigger of the heat-gun and brought it downward in a fast
chop.

The straps that held Taat to his chair were his doom. The searing
beam swept across them, freeing him but at the same time blasting a
six-inch swath across his stomach. Taat screamed hoarsely as the
beam swung past him and burned along the floor of the centerdeck.
Lefler regained his balance and floated to Taat's side, pushing aside
the cards that drifted in a swirling cloud about the room. Robwood
appeared from below, the manacles in his hands.
"Your third point wins the day," gasped Taat, his hands writhing over
his mangled abdomen. "I won't last long, but if you'll get me to the
control room I'll radio a confession that'll clear you and Robwood
completely."
"Help me get him to a bunk, Robwood," ordered Lefler, grasping Taat
by the arms. "Taat, you'll have to tell us what to do for you."
"No use," groaned Taat. He managed a ghastly smile. "I unbuckled
your bunk straps to throw you off course, Lefler, but I don't want you
to think I was trying to blame it on you. I was trying to make it look like
Makki killed himself."
"But why, Taat?"
"It wasn't just that Makki cheated me," replied Taat with some
difficulty. "I'd saved several thousand dollars to build a little clinic in
Mars City—something I've dreamed of all my life. That's why I let
Makki talk me into investing—I needed just a little more. But the
business was almost worthless. He stole most of my money. I was
arguing with him about it in the control room, when he drew the gun
and threatened to kill me. He was strapped down. I wrestled with him,
and he was killed in the scuffle. That's it."
They maneuvered Taat into a bunk and tried to arrange the straps to
avoid the gaping wound in his stomach. Taat raised his hand weakly
and removed his spectacles. He blinked up at Lefler.
"I didn't think you knew enough about medicine to tell how long a man
had been dead," he said.
"I don't," said Lefler. "But you set the time of Makki's death at 1830
hours. You said you could tell.
"The Earth transit started at 1612, Taat. I've known Makki all my life. If
he'd been alive then, he'd have recorded it in the log. And he didn't.
"I just figured the only man who had any reason to lie deliberately
about the time of Makki's death was the man who shot him."
Lefler looked at the centerdeck chronometer. It was 2025.
"Do what you can for him, then bring him up to the radio, Robwood,"
he said. "I've got to get up to the control room and record the
midpoint of the Earth transit."
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARTH
TRANSIT ***

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