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GENDER, DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE
SERIES EDITOR: WENDY HARCOURT

Gender, Protests and

Political Change
in Africa

Edited by
Awino Okech
Gender, Development and Social Change

Series Editor
Wendy Harcourt
The International Institute of Social Studies
Erasmus University
The Hague, The Netherlands
The Gender, Development and Social Change series brings together path-
breaking writing from gender scholars and activist researchers who are
engaged in development as a process of transformation and change. The
series pinpoints where gender and development analysis and practice are
creating major ‘change moments’. Multidisciplinary in scope, it features
some of the most important and innovative gender perspectives on devel-
opment knowledge, policy and social change. The distinctive feature of
the series is its dual nature: to publish both scholarly research on key
issues informing the gender and development agenda as well as featuring
young scholars and activists’ accounts of how gender analysis and prac-
tice is shaping political and social development processes. The authors
aim to capture innovative thinking on a range of hot spot gender and
development debates from women’s lives on the margins to high level
global politics. Each book pivots around a key ‘social change’ moment or
process conceptually envisaged from an intersectional, gender and rights
based approach to development.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14999
 Awino Okech
Editor

Gender, Protests
and Political Change
in Africa
Editor
Awino Okech
Centre for Gender Studies
SOAS, University of London
London, UK

Gender, Development and Social Change

ISBN 978-3-030-46342-7 ISBN 978-3-030-46343-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46343-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Foreword

Non-violent uprising—through which citizens challenge oppression and

promote social and political change—has been a recurrent theme
throughout history. In the last decade of the twentieth century, while mass
protests and people power toppled many tyrannical regimes in Eastern
Europe following the end of the Cold War, a different dynamic obtained
in some other parts of the world. With few exceptions, most noticeably
in South Africa, which witnessed the end of apartheid, the end of bipolar
rivalry opened the gateway to armed insurrection against erstwhile author-
itarian states in Africa. The continent drew the world’s attention to a scale
of humanitarian tragedy not seen in the previous era, at the core of which
was the abuse of young women and men in war. The recruitment of young
people under the age of 18 years as soldiers in war and the impunity that
accompanied the astronomical rise in sex and gender-based violence in
war presented an important challenge for the international community at
the turn of the century.
Gender, Protests and Political Change in Africa brings into focus, the
transformations that are occurring in a continent where generalised state
of armed conflict has steadily given way to a different kind of state-society
relationship. From an initial marker of democratic transition, in which
organised civil society was the space in which governments were held to
account, we have seen a shrinking of civil society space due to either co-
optation or a reclaiming of that space by a new authoritarian drift. This
is, however, not limited to Africa, but also an emerging trend in other

v
vi FOREWORD

regions of the world. In place of organised civil society, young men and
women, that were easy prey to government and political opposition at war
only a few decades ago, have reclaimed their agency. No longer are they
pawns in political fights that destroyed their future and offer them no soci-
etal recognition in the present day. This book aptly captures the turning of
the tide in places like Tunisia, Ethiopia, South Africa and Sudan. African
youth, including student movements, with no assigned or formal roles in
society take to the streets to protest the injustices of their time. This new
generation social movement and its dynamic engagement with technology
and the social media space gives it an edge not seen in the previous era.
To be sure, the experiences brought to the fore in this book neither
glorify nor underestimate youth protests aimed at political change. Rather,
it shows how youth protests led to a changing of the guards in some places
while they were reined-in elsewhere. Such outcomes are interesting in and
of themselves. But this book opens the door to much more. It is one
of the first to connect two previously separated areas of debate—youth
and gender—in discourses of societal transformation. It runs a concep-
tual thread through the impacts of youth-hood and gender on the ques-
tion of nation and state building. And in so doing, it unearths the points
of convergence and divergence between these two arenas across time—
conceptually and practically. The convergence is found in the collective
aspiration of youth and their pursuit of freedoms and social justice regard-
less of their genders. However, the persistence of patriarchy reinforces
age-old structures of gender inequality that relegate young women and
gender non-conforming people to periphery of leadership spaces once the
revolution has been won or lost.
Another factor sets Gender, Protests and Political Change in Africa
apart. It demonstrates a new approach to scholarship and academic leader-
ship in which emerging scholars are mentored and enabled to contribute
their knowledge through continuous accompaniment, from research to
publication. The capacity gap evident in the dearth of research and
publishing opportunities for early career researchers and academics has
remained a persistent challenge among a young generation of Africans. By
giving space and voice to young Africans to research and write their own
experiences, this book marks the arrival of a new generation of leading
African academics. It is a record of emerging practice. I commend the
individual authors in this book—mostly earlier career researchers located
in Africa—for undertaking this valuable study. And I congratulate the
 FOREWORD vii

editor, Awino Okech, for being brave enough to undertake this impor-
tant study, choosing to work with new but no less credible young African
authors when many of her peers opt to publish with well-established
authors located in the West. This makes an important statement and it
is a sign of a changing mood among a new generation of African scholars.

London, England Professor ’Funmi Olonisakin

Professor of Security, Leadership &
Development; Vice President &
Vice-Principal International, King’s
College London
 Acknowledgements

This book is a labour of love that has been in the making for over three
years. The impetus for this work started in 2016 when I hosted a panel of
young South Africans based in London who had been part of the Fees
Must Fall protests in South Africa. This conversation was part of the
Centre for Gender Studies at SOAS bi-weekly seminar series. I was struck
then, as I had been when the protests unfolded in 2015, by the limited
conversations across African contexts on the historical role of student
movements and academics in driving academic freedom and Africanisa-
tion of universities. I thought it would be a good moment to revisit and
re-engage contemporary struggles in Africa as they manifested through
student movements and protests generally. I was clear that I wanted to
centre young people’s voices, early career academics who were thinking
through their role and the utility of direct action in social transformation
across Africa.
As most curated projects go, deadlines are not met, people fall off by
the wayside, previously “hot” protests such as the Oromo protests dissi-
pate and more importantly the task of finding people who can do the
diligent work of linking gender or feminist analysis to conversations on
protests and social transformation was not always easy. Consequently, I
received great submissions with wonderful political analysis but not neces-
sarily a gendered take on what it meant for the construction of our
societies. I have nonetheless retained two such chapters in this volume
because they offer interesting insights on youth-hood, social movements

ix
x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

and dissent in two African countries that I consider important to keep

an eye on. This book is therefore a culmination of starts and stops and a
curation of material that speaks in varying ways to the title of this book.
I would therefore like to begin by thanking all the initial contributing
authors Felogene, Awuor, Radwa, Sara, Zoneziwoh and Patrick for their
patience. The book is finally here. I also want to say a special thank you
to Sarah Nugdalla, Princess, Moses and Wadeisor who I put pressure on
to turn around existing work or develop new work within what were
punishing time frames. A special thanks to the anonymous peer reviewers
who offered insightful and thoughtful feedback on the book proposal. I
take full responsibility for the final product presented here.
Aspects of this book have been discussed in various workshops and
conferences as part of testing the value of its contribution and engaging
with potential end users. I would like to thank the African Leadership
Centre and Shuvai Nyoni for inviting some of our contributors to partic-
ipate in meetings and discuss their chapters.
I hope you enjoy this book as much as we have enjoyed putting it
together.

Awino Okech
 Contents

Introduction 1
Awino Okech

Youth-Hood, Gender and Feminist Dissent 13

Awino Okech

Student Movements and Autocracies in Africa 35

Wadeisor Rukato

Fallist Feminist Futures in South Africa 61

Princess Mpelo Malebye

A Revolution Deferred: Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in

Egypt 81
Radwa Saad and Sara Soumaya Abed

The Revolution Continues: Sudanese Women’s Activism 107

Sarah O. Nugdalla

Women and the Anglophone Struggle in Cameroon 131

Zoneziwoh Mbondgulo-Wondieh

xi
xii CONTENTS

Democratic Reversals in Burundi 149

Patrick Hajayandi

The Rise and Demise of the “New Dispensation” in Zimbabwe 173

Moses Tofa

Embodying Protest: Feminist Organizing in Kenya 201

Felogene Anumo and Awuor Onyango

Conclusion 225

Index 231
 Notes on Contributors

Sara Soumaya Abed is an Egyptian feminist and human rights

researcher based in Cairo; she holds an M.A. in Human Rights from
UCL, University of London. Sara Soumaya is a member of Operation
Anti-Sexual Harassment & Assault (OpAntiSH). She has worked with
HarassMap and is a former Teaching Assistant at the British University in
Egypt (BUE). She was also involved in a rights-based approach—project
for refugee survivors of SGBV at CARE International in Egypt. Her work
has been published in Kohl: a Journal for Body and Gender Research.
Her research interests include but are not limited to: anthropology of
body and performance, gender, state and resistance, gender and sexual-
based violence, sexual and reproductive rights, domestic workers, migrant
workers, sex workers and labour rights.
Felogene Anumo is a feminist activist with experience in advancing
gender and economic justice through activism, advocacy, research and
capacity strengthening of feminist-led organising. Her roots in feminist
movement building were planted at the University of Nairobi where she
served as the Women Students’ Chairperson across seven campuses. Felo-
gene currently works for the Association of Women’s Rights and Devel-
opment (AWID) as co-lead for the Building Feminist Economies (BFE)
Program and is the immediate former Manager of the Young Feminist
Activism Program at AWID. Prior to joining AWID, she worked with
Women in Law and Development in Africa—Kenya Chapter (WiLDAF-K)
and the African Women’s Development and Communication Network
(FEMNET).
xiii
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Patrick Hajayandi works at the Institute for Justice and Reconcilia-

tion as the Senior Project Leader for the Great Lakes Region of Africa.
He holds a Master of Arts degree in Political Science from Rostov
State University in Russia. He has worked a lecturer at the National
School of Administration in Bujumbura-Burundi and as a Consultant and
Researcher for Transitional Demobilization and Reintegration Program
(TDRP) of the World Bank. At the Institute for Justice and Reconcilia-
tion, Hajayandi’s main project for the Great Lakes Region is to contribute
to developing young people’s leadership and ownership for peacebuilding
processes in a context of Regional reconciliation.
Princess Mpelo Malebye is a feminist from South Africa. She has a
Masters in Gender Studies and Law from the School of Oriental and
African Studies in London. Malebye completed her undergraduate degree
in Gender Studies, Sociology and Psychology at the University of Cape
Town and her BA (Hons) in Psychology at the University of Witwater-
srand in Johannesburg. Princess has worked as a research assistant for
Kike Consulting, Media Monitoring Africa and the Knowledges of Power
project (National Research Foundation funded). Malebye is currently a
research and policy analyst for the Commission for Gender Equality,
South Africa.
Zoneziwoh Mbondgulo-Wondieh is the executive director of Women
for a Change, Cameroon (Wfac), a feminist organisation that works in and
with communities of grassroots women around their sexual and reproduc-
tive health rights, leadership and development. Zoneziwoh holds an M.Sc.
in Sex, Gender and Violence, from the University of Aberdeen, Scot-
land; Bachelor’s Degree in Environmental Sciences, University of Buea,
Cameroon. Zoneziwoh is a Chevening Scholar, a Women’s Fellow with
the African Leadership Centre, Kenya, and a Mandela Washington Fellow
for the Young African Leaders Initiative, a flagship programme of Presi-
dent Barack Obama.
Sarah O. Nugdalla is a gender consultant and researcher from Sudan.
She holds an MA in Gender Studies from SOAS University of London and
a BA in International Relations from the American University of Sharjah.
Nugdalla’s research interests are grounded in the relationship between
gender, Islam and the state, and has written extensively on gendered citi-
zenship and feminist activism in Sudan.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

Awino Okech is a lecturer at the Centre for Gender Studies at the School
of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS). Her teaching and research inter-
ests lie in the nexus between gender, sexuality and nation/state making
projects as they occur in conflict and post-conflict societies. She continues
to contribute to knowledge production and transfer through her affilia-
tion with the African Leadership Centre at King’s College London. Dr.
Okech also has a professional history of gender and conflict programming
work in Africa with a range of international and national organisations.
Awuor Onyango is a Nairobi-based writer and multidisciplinary artist
somewhat trained in English and French laws, Fine Art and Film. Her
practice is concerned with claiming public space disallowed to people
considered black, woman and other, whether the space is intellectual,
physical, in memory or historical. She’s uses (digital & video) installation,
experimental film and self-care to explore the transgression, shame and
discomfort of the black feminine. Recent exhibitions include Chale Wote
(Accra 2016), BodaBoda Lounge (15 spaces in Africa 2016), SHE: Artists
(London, 2016), Chouftouhanna (Tunisia 2016), Digital Art Festival
(Kenya 2016), To Revolutionary Type Love (Nairobi, 2017), Images of
Tomorrow (London, 2017) and Node Forum for Digital Arts (Frank-
furt/Nairobi 2017).
Wadeisor Rukato is a Peace, Security and Development Fellow at the
African Leadership Centre (ALC) and is based at King’s College London.
She has a Master of Arts degree in China Studies, with a concentration
in International Relations, from Peking University’s Yenching Academy
(2017). Her broad research interests include: the security dimensions of
Africa-China relations; the multiple roles of youth in peace, security and
development in Africa; and the effectiveness of experiential peace educa-
tion programmes in community building.
Radwa Saad is a Doctoral Researcher in the Africana Studies and
Research Centre at Cornell University. She holds an M.Sc. in Security and
Development from King’s College London and is an alumni fellow of the
African Leadership Centre’s Peace Security and Development programme
for African Scholars. Her research interests include Afro-Arab relations,
regional integration efforts in Africa and protest, social movements and
revolutions as state-building processes.
Moses Tofa holds a Ph.D. in Political Studies from the University of
Johannesburg and a Ph.D. in Peace Studies from the University of
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

KwaZulu-Natal. He is a Postdoctoral Fellow in Peace, Security and Devel-

opment with the African Leadership Centre, Nairobi. He worked as a
Senior Researcher with the Centre for Conflict Resolution and the Mass
Public Opinion Institute. Moses has also taught politics and international
relations at the University of Zimbabwe and the Women’s University in
Africa.
 Introduction

Awino Okech

In April 2012, I was in a meeting convened by the African Union in Tunis

to reflect on the wave of popular uprisings that swept through Egypt and
Tunisia. During the meeting, an African diplomat questioned whether
these protests could be understood within the African Union’s Uncon-
stitutional Change of Government (UCG) framework. The UCG frame-
work is anchored in the 1997 Lomé Declaration, which was designed
to codify constitutional means, also understood as elections, as the only
acceptable method of changing governments. The Lomé Declaration
considers the following actions against a democratically elected govern-
ment as unconstitutional: military coup d’états; interventions by merce-
naries, armed dissident groups and rebel movements; and the refusal of
an incumbent government to relinquish power to the winning party after
a free and fair election (see Dersso 2016). There was a robust debate
in Tunis on what it meant to consider citizens who rise against a govern-
ment they put in power through the vote as unconstitutional. Where does
constitutionality lie if not in the hands of the populace who cede certain
rights to leaders through negotiated processes such as elections? Where
do regimes derive their legitimacy if not from citizens?

A. Okech (B)
SOAS, University of London, Centre for Gender Studies, London, UK
e-mail: ao21@soas.ac.uk

© The Author(s) 2020 1

A. Okech (ed.), Gender, Protests and Political Change in Africa,
Gender, Development and Social Change,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46343-4_1
2 A. OKECH

Fast forward to September 2013, I am sitting in my car in Nairobi

traffic. I hear a news report on the radio about the Nairobi Governor
Evans Kidero who slapped a woman member of parliament in the full
glare of the press. Rachel Shebesh the parliamentarian in question had
gone to his office to discuss the salaries of striking Nairobi city council
workers. On Twitter there was video evidence of the said slap in circula-
tion. The viciousness of the slap, the look on his face as he did it remains
etched in my memory because women die daily due to violent men. Why
did this slap matter? It was illustrative of the larger continuum of tech-
nologies of violence that shape how women navigate their lives in most of
our societies. That the television cameras did not deter the governor was a
pointer to how disposable and perhaps inconsequential he saw the woman
in front of him. That there would be no consequences was evident in his
press remarks fifteen minutes later stating that he had no recollection of
the event as he smiled at the cameras. This was rudimentary patriarchy at
play. #KideroMustGo became the rallying call through which civil soci-
ety actions occurred both online and offline. We re-opened public debate
on violence against women and on the question of leadership, ethics and
integrity.
It is October 2015 and an image circulates on Twitter from what was
the Rhodes Must Fall protests in Cape Town. In this picture, a group of
predominantly black students who went to the Rondebosch police sta-
tion to demand the release of their comrades are surrounded by a human
shield of white students. The purpose of this white shield around black
bodies was to prevent the threat of violence by the police against the
black students. It is not surprising that the police moved away from a
threat of violence to dialogue once the human white shield was formed.
The strategy that informed the action captured in that picture was shaped
by an understanding of the history of race and racialisation in South Africa
that attaches value to white bodies. These white students understood
that their lives were not considered as easily disposable as those being
shielded. There were of course other layers of power playing out between
those who were being shielded and those protected by the shield. In both
“groups” of students were children of African National Congress elite and
the son of the then vice chancellor of the University of Cape Town. These
dynamics cannot be ignored as factors that shaped the shift in how the
police chose to proceed.
Three years later in South Africa, #TotalShutdownSA emerges as a call
for all women to shut down the country at the start of Women’s Month—
August 2018. Across the country, simultaneous protests were held with
 INTRODUCTION 3

the tagline “my body not your crime scene”. This was a protest organ-
ised in response to the epidemic of femicide across South Africa with the
goal of withdrawing women’s labour thus bringing key economic activ-
ities to a halt. An economic boycott as a strategy was chosen because
those involved read non-action by the state on violence against women
and gender non-conforming people (see Howa 2018).
These among many other examples capture how dissent is spurred and
momentum built to challenge state and non-state actors across Africa.
Whether it is a constituency-specific demand such as that epitomised
by women’s rights organisations in Nairobi calling for Kidero to go or
the actions of Mohamed Bouazizi in Tunisia responding to an ineffec-
tive and unresponsive regime or the evolution of Fallism through uni-
versity protests demanding free education in South Africa, citizens are
rising up and speaking back to entrenched systems of power. This edited
volume emerges from an interest in tracking these and other forms of
dissent and resistance to autocracies across Africa. In the last ten years,
the African continent has witnessed the agency demonstrated by youth
challenging electoral and broader governance deficits. These deficits are
manifest in the manipulation of elections through power-sharing agree-
ments, voter fraud and the engagement of sophisticated international
actors who mobilise technological warfare in electoral processes. The
Cambridge Analytica debacle in Kenya and Nigeria among many other
countries globally was illustrative of the risks associated with data being
publicly available to the highest bidder (Madowo 2018). Popular protests
have increasingly played a role in getting strongmen out of office and/or
pushing governments to pay greater attention to the loud murmurs of dis-
content that will not wait for the performance of the next election cycle.
It is evident that the pursuit of Africa’s freedom and self-determination is
being waged on the streets and squares of African cities and towns.
Citizen and/or youth-driven mobilisations for change are not a new
phenomenon in Africa. Klopp and Orina (2002) note that the first clash
between the state and students at the University of Nairobi in Kenya took
place in 1969 when an opposition party leader was prevented from speak-
ing at the then University College of East Africa, Nairobi. This led to
demonstrations by students who eventually boycotted classes and were
expelled from the institution. However, there are two major observa-
tions worth making about the current trends of youth-led mobilisation.
The first is that this current moment represents both a shift in mobil-
isation and the nature of the struggles being waged against political
4 A. OKECH

regimes. We are witnessing wide-scale mobilisation that occurs beyond

organised civil society organisations and universities as sites for polit-
ical action. The protests are shaped by a demand for accountability.
Between 2008 and 2019, more than half of the countries on the con-
tinent experienced anti-government protests with close to 3477 protest
events reported in Nigeria in 2017 (see ACLED 2018). The factors that
shape protests in each country differ but most circulate around the polit-
ical and economic compact with the state. In Niger, there were protests
against President Tandja’s 2009 attempt to remove presidential term
limits. In 2011, Mauritian youth protested against government corrup-
tion, while in Djibouti, Lesotho and Sudan economic questions con-
tributed to the direct action of unions, student movements and non-
governmental organisations. Beyond the examples above, we can also look
to #AgeLimitBill #Kogikuteko in Uganda, #HalteauTroisiemeMandat in
Burundi, #Togodebout and #FaureMustGo in Togo, #ThisFlag in Zim-
babwe, and Y’en a Marre in Senegal as hashtags that captured national
concerns about the abuse of constitutional procedures to increase pres-
idential terms with total disregard for citizens’ voices in electoral pro-
cesses. The contestations around the state/society social contract were
also catalysed by escalating cost of living and widening inequalities linked
to the absence of service delivery associated with inefficient and often
corruption-laden political programmes.
The link between protests triggered by a demand for accountability to
the crackdown on civil society organisations and human rights defend-
ers has also become more obvious. This is evident in the trend of vari-
ous African governments blocking internet access and public broadcasting
during election periods as was witnessed in Kenya, Uganda, Cameroon,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Gabon, Burundi, Zimbabwe
and Chad. Blocking internet access matters given its importance in build-
ing transnational mobilisation and enabling the democratisation of infor-
mation across and within countries. In addition, legislation around com-
munication platforms have become commonplance with regimes such as
Tanzania imposing punitive charges on social media platforms such as
YouTube and WhatsApp that have helped to democratise information.
While government regulators and corporate firms operations remain unin-
terrupted, “netizens” are hindered (Dahir 2018). These “shutdowns” are
punitive and are intended to diminish the potential of citizens to mobilise
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of the Minahassa, 376;
of Gorontalo, 379;
of Buton, 381;
of a cliff at Tapanuli Bay, 441;
of the Padang plateau, 477;
of the cliffs of Bencoolen Bay, 489, 490;
of the region near Tebing Tingi, 508;
of the region of the upper Limatang, 522;
of Banca, 534.
Gillibanta, passed, 187.
Gilolo, west coast of, 310;
Alfura of, 311;
“the bloodhounds” of, ib.
Goitre, prevalent in the interior of Sumatra, 416;
probable cause of, ib.
Gold-mines in Celebes, 379;
 geological age of, ib.;
mines in Sumatra, 404-406;
distribution of, 406;
ornaments of, 431, 432;
mode of obtaining, 432.
Gomuti palm, fibres of, 360;
made into a rope, 370;
tuak or wine of, 371.
Goram, situation of, 243.
Gorontalo, bay of, 377;
country and tribes near, 378.
Gresik, village of, 56.
Gunong Api, of Sapi Strait, 106, 107;
of Banda, 214-219;
author ascends, 228;
description of, 228-234;
account of eruptions of, 237;
the one near Wetta, 245;
of Banda compared to Ternate, 317.

H.
Haruku, one of the Uliassers, 178;
north coast of, 182;
population and description of, ib.
Head-hunters, of Ceram, 203;
clothing, 203, 204;
 dance of, ib.;
of Sawai Bay, 205, 206.
Hinduism, history of, 62.
Hitu, a part of Amboina, 130;
remarkable appearance of hills on, 131;
excursion along the coast of, 141.
Horse, author thrown from a, 341;
of Sumatra, 409.
Hospital, at Batavia, 39.
Houtman, commander of first Dutch fleet to the East, 24;
arrives at Ternate, 307.
Hukom, Biza, Kadua, Tua, and Kachil, meaning of, 338.
Hunting in the tropics, 139.

I.
Ice, used in the East, 31;
whence brought, and where manufactured, 31.
Inkfish, an Octopus, author dines on, 172.

J.
Java, Sea, 19;
meaning of the word, 21;
described by Ludovico Barthema, 23;
compared with Cuba, 77-79;
description of, 77, 78;
population of, 78;
 imports and exports, 79;
forests, ib.;
fauna, 79-81;
flora, 81-89;
separated from Sumatra and Bali, 93, 94.
Jewels, from the heads of wild boars, 151;
Rumphius’s account of, 152.
Jukes, Mr., cited on the geology of Sandal-wood Island, 112;
Timur, 119.
Junghuhn, Dr., cited, 52, 53, 109.

K.
Kampong, a, described, 132.
Kayéli, bay of, 256;
village of, 257;
description of, 269;
history of, 270;
a threatening fleet arrives off, 283.
Kayu-puti, trees and oil described, 282, 283;
distribution of, 283.
Kema, village of, 323;
great python killed near, 334.
Ki, some account of the group, 243.
Kissa, described, 125.
Klings, whence their name, 63;
early voyages of, to the archipelago, 405.
Kloff, Captain; describes the natives of Kissa, 125.
Korinchi, reformers of, 471.
Kubus, the tribe of, described, 533.
Kupang, village of, 113;
bay of, ib.;
population of, 114;
oranges of, ib.

L.
Ladangs, native gardens, 264.
Lepers, author visits a village of, 343;
description of the, 343-346;
description of the disease, 345.
Leper-leper, a native boat, 165;
dangerous voyage in, 165, 166.
Letti, described, 125.
Limatang, river of, 518, 520, 521;
author descends, 521-533.
Limbi, an island near Kema, 324;
author visits for Babirusa, 324-332.
Living, Eastern mode of, 32.
Lombok, the, described, 264.
Lombok, island of, separated from Bali, 93;
fauna of, 94;
flora, ib.
Lontar, one of the Banda Islands, 214;
 shores of, 219;
author visits it, 223-227;
beautiful nutmeg-groves of, 225.
Lotus, fragrant, 358;
land of, by Tennyson, 366.
Lubus, tribe of, 411;
habits, 419.

M.
Macassar, harbor of, 100;
praus of, 100, 101;
city of, 103-105;
tombs of princes near, 105.
Madura, a low island, 55;
Strait of, 56;
cattle of, 60;
south coast of, 71;
whence its name, ib.;
coffee-trees on, 72;
manufacture of salt on, 72.
Magellan, Ferdinand, his discovery of the Spice Islands, 305-
307.
Maize, history of, 265-267.
Makian, island of, described, 299;
eruptions of, 299, 300.
Malabrathrum, a gum, 62.
Malay, first sight of, 18;
language of, 20;
physical characteristics of, 33, 34;
passion for gambling, ib.;
are mostly Mohammedans, ib.;
language affected by the Portuguese, 122;
speak many dialects, 162, 163;
migrations of, from Gilolo, 313.
Mango, tree and fruit described, 89, 90, 148.
Mangostin, described, 88, 89.
Manindyu, lake of, 397;
crater of, 399, 401;
village of, ib.
Marco Polo, his account of Java, 21.
Marriage, feast at Kayéli, 274;
Mohammedan laws in regard to, 275;
at Amboina, 275-278;
Malay ideas of, 279.
Matabella, situation of group, 243;
Wallace’s description of, ib.
Menado, village of, 342;
bay of, 346, 351;
Tua, an island, 346.
Menangkabau, kingdom of, 394;
former capitals of, 468;
history of, 469-474;
 arts in, 472, 473.
Minahassa; the most beautiful spot on the globe, 316;
mode of travelling in, 335;
population of, and area, 339;
cataract in, 356;
mud-wells and hot springs in, 358-364;
Alfura of, 365;
most charming view in, 369;
products of, 370, 375;
graves of the aborigines of, 373;
Christianity and education in, 375;
geology of, 376.
Mitarra; small island near Ternate, 317.
Mohammedan religion, first converts to, 51;
at Gresik, 56;
jealousy, 159;
requires the shaving of the head, 273;
filing the teeth, 274.
Moluccas, history of the, 146;
population and how divided, 195;
Catholicism in, 307, 308;
Christianity introduced, 308;
of what islands composed, 309.
Monkeys, of Sumatra and Java, 408, 409;
large troops of, 410;
sagacity of, 478;
 a flock of, 509.
Monsoons, calms during the changing of, 16;
name whence derived, 44;
east and west, ib.;
rainy, 45;
sky thick in the eastern, 120;
eastern at Amboina, Ceram, Buru, and New Guinea, 128,
129;
western boundary of, 486.
Mosque, Mohammedan, in Samarang, 50.
Mount, Ungarung, 45;
Slamat, ib.;
Sumbing, 46;
Prau, residence of the gods, 46-48;
Japura, 48;
Tenger, 73;
Bromo, 74;
Tomboro, eruption of, 108-110;
Tompasso, 357;
Singalang, 393;
Mérapi, ib.;
Ophir, 404;
Seret Mérapi, 420, 422;
Lubu Rajah, 423;
Sago, 461-468;
Talang, 480;
 Ulu Musi, 499;
Dempo, 516.
Mud-wells, in the Minahassa, 359-364.
Müller, Dr. S., ascended Gunong Api of Banda in 1828, 236.
Musa paradisiaca, the banana-tree, 85;
textilis, 340.

N.
Natal, port of, 453.
Nautilus, shells of, purchased at Kupang, 119;
said to be common on Rotti, ib.;
those secured at Amboina, 134, 135.
Navigating mud-flats, 57.
Nusalaut, name whence derived, 178;
author visits, 187;
surrounded by a platform of coral, 187;
natives of, in ancient costume, ib.;
description and population of, 188.
Nutmeg-tree, when found, 215;
gathered by the natives, 216;
description of tree and fruit, 222;
mode of curing the fruit, 222, 223.

O.
Orangbai, an, described, 136.
Orang-utan, habits of, 408, 409.
Ophir, whence the gold of, 405.
Opium, mode of selling and smoking, 279-282;
history of, 280.

P.
Padang, city of, 385;
Panjang, 392;
Sidempuan, 423.
Padangsche Bovenlanden, or Padang plateau, 390;
native houses in, 393;
dress of the natives of, 394;
author travels in, Chap. XV.;
geology of, 477.
Paddy, described, 66.
Pagi Islands; natives of, and their habits, 482, 483.
Palembang, author arrives at, 529;
description and history of, 530, 531;
mosque of, 531;
Lama, 532.
Pandanus, a screw-pine, 84.
Papandayang, Mount, eruption of, 74, 75.
Papaw, tree and fruit described, 85.
Papua, natives of, 311, 312;
taxes levied on, 314;
author thinks of going to, 315.
Pasuma, plateau and people of, 516-519.
Pedatis, described, 68.
Pepper, an article of trade, 446-448;
distribution of and native names for, 447, 448.
Periplus of the Erythræan Sea, 62.
Pigafetta, his account of birds of paradise, 244;
account of the Philippines, 308.
Pinã-cloth, how made, 143.
Pine-apples, introduction and history of, 142.
Piper betel, leaves of, chewed by the Malays, 181.
Pirates, in the Moluccas, 318;
from China, ib.;
from Mindanao, 319;
Malays escape from, 320;
a surprise of, ib.;
praus of, 321;
a challenge from, ib.;
Dutch cruise for, 322.
Plough, kind used by Malays, 36;
mode of using, 36, 37.
Pompelmus, a gigantic orange, 19.
Ponies, Javanese, 65.
Post-coaches of Java, 64.
Pumice-stone, great quantities of, 110.
Python, one seen near Kema, 333;
stories concerning, 333-336;
author presented with one, 537;
 it escapes, 539;
author has a deadly struggle with, 541.

R.
Raffles, Sir Stamford, history of, 488.
Railroads in Java, 49.
Rambutan, described, 89.
Ranjaus, 86.
Rattan, kinds of, 511;
how gathered, 511, 512.
Reef, first coral, visited, 123;
author’s boat strikes on one, 183;
waves breaking on a, 199.
Reinwardt, Professor, cited, 53;
ascended Gunong Api of Banda, in 1821, 236;
predicts an eruption, 312.
Rejangs, customs and laws, 496-498.
Reynst, Gerard, arrival at Banda, 236.
Rhinoceros, native pits for, 495;
distribution of, 509.
Rice, manner of gathering in Java, 66.
Rivers; Musi and its valley, 499;
Inem, 521, 522.
Roads, post, in Java, 64.
Roma, described, 126.
Roses, abundance of, in the Minahassa, 352, 366.
Rotti, island of, 116;
people of, ib.
Ruma négri, a public house, 355;
beautiful one, 366.
Ruma, Satan, or Devil’s Dwelling, author visits, 437-442.
Rumphius; his “Rariteit Kamer” referred to by Linnæus, 13;
grave of, 260;
sketch of life of, 251.

S.
Saccharum, sinensis, 69;
officinarum, ib.;
violaceum, ib.
Sacrifice, human, 117.
Saleh, Rahden, palace of, 37, 38;
manners and acquirements of, 38;
described by Eugene Sue, ib.
Salt, manufacture in Madura, 72;
Java, 72, 73;
Borneo and Philippines, 73;
quantity of, ib.;
prices of, 73, note.
Samarang, arrive at, 45;
described, 48.
Sambal, described, 32.
Sandal-wood Island, description of, 113;
 horses of, ib.
Sandy Sea, the, 74.
Saparua, name whence derived, 178;
island described, 184;
history, ib.;
town of, 184, 185;
bay of, 186.
Sapi, described, 60.
Sarong, description of the, 18, 34.
Sawai bay, people of, 205.
Sawas, described, 66;
fertility of, 67.
Schneider, Dr., cited, 120, 247.
Schools, in the Spice Islands, 193;
how supported, ib.;
welcome to the Resident, 194;
classes of, 195.
Sclater, Mr., cited, 94.
Semao, island of, 113.
Sequiera, first brings Portuguese into Eastern Archipelago, 23.
Shells, collecting, at Kupang, 117-119;
Trochus marmoratus, 175;
Strombus latissimus, 176;
Scalaria preciosa, 185;
Cypræa moneta, 186;
best place in the Spice Islands to gather, 198;
 harp, ib.;
Mitra episcopalis and papalis, 199;
Tridacna gigas, found on hills, 248;
Auricula in Ceram, 255;
Rostellaria rectirostris, ib.
Siboga, author comes to the village of, 434;
country about, 435 et seq.;
coal near, 436.
Singapore, history and description of, 536.
Sinkara, lake of, 476;
kampong, ib.
Siri, Malay name for the Piper betel, 181.
Snakes, swimming, 14.
Springs, Damma, 126;
in Java, 127;
hot, in the Minahassa, 360-364.
Strait, Sunda, 13-19;
Sapi, passed through, 106-108.
Styrax benzoin, described, 63.
Sugar-cane, kinds of, 69;
history of, 69, 70.
Sugar-Loaf Island, passed, 121.
Sulphur, from volcanoes, 53.
Sumatra, grand mountains of, 43;
author travels in, 384-532;
Dutch army in, 456;
 Hinduism in, 471;
Mohammedanism in, 471;
unimproved areas in, 502;
true source of the wealth of, 505.
Sumbawa, seen, 107;
Mount Tomboro in, 108.
Sundanese, a language of Java, 25.
Surabaya; business of, 56;
shipping at, ib.;
harbor of, 57;
situation of, ib.;
population of, ib.;
dock-yard, 58;
machine-shops, ib.;
artillery works, 59;
streets of, 60.
Surakarta, residence of Javanese princes, 26.
Surf, on south coast of Ceram, 208;
revolt in, 257.

T.
Tandu, a, described, 49.
Tanjong O, feared by the natives, 200;
Flasco, beautiful sunset seen at, 377.
Tapanuli, bay of, 434, 436;
geology of a cliff near, 441;
 natives that come to the bay of, 448.
Teak, durability of, and different purposes used for, 59;
abundant in Java, 79;
distribution of, 267.
Telegraph-lines in Java and Sumatra, 65.
Tenger Mountains, seen, 73;
Sandy Sea in, 74;
Bromo in, ib.;
compared with the Bandas, 241.
Ternate, island and village of, described, 300, 303, 304;
history and account of the eruptions of, 300-309;
the prince of, and his territory, 309, 310;
trade of, 315;
author experiences four earthquakes at, in four days, 316;
houses of foreigners at, 317.
Tidore, peak and village of, 312, 313;
prince of, 313.
Tifa; a kind of drum, 137;
discordant sounds of, 179;
mode of beating, 180.
Tigers, ravages of, 413;
native traps for, 491;
natives destroyed, 503, 504;
fight with a bear, 510;
abundance of, 513-517.
Timur, different races on, 115;
 southeast monsoon in, ib.;
northwestern coast of, 121.
Timur-laut, described, 127;
natives of, at Banda, 218.
Tin, distribution of, 535.
Tobacco, history of, 265, 266.
Tondano, lake of, 367, 368;
village of, 368;
Klabat, mantled with clouds, 369;
tragedy occurred near, 372.
Trees.—
Upas, 54;
Antiaris toxicaria, 54, 55;
anchar, 55;
Artocarpus incisa, and integrifolia, 92, 93;
Carophyllus aromaticus, the clove, 153;
Palmyra palm, 222;
Borassus flabelliformis, ib.;
Myristica moschata, the nutmeg, ib.;
Tectona grandis, the teak, 267.
Tripang, described, 101-103.

U.
Uliassers described, 178.

V.