Handbook of

CEREAL SCIENCE
and
TECHNOLOGY
 FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

A Series of Monographs, Textbooks, and Reference Books

EDITORIAL BOARD

Owen R. Fennema University of Wisconsin—Madison

Marcus Karel Rutgers University
Gary W. Sanderson Universal Foods Corporation
Pieter Walstra Wageningen Agricultural University
John R. Whitaker University of California—Davis

1. Flavor Research: Principles and Techniques, R. Teranishi, I. Hornstein, P. Is-

senberg, and E. L. Wick
2. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences, John R. Whitaker
3. Low-Temperature Preservation of Foods and Living Matter, Owen R. Fennema,
William D. Powrie, and Elmer H. Marth
4. Principles of Food Science
Part I: Food Chemistry, edited by Owen R. Fennema
Part II: Physical Methods of Food Preservation, Marcus Karel, Owen R. Fennema,
and Daryl B. Lund
5. Food Emulsions, edited by Stig E. Friberg
6. Nutritional and Safety Aspects of Food Processing, edited by Steven R. Tan-
nenbaum
7. Flavor Research: Recent Advances, edited by R. Teranishi, Robert A. Flath, and
Hiroshi Sugisawa
8. Computer-Aided Techniques in Food Technology, edited by Israel Saguy
9. Handbook of Tropical Foods, edited by Harvey T. Chan
10. Antimicrobials in Foods, edited by Alfred Larry Branen and P. Michael Davidson
11. Food Constituents and Food Residues: Their Chromatographic Determination,
edited by James F. Lawrence
12. Aspartame: Physiology and Biochemistry, edited by Lewis D. Stegink and L. J.
Filer, Jr.
13. Handbook of Vitamins: Nutritional, Biochemical, and Clinical Aspects, edited by
Lawrence J. Mechlin
14. Starch Conversion Technology, edited by G. M. A. van Beynum and J. A. Roels
15. Food Chemistry: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Owen R.
Fennema
16. Sensory Evaluation of Food: Statistical Methods and Procedures, Michael
O'Mahony
17. Alternative Sweeteners, edited by Lyn O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi
18. Citrus Fruits and Their Products: Analysis and Technology, S. V. Ting and Russell
L. Rouseff
19. Engineering Properties of Foods, edited by M. A. Rao and S. S. H. Rizvi
20. Umami: A Basic Taste, edited by Yojiro Kawamura and Morley R. Kare
21. Food Biotechnology, edited by Dietrich Knorr
22. Food Texture: Instrumental and Sensory Measurement, edited by Howard R.
Moskowitz
23. Seafoods and Fish Oils in Human Health and Disease, John E. Kinsella
24. Postharvest Physiology of Vegetables, edited by J. Weichmann
25. Handbook of Dietary Fiber: An Applied Approach, Mark L. Dreher
26. Food Toxicology, Parts A and B, Jose M. Concon
27. Modern Carbohydrate Chemistry, Roger W. Binkley
28. Trace Minerals in Foods, edited by Kenneth T. Smith
29. Protein Quality and the Effects of Processing, edited by R. Dixon Phillips and
John W. Finley
30. Adulteration of Fruit Juice Beverages, edited by Steven Nagy, John A. Attaway,
and Martha E. Rhodes
31. Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens, edited by Michael P. Doyle
32. Legumes: Chemistry, Technology, and Human Nutrition, edited by Ruth H.
Matthews
33. Industrialization of Indigenous Fermented Foods, edited by Keith H. Steinkraus
34. International Food Regulation Handbook: Policy • Science • Law, edited by Roger
D. Middlekauff and Philippe Shubik
35. Food Additives, edited by A. Larry Branen, P. Michael Davidson, and Seppo
Salminen
36. Safety of Irradiated Foods, J. F. Diehl
37. Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Health and Disease, edited by Robert S. Lees and
Marcus Karel
38. Food Emulsions: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Kare Larsson
and Stig E. Friberg
39. Seafood: Effects of Technology on Nutrition, George M. Pigott and Barbee W.
Tucker
40. Handbook of Vitamins: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by
Lawrence J. Machlin
41. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Klaus J. Lorenz and Karel Kulp
42. Food Processing Operations and Scale-Up, Kenneth J. Valentas, Leon Levine,
and J. Peter Clark
43. Fish Quality Control by Computer Vision, edited by L. F. Pau and R. Olafsson
44. Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages, edited by Henk Maarse
45. Instrumental Methods for Quality Assurance in Foods, edited by Daniel Y. C. Fung
and Richard F. Matthews
46. Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety, Elliot T. Ryser and Elmer H. Marth
47. Acesulfame-K, edited by D. G. Mayer and F. H. Kemper
48. Alternative Sweeteners: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Lyn
O'Brien Nabors and Robert C. Gelardi
49. Food Extrusion Science and Technology, edited by Jozef L. Kokini, Chi-Tang Ho,
and Mukund V. Karwe
50. Surimi Technology, edited by Tyre C. Lanier and Chong M. Lee
51. Handbook of Food Engineering, edited by Dennis R. Heldman and Daryl B. Lund
52. Food Analysis by HPLC, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet
53. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications, edited by Ching Kuang Chow
54. Clostridium botulinum: Ecology and Control in Foods, edited by Andreas H. W.
Hauschild and Karen L. Dodds
55. Cereals in Breadmaking: A Molecular Colloidal Approach, Ann- Charlotte Eliasson
and '<are Larsson
56. Low-Calorie Foods Handbook, edited by Aaron M. Altschul
57. Antimicrobials in Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by P.
Michael Davidson and Alfred Larry Branen
58. Lactic Acid Bacteria, edited by Seppo Salminen and Atte von Wright
59. Rice Science and Technology, edited by Wayne E. Marshall and James I.
Wadsworth
60. Food Biosensor Analysis, edited by Gabriele Wagner and George G. Guilbault
61. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences: Second Edition, John R.
Whitaker
62. Carbohydrate Polyesters as Fat Substitutes, edited by Casimir C. Akoh and Barry
G. Swanson
63. Engineering Properties of Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited
by M. A. Rao and S. S. H. Rizvi
64. Handbook of Brewing, edited by William A. Hardwick
65. Analyzing Food for Nutrition Labeling and Hazardous Contaminants, edited by Ike
J. Jeon and William G. lkins
66. Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, edited by Anilkumar G. Gaonkar
67. Food Polysaccharides and Their Applications, edited by Alistair M. Stephen
68. Safety of Irradiated Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, J. F. Diehl
69. Nutrition Labeling Handbook, edited by Ralph Shapiro
70. Handbook of Fruit Science and Technology: Production, Composition, Storage,
and Processing, edited by D. K. Salunkhe and S. S. Kadam
71. Food Antioxidants: Technological, Toxicological, and Health Perspectives, edited
by D. L. Madhavi, S. S. Deshpande, and D. K. Salunkhe
72. Freezing Effects on Food Quality, edited by Lester E. Jeremiah
73. Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods: Second Edition, Revised and Ex-
panded, edited by Keith H. Steinkraus
74. Carbohydrates in Food, edited by Ann-Charlotte Eliasson
75. Baked Goods Freshness: Technology, Evaluation, and Inhibition of Staling, edited
by Ronald E. Hebeda and Henry F. Zobel
76. Food Chemistry: Third Edition, edited by Owen R. Fennema
77. Handbook of Food Analysis: Volumes 1 and 2, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet
78. Computerized Control Systems in the Food Industry, edited by Gauri S. Mittal
79. Techniques for Analyzing Food Aroma, edited by Ray Marsili
80. Food Proteins and Their Applications, edited by Srinivasan Damodaran and Alain
Paraf
81. Food Emulsions: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Stig E. Friberg
and Kare Larsson
82. Nonthermal Preservation of Foods, Gustavo V. Barbosa-Canovas, Usha R.
Pothakamury, Enrique Palou, and Barry G. Swanson
83. Milk and Dairy Product Technology, Edgar Spreer
84. Applied Dairy Microbiology, edited by Elmer H. Marth and James L. Steele
85. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Microbiology and Functional Aspects, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, edited by Seppo Salminen and Atte von Wright
86. Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology: Production, Composition,
Storage, and Processing, edited by D. K. Salunkhe and S. S. Kadam
87. Polysaccharide Association Structures in Food, edited by Reginald H. Walter
88. Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology, edited by Casimir C. Akoh
and David B. Min
89. Spice Science and Technology, Kenji Hirasa and Mitsuo Takemasa
90. Dairy Technology: Principles of Milk Properties and Processes, P. Walstra, T. J.
Geurts, A. Noomen, A. Jellema, and M. A. J. S. van Boekel
91. Coloring of Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics, Gisbert Otterstatter
92. Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Elliot T. Ryser and Elmer H. Marth
93. Complex Carbohydrates in Foods, edited by Susan Sungsoo Cho, Leon Prosky,
and Mark Dreher
94. Handbook of Food Preservation, edited by M. Shafiur Rahman
95. International Food Safety Handbook: Science, International Regulation, and
Control, edited by Kees van der Heijden, Maged Younes, Lawrence Fishbein,
and Sanford Miller
96. Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, edited by Ching Kuang Chow
97. Seafood Enzymes: Utilization and Influence on Postharvest Seafood Quality,
edited by Norman F. Haard and Benjamin K. Simpson
98. Safe Handling of Foods, edited by Jeffrey M. Farber and Ewen C. D. Todd
99. Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, edited by Karel Kulp and Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Surimi and Surimi Seafood, edited by Jae W. Park

Food Analysis by HPLC: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Leo
M. L. Nollet

Handbook of Water Analysis, edited by Leo M. L. Nollet

Handbook of Nutrition and Diet, B. B. Desai

Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection,

edited by Luis M. Botana
 Handbook of
CEREAL SCIENCE
and
TECHNOLOGY
Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded

edited by
Karel Kulp
American Institute of Baking
Manhattan, Kansas

Joseph G. Ponta, Jr.

Professor Emeritus
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
ISBN: 0-8247-8294-1

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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PREFACE

The first edition of this Handbook appeared almost a decade ago (1991). Its favorable acceptance prompted us to prepare
this second edition. In scope and organization, the book is similar to the first edition. Each chapter has been revised, up-
dated, and supplemented with new and pertinent information. Additional chapters were added because of the relevance of
the material to the utilization of cereals.
Cereals are discussed, as in the first edition, from three points of view: agronomic, chemical, and technological utiliza-
tion of each grain. These topics divide the book into three sections. Each grain (wheat, corn, barley, oats, sorghum, millets,
rice, rye, triticale and other minor cereal grains, including wild rice) is covered with respect to breeding, economic, and pro-
duction aspects. A new chapter on soybeans and oilseed grains is included. Although botanically unrelated to cereals, use of
oilseeds is often technologically related to applications of various cereals and thus from an end use point of view we discuss
them in this book.
Chemical composition and functionality of cereal components (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, minor ingredients, etc.) are
the subject of a series of chapters, followed by chapters describing the main utilization of cereals as food, food ingredients (a
new chapter), industrial products, and microbiological processes (a new chapter). Nutritional information has been updated in
a separate chapter demonstrating a growing importance of cereal in human diet. Also related to nutrition is the chapter on food
enrichment and labeling, demonstrating the continued interest in fortification programs, as illustrated by the recent inclusion
of folic acid as an enrichment factor. As in the first edition, an expanded chapter on quality product evaluation is included.
Most of the 27 chapters were authored by the same contributors as in the first edition. Unfortunately Professor K. Lorenz,
who co-edited the first edition, was unable to serve as an editor on this volume. However, I was pleased to be able to draft
as a co-editor Professor J. G. Ponte, Jr., with whom I had previously worked on several other projects.
In preparing multi-authored books it is essential to select contributors who are willing to devote their time and effort to
writing their respective chapters within the objectives of the book and within the given time frame. We were fortunate to
have contributors who were cooperative and understanding, and we both wish to express our deep gratitude to them.
Finally, we conclude with some general thoughts on trends in the cereal field. Although cereals have been used through-
out the ages, new developments in biology, technology, biochemistry, and nutrition offer new horizons in their use. These
advances are only in the initial stages today, but rapid progress can be predicted. This Handbook will provide researchers,
technologists, and users with fundamental information that will assist them in building their knowledge of this broad field.

Karel Kulp
Joseph G. Ponte, Jr

iii
CONTENTS

Preface iii
Contributors vii

1. Wheat 1
Elieser S. Posner
2. Corn: The Major Cereal of the Americas 31
Lawrence A. Johnson
3. Barley 81
Eugene A. Hockett
4. Oats 127
Michael S. McMullen
5. Sorghum 149
Lloyd W. Rooney and Sergio Othon Serna-Saldivar
6. The Millets 177
Cassandra M. McDonough, Lloyd W. Rooney, and Sergio Othon Serna-Saldivar
7. Rice: Production, Processing, and Utilization 203
Navam S. Hettiarachchy, Zhi Yong Ju, Terry Siebenmorgen, and Roy N. Sharp
8. Rye 223
Klaus Lorenz
9. Triticale: Production and TJtilization 257
N. L. Darvey, H. Naeem, and J. Perry Gustafson
10. Wild Rice: Processing and Utilization 275
Ervin A. OeIke and James J. Boedicker
11. Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 297
Edmund W Lusas
12. Cereal Proteins: Composition of Their Major Fractions and Methods for Identification 363
George Lookhart and Scott Bean
vi Contents

13. Cereal Carbohydrates 385

David R. Shelton and Won Jong Lee
14. Cereal Lipids 417
Okkyung Kim Chung and Jae-Bom Ohm
15. Minor Constituents of Cereals 479
Margaret Ann Bock
16. Quality Evaluation of Cereals and Cereal Products 505
Vladimir E Rasper and Charles E. Walker
17. Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 539
Karel Kulp and Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.
18. Soft Wheat Products 575
Hamed Faridi, Charles S. Gaines, and Brian L. Strouts
19. Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals 615
Paul J. Whalen, Julia L. DesRochers, and Charles E. Walker
20. Pasta: Raw Materials and Processing 647
Brendan J. Donnelly and Joseph G. Ponte, Jr
21. Cereal-Based Snack Foods 667
Joseph A. Maga
22. Malted Cereals: Their Production and Use 685
Richard E. Pyler and D. A. Thomas
23. Cereal Enrichment and Nutrient Labeling 697
Peter M. Ranum
24. Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods 705
Carol E Klopfenstein
25. Nonfood Uses of Cereals 725
John W. Lawton
26. Fermentation and Microbiological Processes in Cereal Foods 741
Pierre Gelinas and Carole McKinnon
27. Special Food Ingredients from Cereals 755
Joseph G. Ponte, Jr., Ismail Sait Dogan, and Karel Kulp

Index 777
CONTRIBUTORS

Scott Bean Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Margaret Ann Bock Family and Consumer Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico

James J. Boedicker University of Minnesota, Grand Rapids, Minnesota

Okkyung Kim Chung Hard Winter Wheat Quality Laboratory, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Agri-
cultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas

N. L. Darvey Plant Breeding Institute, Cobbitty, New South Wales, Australia

Julia L. DesRochers Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Ismail Sait Dogan Department of Food Engineering, College of Agriculture, Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey

Brendan J. Donnelly Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Hamed Faridi McCormick & Company, Inc., Hunt Valley, Maryland

Charles S. Gaines Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Wooster, Ohio

Pierre Gelinas Food Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, St. Hyacinthe, Quebec,
Canada

J. Perry Gustafson Plant Genetics Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and
Plant Science Unit, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri

Navam S. Hettiarachchy Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

Eugene A. Hockett Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Plant Sciences Department,
Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana

vii
viii Contributors

Lawrence A. Johnson Center for Crops Utilization Research and Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition,
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa

Zhi Yong Ju Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

Carol F. Klopfenstein Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

Karel Kulp* Department of Research, American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas

John W. Lawton Plant Polymer Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Re-
search Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, Illinois

Won Jong Lee Department of Food Science, Kangnung National University, Kangnung, Korea

George Lookhart U.S. Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas

Klaus Lorenz Professor Emeritus, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, Colorado

Edmund W. Lusas Consultant, Ed Lusas, Problem Solvers, Inc., Bryan, Texas

Joseph A. Maga* Professor Emeritus, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado

Cassandra M. McDonough Cereal Quality Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas

Carole McKinnon Food Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, St. Hyacinthe, Quebec,
Canada

Michael S. McMullen Crop and Weed Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota

H. Naeem Plant Breeding Institute, Cobbitty, New South Wales, Australia

Ervin A. Oelke Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota

Jae-Bom Ohm Hard Winter Wheat Quality Laboratory, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Agricultural
Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas

Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.* Professor Emeritus, Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhat-
tan, Kansas

Elieser S. Posner Consultant, Savyon, Israel

Richard E. Pyler Brewing Research and Product Design, Coors Brewing Company, Golden, Colorado

Peter M. Ranum American Ingredients Company, Grand Island, New York

Vladimir F. Rasper Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada

Lloyd W. Rooney Cereal Quality Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas

*Retired.
Contributors ix

Sergio Othon Serna-Saldivar Food Science and Technology, Institute Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Monter-
rey, Monterrey, N.L. Mexico

Roy N. Sharp Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

David R. Shelton Department of Agronomy, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska

Terry Siebenmorgen Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

Brian L. Strouts Department of Research, American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas

D. A. Thomas Brewing Research and Product Design, Coors Brewing Company, Golden, Colorado

Charles E. Walker Department of Baking and Engineering, BRI—Australia Ltd., North Ryde, New South Wales, Aus-
tralia

Paul J. Whalen Whalen Consulting, Inc., Elk River, Minnesota

1

WHEAT

Elieser S. Posner
Consultant, Savyon, Israel

I. ORIGIN 30,000 cells in a wheat kernel, and their content varies sig-
nificantly depending on their location in the kernel [2]. Ex-
Historic documents confirm that wheat is the earliest field
tensive studies have been conducted on the botanical outer
crop used for human food processing [1]. It also became
layers of wheat kernels. Their metabolic significance, size,
the leading grain used for human consumption due to its
and thickness changes from fertilization of the ovary by
nutritive profile and relatively easy harvesting, storing,
the pollen of the same plant were reported [3]. A longitudi-
transportation, and processing, as compared to other
nal and cross section of a wheat kernel along with an iden-
grains. The earliest varieties, grown 12,000-17,000 years
tification of its components is shown in Figure 1. Table 1
ego in the Near East, were Triticum monococcum (einkorn)
shows the typical values of wheat kernel parts and their
and Triticum dicoccum (emmer). Continued breeding re-
proximate analysis. The morphology of the wheat kernel is
sulted in the development of new varieties around the
unique and as such creates technical (milling) challenges
world that often became adapted to areas previously un-
in separating the endosperm and the germ from the outer
suited for the cultivation of wheat. The main wheat vari-
fibrous layers, commonly named the "bran." The presence
eties grown today are Triticum aestivum, subspecies vul-
of the crease (about 25% of the kernel surface), which ex-
gare, which is a hexaploid with six groups of seven
tends almost to the center of the wheat kernel [7], requires
chromosomes in each group. This species includes hard
special consideration in grinding. The wheat germ (about
red winter, hard red spring, soft red winter, and white
2-4% of the kernel weight) is located on the dorsal side.
wheats. Another wheat durum is a tetraploid, containing
The wheat germ parts are the embryo, with rudimentary
four groups of seven chromosomes totaling 28 chromo-
roots and shoots, and the scutulum, which is a transport or-
somes. The botanical name of durum wheat is Triticum du-
gan of nutrition to the embryo during sprouting. At the op-
rum. A limited area is planted with the soft white wheat va-
posite end of the kernel germ, there is a cluster of short fine
riety of Triticum aestivum, subspecies compactum,
hairs about 10-15 tm in diameter and 0.5 mm long [8].
commonly known as club wheat. Currently about 4000 dif-
The wheat kernel outer botanical coats (about 7-8% of the
ferent wheat varieties are grown around the world.
kernel weight) consist of several distinct cellulose-rich
layers. The outermost layer, the pericarp (fruit coat), is
made up of the outer pericarp, which includes the outer
II. MORPHOLOGY OF THE WHEAT KERNEL
epidermis, hypodermis, thin-walled cells, and the inner
Data related to the morphology of the wheat kernel and pericarp, which includes intermediate-size cells, cross lay-
proximate analyses vary in different research reports. This ers, and tube cells (inner epidermis). The inner layers are
variability is likely due to the different types and growing the seed coat (testa) and nucellar epidermis (hyaline layer)
conditions of wheats analyzed. In general, there are about [8]. The thickness of the bran coat of hard red winter wheat

1
2 Posner

- Hairs of
brush

Endosperm

Cell filled with

starch granules
in protein
matrix
Cellulose walls
of cells

Aleurone cell
layer (part of
endosperm but
separated
with bran)
Nucellar tissue

Seed coat
(testa)

Tube cells
Cross cells
Hypodermis
Epidermis

Scutothrill

Sheath of shoot

Rudimentary shoot

Rudimentary
primary root

Root sheath

Root cap

Crease
la)
ENDO-
SPERM

Pigment
strand
BRAN

GERM
(b)

FIGURE 1 View of a wheat kernel in (a) longitudinal section and (b) cross section. (From the Wheat Flour Institute, Washington, DC.)

varieties ranges from 67 to 70 gm [9]. Between the nucel-
lar epidermis and the starchy endosperm we find the aleu-
rone layer, having high soluble protein and mineral con-
tents. The aleurone layer constitutes about 5-8% of the
wheat kernel. This layer is botanically similar to the en-
dosperm, but it is difficult to separate from the bran by
conventional milling techniques. Depending on the kind of
wheat, the thickness of the aleurone layer varies. Bradbury
et al. [10] reported its thickness to be about 46.9 gm; Crew
and Jones [11] found the average thickness of the aleurone
layer to be 30-60 gm. Mechanical damage or hydrolysis
with cellulase of the aleurone thick cell wall allows access
to proteins within the aleurone layer [12]. Although nutri-
tious, incorporation of a fraction with a large percentage of
aleurone layer adversely affects the baking quality of flour
[13]. The endosperm of the kernel was also shown to fol-
low a gradient [14] in ash, protein content, gluten charac-
teristics, and baking quality.
III. BREEDING, GROWING CONDITIONS,
AND THEIR EFFECT ON QUALITY
Among wheats grown all over the world there are three
major distinctions. The first one, which affects their func-
Wheat 3

TABLE 1 Average Values of Wheat Constituents and Their Proximate Analysisa

Kernel Embryo Scutellum Pericarp Aleurone Endosperm
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Wheats
Common 100 1.2 1.54 7.9 6.7-7.0 81-84
Durum 100 1.6 12 86.4
Proximate analysis
Protein 12.6 35.0 26.0 5-7 18 7.4-13.9
Ash 1.9 5.45 5.0-8.0 3-4 14-17 0.28-0.40
Fat 1.6 16.3 32.0 3-5 10 0.8-1.5
Starch 59.2 68
Pentosans 6.7 6.6 34.9 39.0 1.4
Cellulose 2.3 2.0 38.4 3.5 0.3
Calories 314 354 177 247 354
'14% moisture basis.
Source: Adapted from Refs. 4-6.

tional and concomitantly end-use characteristics, is wheth-
er the wheat is a winter or spring type. Winter wheats are
fall-planted and require a period of low temperature (ver-
nalization). Winter wheats are harvested during June or
July. Spring wheats do not require vernalization, are
spring-planted, and are harvested during August or Sep-
tember in the Northern Hemisphere. Spring wheats can be
fall-planted in regions with mild winter temperatures [15].
The second distinction is the kernel color. The majority of
wheats are red or white as a result of the presence or ab-
sence of red-brown pigments in the seed coat. Some
wheats of uncommon colors can be found in some parts of
the world. The third distinction between wheats is due to
differences in varieties. Endosperm hardness differs, af-
fecting the wheat milling characteristics. Soft, hard, or du-
rum wheats differ in endosperm structure, hardness, and
protein characteristics. Consequently, they are milled dif-
ferently and the resulting flours are suitable for different
end uses. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the rela-
tionship between protein percentage, wheat type, hardness,
and end-product utilization. Soft wheat endosperm in-
cludes air spaces in the protein matrix, and, as indicated by
light scattering in these spaces, the endosperm is chalky. In
the endosperm protein matrix of hard vitreous wheats, air
spaces are absent and its appearance is dense and glossy.
The soft wheat varieties with low protein are also evaluat-
ed in terms of suitability for soft wheat milling and in the
production of cakes and cookies. Hard wheat qualities are
defined in terms of their milling characteristics and the
quality of the breads produced.
Quality within the same kind of wheat is influenced by
local climate, soil conditions, and variety. Rain and sun at
appropriate periods are important to the yield of wheat per
acre and its quality. Usually there are up to five kernels on
the same spikelet of the plant. In the center are the largest
and heaviest kernels. In general, the length of the wheat
kernel is attributed to the variety and the width to the
growing conditions. The differences in test weight, ash,
protein, sugar, and starch in wheats of the same variety
grown in different environments are much larger than
those in wheats of different varieties grown under compa-
rable conditions [16]. Shrunken wheat kernels are a direct
result of growing conditions and affect flour extraction and
quality. Sprouted wheat kernels are a result of excessive
moisture during harvest time.
Breeding programs of new wheat varieties consider
production yield per acre, hardness, flour extraction, pro-
tein level, as well as other parameters related to process-
ing. One of the main objectives of breeding programs to
select varieties resistant to diseases that attack the plant
during the growing period. Resistance to rust, smut, and
other sicknesses is genetically selected during develop-
ment of new varieties. Wheat grown in adverse weather
conditions might also be affected by fungi and disease dur-
ing the development period of the kernel. Fungi affecting
wheat during early development stages might introduce
vomitoxin (DON) into the kernels, which will result in
shrunken kernels of lower quality [17]. Some of the prob-
lems with diseases in wheat in the last few years can be at-
tributed to the change in tillage practices. Tillage of wheat
fields is necessary for the development of a good seedbed,
for the control of weeds, and for the destruction of insects
and diseases harbored in the debris left after harvest.
Breeders require meaningful information for predicting
the intrinsic value of genotypes in order to screen the po-
tential lines in early generations. Selection of attributes
4 Posner
U)
-o Noodles
cr_
0
All purpose: flour
L Doughnuts
Crackers
10 11
Protein (%)
Hard winter
Hardness Scale
FIGURE 2 Schematic diagram of relationship between percentages of protein, wheat type, hardness, and end-product utilization.
during the breeding program concentrates also on proper-
ties that contribute to the processing quality of the wheat.
Usually the final decisions about commercialization of
new varieties are based on comparison to known varieties
as standards. While microtests are performed on early gen-
erations, comprehensive tests evaluate larger quantities
from later generations by large-scale milling and bread
baking or other end uses. Analytical as well as milling and
baking methods were designed to evaluate the small quan-
tities of wheat from early generations of breading pro-
grams [18-21]. Analyses of research data generate regres-
sion lines to indicate potential performance of new
varieties in baking. The regression lines for different wheat
varieties (Fig. 3) form a fan-shaped family of lines indicat-
ing loaf volume increases with increased protein content
within a variety [22]. However, other results shows that in
some kinds of wheat, above a certain extraction level there
is a decrease in loaf volume [23].
Parameters that could be determined by image analyses
and test weight values were used in selecting seeds for
breeding [24]. Sixty-six percent of the variation in flour
yield was identified by those physical parameters. Statisti-
cal analysis systems were used as an aid in the handling of
data for quality evaluation of breeder's selections of hard
Whole wheat bread
Hearth bread
Past
White bioad
12 13 14 15
4— Durum —►
4 ► Hard spring ►
► Hard
red spring and durum wheat [25]. Personal computer—
based software systems were used for the management of
wheat quality data of experimental breeding lines and
commercial check sample cultivars [26]. Part of the soft-
ware is a grading system, which facilitates a rapid and un-
biased evaluation of numerous discrete wheat and flour an-
alytical values. New breeding lines are compared to known
qualities and historically derived limits of statistical differ-
ences of the check samples.
New tools for improving wheat processing and end-use
qualities are being developed using biotechnology. This
approach broadens the available germplasm beyond the
current collections of native germplasm and enables one to
modify components such as oils, starches, and proteins.
The introduction of high molecular weight glutenin genes
into a wheat variety results in more of the gluten protein
subunit glutenin [27], which provides the extensibility
needed for good bread.
IV. WHEAT TRADE AND CONSUMPTION
The stability of wheat in storage under appropriate condi-
tions made it the first-ranked trading food commodity for
human consumption. The production and price of wheat
Wheat 5

fluctuate from year to year as a result of supply and de-
mand in different parts of the world. Climatic conditions
and diseases affect wheat availability. Figure 4 shows the
global economic data, growing areas, production, leading
exporters, and consumption of wheat [28]. Wheat con-
sumption around the world for food, feed, seed, and other
uses is estimated to be 73.8, 16.1, 5.6, and 4.5%, respec-
tively [28]. During the 1995/96 crop year, the estimated
wheat usage in the United States for food, feed, and seed
was 77.4, 13.5, and 9.0%, respectively. The annual world-
wide increase of wheat consumption is between 0.5 and
1.5%. China is the largest wheat-producing and wheat-
consuming country in the world, with a total consumption
during the 1995/96 crop year of 119 million metric tons
[28]. China's consumer demand for food wheat is growing,
while its production capacity is leveling off. Increases in
Chinese import demand usually affect the world markets.
V. CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING
OF WHEAT
Many wheat kinds and classes, available around the world,
vary in quality as a result of climate, irrigation, specific va-
riety characteristics, growing conditions, harvesting, and
handling. Figure 2 summarizes the utilization require-
ments of different wheat kinds, hardness, and protein con-
tent for major wheat-based products. Presently, wheats are
graded differently in exporting and importing countries
[29]. In some countries the government is involved in set-
ting limits for contaminants in imported wheats. In others,
mainly exporting countries like United States, government
officers inspect, according to official standards, all export-
ed wheat; domestically traded wheat is inspected upon re-
quest only.
Table 2 shows the U.S. grading system for wheat [30].
In the United States the grading standards for hard red win-
ter wheat, soft red winter wheat, common white wheat, and
club wheat went into effect on July 1, 1916. Standards for
all other wheats became effective on August 1, 1917 [31].
The current grading system covers eight classes of wheat:
durum, hard red spring, hard red winter, soft red winter,
hard white, soft white, unclassed, and mixed wheat. Du-
rum, hard red spring, and white wheat are further divided
into subclasses. According to the U.S. standards for wheat,
the definitions for the classes and subclasses are as fol-
lows:

1. Durum wheat: all varieties of white (amber) durum

(—) H.R.W. wheat. This class is divided into three subclasses: (1)
1400 (- ) H. R.S.
m1NTuRKi
NE BRED
hard amber durum wheat—this subclass designates
THATCHER
PAWNEE durum wheat with 75% or more of hard and vitreous
/ KHARKOF
/ COMANCHE kernels of amber color; (2) amber durum wheat—this
TENMARO
WICHITA subclass is durum wheat with 60% or more but less
BLACKHULL
YOGO than 75% hard and vitreous kernels of amber color;
1200 INSPECTION
(3) durum wheat—durum wheat with less than 60%
CHEYENNE

EARLY 8.11. hard vitreous kernels with amber color.

RED CHIEF 2. Hard red spring wheat: all varieties of hard red spring
PROGRESS
wheat. This class is divided into the following three
3 1000
GHIEFKAN
subclasses: (1) dark northern spring wheat—hard red
O spring wheat with 75% or more dark, hard, and vitre-
ous kernels; (2) northern spring wheat—hard red
u. spring wheat with 25% or more but less than 75% dark,
O hard, and vitreous kernels; (3) red spring wheat—hard
800 red spring wheat with less than 25% dark, hard, and
vitreous kernels.
3. Hard red winter wheat: all varieties of hard red winter
wheat. There are no subclasses in this wheat class.
600 4. Soft red winter wheat: all varieties of soft red winter
wheat. There are no subclasses in this wheat class.
5. Hard white wheat: all hard endosperm white wheat
10 13 16 19 varieties. There are no subclasses in this class.
6. Soft white wheat: all soft endosperm white wheat va-
FLOUR PROTEIN - %
rieties. This class is divided into the following three
FIGURE 3 Loaf volume-protein content regression lines for subclasses: (1) soft white wheat—soft endosperm
eight hard spring and two hard winter wheat varieties. (From Ref. white wheat varieties that contain not more than 10%
22.) of white club wheat; (2) white club wheat—soft en-
6 Posner

F.S.U.* 19.8 F.S.U.* 11.1

Europe 22.9
N&C. America 16.9
N&C. America 16.3
Europe 11.9

S. America 3.2 S. America 2.3 Oceana 3.

Oceans 4.4
Africa 2.9
Africa 3.9

Asia 39.8 Asia 41.6

Total Growing Area 216,453,000 hectares Total Production 541,670,000 mt

Asia 37.2 F.S.U.* 12.9

N&C. America 3.5 Europe 19.8

N&C. America 18.

Africa 0.9
Europe 4.9
Asia 6.4

Africa 11.6
S. America 13.8
S. America 47.5
F.S.U.* 13.5
Total Exports 89,000,000 mt Total Consumption 558,400,000 mt

FIGURE 4 Wheat economics, 1995/96, depicted by percentage of world totals. Former Soviet Union. (From Ref. 28.)

dosperm white club wheat containing not more than
10% of other soft white wheats; (3) western white
wheat—soft white wheat containing more than 10%
white club wheat and more than 10% other soft white
wheats.
7. Unclassed wheat: any variety of wheat that is not clas-
sified under other criteria provided in the wheat stan-
dards. There are no subclasses in this class. This class
includes any wheat that is other than red or white in
color.
8. Mixed wheat: any mixture of wheat that consists of
less than 90% of one class and more than 10% of one
other class or a combination of classes that meet the
definition of wheat.
Each class and subclass is divided into five numerical
grades and a U.S. Sample Grade. The grade designation af-
fects the trading value of the wheat.
In Canada the Board of Grain Commissioners enforces
the standards for wheat exports. The Board establishes
"export standard samples" for a number of grades. The ex-
port standard for each grade, established each year, is a
mixture of three parts of wheat equal to the average quali-
ty of the grade for the respective crop year and one part of
wheat equal to the minimum quality permitted by the basic
grade. There are seven classes of wheat divided into spring
and winter classes. The five spring wheats are Canadian
western, hard red spring, Canadian western amber durum,
Canadian western utility, Canadian prairie spring, and
Canadian western soft white spring. The two winter
wheats are Canadian western red winter and Canadian
eastern white winter. Only the registered varieties are
equal to standard varieties, which are eligible for classifi-
cation under the seven classes. There are also wheat of oth-
er classes for nonregistered varieties.
The Australian Wheat Board annually issues receiving
standards and dockage schedules that list grade specifica-
tions and tolerances for Australian standard white, Aus-
tralian general purpose, and Australian feed wheats. The
Australian wheat is classified into classes that fall into two
categories—milling and nonmilling wheats. The milling
wheat group includes Australian prime hard, Australian
Wheat 7

hard, Australian standard white, Australian soft, and Aus-
tralian durum wheats. They are further classified into
grades based on the state of origin, protein content, grain
hardness, milling quality, and dough properties. There are
two additional classes, Australian general purpose and
Australian feed, which do not conform to the standards of
milling wheats in terms of test weight, weather damage,
and levels of unmillable material or foreign matter.
The International Association of Cereal Chemistry
(ICC) evaluates wheat on the basis of its Besatz (extrane-
ous matter) content [32]. According to ICC methods,
which have been accepted as the European Economic
Community [33] official methods, Total Besatz (Gesamt-
besatz) is made up of two parts: Kornbesatz and Schwartz-
besatz. Kornbesatz consists of material with some milling
value such as shrunken and broken kernels. Schwartzbe-
satz is foreign material that has no milling value.
Wheat milling technology is becoming technically simi-
lar in different parts of the world as a result of a reduction in
the number of equipment suppliers and easy access to infor-
mation. On the other hand, wheat is still graded differently
in countries around the world using different methods and

TABLE 2 U.S. Wheat Grades and Grade Requirements

Grades U.S. nos.

Grading factors 1 2 3 4 5

Minimum pound limits of:

Test weight
Hard Red Spring wheat or White
Club wheat lbs/bu 58.0 57.0 55.0 53.0 50.0
All other classes and subclasses lbs/bu 60.0 58.0 56.0 54.0 51.0
Maximum percent limits of:
Defects
Damaged kernels
Heat (part of total) 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.0 3.0
Total 2.0 4.0 7.0 10.0 15.0
Foreign material 0.4 0.7 1.3 3.0 5.0
Shrunken & broken kernels 3.0 5.0 8.0 12.0 20.0
Total' 3.0 5.0 8.0 12.0 20.0
Wheat of other classes2
Contrasting classes 1.0 2.0 3.0 10.0 10.0
Total3 3.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Stones 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Maximum count limits of:
Other material
Animal filth 1 1 1 1 1
Castor beans 1 1 1 1 1
Crotalaria seeds 2 2 2 2 2
Glass 0 0 0 0 0
Stones 3 3 3 3 3
Unknown foreign substance 3 3 3 3 3
Total4 4 4 4 4 4
Insect-damaged kernels in 100 grams 31 31 31 31 31

U.S. Sample grade

Wheat that:
(a) Does not meet the requirements for U.S. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; or
(b) Has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except smut or garlic odor) or
(c) Is heating or of distinctly low quality.
!Includes damaged kernels (total), foreign material, and shrunken and broken kernels.
2 Unclassed wheat of any grade may contain not more than 10.0 percent of wheat of other classes.
'Includes contrasting classes.
'Includes any combination of animal filth, castor beans, crotalaria seeds, glass, stones, or unknown foreign
substance.
8 Posner
factors. Current classifications and methods used in differ-
ent parts of the world were developed when processing
methods were different and international trade was not at its
present volume. There is a need to develop a comprehen-
sive worldwide universal wheat-grading system that will
identify qualities and values important to farmers, traders,
millers, and bakers for domestic and export markets.
VI. EVALUATION OF WHEAT
The value of wheat depends upon its milling and flour end
use quality. This can be accurately determined through ac-
tual milling and baking tests. The miller has to assess
wheat quality and evaluate its suitability to produce, indi-
vidually or in a blend, final flour specifications. In addi-
tion, the miller has to determine the expected wheat-pro-
cessing performance in the mill, the resulting flour
extraction, and other qualities such as color, particle size,
and starch damage. Flour extraction is the proportion of
the wheat recovered as flour during milling. The following
are tests of importance to the miller for evaluating wheats
and flours: experimental milling, physical, chemical, phys-
ical-chemical, dough rheology, and the baking test. Wheat
and flour testing can follow different official methods such
as those of the American Association of Cereal Chem-
ists (AACC), the International Association of Cereal
Chemists (ICC), or the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists (AOAC).
A. Physical Wheat Tests
The following tests are used:
1. Test weight: quality test which is basically a rough
measure of density of grain in terms of weight per vol-
ume, i.e., the weight (lb.) per volume bushel (Win-
chester bushel in U.S.; Imperial in Canada). The hec-
toliter weight (hL), indicating the weight in kg/hL
(100 L), is used in the metric system countries. No
uniform conversion factors between test weight and
hL weight values are possible due to differences in
kernel shape, size, and procedures for determination
of these values.
2. Thousand kernel weight (TKW): a quality test to de-
termine the potential milling value of wheat. Weight
of 1000 kernels gives an indication of kernel density
and its consequent flour yield. The advantage of TKW
is that the weight can be expressed on a desired-mois-
ture basis.
3. Kernel size distribution: the size distribution of ker-
nels in a wheat sample can be determined using a
stack of sieves. The "theoretical flour yield" can be
determined by the total value of multiplying the per-
centage above each sieve by a factor [34]. The factors
can be calculated using multiple regression analysis
for a mill, based on a database in which percentages of
wheat sizes are the independent variables and the ac-
tual flour yields are the dependent variables [35].
4. Kernel hardness: a relative term, which is related to
the disintegration of the endosperm during its separa-
tion from bran and germ. Currently, hardness values
are determined by near-infrared refraction (NIR) or
mechanical crushing instruments such as the single
kernel characterization system (SKCS). They are used
to identify variation of wheat characteristics in the
trading system as well as indicate processing charac-
teristics [36].
5. Assessment of the milling quality of wheat is per-
formed using an experimental unit using a sample of
about 1000-1500 g. Experimental milling can give a
preliminary indication whether a wheat alone or in a
mix of wheats complies with a required quality. An
experimental mill should be differentiated from a lab-
oratory mill that is a milling unit with a fixed setting,
where all wheat samples are treated in the same man-
ner during milling. Flour samples produced with labo-
ratory mills in a relatively short time can be used for
further testing but do not provide information on the
wheat-milling properties. Official methods explain the
procedures for using experimental mills and should be
followed rigidly, preferably by the same operator [37].
Improved experimental mills are fitted with technical
parameters of the commercial mill where the wheat is
expected to be processed. Accurate sampling, temper-
ing, and controlled environment in the facility and
uniform practices ensure reproducibility and confi-
dence in the results. Flours from experimental milling
procedures could be used for further rheological and
baking tests.
6. Other physical and chemical evaluation tests per-
formed in the mill laboratory include those for mois-
ture, protein, ash, fatty acids, amylase activity, Falling
Number, and gluten quantity and quality.
B. Rheological Tests; Baking Tests
The more sophisticated and automated the bakery plant of
the mill's customers, the more effort should be devoted to
achieving a uniformity of the end product.
The data from physical or rheological dough testing and
baking tests simulate critical parameters required by the
process in the bakery [38]. Details of these test procedures
are discussed in Chapter 16 of this handbook.
Wheat
VII. WHEAT PROCESSING
A. Storage
It is important to preserve the quality and economic value
of wheat as it moves from the field into storage at the pro-
cessing mill. If not properly stored, insects, moisture dam-
age, or other conditions may cause losses. Moisture and
temperature are two main factors that influence the devel-
opment of grain molds and insects in stored wheat.
In some areas of the world, where wheat is harvested at
a high moisture content, wheat should be carefully dried to
a moisture below 12.5%, a level regarded as safe for stor-
age. Wheat exposed to different equilibria of temperature
and relative humidity will show increases or decreases in
its moisture content [39,40]. The hygroscopic moisture
does not increase at a uniform rate when in equilibrium
with an increasing atmospheric humidity. A much greater
change in hygroscopic moisture is recorded with change in
relative humidity from 75 to 90% or from 90 to 100% than
from 45 to 60% or 60 to 75% relative humidity. The hy-
groscopic moisture of all classes of wheat is similar.
The rates of insect development and spoilage are related
to the moisture content and temperature of the stored
wheat. Measures should be taken to control the moisture
and temperature of the wheat by aerating the bins with
about 0.1-0.2 m3/min/1000 kg (0.1-0.2 ft3/min/bu) of air
of the appropriate temperature and relative humidity char-
acteristics. Another measure involves using hermetic con-
ditions in the storage bins. It has been established [41] that
insects are killed by depletion of oxygen but not by the
build-up of carbon dioxide.
Established procedures of plant inspection, good house-
keeping, fumigation, and other measures such as heat
treatment of the facility can control infestation in the flour
mill. Well-designed and well-manufactured equipment that
will not harbor material in "dead corners" where insects
could propagate is an important factor.
After December 31, 2000, usage of methyl bromide will
be outlawed in the USA. This phasing-out of chemical fu-
migation will require using alternative insect-control
methods. One of them would be the use of heat in a pre-
arranged facility for a long enough period to kill all in-
sects. A temperature range of 48.9-51.7°C (120-125°F) in
all parts of the mill for a duration of 10-12 hours is suffi-
cient to destroy all insect life [42]. Others recommend
48.8-57.2°C (120-135°F) for 16 hours [43]. Insect control
in the mill is related not only to spoilage of the raw materi-
als but also to the production of flour within insect frag-
ment count specifications.
Wheat arriving at the mill is usually precleaned before
storage in the mill elevator (silo) bins (Fig. 5). Magnets,
9
large-capacity sieve cleaners, and strong aspiration remove
large chaff and dust from the wheat. Precleaning removes
contaminants from wheat to allow its longer storage, more
efficient usage of storage space, and subsequently better
and uninterrupted flow from the bins. Frequently the con-
veying equipment to transport wheat from the unloading
point to precleaning and then to the storage bins is also
used for turning and blending wheat in the elevator. When
moved, wheat dust is produced by abrasion of the kernels.
Consequently, all handling equipment and empty spaces in
the elevator should be under low negative pressure. The
exhaust system consists of ducts, suction fans, and air fil-
ters or dust collectors. An efficient exhaust system to han-
dle dust from all points in the facility prevents loss of ma-
terial and dust explosions. Depending on the mill's
location, its elevator should have a storage capacity of up
to 2-3 months of production.
In some cases wheat arrives at the mill elevator with an
8-9% moisture content and water is added to the pre-
cleaned wheat to raise its moisture to a maximum of
12.5%. By adding moisture to the wheat before storage,
the miller can subsequently reduce the tempering time of
dry wheat in the mill. Wheat will absorb water more readi-
ly after it has been tempered.
B. Blending
Usually a mill is designed for milling wheat of a certain
class and physical characteristics. However, a mill de-
signed for one class of wheat (e.g., hard or soft) does not
ensure uniformity of end-product quality.
Wheat arriving at the mill usually varies in quality and
requires blending to deliver a "wheat mix" of uniform
qualities. Wheat blending is the initial step in providing
bakers with a uniform flour. Accordingly, mills prepare
"wheat mixes" of certain protein levels or other quality
characteristics.
There are different methods of blending. Some millers
blend wheats directly in storage bins, others before grind-
ing [44]. Wheat blending just before the milling process is
mainly applied when the components of the "wheat mix"
differ in endosperm hardness and require adjustments of
moisture levels and tempering times prior to milling.
C. Cleaning
Intensive cleaning of the wheat before milling ensures that
bacteria, mold, undesired seeds, infested kernels, shrunken
and broken kernels, and other foreign materials do not con-
taminate the mill products or damage the equipment (Fig.
6). Separation in the mill cleaninghouse is based on the
following differences between whole sound wheat kernels
10
Incoming
Wheat
Receiving
Hopper
Magnet
Intake
Scale
Receiving
Separator
FIGURE 5 Schematic diagram of a mill elevator.
and unmillable materials: size and dimension, shape, spe-
cific gravity, different behavior in air currents, different
surface friction, elasticity and texture, magnetic properties,
friability under impact, differences in color, and electro-
static properties. Shrunken kernels in which the ratio of
bran to endosperm is higher than in sound kernels cause a
reduction in flour extraction [45]. Exposed endosperm of
broken kernels would affect significantly the tempering
water distribution in the wheat and cause a deterioration of
milling quality [46,47].
Magnets or metal-removing equipment separate foreign
materials that could damage equipment or generate a spark
in today's fast-turning and precisely designed equipment.
Sparks in a confined space, within a machine or in a facili-
ty in which dust of optimal granulation and concentration
is generated, could cause a dust explosion.
Initially, the foreign material is removed by a series of
screens of selected apertures that remove matter either
smaller or larger in size than the wheat kernels. Sieves in
the milling separator, similar to those used in the receiving
section but with about one third to one half of the load, are
finer and more carefully adjusted to the size of the wheat
kernels.
Posner
Storage Bins
2-3 month of production
To Wheat
Cleaning
Gravity separators separate out impurities similar to
wheat in size but different in specific gravity. Adjusted air
currents are drawn through a layer of wheat moving on a
tilted screen. Stones or other materials heavier than wheat
are segregated and remain closer to the screen. The lighter
wheat floats down the screen, while the heavier stones
"climb" the vibrating screen to the outlet.
Following the gravity separators, machines such as the
disc separator remove impurities that are similar in diame-
ter but different in shape from the whole wheat kernels.
The disc separator utilizes a series of rotating discs with in-
dentations or pockets on both sides to effect separation.
The discs rotate within the machine and raise those kernels
that fit into the pockets. The picked-up particles are
dropped into channels between the discs. Pocket configu-
rations depend on the size and shape of the seeds and grain
to be separated. The bulk of the wheat in the machine is
forwarded to the outlet with angled pallets at the center
part of each disc. The level of wheat is controlled with a
gate at the outlet end of the machine. The efficiency of sep-
aration is also controlled by the option to divert picked-up
particles into a screw conveyor that can return them to the
head end of the machine.
Wheat
Another machine using the principle of shape differ-
ences is the indentation cylinder. This device has a lower
capacity and is less efficient than the disc separator. Parti-
cles are picked up by indentations in a rotating metal cylin-
der and dropped into a collecting trough. The cylinder is
rotated at a speed just below that at which centrifugal force
would prevent the lifted particles from dropping out. The
disc separator or the indentation cylinder pockets sizes can
be selected from manufacturer catalogs to separate shorter
particles from the bulk of wheat or the wheat kernels from
longer kernels, such as those of barley and oats.
Dry scouring of the wheat removes any dirt adhering to
the kernel. In the scorer a rotor bounces the wheat against
the wall of the machine, which may be of a perforated
sheet metal, a steel wire woven screen, or an emery sur-
face. Machines are available with vertical or horizontal de-
sign and different rotor configurations.
Throughout the wheat-cleaning process all machines
and handling equipment are under negative pressure to re-
move fine dust and light materials. The negative air pres-
sure systems use controlled velocities and pressures to se-
cure separation of particles with different resistance to air
Wheat Mix
Tempering
Magnet Conveyor
Scale
Temper
Bins
Milling
Separator
Gravity
Separator
Disc
Separators
Disc
Separators
r4
Scourer
FIGURE 6 Schematic diagram of a wheat-cleaning flow.
11
flow due to size, density, shape, or other physical charac-
teristics. New wheat-cleaning machine designs include air-
circulating units as an attachment. Only about 10% of out-
side air is used during circulation. The concept of
circulating air in machines saves energy, air tunnels to air
filters, space, and environmental problems. New designs
include machines that combine different principles in one
unit. This advantage is claimed, for example, for machines
that combine sieve separator, gravity table, destoner, and
light material and dust removal by air. Another design in-
cludes a coarse sieve, disc separator, and indent cylinder
combined in a single machine.
D. Conditioning
Conditioning, a process that adjusts the moisture level of
wheat before milling, achieves a mellow endosperm and
tough bran. Bran that absorbs proper amounts of moisture
becomes elastic and will not splinter during grinding to
contaminate the flour with fine particles. Mellow en-
dosperm breaks off the bran during grinding, and less pow-
er is required to reduce large pure particles to flour. On the
. 71 71
Up to 24 hours
mill capacity
I/ \ ./ \ ./
Magnet
Scourer
Scale
Wheat to
1st Break
12
other hand, an excessive moisture level softens the wheat
endosperm to a degree where it does not have the resis-
tance to break down to sharp particles that is important for
efficient sieving and separation from the bran. Another ob-
jective of wheat conditioning is to equalize the hardness of
the different kernels in the wheat mix before processing. If
the moisture content and hardness of wheat lots in a mix
are significantly different, they might be treated separately
during the conditioning process. Different methods could
be used to condition the wheat before milling. Heating the
wheat, application of warm water, application of live
steam, or just intensive mixing of wheat and water are
some of the methods used to increase the amount and rate
of water penetration into the kernel. Moisture pick-up by
wheat capillary action increases slightly and linearly with
increasing water temperature [48]. The increase from the
initial temperature of 26.7°C is approximately 2% at 30°C
and 4% at 90°C for each variety of wheat. Excessive heat
(above 65°C) results in gelatinization of starch and protein
denaturation.
The current method most frequently used is termed
"tempering." According to this procedure, a calculated
amount of water is added to the wheat, which is then inten-
sively mixed in a continuous mixer in order to maximize a
uniform dispersion of the water on all wheat kernels. Dif-
ferent mixing rotor configurations or vibration during ap-
plication of the tempering water are used. The tempered
wheat is given a certain rest period in bins to allow the wa-
ter to distribute optimally within the different parts of the
kernel and to equalize or reduce the hydration differences
among kernels. Initially the water penetrates at a rapid rate
through the germ, while the surface water is prevented
from moving through the seedcoat layers. The penetration
rate of the water entering through the germ side is affected
by the protein content and vitreousness of the endosperm.
Optimally conditioned wheat will ensure breakage of
the kernel to the required distribution of intermediate mate-
rials throughout the process, their quality, and the appropri-
ate load to each of the machines. Water penetration and op-
timal distribution in the wheat kernel is also a function of
wheat size and shape. It was shown that water penetrates at
different rates into small, medium, and large kernels of hard
red winter wheat [49]. Moisture permeability, surface ten-
sion, and differences in cell structure are also parameters to
be studied regarding wheat conditioning for milling [50].
Three factors affect the rate and level of water penetra-
tion into the kernel: temperature, amount of water, and
time. The ideal water and wheat temperature for general
tempering conditions is about 25°C (77°F). Higher tem-
peratures will increase the rate of water penetration into
the kernel. Temperatures above 50°C will change the en-
dosperm starch and protein characteristics. The wheat de-
Posner
livered to the grinding stages should have the right mois-
ture content and preferably a temperature of about 25°C.
The bran of cold wheat below 15°C will fracture exces-
sively in the breaks and result in higher ash in the flour
[51]. At optimum moisture and temperature, a significant
increase in flour extraction and quality can be achieved.
Maximum wheat and grinding equipment temperature
should not be above 38°C because of difficulties that could
develop in separating the bran from the endosperm [51].
During the milling process 2-2.5% of the total moisture
in the mill materials evaporates. Accordingly, the amount
of water added to the wheat should be adjusted based on
the raw wheat moisture, environmental conditions in the
mill, evaporation of moisture while products are treated by
air, heat generated during grinding, and the desired mois-
ture content in the final flour. Typical moisture contents of
tempered wheats are: for hard spring wheat, 16.0-17.0%;
hard red winter wheat, 15.5-16.5%; soft wheat, 14.5-
15.5%; and durum wheat, —16.0-17.5%. Tempering time
varies—the average times are 36, 24, 10, and 6 hours for
hard spring, hard winter, soft, and durum wheats, respec-
tively. Especially hard vitreous kernels would have limited
water absorption. Without using special means, hard wheat
could absorb only about 3-3.5% of water at one time. Re-
cently, mechanical means such as high-frequency vibration
and various modes of rotors in mixers have been applied.
According to different engineering companies, with proper
equipment up to 7-8% moisture could be added in a single
tempering step. The final decision as to the optimum mois-
ture content for milling and tempering time is a subjective
decision the miller makes using a trial-and-error approach.
To toughen the bran, 20-30 minutes before the milling
process the miller adds 0.5-1.0% water to the wheat; to
achieve good results, hard wheats should be tempered
twice as described above. Very hard wheats could be tem-
pered three times before milling or follow the method of
initial tempering in the elevator (see Section VII.A). In the
past different additives such as 0.1% sodium dioctyl sulfo-
succinate [52] and others [53] were added to the water to
increase the rate of penetration and optimal distribution
within the kernels.
Scouring and intensive aspiration also take place after
the wheat-tempering stage. During the tempering process
some of the outer pericarp is loosened (beeswing), and
with the scouring action it is removed. The intensive
scouring of wheats before and after tempering reduces sig-
nificantly bacteria, mold, and yeast counts per gram of the
finished flours [54]. Some authors [55] claim a reduction
of mold, yeast, and bacteria of infected wheat by 90-95%.
This level of reduction was achieved by the application of
high electromagnetic frequency waves of 2325 MHz for
1.5-2 minutes to a 20 mm wheat layer on a endless belt.
Wheat
E. The Wheat-Milling Process
Wheat flour milling is a process that consists of controlled
breaking, reduction, and separation. The objective during
milling is to separate the branny cover and germ of the
wheat kernel from the endosperm. Breaking of the wheat
kernel is affected by corrugated cast steel rolls that gradu-
ally separate the endosperm, bran, and germ. Reduction of
relatively pure endosperm to particles smaller than 180 p.m
is achieved by using smooth rolls. Segregation between the
kernel parts occurs in sifters and purifiers. In sifters, sieves
separate particles of different size. In purifiers with sieves
and air, differences in size, specific gravity, and shape of
particles are used to separate particles of pure endosperm
and those which include different ratios of bran and en-
dosperm. None of the kernel fractions coming out of the
mill are completely pure, and each contains some parts of
the others. The level of purity of each product at the end of
the mill is one of the measures of mill efficiency.
Flour extraction in the mill is measured as percentage of
flour produced based on a quantity of wheat that is either
dirty, dry, clean, or cleaned and tempered. The basis used
for calculation of the extraction rate should be stated with
the results. Another measure is the gain/loss or the differ-
ence between the wheat arriving in the mill and the total
weight of products shipped out. There should be a gain of
total product weight after the milling process as a result of
the difference between the moisture content of the wheat
arriving at the mill and the cumulative moisture content of
all final products.
The flour-milling process consists of numerous stages
that can be divided into the following subprocesses: break-
ing, grading, purification, sizings, reduction, millfeed han-
dling, germ recovery, and flour dressing. The milling
stages of the process are shown on the mill flowsheet,
which is a "map" of the process. The intermediate materi-
als of the process flowing to each of the grinding stages are
named accordingly by the miller, such as sizing or mid-
dling materials. Figure 7 shows an example of a relatively
simplified mill flowsheet. This flowsheet demonstrates the
links between the different stages in a milling process as
well as the specific parameters of the machines.
Materials at different stages of the milling process dif-
fer in quality or in the ratio of bran to endosperm and par-
ticle size. The efficiency of gradual separation between the
endosperm, bran, and germ is directly related to the length
and the number of stages in the process. Segregation of the
intermediate materials to different grinding stages is based
on their size and the amount of undesirable bran and germ
particles. In an optimal system each of the materials would
be treated individually. However, grinding rolls, sifters,
and purifiers are manufactured to standard sizes, and this
13
causes mill designers to compromise on the number of
separations in respect to quality and quantity of the inter-
mediate materials. Accordingly, the extent to which inter-
mediate materials are subdivided in the mill is a function
of the mill capacity. If the mill capacity is too small, differ-
ent stages would be underloaded with standard size equip-
ment, and in this case products that are only slightly differ-
ent should be combined.
Grinding of the wheat occurs between two cast rolls
that are positioned in a machine structure and rotate
against each other. The machine, called a "rollstand," in-
cludes usually two pairs of cast rolls, parts that function as
the engaging and disengaging mechanism, a system of ma-
terial feeding to the nip of the rolls, and various automa-
tion systems. Modern rollstands include pairs of rolls with
diameters of 250 mm and lengths of 600-1250 mm. The
rolls are held by prelubricated roller bearings and posi-
tioned horizontally to each other. Some new rollstand de-
signs come with four pairs of rolls, where two subsequent
grinding steps are performed on each side before the mate-
rial is conveyed to a sifting machine. The rolls rotate at dif-
ferent speeds. The ratio of the speeds is called the differen-
tial. Fast rolls of the initial grinding stages (breaks) rotate
at about 650 rpm, while those at later stages rotate at about
500 rpm. Differentials range from 2.5:1 to 1.5:1 in the
break and reduction rolls, respectively. With higher differ-
ential, there is a larger shear effect between the rolls, while
with lower differential, compression is more significant.
The initial grinding stages in the milling process are
named "breaks." The breaks are used in the grinding steps
of the milling process to separate the bran, germ, and en-
dosperm from each other. The success or failure is mea-
sured in the level of achieving, as efficiently as possible,
complete separation between the kernel parts. Between
corrugated rolls there always exists a small gap, which is
absent in smooth reduction rolls. In the conventional
milling of hard and durum wheats, the objective is to pro-
duce minimal amounts of flour in the breaks but a maxi-
mum of clean endosperm chunks. However, with soft
wheat, because of the softer, less dense endosperm, the
percentage of flour extracted from the breaks in conven-
tional milling is higher than that from hard and durum
wheats. One study [34] reports that hard, soft, and durum
wheats produced on the first three breaks are 49.8, 44.7,
and 77.4 and 5.7, 10.5, and 2.0% of sizings and flour, re-
spectively.
The corrugations on the roll surface are grooves with
front and back angles (Fig. 8). The steeper front angle is
25-35° and the back angle could be between 60 and 75°. In
general, steeper angles would create more granular frac-
tions, while flatter corrugations would generate finer frac-
tions. The corrugations are cut in a spiral with relation to
14 Posner

PRE. BK.
10.24 C $12. F. 512.
TEMP C:) 2.5/1 10,24 10116
*14E4T 1093 1.2.3 OK. RED. 1.5/1 1.5/I
P-I

rein 26 104
1079 1- 24LW S-5499 96 3-22 13
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10. 7 14 32_
SCALE A591&
PUDE
16K.
10. 24 91.
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1-7699 59.
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9.I5 9.15 9.12, 1.5/I
10 G. CO 20 G.
2.5/1 2.5/1 9 8K 1 T. -5499 12.0
24 0. PUR. a PNEUM. t 7,16 1.2/1 2-1
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NOTE EACH SIFTER BOX SHOWN 1 5121. 213.1 12.

REPRESENTS 1/4 2.14 SIFTER N54. 17

10

FEEL

FIGURE 7 Flowsheet of Kansas State University 200 cwt flour mill.

the roll axis ranging in the order of 4-16%. The inclination
would be expressed in inches per foot in the United States
or in percent per roll length in European countries. The
number of corrugations on the first break rolls would be
about four per centimeter; in later stages there is a gradual
increase in the number of corrugations per inch (smaller
corrugations) on the roll surface. Between corrugations
there should be a "land," which is the width of unmachined
roll surface. The land strengthens the corrugations and re-
duces the bran cuttings to fine particles. The effect of the
speed differential between the rolls is also responsible for
what is called the "action." The action of the front angle of
one roll against that of the other is named "sharp to sharp"
(S:S). In the case that the back angle of the two corruga-
tions act against each other, the action is "dull to dull"
(D:D). Millers could subjectively arrange roll action as
S:D or D:S based on variables related to the wheat condi-
tion and mill flowsheet.
Starting with the first break, the objective is to open the
kernel. The shape and depth of the first break roll corruga-
tions should be selected to fit the size of the kernels. Opti-
mum results in the first break are achieved if the kernels
are fed to the gap between the rolls horizontally, held by
the corrugation of the slow-moving roll, and opened exact-
ly at the crease by the fast-moving roll. Optimum for the
second break rolls and the subsequent breaks is feeding the
material (endosperm attached to a flake of bran) directly to
a precisely adjusted gap where with the right pressure the
Wheat
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8 Roll corrugations: (a) the cutting effect between rolls as a result of corrugations spiral; (b) action between corrugated rolls
(S:S); (c) roll cross section showing the shape of corrugation.
fast-moving roll scrapes the endosperm from the bran. As
the bran flakes get smaller toward the final breaking stages
and the endosperm layer attached to it becomes thinner,
gradually smaller corrugations are used (or a larger num-
ber of corrugations per inch of roll surface). Optimally
conditioned wheat and the right corrugations, pressure,
and differential minimize splitting of the bran to particles
of a size that can be sieved through with the flour. Good re-
sults in conventional milling are obtained when most of
the endosperm free bran consists of large flakes.
The commercial flow should be designed to meet the re-
quired capacity, wheat quality, and end products, and it is
based on specific machine surface values as shown in
Table 3 [56]. For example, the roll unit in the United States
allocates 0.3 inch of roll length per 100 pounds (cwt) of
flour milled per 24 hours. Mills that use the metric system
would express the same roll units as 12.58 mm/100 kg
wheat/24 h. Conventionally with a longer break system, up
to six stages in hard wheat and seven in durum wheat
TABLE 3 Mill Technical Specifications for Major Equipment for Different
Kinds of Wheats'
Hard
Roll unit (mm) 10-15
Sifter surface (m2) 0.055-0.081
Purifier width (mm) 3-7
aPer 100 kg processed wheat in 24 hours.
Source: Ref. 56.
15
Length of Corrugation
Land
Back
Cutting
edge
edge
-0 1 0--
(c)
mills, it is possible to grind the material fed to the rolls in a
less severe manner. Roll surfaces should be maintained in
good condition to ensure good flour extraction and quality.
Depending on the quality of the steel and the type of
milling technology used, corrugated rolls should be refur-
bished every 3-6 months of milling Other factors that in-
fluence the need for refurbishing are roll surface alloca-
tion, feed rate per unit, severity of grinding, wheat
hardness, and presence of stones or other impurities in
wheat. Recent advances in metallurgy that allow casting of
harder outer surfaces for corrugated rolls extend the time
between refurbishing up to 8 months.
Even when the mix in the mill is changed drastically in
wheat size and kernels are smaller or larger than normal,
usually mills will continue using the existing corrugations,
keeping many exiting variables unaltered. Generally, the
gap between the rolls will be adjusted intuitively by the
miller based on his or her experience. A few studies were
conducted to evaluate the first roll action and the different
Wheat
Soft Durum
10-13 16-20
0.083-0.088 0.086-0.093
0-3 8-12
16
parameters that could effect conventional milling of differ-
ent kinds of wheat. Grinding of soft and hard wheats on a
set of rolls at different rotating speeds indicated that better
separation between bran and endosperm occurred on the
first break with a lower speed and smaller diameter [57].
Wheat moisture is another important factor that affects the
grinding process for common and durum wheat [58]. The
best semolina production with first break rolls from durum
wheat was achieved by sharp to dull action, angle profile
of 25°/65°, and a differential of 1.5:1 [59].
The severity of grinding between the rolls and the parti-
cle size distribution of the ground meal is controlled by ad-
justing the break release, which is defined as the percent-
age of material passing through the first group of
overtailing sieves in a break sifter, based on the amount fed
to the sifter. The miller adjusts the release of the different
grinding stages using a laboratory sifter on which a repre-
sentative sample taken from under the rolls is sifted. With
a given mill flow the miller sets the appropriate break re-
leases for each wheat mix. Normally the cumulative re-
lease of all the breaks should be about 2-3% higher than
the expected total flour extraction from the mill. Following
each grinding stage, the material is conveyed to a sifter
section.
1. Sieving
In the sifter, particles of the grounded material are separat-
ed according to size. Sifters are available in two, four, six,
and eight sections. Modern sifters are more sanitary than
those used in the past, which often were a source of infes-
tation. Each section contains 26-30 frames covered with
tightly stretched sieves of appropriate apertures. Properly
tensioned sieves on the frames are critical for a sifting effi-
ciency. The optimum degree of tension (-11 N/cm) is re-
lated to the cloth material used. Excessively slack sieves
reduce the mill throughput up to 4%. In the past, sieves
were stretched by hand over the frame and stapled. Today,
special stretching devices are used to uniformly stretch the
sieves, which are glued to the frames. Sifter sieve areas in
mills are specified in m2/100 kg wheat/24 h (Table 3).
The sieves in a sifter section are divided into groups. At
the top of the section, there are usually coarser sieves sep-
arating the larger material that flows out of the sifter
through a side channel. The material passing through the
sieve is either transferred out of the machine or directed
down to finer-aperture sieves for a further separation. Be-
low each sieve, a backwire is attached to the frame on
which hard rubber balls, plastic elements, or cotton pads
bounce to keep the sieve clean. "Throughs," a stream pass-
ing through the upper sieves in a break stage sifter, is a
mixture of flour and chunks of endosperm to which often
some bran is also attached. While the "overs" of the top
Posner
sieves are transferred to the next break for additional
scraping of endosperm, the mixture of the throughs is seg-
regated, based on particle size differences on lower sieve
groups in the section. This is evident from a schematic
view of a first break sifter section where six materials that
differ in quality and size flow out (Fig. 9).
2. Grading or Redusting
Graders are sifter sections used to handle mainly materials
directed from the breaks. A blend of medium-sized and
fine sizings as well as middlings is directed to the graders.
Materials from primary breaks are directed to the first
grader. Materials from secondary breaks (e.g., the third or
fourth) are directed to second or third graders. The main
objective of the grader is to remove the remaining flour
from the middlings and to separate the granular material
to narrow particle size ranges for better efficiency in the
purifiers.
3. Purification
At the head end of the milling system granular intermedi-
ate materials of the same size range are directed to ma-
chines called purifiers. The different size groups differ also
in the amount of pure endosperm, bran, and such particles
of endosperm to which bran is still attached. The more
similar the particles are in size, the more effective is the
purifier performance. The purifier's main purpose is to
separate particles into fractions of pure endosperm, a mix-
ture of particles to which bran is attached, and bran parti-
cles. This is achieved by using sieves and air currents. The
purifiers classify the material into several fractions accord-
ing to size, shape, and specific gravity. The endosperm par-
ticles, essentially free from bran and germ, are spouted to
smooth rolls, where they are ground into flour. Other parti-
cles to which bran and other outer layers of kernel adhere
are delivered to different pairs of rolls ("sizings") for care-
ful reduction and separation of the bran.
The purifier includes two set of sieve "beds" with one to
three layers of graded sieves positioned on top of each oth-
er (Fig. 10). Each layer in the bed consists of four sieves
that are finer in the head than in the tail end. The upper
sieves in each bed are coarser than the lower ones. Vibrat-
ing motors apply a reciprocating motion to the sieves that
hang in an inclined position. In older models, sieve hang-
ers could be adjusted to vary the sieve inclinations and
strokes that move the material. In today's modern ma-
chines the vibrating motors and their counterweights are
adjusted to control the sieves motion. This permits the
miller to adjust the machine to have more pitch for fibrous
material than pure endosperm particles. Brushes moving
back and forth or rubber balls bouncing on a backwire at-
tached to the sieve frame keep the sieves clean. Air cur-
Wheat 17

1st Break
1000 x 250
4 corr./cm
Spiral 6%
Diff. 2.5:1
D:D
4-1080 µ .#1. To 2nd break coarse roll
3-950 µ
► #2. To 2nd break fine roll
3-750 µ
► #3. To 1st sizings roll
3-360 µ
#4. To purifier #1
3-135 µ
► #5. To 1st middlings

#6. Flour

FIGURE 9 Schematic view of a first break sifter section.

A A
I

Air Suction
50 mm W.G.
Material entrance: 50 m.cu./min
1st BK 530-300 µ 4
2nd BK 530-300 µ

— ....
--V 1 4
I 432µ I + 467 ii i 1 478 µ 500µ
3 BKf
I I I I
II I I I A
1 3 BKf
400 II 1 I 432 µ1 1 46711 l 1 4781.1
1 1 1
, i
i t
/ 375 µ 400 li. I 432 µ 1 1 467 µ 1Sizc

1M 1 Sizf 1Sizc

(a) (b)

FIGURE 10 (a) Schematic view of a purifier. (b) Schematic view of a purifier sieve bed.
18
rents drawn through the sieves fluidize and stratify the ma-
terial based on the particle size, specific weight, and shape.
The vibrating motion of the purifier sieves also stratifies
the material on the sieve layer. The heavier endosperm par-
ticles move closer to the sieve surface while the more bran-
ny material floats on top. At the head end of the purifier the
purest and most dense endosperm particles pass through
the sieves. Materials with more bran attached pass to siz-
ing rolls through the coarser sieves. Tailings over the
sieves are materials that are directed to the last fine break
stages.
The purifier air hood is divided into sections and is po-
sitioned above the enclosed airtight sieve bed, allowing air
to move only through the sieves. The amount of air drawn
through the layer of material moving on is controlled by
valves in each of the sections. The miller can also regulate
the amount of material to the purifier to keep the sieves
covered and prevent bare areas on the sieves. Bare areas
allow the air to flow through because of the reduced resis-
tance, causing ineffectiveness in stratifying material on the
sieves. The number of purifiers in a mill is specified based
on the total sieve width per 100 kg of wheat processed in
24 hours (mm/100 kg wheat/24 h) (Table 3). In some cases
where space is limited, two machines are stacked on top of
each other.
4. Sizings
The material at each of the sizing stages is a mixture of
particles close in size range, some pure endosperm, and
others still with attached bran. The objective of the sizing
stages is to reduce the particle size and, during reduction,
to separate the still attached bran from the endosperm.
Material from the sizing stages can be diverted to puri-
fiers, to middlings for final reduction, or to flour as a final
product. However, the miller tries to refrain from severe
grinding in the sizing stage to avoid production of flour
TABLE 4 Effect of Matte, Polished, and Fine Corrugated Rolls on Second Middlings Materials
Smooth rolls,
matte
Flour through 136 gm (%) 65.6
Flour Ash (%) d.m. 0.52
>107 gm (%) 29
>95 gm (%) 9.5
>73 gm (%) 18
Through 73 gm (%) 43.5
Dough resistance (Dw) 665
Dough elasticity (Dl, cm) 11
Bread volume: cm3 (m1/100 g flour) 561
Dw and D1 = Extensigraph values.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 60.
Posner
that may be contaminated by the presence of bran. Some
millers use corrugated rolls on sizing stages, while others
use smooth rolls. Smooth rolls will have a more delicate
effect and produce lower-ash flour than corrugated ones.
When corrugated rolls are used in sizings stages, the corru-
gation features are adjusted to the particle size and the bran
adhering to them.
5. Middlings or Reductions
Coarse and fine pure endosperm particles from breaks, pu-
rifiers, sizings, and reductions in the mill are reduced to
flour on smooth rolls. The outer layer of smooth rolls is of
"softer" steel than that of corrugated rolls. The "softer"
steel, which includes more carbon molecules in the cast,
"loses" them with time, thus keeping a rough surface.
Table 4 [60] shows the different effects of rough, polished,
and finely corrugated reduction rolls on the middlings'
ground material, particle size, and flour quality. Smooth
roll surfaces should be refurbished about once a year de-
pending on the steel quality. The speed differential be-
tween smooth rolls is 1.15:1-1.8:1, i.e., much lower than
in breaks or other corrugated rolls (2.5:1). The low differ-
ential causes higher pressure and lower shear forces be-
tween the rolls.
Between smooth rolls that practically touch each other,
high pressure is exerted on the material. However, that
pressure should be optimized for each reduction stage.
Tests conducted with a third middling material showed
that maximum flour was extracted through a 11XX (124
pm aperture) bolting cloth following the use of 64.5
pounds per linear inch pressure between a pair of smooth
rolls [61]. Higher pressures flaked part of the endosperm
material, resulting in a lowering of the amount of flour
passing through the bolting cloth. The pressure causes a
rise in the temperature of the smooth rolls, which can reach
50°C (122°F) or higher. To decrease the rise in tempera-
Smooth rolls,
polished Fine, corrugated
62.1 64.7
0.54 0.56
29 41
11.5 14
18 15
41.5 30
640 540
11 13
576 571
Wheat
ture, certain rollstand models include a water cooling sys-
tem. The material is acted upon between the rolls for about
1/390 of a second. In the nip between the rolls the material
temperature can reach 60°C (140°F) for a short time. How-
ever, the temperature of the material usually rises about
7°C (12.6°F), as indicated by measurements taken above
and under the rolls. In addition to the action of the rolls on
the material, it was also recognized that reduction of parti-
cles occurs among the particles themselves. This depends
on the layer of material fed to the rolls [60]. The pressure
exerted by the rolls on the endosperm particles is responsi-
ble for the physical reduction in size but also causes other
physical and chemical changes, including damage to the
starch and some modification of the proteins [60].
In general, the reduction system substantially affects
the quality of the end product through the compression and
shear applied on the endosperm matrix of protein in which
starch granules are embedded. In hard wheat the adhesion
between the starch granules and the protein matrix of the
endosperm cells is stronger than in soft wheat. Therefore,
flours from soft wheat disintegrate easier in milling and
produce finer flours than those of hard wheats. Millers ad-
just the flowsheet and mill equipment to produce flours of
coarser granulation from weaker wheats and finer granula-
tion from stronger wheats to achieve optimum results in
baking.
Starch damaged by milling absorbs five times more wa-
ter during the dough process and is susceptible to diastatic
activity by enzymes that decompose starch to dextrin,
oligosaccharides, and simple sugars during the dough
preparation. When present at an excessive level, damaged
starch has an adverse effect on dough and bread quality.
Because of its harder cell structure, hard wheat endosperm
generates flour with more damaged starch by the action of
high roll pressure or high impact forces during the reduc-
tion stages of the mill. A matte surface will generate more
starch damage than polished surface. The amount of starch
damage is also affected by the velocity differential be-
tween the rolls [62]. On the other hand, if this differential
is unchanged but the roll speed is increased, the starch
damage would increase because of the difference between
the peripheral speed of the rolls.
Some flaking of endosperm occurs during reduction
with smooth rolls. To disintegrate the flakes, different
types of flake disruption or impact machines are used. Dis-
ruption of the flakes can be achieved by impaction with a
fast rotating rotor on which an arrangement of blades, pins,
hammers, or stripes hits the endosperm particles at an ap-
propriate tip speed. Impact machines are used in some cas-
es instead of rolls to reduce the size of clean endosperm
particles of flour. If the position of the impactor and speed
are set correctly to grind endosperm of appropriate hard-
19
ness, impact milling could be more effective than rolls in
reducing it to flour. A rotor tip speed of 110 m/s applied to
granular endosperm produced 87% flour [63]. Flour pro-
duced with impact milling is finer and has a lower level of
starch damage as compared to that from roll stand grind-
ing. Protein levels in these flours were higher after impact
grinding than in flours produced by rolls. The investment
costs in an impact mill are lower, but the energy expense
per quantity of material reduced is higher than that of a
rollstand [64].
6. Air as a Means of Processing
Machine location and product transfer in the mill are opti-
mized by maximizing the use of gravity flow for interme-
diate materials. For vertical transfer of materials positive
or negative pneumatic systems are used. Negative pneu-
matic systems are usually used for the transfer of all inter-
mediate materials in the grinding unit. Properly designed
and efficient air-handling systems for pneumatic convey-
ing or suction in various locations in the mill reduce signif-
icantly the energy consumption of the operation. In a mod-
ern mill about 10 times more air weight than wheat weight
is moved through the system. Accordingly, it is essential to
maintain the relative humidity at about 65% and tempera-
ture at about 25°C (77°F) in the mill to control moisture
evaporation in intermediate and final products. In locations
where extreme humidity levels or temperatures exist, air
control units should be installed in the mill. If intermediate
stocks are too dry or too wet this affects the sieving effi-
ciency, the breaking up of the bran, and accordingly the fi-
nal quality of the flours.
VIII. MILL CONTROL
Control of mill performance is a continuous chore of the
miller who sets methods and procedures to achieve opti-
mal performance. As an example, when changing wheat
mixes in the mill, the flours are directed to a set-off bin un-
til the mill is adjusted for the new wheat mix. The mill
flours are directed to the set-off bins also upon starting and
shutting down the mill. The reason for such measures is to
prevent production of off-grade flours while the mill is un-
derloaded. The flour in the set-off bins is reblended to the
main stream at a very low rate. Scales to weigh wheat at re-
ceiving point, before and after cleaning, tempered wheat,
and final products could indicate changes in loads, extrac-
tion levels, and any other problems in each section of the
mill. On-line instrumentation to determine moisture, pro-
tein, ash, and color ensures uniformity of raw materials
and final products.
Evaluation of the mill technological performance is
measured by using the ash content of wheat, intermediate
20
300 T/D
Line #1
0,8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100
CUMULATIVE EXTRACTION (%)
FIGURE 11 A cumulative ash curve of a flour mill.
materials, individual flour streams, and final products. The
significant difference in ash content among the three main
parts of the wheat kernel endosperm, bran, and germ is
used as a measure to determine the level of the separation
efficiency from each other. However, in the past, because
no other accurate tools were available, ash was used as a
criterion of flour quality. Flour ash was an inconclusive pa-
rameter and in the past created significant economic losses
to millers and bakers. The reason is that ash values of
flours are not directly related to the flour end user's speci-
fications. Millers compromised on flour extraction to sup-
ply flour within specifications from good baking quality
wheats that inheritably had higher endosperm ash. Today,
fast and accurate instrumentation to determine flour quali-
ties such as color, starch damage, rheological characteris-
tics, and baking qualities is widening the parameters for
flour specifications.
The objective in milling is to achieve as high as possi-
ble flour extraction with the lowest contamination of bran
and germ that increase ash content. The ash curve is a
mean to express cumulative ash of the flour streams in the
mill. To construct the ash curve the streams are arranged in
increasing order of ash content, and they are weighted
based on the extraction of each into a function that is a re-
lationship between the cumulative ash content of a number
of streams and the related total flour extraction (Fig. 11).
The miller's objective is to reach an ash curve that is flat
and start to turn upward at the highest possible flour ex-
traction.
While the ash values and curve are an indication of the
mill separation efficiency between the endosperm and
bran, the granulation curve is a function of mill adjustment
and screen selection. The granulation curve (Fig. 12) ex-
presses the disintegration of the wheat kernel at different
Posner
stages of the milling process. The curve is drawn as a
graph where the horizontal axis shows the various sieve
apertures in micrometers, and the vertical axis shows the
cumulative percentage tailovers of the respective sieves.
The granulation curve shows the particle size distribution
of the ground material. By drawing granulation curves for
each of the grinding stages, the miller can monitor vari-
ability in kernel disintegration and make the necessary ad-
justments in the system. The data to construct the granula-
tion curve can be generated with an experimental sifter.
The miller sieves the stock from under the rollstand on a
stack of sieves and then calculates the percentages of all
the quantities remaining on the sieves and the material in
the bottom pan from the total weight.
If a different set of sieves is used for the separation of a
grounded stock, different points will be allocated on the
same graph to determine a change in the amount overtail-
ing from each sieve. The shape of the curve does not de-
pend on the sieve aperture, but on the sample granulation
distribution. The miller draws the granulation curves of the
mill for each wheat mix at the time when mill performance
is optimum. Granulation curve analysis can generate the
following information: (1) corrugation condition, (2) mill
balance, (3) roll adjustment, and (4) sieve area, aperture,
division, and efficiency of the sieving stages.
IX. THE MILL END PRODUCTS
A. Flours
Flour quality is a subjective concept that relates to final
product usage. For different types of bread around the
world specific wheat characteristics and flour qualities are
required. Quality parameters such as color, protein, granu-
lation distribution, gluten quantity and quality, and starch
damage play a role in the suitability of flour for the baker.
Another important factor besides the determination of
120
1st bk
CUM. RETAINED (%)
100
2nd bk
80 ——•
3rd bk
60
40
20
0
0 110 125 130 210 282 368 437 505 682
MICRONS
FIGURE 12 A mill granulation curve.
Wheat 21

quality is the concept of flour uniformity. For the commer-
cial baker uniformity of flour supplied is more important
than variations in characteristics such as premium protein
or reduced starch damage.
Flours from the different stages in the mill are not identi-
cal in physical appearance, chemical analysis, or baking
properties. These flour streams are composed of varying
amounts of different parts of the wheat kernel. In the case
that all the flour streams are blended to one composite, the
result is a "straight-grade flour." The quality of the straight-
grade flour is directly related to the quality of the processed
wheat. It is possible to combine these flour streams in dif-
ferent ratios to produce simultaneously two or more final
flours that differ in color, ash content, protein content,
dough-handling properties, and bread baking characteris-
tics. This method of producing more than one final flour
from one wheat mix is called "split milling" or "divide mill-
ing." In wheat-importing countries the method of split
milling is used to accommodate the requirements for flour
qualities of different end uses. In wheat-growing countries
such as the United States split milling is not frequently used
since the wide variety of wheat types accommodate differ-
ent end uses.
In the United States the common types of flours pro-
duced in a mill are patent, first clear, and second clear. Fig-
ure 13 shows an example of products from a flour mill and
their proximate analysis. Amounts and types of final prod-
ucts vary among mills are a result of differences in flow-
sheet, adjustments, and kinds of wheat milled. Flour
streams from the head end middlings, primary sizings, and
in some cases that of second and third breaks originate
from the center of the wheat kernel. The blend of these

Protein - 12.3% Fat - 1.54% Starch - 56.28%

100 POUNDS OF DRY WHEAT Ash _ 1.44% Fiber - 2.11% Moisture 12.5%

Protein 10.7% Fat 0.87% Moisture 14%

Varied Flour Extractions 74-78% Ash 0.60% Starch 68.4% Color KJ 0 Total Feed

Farina (optional) 2% (of total flour)

Bran
1st Clear Flour up to 20%
Shorts 8% 1°%

2nd Clear Flour3%, Protein13.5%, Ash 1.2%, Fat 1.3%, Color KJ 3

Patent Flour up to 75% (of total flour) (of total flour)
Protein 13.8% Protein
Protein 12.7%
Protein 10.8% Ash 1.49% 13.8%
Ash 0.75%
Ash 0.40% Fat 6.6%
Fat 1.3% Ash 6.1%
Fat 0.88% Fiber 10.1%
Ave. Particle Size 50µ Color KJ 1.5
Starch 18.5% Fat 3% 0
Color KJ -2 a
Fiber
Red Dog 3% 10.1%

Starch
le
Protein 13.1%
5.46%
Ash 1.49%
Fat 2.29%
Fiber 2.9%
Starch 36.96%

Germ 1%
Baker's Patent up to 97% (of total flour)
Protein 11.1% Protein 22%
Ash 0.50% Ash 4.05%
Color KJ -1
Fat 6.6%
Fiber 3.55%

Starch 21.4%

Straight Grade Flour 100%

FIGURE 13 Flour grades for a typical milling system. 14% moisture basis. KJ = Kent—Jones Color Grader. (Adapted from Ref. 65.)
22
flour streams is called "patent flour." Patent flour is about
77% of the total flour, is the whitest, and contains the lowest
relative amount of ash (0.38-0.42%, corrected to 14%
moisture basis—m.b.). Other flour streams of the process
that contain a higher percentage of the endosperm parts ad-
jacent to the bran and germ are distinguished from the for-
mer by higher ash and protein contents, darker color, and
inferior baking qualities. These flour streams can be com-
bined to make up "first-clear flour." First-clear flour is
about 20% of the total flour and contains about 0.75% ash.
"Second-clear flour," made up of the rest of the streams, is
3% of total flour and contains up to 1.2% ash (14% m.b.).
The ratio between patent, first clear, and second clear could
vary substantially in percentages in other instances and, ac-
cordingly, in ash and quality. Blending part or all of the first
clear into the patent comprises the "baker's patent."
The miller subjectively blends the flour streams from
different stages in the mill to make up the final products.
Each of the final flours are collected under the sifters in
conveyors. As a result, characteristics of the final flours do
not follow a regression line of quality.
Optimum flour granulation distribution is an important
parameter for the baking process. Drastic change in granu-
lation effects water absorption, water retention during fer-
mentation, proofing, and quality of finished breads. The
mill adjusts product granulation to the kind of additives
added during dough preparation and to the types of breads
baked. Control of flour particle size distribution is a pa-
rameter the miller controls by wheat selection, tempering,
mill flow, and mill adjustment.
The ash content does not affect the baking quality of the
flour; it relates basically to the level of bran in the flour.
Ash content of flour is a very valuable test for mill control.
However, in many cases flour ash is used in flour quality
specifications disproportionately to its value and signifi-
cance in baking. This creates a situation where millers are
constrained to lower flour extraction when using good bak-
ing quality wheat of inherently high endosperm ash.
Flour color depends on wheat cleanliness, tempering
level, finesse of flour, and the amount of bran particles it
contains. Too much fine bran effects flour shade, produc-
ing a darker shade. Frequently during the mill operation
the miller slicks a flour sample and wets it. This method,
called the Pekar test, is used by the miller to evaluate the
color and amount of bran particles in the flour. Change in
mill ambient conditions could also affect flour color. In ad-
dition, flour carries a yellow cast due to the presence of
carotene. Natural aging during storage of the flour for up to
2 weeks or usage of different bleaching agents, where per-
mitted, could overcome this problem.
In some countries improvers and enrichments are fed
into the flour in the mill or in the blending facilities before
Posner
load-out. The powders are added to the flour with great ac-
curacy and uniformity by special feeders. Modem systems
use programmable logic controller (PLC)-controlled feed-
ing systems. At the end of the milling process the microin-
gredients are conveyed by air and introduced and mixed
into the flour by special agitators. In mills where microin-
gredients are added to flour according to customers' specifi-
cations, they are introduced into large-capacity, high-speed
batch mixers during final blending and before load-out.
B. Bran
Commercial bran differs from the botanical outer layers of
the wheat kernel. The bran that is removed during the var-
ious stages of the milling process is made up of fractions
that differ in size and endosperm content. Bran is de-
scribed using factors such as minimum protein, minimum
fat, maximum fiber, and maximum moisture. In the United
States "wheat mill run" would be a product that includes
all offal fractions from a typical mill. According to the
American Feed Control Officials [66], wheat mill run con-
sists of the following: minimum protein, 13.0%; minimum
fat, 4.0%; maximum fiber, 9.5%; and maximum moisture,
14.0%. The American Feed Control Officials [66] define
proximate analysis for all other by-products from the
milling process. Specifications will vary from country to
country based on milling technology, feed regulations,
kind of wheat used, and climatic conditions.
C. Wheat Germ
The germ constitutes about 2.5-3% by weight of the wheat
kernel depending on the size of the whole kernel. The two
main parts of the wheat germ are the embryo and the
scutellum. The loosely held embryo part of the germ can
be extracted relatively easily, but the soft scutellum, high
in fat and protein, is difficult to separate from the en-
dosperm and the bran [67]. The embryo and the whole
germ differ in size, shape, and the level at which they are
embedded into the kernel among the different kinds of
wheat.
The mill flow is designed to separate whole embryos
during the breaking stages. The moist, soft, and easily flat-
tened embryos are directed in the mill flow, usually from a
purifier, to a pair of smooth rolls with low differential,
where they are flaked [68]. The small flakes are extracted
in the sifters over a 14 US mesh sieve (1410 lim). Accord-
ing to definitions of the Association American Feed Con-
trol Officials [66], pure wheat germ that is used primarily
for human food should contain a minimum of 30% protein.
In some mills the germ is separated with an impact ma-
chine ahead of the first break roll. After impaction the ma-
terial is sifted on a sifter, where it is separated into differ-
Wheat 23

ent fractions. The coarse material is diverted to the first- TABLE 6 Protein Composition of Wheat Fractions
break coarse, the intermediate material to first-break fine, Protein
and the fines containing the embryos to a smooth pair of
rolls, where it is flaked for separation. Graina Soft wheat Hard wheat
Fraction (%) (%) (T)

X. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WHEAT Pericarp and testa 8.0 4.1 7.6

AND MILL PRODUCTS Testa and hyaline 15.7
Aleurone 7.0 18.4 24.3
A. Protein Germ 1.0 31.1 26.3
Scutellum 1.5 24.9
Various classes of wheat are intentionally bred and select- 12.5 12.8 16.2
Outer endosperm
ed for a specific composition, usually to meet end-use re- Middle endosperm 12.5 8.2
quirements for a product. For example, commercial soft Inner endosperm 57.5 5.8 8.0
wheats are maintained at low protein levels, although cer- Whole grain 100.0 8.2 12.1
tain soft wheats are associated with genes for high protein
and are used as germplasm in breeding programs to devel- aN x 5.83, 14% moisture basis.
Source: Refs. 6, 71.
op high-protein hard wheats [69]. Protein content in a sin-
gle variety of wheat can vary from 7 to 20% depending
upon growing environment and fertilizer use.
Typical protein ranges for selected world wheats are dosperm (subaleurone) is higher in protein than the inner
given in Table 5. Protein content is negatively correlated portion [72,73]. The embryo and scutellum, which make
with grain yield, so that spring wheats are generally higher up the germ, are high in protein, lipids, reducing sugars,
in protein content than winter-grown types. and ash. Because of the structure of various parts, as noted
Constituents of hard and soft wheats are given in Table in Table 1, milling extraction rates affect flour composi-
6. The high-protein hard wheat is higher in protein in all tion. With an increase in extraction rates, protein, fat, and
constituents except the germ. Constituents of wheat grains fiber increase, whereas carbohydrates decrease. It is com-
are not distributed uniformly. Composition of anatomical monly accepted that the protein content of straight-grade
parts of the wheat grain along with caloric values are com- flour is about 1% less than that of the wheat used by the
pared in Table 1. The pericarp (bran) is high in pentosans, mill. The miller controls variation in flour protein by ad-
cellulose, and ash. The aleurone is a botanical part of the justing wheat protein, wheat size, and wheat-blending
endosperm, but during milling it is removed with the bran. methods [46]. The protein "difference" between the whole
It is high in protein, lipids, pentosans, and ash, thus con- kernels and flour is larger for smaller size kernels [49].
tributing significantly to the nutritional quality of bran as a In cereals only wheat-and to some extent rye-have
feedstuff. Starch is found in the endosperm. The outer en- storage proteins that form the gluten network in flour and
water doughs, which has the unique properties of elasticity
and strength to produce yeast-leavened bread. Storage pro-
TABLE 5 Protein Content Ranges of Wheat Types teins comprise 85% of wheat endosperm proteins and con-
sist of gliadin (alcohol-soluble) and glutenin (alkali- or
Wheat type Approximate protein range (%)
acid-soluble) fractions.
HRS (United States) 11.5-18 Amino acid compositions for four classes of wheat are
Durum 10-16.5 listed in Table 7. The amino acid composition of a com-
Plate (Argentina) 10-16 mercial hard red winter wheat mill mix and its flour, bran,
CWRS (Manitoba) 9-18 break shorts, and red dog are listed in Table 8. Glutamic
HRW (United States) 9-14.5 acid and proline are highest in the endosperm. Lysine, ar-
Russian 9-14.5
genine, aspartic acid, and alanine are lowest in the wheat
Australian 8-13.5
8-13 and flour. Lysine is the limiting essential amino acid in
English
Other European 8-11.5 wheat and most cereals.
SRW (United States) 8-11
8-10.5 B. Lipid
White (United States)
Lipid contents of wheat grains typically range from 2 to
HRS = Hard red spring; CWRS = Canadian western red spring; HRW =
hard red winter; SRW = soft red winter. 4%. Lipid material is not dispersed evenly throughout the
Source: Ref. 70. grain. The embryo (germ) contains 30% of its weight as
24 Posner

TABLE 7 Amino Acid Composition of Wheats (% by weight) oil. Commercial germ is in the 10-11% range. The en-
dosperm is lowest in oil, and the outer layers have an inter-
HRS HRW SRW SRS
mediate lipid level between the germ and the endosperm.
Amino acid wheat wheat wheat wheat
Wheat germ oil includes a high proportion of unsaturated
Tryptophan 1.24 fatty acids. The fatty acid contents of several classes of
Threonine 2.88 3.1 3.2 3.01 wheat and their milled products are presented in Table 9.
Isoleucine 4.34 3.9 4.3 4.10
Leucine 6.71 7.2 7.3 7.12 C. Vitamins and Minerals
Lysine 2.82 2.9 2.9 2.88
Methionine 1.29 1.5 1.4 1.35 Vitamins are found in high concentrations in wheat germ
Cystine 2.19 1.8 2.18 and bran, and minerals are especially concentrated in the
Phenylalanine 4.94 4.7 4.8 5.41 bran. Whole kernel data for each are influenced by kernel
Tyrosine 3.74 2.7 2.0 1.79 size and the ratio of bran to endosperm, which may be
Valine 4.63 4.5 4.7 4.76 higher in small kernels. Kernel size can be influenced by
Arginine 4.79 5.0 4.5 4.85 environmental stress or genetic factors.
Histidine 2.04 2.5 2.4 2.58
Milling and the degree of flour extraction will also af-
Alanine 3.50 3.6 3.7 3.54
fect vitamin and mineral analysis on flour and other milled
Aspartic acid 5.46 5.3 5.4 5.63
Glutamic acid 31.25 31.9
products. The vitamin content of spring wheat along with
34.8 30.48
Glycine 6.11 4.3 4.3 3.80 milling products of flour, shorts, and bran are given in
Proline 10.44 11.0 10.4 11.57 Table 10.
Serine 4.61 4.8 4.9 4.63
Xl. VARIOUS MILL TECHNOLOGIES
HRS = Hard red spring; HRW = hard red winter (NE701132); SRW = soft
red winter (Atlas 66); SRS = soft red spring (NapHal). As mentioned previously there are significant differences
Source: Ref. 4. between milling systems for different kinds of wheat.
Table 3 shows general specific machine allocations used

TABLE 8 Amino Acid Composition of Hard Red Winter Commercial Mill Wheat Mix and Its
Milling Fractions

Amino acid Wheat Flour Bran Break shorts Red. shorts Red. dog

Lysine 3.0 2.2 4.5 4.5 4.5 3.7

Histidine 2.3 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.4
Arginine 4.2 3.5 6.4 6.5 6.2 5.2
Aspartic acid 5.5 4.2 7.3 7.6 7.9 6.5
Threonine 3.4 3.0 3.5 3.6 3.8 3.4
Serine 5.1 4.8 4.6 4.8 4.7 4.9
Glutamic acid 32.8 36.9 20.8 20.7 19.1 26.8
Proline 10.1 11.5 6.9 6.9 6.2 8.1
Glycine 4.3 3.5 5.5 5.5 5.7 4.8
Alanine 3.7 2.9 4.9 5.2 5.3 4.5
Cystine 1.5 1.6 0.7 0.7 0.9
Valine 4.6 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.0
Methionine 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.5
Isoleucine 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.9
Leucine 7.2 7.2 6.7 6.8 6.8 7.1
Tyrosine 2.0 2.3 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.2
Phenylalanine 4.5 4.7 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.3
Proteina 13.3 12.2 17.7 16.8 14.4 14.1
Milling yield (%)b 100 72.8 21.4 3.2 2.2 0.23

Red. = Reduction.
Red. dog = overs of the flour sieves of the last reduction stage in a mill.
aN x 5.7 dry weight basis.
bMilled on Kansas State University 200 cwt flour mill.
Wheat 25

TABLE 9 Fatty Acid Composition of Wheat and Wheat Kernel Parts

Saturated fatty acid
Total Unsaturated fatty
Grain Water lipid Sum acid, sum
Wheat
Whole grain
Hard Red Spring 14.0 2.7 0.37 1.56
Hard Red Winter 14.0 2.5 0.35 1.47
Soft Red Winter 14.0 2.4 0.35 1.40
White 14.0 2.0 0.30 1.14
Flour
Hard Red Spring 14.0 1.5 0.23 0.84
Hard Red Winter 14.0 1.5 0.20 0.74
Soft Red Winter 14.0 1.4 0.22 0.76
All purpose 14.0 1.4 0.23 0.72
Bran 14.0 4.6 0.74 3.09
Germ 14.0 10.9 1.88 8.18
Wheat, durum
Whole grain 14.0 3.3 0.54 1.88
Semolina 14.0 1.8 0.33 0.90
Source: Ref. 74.

for each kind of wheat. Values would vary among mills as semolina product granulation distribution. The granulation
a result of wheat quality and specific needs of final prod- distribution of the semolina affects water absorption of the
ucts. In general because of the harder endosperm structure particles during hydration in a pasta-production process.
hard wheats require more grinding steps and accordingly Subsequently, it also affects the drying of the pasta and its
longer grinding surfaces than soft wheat mills. On the oth- quality. Optimum semolina granulation for each pasta
er hand, to cope with the softness of the endosperm of soft product is a major concern of the miller and pasta manu-
wheats, more sifter surface area is required in soft wheat facturer. Common semolina particle size for long pasta is
mills than in hard wheat mills. finer than 630 Rm and for short goods finer than 350 i.tm.
Couscous is made from very coarse durum semolina with a
A. Durum Wheat Milling particle size range between 550 and 1100 lam. Couscous is
not extruded, but is coagulated and steamed in granular
Usually drum wheat is milled into a granular product
form.
called semolina for pasta production. Depending on the
Durum wheat semolina is evaluated based on speck
pasta manufacturing system, ranges of semolina granula-
count, protein level, and ash. The origin of specks in the
tion and particle distribution will vary. Products with parti-
cles in the ranges of 600-180, 475-180, and <350 lam are
produced as coarse, middle, or fine semolina, respectively. TABLE 10 Vitamin Contents of Chris Hard Red Spring Wheat
Regulations by the U.S. Federal Drug Administration [76] and Its Milling Fractions'
define semolina as a product made only from durum wheat
that passes through a No. 20 sieve, not more than 3% pass- Vitamin Grain Flour Shorts Bran
ing through a No. 100 sieve. Its moisture content is not Thiamine 9.9 0.7 10.1 13.2
more than 15% and maximum dry ash content is 0.92%. Riboflavin 3.1 1.5 1.8 5.5
Durum wheat is also milled to flour of a granulation finer Niacin 48.3 9.5 23.5 171.4
than 200 in some parts of the world for local bread Biotin 0.056 0.013 0.055 0.162
baking. The extraction of final products based on wheat Folacin 0.56 0.09 0.59 1.59
entering the durum semolina mill ranges from about Pantothenic acid 9.1 2.5 7.0 31.7
Vitamin B6 4.7 0.48 5.3 13.0
65-70, 10, and 25-20% of semolina, flour, and bran, re-
spectively. 'Rig (dry basis).
Table 11 shows an example of typical commercial Source: Ref. 75.
26
TABLE 11 Durum Semolina
Granulation Distribution
Sieve aperture (i.tm) % over
600 0
425 18
250 67
180 10
140 3
Pan 2
semolina could arise from different sources. Generally
about 45% originate from discolored germs, 25% discol-
ored endosperm, 15% bran particles, 10% grit, and 5%
other sources. Ergot, when present in wheat, could show
up as specks in the semolina. Durum and spring wheat, like
other cereals that might go through the flowering period
during cold and wet weather, could be infected by the fun-
gus Claviceps purpurea or ergot. Ergot is a fungus that
produces alkaloids toxic to humans and animals when it
invades spring wheat, durum wheat, and rye. The word
"ergot" is applied to both the fungus and the disease that
the fungus causes. Hard wheats are more vulnerable to er-
got attack than soft wheats [77]. Hybrid varieties are more
susceptible presumably because they have smaller anthers
with less than sufficient pollen for quick fertilization, re-
sulting in sensitivity to ergot attack. Millers use different
methods such as gravity tables and color sorters to separate
ergot from the wheat. According to U.S. Department of
Agriculture Standards for Grain [30], ergoty wheat is
wheat that contains more than 0.05% percent ergot.
The specks have an adverse effect on the aesthetic ap-
pearance of pasta and, to some extent, the resistance to
breakage of long varieties. Grit content in the granular
semolina is also a quality measure. Grit originates from
ground stones not separated from the wheat during clean-
ing. Grit in semolina could damage the pasta extruder's
surface.
Durum milling is substantially different from flour
milling. To achieve maximum extraction of granular en-
dosperm, more break and corrugated sizing stages are
used. Although the total cumulative break release would be
the same, the release on the individual breaks is lower than
in flour milling. The number of purifiers used in semolina
milling is significantly higher than in conventional flour
milling. The purifier is the machine from which the final
semolina is extracted. In durum milling the miller sends
material to purifiers with much narrower particle size
ranges than in flour milling to differentiate more sharply
between the different characteristics of materials based on
size, shape, and specific gravity. The tail-end materials in
Posner
the mill that could not be extracted as semolina are usually
ground on smooth rolls to flour.
B. Soft Wheat Milling
The soft wheat—milling process differs from that for hard
wheat because of the softer kernel endosperm. Soft wheat
is milled to flour that is used mainly for the manufacture of
baked goods not requiring a developed structure during
fermentation. Protein contents of flours produced in the
soft wheat mill ranged from 4.7 to 9.1% and patent ash
contents from 0.23 to 0.42% (14% m.b.).
Soft wheat kernels are wider and have a lower specific
weight than hard wheat kernels. Accordingly, cleaning ma-
chinery must be adjusted to the physical characteristics for
efficient separation of unmillable materials. The en-
dosperm structure of soft wheat is not vitreous and dense,
allowing water to penetrate at a faster rate than in hard
wheats through the capillary spaces in the endosperm.
Therefore, tempering time to reach a milling moisture is
very short for soft wheat, usually about one half of the time
required by hard wheat. In cases when the natural moisture
of the wheat is high, only a limited amount of water is
sprayed on the wheat about 30 minutes before milling to
toughen the bran.
Endosperm of soft and hard wheats fracture differently
during the milling process. Hard wheats are more crys-
talline and break into large chunks of endosperm while soft
wheat endosperm is amorphous and crumbles into smaller
particles. The soft endosperm disintegrates during the
milling process with less pressure. As a result, soft wheat
produces finer flour particles with lower levels of starch
damage compared to hard wheat. In countries where soft
wheat flours are used for bread baking, the miller is aware
that he or she has to control the starch damage of the flour.
This is done by applying heavy roll pressures in the reduc-
tion system. Also, the starch protein bond in soft wheat is
weaker than that in hard wheat. With proper impact force,
it is possible to separate the granules from the protein ma-
trix in which they are embedded. During milling more
flour from breaks and less sizing production are the main
characteristics of soft wheats compared to hard wheats.
The sifter effective area in a soft wheat mill is relatively
larger than in the hard wheat mill. This should overcome
difficulties in sieving of fine flours. Some millers over-
come the difficulties of sifting soft wheat materials by us-
ing centrifugal sifters. The centrifugal sifters might have
advantages over regular gyrating sifter boxes. The action
of a centrifugal machine, in which a counterrotating rotor
throws the stock against a cylindrical sieve, allows effi-
cient separation, especially in the poorly flowing stocks of
the soft milling flow. In general, purifiers are not used in
Wheat
soft wheat mills. In cases where they are incorporated in
the flow they treat only the small amount of sizings from
the primary breaks. The less rigid endosperm attached to
the bran in the tail end breaks is difficult to separate with
conventional grinding rolls that might splinter the bran.
Impact dusters are used before the third, fourth, and fifth
break rolls to achieve more flour extraction. In general,
more impactors are used in a soft wheat mill between the
rolls and sifters to increase flour extraction compared to
hard wheat milling
A survey of U.S. millers listed the primary differences
in the flow diagram of soft versus hard wheat [78]. Soft
wheat flow diagrams had about twice the number of bran
dusters and flake detachers in the grinding system, about
10% more centrifugal sifters and 12% more break sifter
surface, and about 50% less purifier surface than hard
wheat flow diagrams.
C. Air Classification of Specialty Flours
Air classification of flours is used where there is a demand
for extremely precise specification of granulation and pro-
tein content of flour. Flour with a narrow range of particle
size has the advantage of increasing the tolerance of oven
temperature and water absorption during the baking of
cakes. In general, soft wheat millers use about 35% more
air classifiers. Commercial flour particle granulation is be-
tween 0-150 pm. A flour fraction of 1-17 tm contains a
high level of protein. A flour fraction of 17-40 .tm will
usually be marked as to its higher starch content and lower
protein level. It is not practical to separate particles of less
than 73 gm with conventional sieves. Accordingly, parti-
cles are segregated by air using differences in particle
shape, specific gravity, and size. One of the objectives of
air classification is protein shifting. Classifying flours to a
granulation of between 17 and 40 gm will produce a very-
low-protein flour that can be used for special cake mixes.
The fine fractions in the range below 17].tm are blended in
with flours to increase protein levels. To increase the effi-
ciency of the air-classifying system, millers use pin mills
to disintegrate chunks of endosperm larger than 40 gm in
order to release the starch granules that are embedded in
the protein matrix.
D. New Developments in the
Milling Industry
There is a new technical approach to the separation of the
three main parts of the wheat kernel: endosperm, bran, and
germ. The new technology applies intensive and accurate
abrasion of the wheat kernel bran. The miller can selec-
tively remove wheat pericarp layers from the outside in.
The objective of the new technology is to break up the
27
structure of the kernel in such a way that the crease "struc-
ture" will stay intact. This technology reduces to a large
extent the number of machines in the mill. The benefits of
such a technology are reduced capital investment, shorter
milling process, reduction in energy, reduction of cc-amy-
lase content of flour when partially sprouted wheats are
used [79], and reduction of fragments and bacteria count in
flours.
The rapid developments in electronics and instrumenta-
tion are implemented in the mill for rapidly sensing online
the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of mill
products. Evaluation of intermediate and final mill prod-
ucts allows the development of mill automation and con-
trol. Near-infrared reflectance [80], fluorescence imaging
[81], microwave, and electronic weighing are some of the
current and future areas of development.
REFERENCES
1. Swanson, C. 0. Wheat Flour and Diet, The MacMillan Co.,
New York, 1928.
2. Ziegler, E., Das Starkekorn-seine Entstehung, seine Be-
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tertechnik, 106 (38) (40) (41) (42) (43): (1969)
3. Simmonds, D. E. H., and O'Brien, T. P., in Advances in Ce-
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4. Simmonds, D. H., in Cereals '78: Better Nutrition for
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5. Pelshenke, P. F., Brotgetreide und Brot, Paul Parey, Berlin
1954, p. 86.
6. Aykroyd, W. R., and Doughty, J., Wheat in Human Nutri-
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7. Evers, A. D., Ann. Bot., 34:547-555. (1970)
8. MaeMasters, M. M., Hinton, J. J. C., and Bradbury, D., in
Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed. (Y. Pomeranz
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9. Shellenberger, J. A., and Morgenson, J. B. Am. Miller
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13. Ranhotra, G. S., Hepburn, F. N., and Bradley, W. B. Cereal
Chem., 48:699-706 (1971).
14. Hinton, J. J. C., Cereal Chem., 36(1):19-31 (1959).
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New York, 1990, pp. 1-53.
16. Shollenberger, J. H., Curtis, J. J., Jaeger, C. M., Earle, F. R.,
and Bayles, B. B., The Chemical Composition of Various
28 Posner

Wheats and Factors Influencing Their Composition, durum, hard and soft wheats, Agricultural Engineering
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18. Finney, K. F., Cereal Chem., 61(1):20 (1984). 42. Dean, G. A., Cotton, R. T., and Wagner, G. B., Flour-Mill
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(1985). Washington, DC, 1936.
20. Finney, K. F., Cereal Chem., 66(6):527-530 (1989). 43. Dosland, 0., Assoc. Open. Millers Bull. (Sept.):6615
21. Dubuc, J. P., and Boudreau, A., Cereal Res. Commun., (1995).
20(1-2):105 (1992). 44. Posner, E. S., Ward, A. B., and Niernberger, F. F., Open.
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23. Orth, R. A., and Mander, K. C., Cereal Chem., 52(3):305 mold, West Germany, 1956, p. 97.
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26. Morris, C. F., and Raykowski, J. A., Elsevier Science B.V., Chem., 38(6):540 (1961).
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27. Katz, F., Food Technol., 50(11):63 (1996). vember):5089 (1987).
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1995/96, London, 1996. ber):2620 (1961).
29. Greenwood, C. T., and Stewart, B. A., Cereal Foods World, 51. Kent, N. L., Baker, G. J., and Jones, C. R., Milling Prod.,
2/(9):477 (1976). 21,(8):1,1720 (1956).
30. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Official United States 52. Sullivan, B., Cereal Chem., 18(5):695 (1941).
Standards for Grain, Grain Inspection, Packers and Stock- 53. Bradbury, D., Hubbard, J. E., MacMasters, M. M., and Sen-
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Washington, DC, 1995. Washington, DC, 1960.
31. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Historic Review of 54. Pfeifer, V., and Vojnovich, C., Assoc. Open. Millers Bull.,
Changes in the Grain Standards of the United States, Agri- (Jan.):3022 (1968).
cultural Marketing Service, Grain Division, Washington, 55. Piscevaja Technol. (Russian), 5/6:83 (1992).
DC, 1963. 56. Bass, E. J., Wheat flour milling, in Wheat: Chemistry and
32. International Association for Cereal Science (ICC), Deter- Technology, 3rd ed. (Y. Pomeranz, ed.), American Associa-
mination of Besatz of Wheat, Approved 1972, Int. Assoc. tion of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1988, pp. 1-68.
Cereal Chem., Verlag Moris Schafer, Detmold, West Ger- 57. Niernberger, F. F., and Farrell, E. P., Assoc. Open. Millers
many, 1972. Bull., (Jan.):3154 (1970).
33. European Economic Community, Grain Grading Regula- 58. Hsieh, F. H., Martin, D. G., Black, H. C., and Tipples,
tions, Council Regulation No. 856/67/EEC, revised No. K. H., Cereal Chem., 57(3):217 (1980).
2731/75, approved 1975. 59. Hareland, G. A., and Shi, Y., Assoc. Open Millers Bull.,
34. Shuey, W. C., and Gilles, K. A., Northwest Miller (Feb.):6871 (1997).
(March):9 (1969). 60. Staudt, E., Miihle Mischfuttertechn., 105(6):69; (7):82;
35. Posner, E. S., and Hibbs, A. N., Wheat Flour Milling, (9):116 (1968).
American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 61. Ward, A. B., and Shellenberger, J. A., Assoc. Open. Millers
(1997). Bull., (August): 1907 (1951).
36. Osborne, B. G., Kotwal, Z., Blakeney, A. B., O'Brian, L., 62. Jones, C. R., Greer, E. N., Thomlinson, J., and Baker, G. J.,
Shah, S., and Fearn, T., Cereal Chem., 74(4):467 1997. Milling, 137 (July 21 and 28):58(I), 80, 84, (II-IV) 1961.
37. Approved Methods of the AACC, 9th ed., Methods 26-20, 63. Handreck, B., and Nitschke, L., Getreide Mehl and Brot,
26-21, 26-30. American Association of Cereal Chemists, 50(3):159 (1996).
St. Paul, MN, 1995. 64. Vorwerck, K., Getreide Mehl and Brot, 3/(1):9 (1977).
38. Bloksma, A. H., and Bushuk, W., Wheat: Chemistry and 65. Swanson, C. 0., Wheat and Flour Quality, Burgess Pub-
Technology, Vol. II (Y. Pomeranz, ed.), American Associa- lishing Co., Minneapolis, MN, 1938.
tion of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1988, p. 131. 66. Uniform State Feed Bill. Official Publication of the Associ-
39. Coleman, D. A., and Fellows, H. C., Cereal Chem., 2:275 ation of American Feed Control Officials, Oxford, IN,
(1925). 1983.
40. Chung, D. S., and Pfost, H. B., Predicted moisture in 67. Posner, E. S., and Li, Y., J. Cereal Sci., /3:49 (1991).
Wheat
68. Posner, E. S., Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull., (Oct.):4577 (1985).
69. Johnson, V. A., and Mattern, P. J., Wheat rye and triticale,
in Nutritional Quality of Cereal Grains: Genetic and Agro-
nomic Improvement (R. A. Olson and K. J. Frey, eds.),
Agronomy Series 28. American Society of Agronomy,
Madison, WI, 1987.
70. Kent-Jones, D. W., and Amos, A. J., Modern Cereal Chem-
istry, 4th ed., Northern Pub. Co. Ltd., Liverpool, 1947.
71. Hinton, J. J. C., Cereal Chem., 30:441-445 (1953).
72. Kent, N. J., Cereal Chem., 43:585-601 (1966).
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Press, Inc., Elmsford, NY, 1983.
74. Lockhart, H. B., and Nesheim, R. 0., Nutritional quality of
grains, in: Cereals '78: Better Nutrition for the World's Mil-
lions (Y. Pomeranz, ed.) American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1978, pp. 201-221.
29
75. Zook, E. G., Greene, F. E., and Morris, E. R., Cereal
Chem., 47:720-731 (1970).
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133(44):726 (1996).
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(April):4711 (1986).
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(1996).
2
CORN: THE MAJOR CEREAL OF THE AMERICAS
Lawrence A. Johnson
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
I. HISTORY
Corn (Zea mays L.) is native to the Americas and is their
most important cereal crop. Corn originated in Mexico,
evolving from the wild grass Teosinte (Zea mays sp. mexi-
cana). Archeological evidence indicates that corn was do-
mesticated and grown as a crop by native Americans as
early as 5,000 B.C. in Mexico's valley of Tehuacan [1].
Corn became a symbol of religion and prosperity in the
Mayan civilization. From this center corn spread north-
ward to Canada and southward to Argentina.
Among the discoveries made by the explorer Christo-
pher Columbus during his visit to the New World in 1492
was this staple food of the native Americans, known to
them as "mahyz." Corn is still universally known as maize
from the early Spanish translation. Maize was not popular-
ly known as corn until the American colonists applied this
British term for grain. Following Columbus's discovery,
corn was transplanted to Spain from where it quickly
spread across Europe and to Africa and Asia.
Corn played an important role in the colonization and
settling of the United States [2]. The native Americans
taught the colonists how to convert the grain into food and
livestock feed. Breads made from corn quickly became
staple foods in the American colonies, and other foods,
such as mush, porridge, and breakfast grits, were important
to pioneers migrating west. Sites suitable to providing wa-
ter power for stone mills to process corn and other cereals
were usually critical in deciding where to locate frontier
towns in the settling of the midwestern United States.
Early improvement in corn was accomplished by farm-
ers selecting seed from the hardiest and most productive
31
plants in their open pollinated fields. However, in the early
1800s two predominant races of corn—Virginia Gourd-
seed and Northeastern Flints—grown in the eastern sea-
board states were crossed, demonstrating the superiority of
hybrid corn. The cross was repeated many times as settlers
migrated west, and from these lines the Corn Belt Dents
emerged. Corn Belt Dents have been steadily improved to
become the most productive race of corn in the world—in-
deed, the most productive cereal crop in the world. The de-
velopment of corn hybrid seed and corn as the major cere-
al of the United States is well chronicled by Kahn [3].
II. HIGH PRODUCTIVITY
Every continent except Antarctica now produces corn
(Table 1). Corn ranks as the second most widely produced
cereal crop worldwide [4]. Only wheat is produced in
greater quantity. The U.S. Corn Belt (OH, IN, IL, IA, NE,
MN and MO) is by far the largest producer, producing al-
most one half of the world's corn production. China and
Brazil are also major producers.
Corn yields in the United States are often more than
double those elsewhere in the world. The 1994 national av-
erage corn yield in the U.S. Corn Belt approached 140
bu/acre (7840 lb/acre) [4], and yields over 300 bu/acre
have been reported (1996 National Corn Yield Contest of
the National Corn Growers Association). Only 40 years
previously the average yield in this area was 38 bu/acre.
During this period, yields have increased yearly at an aver-
age pace of more than 2 bu/acre, and there is little indica-
tion that this level of annual increase cannot be sustained
32 Johnson

TABLE 1 Annual Harvested Area, Yield, and Production of Corn by Continent and Four
Major Producing Within Each Continent During 1994-95

Harvested area Yield Production

Continent/Country (1,000,000 ha) (t/ha) (1,000,000 t)
World total 132.68 4.19 555.88
North and Central America 40.56 7.02 284.62
United States 29.51 8.70 256.63
Mexico 8.00 2.28 18.20
Canada 0.96 7.37 7.04
Guatemala 0.80 1.49 1.19
South America 19.42 2.75 53.41
Brazil 14.19 2.58 36.66
Argentina 2.50 4.32 10.80
Colombia 0.70 1.71 1.20
Venezuela 0.46 2.17 1.00
Europe 10.78 4.73 50.92
France 1.64 7.72 12.64
Italy 0.91 8.22 7.48
Romania 3.33 2.83 8.50
Yugoslavia 2.10 3.22 6.76
Former Soviet Union 1.93 2.21 4.26
Asia 38.83 3.41 132.28
China 21.15 4.69 99.19
India 6.10 1.64 10.00
Indonesia 3.00 1.73 5.20
Thailand 1.20 3.00 3.60
Africa 21.01 1.42 29.97
Egypt 0.89 6.38 5.65
South Africa 3.00 1.55 4.65
Kenya 1.74 1.71 2.97
Nigeria 2.20 1.14 2.50
Oceana 0.07 5.66 0.42
Australia 0.06 4.63 0.26
New Zealand 0.02 8.89 0.16

Conversions: 1 hectare (ha) = 1.47 acres; 1 metric ton (t) = 2205 lb = 39.38 bu; 1 t/ha = 892 lb/acre =
15.93 bu/acre.
Source: Ref. 4.

for quite some time to come. Because of this high produc-
tivity, corn is by far the most economical cereal to produce
and, therefore, is also one of the most economical sources
of metabolizable energy for use in feeds and of starch and
sugar for use in food and industrial products. However,
due to recent fluctuations in supply, the price paid for corn
in the United States has been abnormally volatile. The
weighted average price paid to U.S. farmers in the 1995/96
market year was unusually high at $3.24/bu [5], with spot
prices exceeding $5.00/bu during summer months; 10
years earlier prices averaged only $1.49/bu [6], and low
prices aroused much interest in finding new uses and mar-
kets.
III. ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE,
COMPOSITION, AND PROPERTIES
The physical properties of corn are important in the design
of handling equipment and storage facilities. These proper-
ties, of course, are affected somewhat by moisture content
and are reported in Table 2 on a 15% moisture basis (all
other values in this chapter, unless otherwise noted, are re-
ported on a moisture-free basis). Compared to other grains,
corn has a unique shape and low specific gravity, but many
other properties are similar to other cereals.
Corn kernels are the largest cereal seed, weighing
250-300 mg each. They are flat seeds due to pressure dur-
Corn 33

TABLE 2 Physical Properties of Coma

Property Typical value Range
Kernels per earb 800 500-1200
Kernels per lbh 1,300 900-1800
Test weight (lb/bu)
Sweet corn in husk' 35 NA
Shelled dent' 58.3 52-60
Shelled popcorn' 56 NA
Bulk density (lb/ft3)
Sweet corn in husk' 28 NA
Husked corn' 28 NA
Shelled dent" 45.4 40-46
Shelled popcorn' 44.8 NA
Specific gravity' (g/cc) 1.26 NA
Angle of reposed (degrees) 35 34-43.5
Void volumef (%) 42.3 NA
Thermal conductivityg (BTU/h*ft*°F) 0.0945 0.0812-0.0996
Specific heats (BTU/lb*°F) 0.484 0.350-0.588
Heat energy contenth (BTU/lb) 8,075 NA
Diffusivityg (ft2/h) 0.00351 0.00336-0.00395
NA denotes data not available.
'Dent corn at 15% moisture.
hFrom Ref. 53.
`From Ref. 61.
dFrotri Ref. 62.
`From Ref. 63.
From Ref. 64.
°From Ref. 65.
hFrom Ref. 66.

ing growth from adjacent kernels on the cob. The corn ker-
nel has a blunt crown and a pointed conical tip cap (Fig. 1).
The corn kernel is botanically classified as a caryopsis
(dry, indehescent, single-seeded fruit) and is attached to
the cob by the pedicle. The kernel contains a complete em-
bryo and all the structural, nutritional, and enzymatic func-
tions required for growth and development into a plant.
The kernel is composed of four anatomical parts: the tip
cap, which provides the point of attachment to the cob; the
bran, which is the protective outer covering; the germ or
embryo, which becomes the new plant; and the en-
dosperm, which is the reservoir of nutrients to support ger-
mination.
Each anatomical part of the corn kernel has a different
composition (Fig. 2). The largest fraction of the kernel is
the endosperm, which is largely composed of starch, the
reserve energy supply for a germinating embryo. En-
dosperm cells are packed with starch granules embedded
in a continuous matrix of amorphous protein. Also embed-
ded in this matrix are protein bodies composed almost en-
tirely of the storage protein zein.
Corn is often harvested as soon as the moisture content
drops below 28%. Unless quickly dried, high-moisture
corn is subject to rapid deterioration, especially by mold
infestation. However, high-temperature drying, which is
occasionally used during the busy harvest period to speed
drying operations, can adversely affect wet-milling proper-
ties, and air-inlet temperatures exceeding 50°C should be
avoided [7].
Any hygroscopic material like corn loses (desorbs) or
gains (adsorbs) moisture depending on whether its water
vapor pressure (water activity) is greater or less than that
of its environment. Equilibrium moisture content for corn
is complicated by the hysteresis effect, in which the equi-
librium moisture content depends on whether the grain is
desorbing or adsorbing (Fig. 3). Also, each component has
a different affinity for moisture, so it is not surprising that
different corn fractions have different equilibrium mois-
ture isotherms. Because different types of corn have slight-
ly different compositions, their moisture sorption
isotherms may vary accordingly. A general model for de-
scribing moisture sorption isotherms was developed by
Chung and Pfost [8]. The critical moisture content for
"safe" storage of corn is generally regarded to be 15%, but
34 Johnson

BRAN
Epidermis
Mesocarp
Cross Cells ENDOSPERM
Horny Endosperm
Tube Cells
Floury Endosperm
Seed Coat (Testa)
Cells Filled with
Aleurone Layer Starch Granules
(part of In Protein Matrix
endosperm
but separated walls of Cells
with bran)

GERM
Scut&lum
Plumule or
Rudimentary
Shoot and Leaves
Radicle or
Primary Root

Scutellum Embryonic Axis

Pericarp

Horny Floury
Endosperm Endosperm

FIGURE 1 Structure of the corn kernel. (Modified from figures provided by the Corn Refiners Association.)

as Figure 4 indicates, lower moisture contents are required
for corn to be stored for long periods at warm temperatures
as occur in the tropics.
IV. TYPES AND COMPOSITIONS
There are six major types of corn kernels: dent, flint, flour,
sweet, pop, and pod corns. The major differences are large-
ly based on quality, quantity, and pattern of endosperm
composition (Fig. 5 and Table 3). Within each type, corn
lines can vary in pericarp color, some being the more fa-
miliar yellow, others being white, red, or blue. Kernel col-
ors can lead to some unique products, such as blue corn
flour and blue or red tortilla chips.
Dent corn is characterized by the presence of corneous,
horny endosperm at the sides and back of the kernels,
while the central core is soft and floury. The soft en-
dosperm extends to the crown where it collapses on drying
to form an indentation. The indented crown is peculiar to
dent types and is the basis for the term "dent corn." Higher
prices are usually paid for white dents, which are often
used by the dry-milling and corn-tortilla industries to pro-
Corn 35

Bran

Fa
Fiber 83.6%
Endosperm

Protein
3.7% 77
Starch 7.3%
Other 4.4%

Other 0.4%

Germ \ Fat 0.8%

Fiber 3.2%

Tip Cap

Starch 8.0% Protein

9.1%

Other 4.1% Starch 5.3%

Whole Kernel
Bran 5.3%

FIGURE 2 Compositions of normal dent corn and its anatomical parts. (Data from Refs. 52 and 53 and estimates of author.)

• Starch
A Hull
• Gluten
• Germ

a)

in
O

50 100 0 50 100
Relative Humidity (%) Relative Humidity (%)

FIGURE 3 Equilibrium moisture isotherms for corn and corn products. (Modified from Ref. 54.)
36
20
Corn Moisture Content (% w.b.)
15
10
5 digestible energy, 4% more protein, and 6% more lysine
0 by the dry-milling and wet-milling industries because of
20 40 60
Air Relative Humidity (%)
FIGURE 4 Desorption equilibrium moisture isotherms for
corn at different temperatures. (From Ref. 55, originally Ref. 8.)
POPCORN FLINT DENT FLOUR
IMEHORNY STARCH 1SOFT STARCH
FIGURE 5 Types of corn. (From Ref. 56.)
duce light-colored food products. In addition to color, dent
corns vary in their proximate compositions and starch
properties.
The University of Illinois pioneered varieties that are
high in protein and others that are high in oil. Some lines
have >20% oil (fat) compared to more typical values of
4-4.5%. Other lines have as much as 26% protein com-
pared to typical levels of 8-10%. Until recently, high-oil
and high-protein lines have had little commercial value,
but high-oil corn is now widely recognized as having com-
petitive advantages in livestock feed. In the trade both
high-oil and high-protein lines are sometimes termed "nu-
trient dense."
Commercial high-oil corns are produced by two differ-
ent methods: selective breeding or a top-cross system. The
latter system, under which the majority of high-oil corn is
Johnson
produced, involves using a male-sterile counterpart of a
standard hybrid intermixed with 8-10% of a high-oil polli-
nator. Both approaches result in germs larger in size than is
typical of dent corn. Since the germ is high in oil and pro-
tein contents, the grain oil content typically increases to
6.8-7.3% (a 50-75% increase) and the grain protein con-
tent increases to 9.1-9.4% (a 5-10% increase) [9]. Grain
yields are about 6% lower with OptimumTM High-Oil Corn
than with normal dent hybrids grown under the same con-
ditions [9]. About 600,000 acres of high-oil corn were pro-
duced under contract by DuPont Optimum Quality Grains,
Des Moines, IA, in 1996, and an estimated 1 million acres
were planted in 1997. High-oil corn is finding acceptance
by livestock feeders (particularly for swine, poultry, and
dairy animals) because the corn provides about 4% more
than standard hybrids. High-oil corn has not been accepted
80 changes in material balances to which manufacturing
plants are currently sized and because increased oil con-
tents of the milled products reduce shelf life due to lipid
oxidation and resulting rancid flavors and odors.
Other dent corn lines differ in their starch properties.
Corn starch is normally composed of 74-76% amylopectin
and 24-26% amylose (apparant). Some corn lines, called
"waxy," contain over 99% amylopectin [10]; others con-
tain as little as 20% (80% amylose) and are known as
"amylomaize." Both waxy and amylomaize corns are
grown under contracts with growers for wet mills to
process them into specialty starches. Waxy and chemically
modified waxy starches are widely produced because of
GERM their high paste viscosities, thermal and pH stabilities, and
other properties after gelatinization hydration. Amylo-
maize starch is used in textiles, gum candies, and adhe-
sives for manufacturing corrugated cardboard.
In recent years, advances in biotechnology and molecu-
lar biology have caused much excitement in developing
additional dent corn hybrids with value-added traits for
end-users. Some traits targeted for modification are shown
in Table 4. The advent of near-infrared spectroscopy
(NIRS) for grain facilitates rapid and nondestructive mea-
surement of many value-added traits at the first point of
sale so that either bulk grain shipments can be segregated
or specialty grains that are grown under contract can be
marketed as "identity preserved." The first demonstration
of transferring an animal protein into corn was recently
achieved [11] wherein avidin, a biotin-binding protein pro-
duced in eggs, was expressed in corn, and a chemical com-
pany plans to recover and market this valuable protein. At
least one company is assessing the feasibility of delivering
in corn vaccines against life-threatening diseases. Edible
vaccines, such as hepatitis B antigen, for humans [12] and
Corn
orally delivered antigens for livestock diseases are real
possibilities. BT corn (corn that contains genes from the
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis for specific proteins hav-
ing insecticide activity), having improved resistance to the
yield-reducing corn borer [13], which is now being widely
accepted by U.S. corn producers, is only the first applica-
tion for transgenic lines. Although there was initial reluc-
tance among some consumers about transgenic crops, es-
pecially in Europe, most believe they are entirely safe and
necessary to meet the food and industrial material needs of
the burgeoning world population.
Flint corns have a thick, hard, vitreous endosperm layer
surrounding a small, soft, granular center. The relative
amounts of corneous (horny) and soft (floury) endosperm
may vary. The ears are long and slender with fewer rows of
kernels than dent. The kernels are smooth and rounded.
Very little flint corn is grown in the United States today
even though it was grown extensively in colonial times.
Yields of flint corn are generally 10% less than for dent
corns. Flints are extensively grown in South America,
Africa, and southern Europe.
The most primitive races of corn are the popcorns. Pop-
corn is characterized by a very hard, corneous endosperm
and is essentially a small-kerneled flint. Popcorn is nor-
mally grown for use as a snack food.
Flour corn is one of the oldest corns, having been raised
by the Aztecs and Incas. Flour types are characterized by
soft endosperm throughout the kernel. They are easy to
grind but are susceptible to mold in wet areas and breakage
during handling. Small amounts of flour corns are grown
in dry areas of the United States, but large amounts are
grown in the Andean region of South America.
As a food grain, especially in developing countries
where the populations have relatively little income for
food, normal corn is often regarded as having less than the
desired quantities of protein and of its two component es-
sential amino acids, lysine and tryptophan. Almost one
half of the protein in normal corn is composed of fractions
that are nearly devoid of these amino acids. In the 1960s,
E. Mertz at Purdue University discovered that certain mu-
tant genes in corn greatly improved the amino acid compo-
sition of endosperm protein and demonstrated the benefits
of the opaque-2 gene. High-lysine or opaque-2 corn has
been developed to have an improved amino acid balance;
it is especially higher in lysine content (nearly twice the
normal level) even though it is lower in total protein.
Opaque-2 corn is similar to flour types having soft, chalky
endosperm. Opaque-2 corn contains relatively few and
small protein bodies in its endosperm. Despite their con-
siderable promise for improving the nutrition of popula-
tions with diets high in corn, high-lysine corns have not at-
tained widespread use due to 7-10% lower yields than
37
dents, greater susceptibility to ear rots and grain pests, and
a kernel texture that is not acceptable to consumers in
many countries.
Through backcrossing and recurrent selection, breeders
at CIMMYT (International Corn and Wheat Improvement
Center) in Mexico pioneered in the 1970s QPM, or quality
protein maize (sometimes referred to as modified opaque-
2) [14]. Breeders were able to combine a complex system
of genetic modifiers and the opaque-2 gene to produce
QPM, which contains high levels of lysine (4.1 vs. 2.7 g
lysine per 100 g protein for QPM and normal dent, respec-
tively) and tryptophan (1.0 vs. 0.6 g tryptophan per 100 g
protein for QPM and normal dent, respectively) and pos-
sesses the texture (preponderance of hard endosperm) de-
sired by consumers. Some QPM hybrids yield equivalent
to check hybrids grown at the same location. Both white
and yellow types with early and late maturing times are
available.
Sweet corns are believed to have originated from a mu-
tation in Chullpi, a Peruvian race. The sugary gene of
sweet corn retards normal conversion of sugar to starch,
and the kernel accumulates phytoglycogen, a water-solu-
ble polysaccharide that improves texture and increases
sweetness. Soluble saccharides comprise about 12% of the
dry weight of sweet corn versus 2-3% in other types.
Sweet corn is normally consumed as a food vegetable in
the immature milk stage.
Pod corn is an ornamental type with long glumes en-
closing each kernel in addition to husks covering the ear.
There are dent, sweet, waxy, pop, and flint types within
pod corn. Pod corn is not grown commercially and is
merely regarded as a curiosity.
V. QUALITY AND GRADING STANDARDS
Grading standards are used to facilitate marketing of most
grains, and corn is no exception. U.S. grading standards
for corn have been in effect with few changes since the
U.S. Grain Standards Act was enacted in 1916. Current
U.S. grading standards used by the Federal Grain Inspec-
tion Service (FGIS) are shown in Table 5. There are five
numerical grades and a lower grade known as "sample
grade." Currently, four factors determine grade: test
weight, a measure of bulk density; amount of broken ker-
nels and foreign material; amount of total damaged ker-
nels; and amount of heat-damaged kernels. Moisture was
also a grading factor prior to 1985, but now it is only a
standard, the value of which must be shown on invoices
[15]. These standards specify three classes of corn: yellow
(contains less than 5% white corn), white (contains no
more than 2% yellow corn), and mixed (contains more
than 10% of other grains). The FGIS standards largely re-
38 Johnson

TABLE 3 Typical Compositions (% db) and Characteristics of Different Types of Corn

Dent

Component/Characteristic Normal Waxy Amylomaize High-oil' High-protein'

Starch (%) 71.3 NA 57.9f 67.8-NA 68.9-NA

Protein, N x 6.25 (%) 8.7 NA 13.7f 9.3-NA 11.2- 26.6'
Fat (%) 4.1 NA 5.9f 7.3-19.6g 5.3-NA
Fiber (%) 3.0 NA NA NA NA
Sugars' (%) 11.4 NA NA NA NA
Ash (%) 1.5 NA NA 1.5-NA NA
Amylose (g/100 g starch) 24b lb 50-80g 24" 24"
Amylopectin (g/100 g starch) 76" 99b 50-20" 76" 76"
Lysine (g/100 g protein) 2.7' 2.7" 2.7" 3.2-2.411 3.2-2.3h
Endosperm variation Horny at sides, soft floury in central core, variations in degree of hardness and
proportions of horny and floury endosperm, top indents on drying

Preferred uses Feeds, wet milling Wet milling Wet milling Limited uses Limited uses
and dry milling and feeds in feeds in feeds

Typical yields (bu/acre) 138" NA NA 130"-107' NA

NA denotes data not available.

"Calculated by difference after subtracting starch, protein, fat, fiber, and ash. First number is for commercial lines of DuPont Optimum
Quality Grains, Des Moines, IA, and Wilson Hybrids, Harlan, IA, respectively; second number is for a University of Illinois research line.
hFrom Ref. 67.
`From Ref. 68.
"From Ref. 4.
`Estimates of the author.
(From Ref. 69.
'From Ref. 70.
hFrom Ref. 71.
'From Ref. 72.
'From Ref. 73.
kFrom the Popcorn Institute, Chicago, IL.
'From Ref. 74.
"'From Ref. 75.
'From Ref. 76.
°From Ref. 77.
"From Ref. 78.

late to storage issues rather than end-user factors. Proces-
sors and livestock feeders are becoming more sophisticat-
ed and placing increasing pressures on using a system that
places greater emphasis on end-use value (e.g. millability,
nutrient composition, yields of processed fractions), and
increasingly agreements between sellers and buyers in-
clude additional specifications that more directly relate to
end-use value.
VI. UTILIZATION
Depending on provisions of the current U.S. Farm Bill and
weather conditions during the growing season, the United
States typically produces over 8 billion bu of corn (Table
6). The largest U.S. harvest was in 1994, when more than
10 billion bu were produced. In 1995 the United States
produced 7.4 billion bu, of which 6.3 billion bu were uti-
lized domestically and 2.2 billion bu were exported, leav-
ing a surplus, accumulated over several years, of about 0.4
billion bu in storage. During that year, 52.5% of the avail-
able domestic corn supply was consumed as feed by live-
stock; 24.9%, exported; 17.6%, as food, alcohol, and in-
dustrial products; 0.2%, as planting seed. The remaining
stocks amounted to an all-time low of only 4.8%. The mar-
ket for corn in export channels has greatly expanded since
1960 (Fig. 6), and the amount utilized by processing indus-
Corn 39

Flint Popcorn Flour Opaque-2 QPM Sweet corn

NA 62.3' NA 64.4m 68.5° 54.1'
11.1' 11.9' NA 13.6m 10.5° 12.7'
5.3 NA 5.5' 4.4° 8.4'
NA 2.61 NA NA NA 3.5'
NA 9.3' NA 2.8' NA 12.0'
NA 1.9' NA NA 1.5' 2.1'
24° 24° 24° 24° 24° 24°
76° 76° 76° 76° 76° 76°
2.0k 2.0° 2.7' 3.8° 4.1° 2.5h
Almost entirely Small flint Entirely soft endo- No horny endo- Same as mod- Shrunken and
horny endo- type sperm little or sperm, entire- erately hard wrinkled
sperm, no in- no indent on ly soft normal dent when dry
dent on drying drying
Feeds and dry Snack foods Food in South Food Food Food
milling in America
South America
and Africa
92° 54k 91' 110' 125° 94°

tries to produce starches, sweeteners, and ethanol have ex-
panded considerably since 1975. Corn, once regarded al-
most exclusively as a feed grain and largely consumed
right on the farm where it was produced, now has other im-
portant market outlets.
Corn utilization can be divided among uses involving
nearly direct consumption with minimal preparation and
those involving substantial value-added processing. For
instance, corn can be used directly by livestock to produce
meat and dairy products, the major means of adding value.
Direct uses of corn as food include sweet corn, popcorn,
alkali-cooked corn, and other foods made from whole corn
or by traditional stone grinding. Other ways to utilize corn
involve one or more levels of value-added processing.
These processing industries include (1) fractionation
processes, which separate corn into its component frac-
tions for use as ingredients in food or industrial consumer
products, such as wet and dry milling, (2) conversion
processes, which convert a fraction into more valuable in-
gredients or industrial products, such as enzymatic conver-
sion of starch into sugar or fermentation of the sugar into
ethanol, and (3) refabrication processes, which recombine
corn products with other ingredients to produce "engi-
neered" or "refabricated" foods or industrial products. Of
40 Johnson

TABLE 4 Value-Added Traits Targeted by Seed Companies 7-9 provide nutritional information that is important when
for Genetic Modification feeding corn and corn products.
Typical corn-based cattle rations using shelled corn and
Trait Application
cracked corn are shown in Table 10. Corn often comprises
Increased oil content Improved digestible energy 85-94% of cattle finishing rations. Typical daily gains
in feed range 3.5-4.0 lb per steer with feed efficiencies around 5 lb
Improved flavor of corn of feed per lb of gain.
tortillas Corn silage is an important feed to dairy farmers. Whole
Increased protein content Improved feed efficiency
green plants are harvested and chopped. The chopped corn
Increased germ size Same as above two
is placed in a silo and allowed to undergo natural lactic acid
Improved amino acid balance Improved feed efficiency
Improved starch digestibility Improved feed efficiency fermentation in which sugars are converted by Streptococ-
Reduced starch digestibility Fat substitutes cus lactis and Lactobacillus plantarum to lactic acid, which
Reduced-calorie foods acts as a preservative. About 10% of the corn acreage in the
Reduced starch gelatinization United States is harvested for silage.
temperature Easier cooking Often corn is processed to improve feed conversion,
Reduced starch granule size Fat substitutes and dusting handling characteristics, and palatability or to reduce
agents wastage by animals. These processes include (1) mechani-
Special starch functionality Replace chemically modified cal processes, such as dry rolling (cracking and crushing)
starches and pelleting, (2) dry heat treatments, such as popping,
Reduced phytate content and Improved feed efficiency
roasting, micronizing (heating with infrared heaters and
improved bioavailability Reduced waste phosphorous
of phosphorus rolling), and extruding, and (3) moist heat treatments, such
Increased starch content Increased dry-grind as steam flaking and exploding.
fermentation efficiency The feed co-products from dry and wet corn milling
Reduced fiber content Improved feed and milling provide important feed ingredients used by feed manufac-
efficiencies turers and feedlot operators. Recent publications of the Na-
Reduced levels of specific Improved wet-milling tional Corn Growers Association document the values of
proteins efficiency these co-products in feeds [16,17].
Specific proteins Medical, pharmaceutical and
veterinary supplies B. Direct Utilization of Corn as Food
Production of levulan Improved efficiency of fructose
production Despite the widespread acceptance and importance of
Production of polyalkonates corn-based foods in early American history, direct use of
(PHB, PHV) Plastics corn for food in the United States has decreased during the
past century in favor of increased consumption of more re-
fined and processed foods. This is due to an increased de-
mand for more convenience and shelf life, which requires
course, value must be added at each stage in order to justi- increased processing. However, in many other countries,
fy processing costs. especially in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, corn remains
a staple food. Table 11 lists many corn-based foods con-
A. Corn as Livestock Feed sumed throughout the world. Alkali-cooked products,
sweet corn, and popcorn are probably the most important
In 1995, about 7.4 billion bu of corn grain, 85 million tons of these in western diets.
of corn silage, 5.6 million tons of corn gluten feed, 1.1 mil-
lion tons of corn gluten meal, and 1.6 million tons of corn 1. Alkali-Cooked Corn-Based Foods
hominy feed were fed to livestock. Corn and corn products The ancient Aztecs discovered that cooking corn in the
are generally the most cost-effective feeds or feed supple- presence of the alkali of wood ash or quicklime trans-
ments available. The high yield, abundant predictable sup- formed corn into a variety of highly palatable foods, now
ply, low cost, close proximity of large animal populations commonly referred to as "Mexican" foods (Fig. 7). These
to corn-growing areas, and high digestibility make corn the foods are becoming increasingly popular, even in fast-food
preferred feed. In addition, corn is highly palatable to live- restaurants in the United States [18]. This is consistent
stock and poultry, is easily ground and processed, does not with a growing trend in most developed countries for in-
contain any natural antinutritional factors, and only rarely creased consumption of foreign and ethnic foods.
contains any toxins such as aflatoxin or fumonison. Tables Such foods include enchiladas and burritos (made with
Corn 41

TABLE 5 United States Grading Standards for Corn'

Maximum limits

Damaged kernels

Minimum test Broken corn and Heat

Grade weight (1b/bu) foreign material (%) Total (%) damaged (%)

U.S. No. 1 56 2.0 3.0 0.1

U.S. No. 2 54 3.0 5.0 0.2
U.S. No. 3 52 4.0 7.0 0.5
U.S. No. 4 49 5.0 10.0 1.0
U.S. No. 5 46 7.0 15.0 3.0
Sample gradeb -

aGrades and grade requirements for yellow corn, white corn, and mixed corn [79].
bU.S. Sample Grade is corn that does not meet the requirements for any of the grades from U.S. No. 1 to U.S. No.
5, inclusive; or which, in a 100-g sample, contains eight or more stones with an aggregate weight in excess of
0.20% of the sample weight, two or more pieces of glass, three or more crotalaria seeds, two or more castor beans,
eight or more cockleburs, four or more particles of an unknown substance(s) or a commonly recognized harmful or
toxic substance(s) or animal filth in excess of 0.20%; or has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign
odor; or is heating or otherwise of distinctly low quality.

TABLE 6 Fifteen-Year History of Corn Supply and Utilization (million bushels)

Utilization

Domestic utilization

Food, Ending stocks

Year Supply alcohol, Feed
beginning Beginning and and Total Gvmt. Privately
Sept. 1 stocks Production Imports Total industrial Seed residual Total Exports utilization Owned owned Total

1980 2,034 6,639 1 8,675 639 20 4,232 4,891 2,391 7,283 242 1,150 1,392
1981 1,392 8,119 1 9,511 714 19 4,245 4,978 1,997 6,975 280 2,257 2,537
1982 2,537 8,235 0 10,772 840 15 4,573 5,428 1,821 7,249 1,143 2,380 3,523
1983 3,523 4,174 2 7,699 911 19 3,876 4,806 1,886 6,693 202 805 1,006
1984 1,006 7,672 2 8,680 1,046 21 4,115 5,182 1,850 7,032 225 1,423 1,648
1985 1,648 8,875 10 10,534 1,133 20 4,114 5,267 1,227 6,494 546 3,494 4,040
1986 4,040 8,226 2 12,267 1,209 17 4,669 5,893 1,492 7,385 1,443 3,439 4,882
1987 4,882 7,131 3 12,016 1,226 17 4,798 6,041 1,716 7,757 835 3,424 4,259
1988 4,259 4,929 3 9,191 1,275 18 3,941 5,234 2,026 7,260 363 1,568 1,930
1989 1,930 7,532 2 9,464 1,337 19 4,396 5,752 2,368 8,120 233 1,111 1,344
1990 1,344 7,934 3 9,282 1,354 19 4,663 6,036 1,725 7,761 371 1,150 1,521
1991 1,521 7,475 20 9,016 1,434 20 4,877 6,331 1,584 7,915 113 988 1,100
1992 1,100 9,477 7 10,584 1,493 19 5,296 6,808 1,663 8,471 56 2,057 2,113
1993 2,113 6,336 21 8,470 1,568 20 4,704 6,292 1,328 7,620 45 805 850
1994a 850 10,103 10 10,963 1,675 18 5,534 7,227 2,177 9,404 42 1,516 1,558
19956 1,558 7,374 10 8,942 1,680 20 4,575 6,275 2,050 8,325 42 575 617

'Preliminary.
'Projected.
Source: Ref. 80.
42 Johnson

14

12

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Year

FIGURE 6 U.S. corn supply and demand estimates. (Modified from Ref. 57 with data from Ref. 58.)

TABLE 7 Gross Nutrient Analysis of Corn and Corn Products (dry basis) for Livestock Feeds'

Corn Corn gluten Corn gluten Corn germ

Dent yellow hominy Corn gluten meal (41% meal (60% meal Corn steep
Nutrient corn feed feed protein) protein) (sol. ext.) liquor

Proximate analysis (%)

Protein (N x 6.25) 10.9 11.5 25.6 46.8 67.2 22.3 47.2'
Fat (ether extractable) 4.3 7.7 2.4 2.4 2.4 4.1 0.06
Saturated 0.9 1.2 0.5' 0.5' 0.5' 0.8' 0.0'
Unsaturated 3.7 6.1 1.9' 1.9' 1.9' 3.3' 0.0'
Linoleic acid 2.05 3.71 1.15' 1.15' 1.15 1.951 0.0'
Starch 71.7d NA 15.6b NA 15.6' 26.7b NA
Crude fiber 2.9 6.7 9.7 4.8 2.2 13.1 0.0
Acid detergent fiber 3.0 NA 13.0 9.0 5.0 NA 0.0'
Ash 1.5 3.1 7.5 3.4 1.8 4.2 14.7'
Nitrogen-free extract 81.8f 72.7f 53.4f 43.4f 25.0 58.0 38.4'
Energy (kcal/kg)
Gross 4,402 4,702 4,490 NA NA NA NA
Digestible
Ruminants 3,840 4,140 3,660 3,790 3,920 3,260 NA
Swine 3,837 4,017 3,562 3,876 4,409 3,061 NA
Metabolizable
Ruminants 3,420 4,740 3,250 3,380 3,510 2,850 NA
Chickens 3,818 3,208 1,924 3,278 4,086 1,854 3,110g
Swine 3,724 3,748 2,751 3,436 3,907 3,295 NA
Total digestible nutrients (%)
Ruminants 87 94 836 86 89 74 80
Swine 90 91 84 88 89 NA NA

NA denotes data not available.

'Data compiled by National Academy of Sciences [83] unless otherwise noted.
`'From Ref. 84.
`From Ref. 85.
dFrom Ref. 29.
'From estimates of author.
`From Ref. 86.
gFrom Ref. 87.
Corn 43

TABLE 8 Protein Digestibilities and Amino Acid Composition of Corn and Corn Products (dry basis) for Livestock Feedsa

Corn Corn gluten Corn gluten Corn germ

Dent yellow hominy Corn gluten meal (41% meal (60% meal Corn steep
corn feed feed protein) protein) (sol. ext.) liquor
Protein (%) 10.9 11.5 25.6 46.8 67.2 22.3 47.2b
Digestible protein (%)
Cattle 7.6' 7.9' 24.2' 39.2' NA NA NA
Swine 8.2' 9.4' NA 40.5' NA NA NA
Amino acid composition (% of sample)
Alanine 0.78d NA 1.7b 3.7b 5.8b 1.6b 3.6°
Arginine 0.48 0.52 0.87 1.53 2.31 1.43 2.2'
Aspartic acid 0.68d .NA 1.3b 2.7b 4.0b 1.6b 2.8°
Cystine 0.25 0.16 0.49 0.73 1.10 0.44 1.6°
Glutamic acid 1.77d NA 3.7b 9.6b 15.3b 3.6b 7.0°
Glycine 0.42 0.38 0.94 1.65 2.33 1.20 2.2'
Histidine 0.29 0.22 0.68 1.06 1.55 0.76 1.4°
Isoleucine 0.39 0.43 0.98 2.46 2.82 0.76 1.4°
Leucine 1.37 0.94 2.44 7.92 11.33 1.97 4.0°
Lysine 0.28 0.42 0.71 0.87 1.12 0.98 1.6°
Methionine 0.19 0.18 0.41 1.14 1.98 0.64 1.0°
Phenylalanine 0.54 0.36 0.90 3.05 4.45 0.98 1.6'
Proline 0.84d NA 1.9b 4.0b 6.1b 1.4b 4.0'
Serine 0.57 NA 0.94 1.97 3.71 1.09 2.0°
Threonine 0.40 0.44 0.87 1.56 2.46 1.19 1.8°
Tryptophan 0.09 0.12 0.17 0.23 0.33 0.21 0.1°
Tyrosine 0.34 0.55 0.81 1.11 3.54 0.76 1.0°
Valine 0.50 0.55 1.22 2.40 3.43 1.31 2.4'

NA denotes data not available.

'Data complied by National Academy of Sciences [83] unless otherwise noted.
bFrom Ref. 84.
`From Ref. 86.
dFrom Ref. 87.
'From Ref. 88.

tortillas); tacos, tostadas, and nachos (made with fried tor-
tillas); and nixtamalized atole and tamales (made with corn
masa) [19]. These foods have been extensively discussed
by Rooney and Serna-Saldivar [20]. Traditional methods
involve cooking (90-110°C for 10-15 min) and steeping
the corn overnight in water containing about 1% lime to
produce "nixtamal." This process loosens the hull and some
of the germ, allowing them to be removed by simple wash-
ing, gives a desirable unique flavor and texture, and partial-
ly gelatinizes the starch. The amount of cooking is impor-
tant to achieve optimum texture, as excessive starch
gelatinization causes stickiness, making the dough difficult
to handle, especially if automated sheeting equipment is
used. The cooking/steeping water, called "nejayote," con-
tains up to 6% dissolved and suspended solids and is dis-
carded. The nixtamal is washed to remove hulls and resid-
ual lime, and stone-ground to a dough called "masa." The
masa is kneaded, molded into disks, and baked into tortillas
on a hot griddle. Tortilla chips or tostadas are traditionally
the left-over, stale tortillas, which are made tasty by frying.
White corns are preferred in alkali-cooked foods.
Opaque-2, a potentially desirable corn for corn-based
foods due to its improved lysine content, is largely unac-
ceptable in alkali-cooked food because its starch under-
goes rapid gelatinization, yielding masa that is excessively
sticky. However, QPM lines perform well. Floury corns do
not produce masa doughs with acceptable rheological
properties; corns with high degrees of corneous endosperm
are desired. Corn lots containing more than 4% cracked
kernels produce sticky masa dough unless cooking time is
significantly reduced [21].
Early American settlers produced another type of alkali-
cooked food from corn-corn hominy (Fig. 8). The corn is
cooked in lye rather than lime and washed to remove the
hulls. Then the cooked corn is boiled in fresh water, salted,
and canned. Corn hominy is consumed as a food vegetable.
44 Johnson

TABLE 9 Vitamin and Mineral Contents of Corn and Corn Products (dry basis) for Livestock Feeds'

Corn Corn gluten Corn gluten Corn germ

Dent yellow hominy Corn gluten meal (41% meal (60% meal Corn steep
Nutrient corn feed feed protein) protein) (sol. ext.) liquor

Vitamins
Biotin (mg/kg) 0.08 0.15 0.36 0.20 0.21 0.24 0.666
Carotene (mg/kg) 3 10 7 18 34 2 Ob
Choline (mg/kg) 567 1,280 1,684 391 391 1,785 6,996b
Folic acid (mg/kg) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 02b
Inositol (mg/kg) NA NA 5,923b NA 2,102b NA 12,0126
Niacin (mg/kg) 28 52 79 55 66 33 1676
Pantothenic acid (mg/kg) 6.6 9.1 15.1 11.2 3.9 4.6 30b
7.6 6.8 18b
Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 5.3 12.1 14.8 8.8
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 1.4 2.3 2.5 1.8 2.2 4.2 12"
Thiamine (mg/kg) 3.8 8.9 2.2 0.2 0.3 4.9 6b
Vit. A equiv. (IU/g) 8.0' 16.8' NA 24.5' 48.9' NA NA
Vit. E (mg/kg) 25 NA 14 34 26 94 NA
Xanthophylls (mg/kg) 19 4 42 191 326 NA NA
Minerals
Calcium (%) 0.03 0.01 0.36 0.16 0.08 0.04 0.28b
Chlorine (%) 0.05 0.06 0.25 0.07 0.10 0.04 0.86b
Chromium (mg/kg) NA NA <1.5b NA <1.5b <1.5" <2.0b
Cobalt (mg/kg) 0.05 0.06d 0.10 0.08 0.05 NA 0.28b
31b
Copper (mg/kg) 4 15d 52 30 29 5
Iodine (mg/kg) NA NA 0.07 NA 0.02 NA NA
Iron (mg/kg) 30 17 471 423 313 370 220b
Magnesium (%) 0.14 0.02 0.36 0.06 0.09 0.34 1.42b
Manganese (mg/kg) 5 16 26 8 7 4 58"

Molybdenum (mg/kg) NA NA 0.9b NA 0.67b 0.56b 2.0b

Phosphorus (%) 0.29 0.10 0.82 0.50 0.54 0.47 3.6b
Potassium (%) 0.37 0.09 0.64 0.03 0.21 0.31 4.8"

Selenium (mg/kg) 0.08 0.11d 0.30 1.11 0.92 0.37 0.7b

Sodium (%) 0.03 0.01 1.05 0.10 0.06 0.08 0.22"
Sulfur (%) 0.12 0.19 0.23 0.39 0.72 0.33 1.18"
Zinc (mg/kg) 14 3d 72 190 35 114 132b

NA denote data not available.

"Data complied by National Academy of Sciences [83] unless otherwise noted.
bFrom Ref. 88.
`From Ref. 86.
dFrom Ref. 85.

2. Sweet Corn
Although field corn can be harvested in the milk stage for
consumption as a food vegetable, its palatability is much
inferior to that of sweet corn lines. Sweet corn differs ge-
netically from field corn in that standard sweet corn is ho-
mozygous recessive for sugary endosperm. This homozy-
gous recessive gene causes sweet corn to accumulate as
much as 25% phytoglycogen, a polysaccharide consisting
of glucose that gives the desired creamy texture not
achieved with starch alone. Optimum quality of standard
sweet corn is obtained if harvested before most sugars are
converted to phytoglycogen. This period is very short, of-
ten 1 or 2 days. Breeders have selected for high sugar con-
tents within standard sweet corn lines. Therefore, in order
to assure a steady supply of fresh, high-quality sweet corn
during the growing season, plantings must be staggered
and closely monitored for maturity.
Since the mid-1970s, augmented sugary sweet corns
have been developed that have higher sugar levels and are
sweeter than standard sweet corns. These are mutants
within sugary types involving the sugary enhancer gene.
These lines convert sugar to phytoglycogen at the same
rate as standard sweet corns but have higher initial sugar
contents. Consequently, the harvesting period can be pro-
Corn 45

TABLE 10 Typical Corn-Based Cattle Finishing Diets longed to 4-5 days, and these lines maintain their eating
and Performance qualities longer after harvest. Both yellow (golden) and
white hybrids are grown.
Ration 1:
whole shelled Ration 2: Sweet corn can be consumed in a variety of ways: on
corn cracked corn the cob, as cut kernels, or cream-style [22]. Corn products
are commonly preserved by both canning and freezing.
Ration composition (%) Methods of processing are detailed in Figure 9. Production
Corn, whole shelled and consumption have been steady for the past 10 years
(air dry) 88.6
(Table 12). Per capita consumption of sweet corn is about
Corn, cracked (air dry) 88.6
28 lb/yr with 27% consumed fresh; 38%, canned; and
Soybean meal, 44% protein 10.0 10.0
Dicalcium phosphate 0.55 0.55
35%, frozen. Over the past 15 years, consumption of sweet
Limestone, feeding grade 0.35 0.35 corn has tended towards higher consumption of frozen
Trace mineralized salt 0.50 0.50 corn.
Aurofac-10 0.10 0.10
Quadrex-11 0.025 0.025 3. Popcorn, the First Snack Food
Comparative performance Popcorn is undoubtedly the oldest snack food, having been
Number of steers 12 12 consumed for centuries. Total U.S. popcorn sales have
Number of days on test 82 82 been steadily increasing for the past 15 years, growing
Average initial weight of more than 78% during that period. The surge in popcorn
steers (lb) 717 728
sales during the late 1980s was due to the proliferation of
Average final weight of
microwavable popcorn products (Table 13). Also, there
steers (lb) 1,072 1,018
Weight gain/steer (lb) 355 290
has been a proliferation in recent years of flavored ready-
Average daily gain/steer popped popcorns in addition to the usual salted, buttered,
(lb) 3.99 3.44 and caramel-coated popcorns. Besides the home, where
Feed efficiency (feed/gain) 4.84 5.29 about 70% of popcorn is consumed, popcorn is a popular
snack food at theaters, amusement parks, and sporting
Source: Ref. 89.
events.
Almost all of the popcorn consumed in the world is pro-
duced in the United States. Americans are the biggest con-
sumers, at 64 quarts of popped popcorn per capita per year.
Popcorn is grown widely throughout the Corn Belt states;

TABLE 11 Corn-Based Foods Made with Whole Corn or by Traditional Stone Grinding

Type Specific products

Raw corn Corn salad

Boiled sweet corn Fresh and frozen corn on cob; fresh, frozen, and canned corn kernels; cream-style corn
Fermented corn Pickled miniature corn
Fried products Corn mush, corn fritters, hush puppies
Alkali-cooked products Hominy corn, corn chips, tortilla chips, table tortillas, taco shells, sopapillas, atoles,
pazole, menudo, tostados
Steamed products Tamales, couscous, Chinese breads, ricelike products, dumplings, chengu
Roasted products Pinole, roasted whole kernels (Corn Nuts®), gruels, porridges
Unleavened, unfermented bread Corn muffins, hoecake, tortillas, arepa
Fermented and/or leavened bread Boston brown bread, Johnny cakes, pancakes, corn bread, blintzes
Porridges Indian pudding, atole, ogi, kenkey, ugali, agi, edo pap, maizena, posho, asidah
Breakfast cereal Southern corn grits, corn flakes
Snacks Popcorn, tostados
Nonalcoholic beverages Corn coffee, magou, chica dulce
Alcoholic beverages Corn liquor, maize beer, koda, chicha, kaffir beer

Source: Refs. 20 and 90.

46 Johnson

Corn

Lime (0.05-1.0% of corn) BOILING

Water (125-300% of corn) (10-15 min)

STEEPING
(10-18 hr)

DRAINING Nejayote (cooking liquor)

t-ixtama4

WASHING
Water (3 times)

DRAINING Wash Water

(3 times) (pericarp. excess Time)

'STONE MIWNG

DOUGH MIXING

Masa I DRYING I

SHEETING AND Water SIEVING

CUTTING
Flavors BLENDING

FRYING BAKING BOILING

FORMING (15-20 min)

FRYING
1
Corn Chips Tortilla Chips Taco Shells Table Tortillas Nixtamatized Instant
Ato4e Corn Masa

FIGURE 7 Flow sheet for producing Mexican-type foods from corn.

Indiana and Nebraska are the largest producers. Total U.S.

White Corn
popcorn production in 1996 was about 1 billion lb.
CLEANING Not all cereals will pop. Popcorn pops exceptionally
well because the failure of the pericarp occurs at about
Lye (2% of corn)
BOILING 177°C. This temperature is well above the point where the
(95°C, 30 min)
moisture in the kernel vaporizes into voids surrounding
DRAINING Alkali
starch granules, creating steam pressure of >135 psi and
having the potential to cause explosive expansion when
WASHING Wash Water the pericarp finally ruptures [23]. Popcorn is a special type
of flint corn selected for its popping characteristics. Com-
I HOMINY HULLING Hulls pared to other flint corns, popcorn kernels are smaller and
have essentially no soft endosperm. Commercial popcorns
BOILING
are usually either yellow or white, although popcorns with
FIWNG many other pericarp colors have acceptable eating quali-
ties. High-quality popcorn will have an expansion ratio
Cans CLOSING (vol. popped/vol. unpopped) in excess of 40:1 (sometimes
50:1), yield at least 98% popped kernels, and have test
RETORTING/
weights from 63 to 68 lb/bu. Kernels with high specific
STERIUZING
gravity have been observed to have high expansion ratios
Canned Hominy [24].
The eating quality of popcorn is affected by popped
FIGURE 8 Flow sheet for processing corn hominy. volume, shape of the popped kernels, tenderness, and fla-
Corn 47

White or Yellow
Sweet Corn

HUSKING Husks

SILKING Silks

COOLING

SORTING Culls, trimmings

WASHING Dirt

BLANCHING

COOLING

I FREEZING I CUTTING

I PACKAGING I SCRAPING Cobs

-- Scrapings—J
BRINING I SILKING I

HEATING I Starch BLENDING

FILLING I 1 HEATING

CLOSING I I FILLING

RETORTING/ CLOSING
STERILIZING
RETORTING/
COOLING STERILIZING

COOLING

Fresh Corn- Frozen Corn- Frozen Canned Corn Kernels Canned Cream-Style
on-the-Cob on-the-Cob Corn Kernels (Maryland Style) Corn (Maine Style)

FIGURE 9 Flow sheet for processing sweet corn products.

vor [25], all of which are affected by moisture content be-
fore and after popping. The optimum moisture content for
popping depends upon whether oil or air is used to heat
the kernels. When air popping, kernels with 14.0% mois-
ture content give the highest expansion; when oil popping,
kernels with 13.5% moisture give the greatest expansion
(most popcorn specifications use 13-14.3% moisture).
Popcorn should be packaged in containers that provide ex-
cellent barriers to moisture so that moisture content does
not deviate far from optimum during distribution and use.
Special packages have been developed and patented to
pop popcorn in microwave ovens. Popped popcorn ad-
sorbs moisture rapidly from the atmosphere unless ade-
quately protected because of the large surface area and be-
cause gelatinized starch is more hygroscopic than native
starch.
VII. SEPARATION OF CORN INTO ITS
COMPONENT FRACTIONS
Corn is subjected to wet-and dry-milling processes to sep-
arate the grain into its components; however, fractionation
by the two methods differs in the types of fractions sought
as well as the method by which the fractionation takes
place. The objective of dry milling is to separate the kernel
into its anatomical parts (endosperm, bran, and germ); the
objective of wet milling is to separate corn into largely
chemical constituents (starch, protein, fiber, and oil).
The annual amount of corn ground and fractionated in
the United States is about 1.25 billion bu, of which more
than 80% is wet milled. While the amount of corn
processed by the dry-milling industry has remained rela-
tively constant over the past 15 years, the amount of corn
 48 Johnson

TABLE 12 Recent History of Sweet Corn Production, Processing, and Consumption

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

PRODUCTION
Production (1000 tons in
husk)a 3,650 3,149 3,777 3,993 4,173 4,175 3,663 4,831 4,399
Processing for freezing' 1,228 1,092 1,261 1,444 1,461 1,409 1,260 1,611 1,617
Processing for canning' 1,638 1,328 1,688 1,677 1,936 1,842 1,461 2,120 1,707
Fresh marketa 783 729 827 873 776 924 942 1,100 1,075
Canned corn pack (1000 cs)c 69,031 NA NA NA NA 83,310 NA NA NA
Whole kernel' 56,287 NA NA NA NA 68,459 NA NA NA
Cream style' 12,744 NA NA NA NA 14,851 NA NA NA
Canned hominy pack (1000 cs)` 6,812 NA NA NA NA 4,057 NA NA NA
Frozen corn-on-cob (million lb)d 407 346 436 450 441 376 378 493 415
Frozen cut corn packs (million lb)d 433 423 503 518 553 549 473 686 694
PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION
Fresh (lb fresh on-cob basis)e 6.3 5.8 6.5 6.7 5.9 6.9 7.0 7.8 7.5
Canned (lb fresh on-cob basis)' 10.6 10.4 9.5 11.0 11.1 11.9 11.2 10.0 10.7
Frozen (lb fresh on-cob basis)e 7.8 8.7 8.4 8.6 9.4 9.0 9.8 9.2 9.8
Total (lb fresh on-cob basis)e 24.7 24.9 24.4 26.3 26.4 27.8 28.0 27.0 28.0

NA denotes data not available.

aData compiled by crop Reporting Board, Statistical Reporting Service, USDA [88].
bData compiled by Division of Economics and Statistics, National Canners Association [88].

`Data compiled by Census Reports [88].

d Data compiled by American Frozen Food Institute [88].
'Data compiled by Economic Research Service, USDA [88].

are mature industries in the United States that are rapidly

TABLE 13 Estimated U.S. Popcorn Production (million lb)
becoming consolidated into a few large companies.
Year Amount Year Amount

1970 353 1984 630 A. Dry Milling

1971 363 1985 670
1972
Two different systems are used to dry mill corn: degerming
372 1986 700
1973 383 1987 741 and nondegerming. The nondegerming system grinds corn,
1974 401 1988 807 preferably white dent corn, into meal with little, if any,
1975 393 1989 872 separation of germ [26]. Traditional stone-grinding mills
1976 415 1990 938 continue to be used in some nondegerming systems. Occa-
1977 450 1991 1031 sionally stone-ground meal is bolted or sieved to remove
1978 486 1992 1124 the coarsest particles of hull and germ. Traditional or bolt-
1979 520 1993 1158 ed undegermed corn meal has a comparatively short shelf
1980 568 1994 1081 life compared to products from degerming systems. The
1981 600 1995 1025
germ, which contains 32-35% oil, is retained. The oil is
1982 611 1996 1068
spread over the surfaces of many particles, increasing the
1983 618
area of exposure to oxygen and lipolytic enzymes, making
Source: Popcorn Institute, Chicago, IL. the product prone to oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity. No
more than 20% of the corn subjected to dry milling is
processed by nondegerming systems.
processed by the wet-milling industry has more than dou-
bled during the same period, and construction of several 1. The Tempering-Degerming Milling Process
new plants recently announced. The growth in the wet- In 1906 the Beal degerminator was introduced, giving
milling industry is the result of increased demand for high- birth to tempering-degerming (TD) systems, which are
fructose corn syrup and ethanol. Table 14 shows changes well described by Stiver [27] and Easter [28]. This tech-
in production levels for wet-milled and dry-milled corn nology facilitated the production of corn products with
products over the past decade. Both dry and wet milling much lower fat contents and greater shelf life and the abil-
Corn 49

TABLE 14 U.S. Corn Utilization as Food and Industrial Products (million bu)
Wet-milled products

Year Glucose
beginning and High-fructose Fuel Beverage Cereals and
Sept. 1 Starch dextrose corn syrup alcohol alcohol other products

1980 151 156 165 35 78 54

1981 146 160 183 86 86 53
1982 150 165 214 140 110 60
1983 161 167 265 160 88 70
1984 172 167 310 232 84 81
1985 190 169 327 271 83 93
1986 214 171 338 290 85 109
1987 226 173 358 279 77 113
1988 223 182 361 287 107 114
1989 230 193 368 321 109 115
1990 232 200 379 349 80 114
1991 237 210 392 398 81 116
1992 238 214 414 426 83 117
1993 244 223 442 458 83 118
1994 226 231 465 533 100 118
1995 219 237 482 396 110 118
1996 225 240 515 440 110 120

Source: Ref. 82.

Cam
Siaape

Twryenq

FIGURE 10 Production flow chart for dry corn milling (tempering-degerming). (From Ref. 59.)
50 Johnson

Dry Corn Mill•Degermed Products © 1969

W. [. Easter. Milling Engineer
Universal Flow Sheet II T. E. Slivers. Professional Engineer
1000 to 5000 CWT
111 Rights Reseived
Corn

Nernst,
CM Storage A sp ir a tot
II to S days feed
pretemper-to 1st. Temper Conveyor
suit coral water & ste m

L
added Gravity table
_lots
1st. Temper
Sic
I to 4 hr.
holding cap.
Primary Tables
Recycle so'
Recycle table

1G IC)
IS)')
Germ

Aspirator
4 feed
Magnetic
Separator Gravity I able
2ed Temper Conveyer
water & steam ri— Separators
added
Tail cora
MiIlerator Ted Temper
Dry lie 'Girl
Vessel I to 4 hr. Sitter 711(C)
holding cap.
To lead
Aspirator
2GIC)
Core Washer
reed
I Whiner

Gravity Table Separatist

Solids Solids Feed or dcality
Recovery to Final beech Ceiveysr3 meal systems
teed water I steam added 38
(Illicit to waste 2G(C)
treatment plant 26(1)

FIGURE 11 Detailed flow sheet for cleaning and degerming operations in dry corn milling (tempering-degerming). (From Ref. 27.)

ity to be distributed to more distant markets. Therefore,
newer and larger regional mills became more cost-effec-
tive than older and smaller local grist mills A general flow
sheet conceptualizing TD systems is shown in Figure 10;
more detailed flow sheets are shown in Figures 11 and 12.
The objectives of the TD system are to remove most of
the germ and hull and leave the endosperm as free of oil
and fiber as possible, to recover maximum yield of en-
dosperm as large clean particles, and to recover the maxi-
mum yield of germ as large clean particles [29]. The TD
system uses physical and mechanical treatment to achieve
these objectives. Corn is cleaned to remove dirt, stones, in-
sects, tramp iron, broken kernels, and extraneous plant ma-
terial. Water is added to the corn to increase the moisture
content to 20%, and the moistened corn is allowed to
equilibrate (tempering) for 1-3 hours. This toughens the
germ and bran so that their particle sizes remain large,
making separation easier. Once the germ and hull are re-
moved, the endosperm is reduced in size to grits with roller
mills. A complex array of additional roller mills and parti-
cle-size—separating equipment is used to purify and size
endosperm particles. All products must be dried prior to
packaging or bulk storage.
2. Products of the Tempering-Degerming
Process
All corn dry mills produce a line of basic products that in-
cludes grits, meals, flour, and germ. Hominy feed is pro-
duced as a co-product and sold for feed. Table 15 tabulates
typical yields and particle size ranges. Grits comprise the
largest fraction. Table 16 tabulates typical compositions
for dry-milled corn products. Grits usually contain less
Corn 51

12011 Mills Flowed For:

Dry Corn Mill-Degermed Products 0 tin c•eite Inn - 10.14
Universal Flow Sheet #2 • ( (islet. Yaws Ieueett I lei CHU -14/16.11/10
t000 to 5000 CWT 1 I Strtt tiitteileti,
iillil i, 7:::ovtoett teem nee 4500.50
-3.,•5 nese -5.1 Nese (kited Mut - 50.15
et•me
-1•10 Mod hat Nisei -50
- 71
--•
r r
.3', Nese
CM II.. -15
141:: 0, All Nuts - 14 Ito Ito NM
2CICI All Nutt II sof evil eft lellti
ICif • 3C et I I.
11111 111C1 30 Feel St: ad Feel • II •
ICIC1

Ale
-3',.5 Nese Cm&
WI e 10 WIC 21 IO
WE 10
14
14 14 - WE SO 15
ti 71
I 20

I
WE 21 so SO SO
15
SO
4.-
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t
-10.14 Mese -101 Yid
—7.10 Nese

r
•••••••••

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arm 4 ra
▪0 j

Ws
NI
et
MI

1CIC
lee/
lip
„., 211C
lc"
Flu Ned
led
t het
21
led
Al.., DWI
Neel
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Neil

et et so •1 et •2
Y
tem Ce Cos Cs,.
Asp at/. Aso As,. As,. OW
U U WE WE WE WE 3 o I
WIC ttttlii 3 Iffri • KUL
WIC tE WE SO ttttt Civet Emil
WIC MLIA WE Neil Neil
11 10
-24.50 Mese 24 Sect
SO Mesh •

EL— geed

co
PI 13 14
10,1C1 •Feel nig ortlq 14171
11 51 54 41
21111
14 11 54
34 32 30 26 . 36 34 32 30
66 CC I CC
r-----, t
ph 1,1,11 StItets
20, Nut

Ig Neel Pulite et loll

FIGURE 12 Detailed flow sheet for milling operations in dry corn milling (tempering-degerming). (From Ref. 27.)

than 1% fat; finer meals, 1.0-1.5%; and flours, 2.0%. Pro- proportions of horny endosperm to soft endosperm in the
tein content is inversely proportional to particle size. The corn being milled. Incoming corn is often graded on the
germ is subjected to either hard screw pressing or prepress basis of this ratio, which is often determined subjectively
solvent extraction to recover crude edible oils. The high- by hand-dissection. Other dry-milled corn products have a
protein, defatted germ meal is primarily used for feed and variety of food and industrial uses (Table 17). Approxi-
only occasionally as a food ingredient. mately 36% of dry corn mill production is used in live-
Generally, larger endosperm particles, flaking grits, are stock feeds and pet foods, 54% in food applications (brew-
the more valuable products from dry milling, and the eries and breakfast cereals manufacturers being the largest
process and its machinery are designed to maximize pro- customers), and 10% in nonfood industrial applications
duction while exceeding minimum quality specifications. (Table 18).
Grits are used in high-value consumer products such as
breakfast cereals, extruded snacks, and fermented bever-
B. Wet Milling
ages. It is important that grits be bright yellow or clear
white, depending on the type of corn being processed, and In comparison to other processing methods for corn, wet
free of dust and bran. Grits should be relatively pure horny milling is a relatively recent innovation, although wet
endosperm, and their yields are affected by the relative milling of wheat has its roots in ancient Egypt, where
52 Johnson

TABLE 15 Products Produced from Dry Corn Milling (tempering-degerming)

Particle size range

U.S. standard sieve' Diameter (µm)

Product Less than More than Less than More than Yield' (%)

Usual products
Cereal flaking (hominy) grits 3.5 6 5,660 3,360 12
Coarse grits 10 14 2,000 1,410 15
Regular grits 14 28 1,410 638 23
Coarse meal 28 50 638 297 3
Dusted meal 50 75 297 194 3
Flour 75 pan 194 pan 4
Oil
Hominy feed 35
Shrinkage 4
Alternative products
Brewers grits 12 30 1,680 590 30
100% meal 28 pan 638 pan 10
Fine meal (coarse cones) 50 80 297 177 7
Germ fraction 3.5 20 5,660 840 10

"From Ref. 26.

TABLE 16 Compositions of Dry-Milled Corn Products longer merely fractionates corn into its constituents but
(tempering-degerming)a also converts some of these fractions into syrups and
ethanol and other fermentation-produced chemicals and
Composition (% db)
feed additives and therefore is known as the "corn-refin-
Moisture Protein Crude ing" industry. Table 20 summarizes product shipments for
Product (%) (N x 6.25) Fat fiber Ash the corn-refining industry over 5 years.
Cereal flaking 1. The Wet-Milling Process
(hominy grits) 14.0 8.4 0.7 0.4 0.4
Whereas the separation achieved in dry milling is purely
Coarse grits 13.0 8.4 0.7 0.5 0.4
Regular grits
mechanical, the separation of constituents in wet milling is
13.0 8.0 0.8 0.5 0.5
Brewers grits 13.0 8.3 0.7 0.5 0.5 achieved by a combination of chemical and mechanical
Coarse meal 12.0 7.6 1.2 0.5 0.6 means. Figure 13 shows the sequence of major operations
Dusted meal 12.0 7.5 1.0 0.5 0.6 involved.
100% meal 12.0 7.2 1.5 0.6 0.6 Wet milling begins with steeping cleaned corn for
Fine meal 12.0 7.0 1.6 0.6 0.7 30-48 hours with process water recycled from down-
Flour 12.0 6.6 2.0 0.7 0.7 stream operations. Sulfur dioxide is added to the water to
Germ fraction 15.0 14.9 18.0 4.6 4.7 achieve a level of 0.1-0.2%, and the solution is heated to
Hominy feed 13.0 12.5 6.3 5.4 3.3 about 50°C. These conditions are unsuitable for putrefying
Source: Ref. 20. microorganisms but are conducive to growth of indigenous
Lactobacillus. The flow of water through the battery of
steep tanks is countercurrent so that the freshest corn con-
archeological evidence indicates that starch was used more tacts the weakest sulfur dioxide concentration. During
than 5000 years ago as stiffeners and adhesives in ancient steeping, the kernels absorb solution and swell, activating
paper [30]. It was not until 1849 that corn was subjected to enzymes native to the kernel to assist in breaking down the
wet milling on a commercial scale when a wheat starch structure; the bisulfite ion reduces disulfide bonds in the
plant in Utica, New York, was converted to corn [31]. To- protein matrix, increasing protein solubility and diminish-
day the corn wet-milling industry consumes more than 980 ing interactions between starch and protein; the lactic acid
million bu of corn and contributes significantly to the farm and/or exogenous enzymes produced by the lactobacilli
economy (Table 19). The corn wet-milling industry no help soften the endosperm. The role and relative impor-
Corn 53

TABLE 17 Uses for Dry-Milled Corn Products

Product Food use Industrial use
Flaking grits Breakfast cereals
Coarse grits Breakfast cereals
Snacks
Medium grits Breakfast cereals
Snacks
Fine grits Brewing Wallpaper paste
Maize porridge
Meal Brewing Floor wax
Snacks Handsoap
Pancake, waffle, muffin mixes
Cones Snacks Dusting agents
Cornbread Handsoap
Breakfast cereals
Flour Baby foods Fermentation media
Frozen foods Explosives
Biscuits Wallboard
Wafers Briquetting
Pancake mixes
Meat extenders
Breading, batters
Specialty products Confectionary toppings Foundry binders
Jam and jelly extenders Label adhesives
Fig paste extenders Edge paste
Coconut extenders
Thickening agents
Dough conditioners
Brewers flakes
Meat extenders

tance of each are not well understood. After contacting
8-16 different tanks of corn over the 30- to 48-hour period,
about 5 gallons of light steep liquor per bushel of corn
processed is withdrawn and evaporated to about 50%
solids, the contents of which are reported in Tables 7-9.
The steep liquor may be sold for use in fermentation me-
dia, but this market is small compared to total steep liquor
production. It is common to combine steep liquor with
feed fractions (gluten feed). The remaining 3-4 gal/bu of
water used in wet milling is absorbed by the corn and car-
ried downstream and must be dried from the resulting corn
fractions.
After steeping, the softened corn is ready for grinding
and fractionating, as shown in Figure 14. The steeped corn
is sluiced to disk attrition mills, where the objective is to
free the rubbery germ without breaking it into pieces. The
ground slurry is pumped to hydroclones (liquid cyclones)
to separate the lighter-weight germs. Multiple passes may
be used to achieve clean separations. The germs are dried
and processed for oil and meal. The heavier underflow
from the hydroclones is screened, and larger particles are
finely reground with an impact mill to free the starch, pro-
tein, and fiber from each other. Next, the fiber is separated,
washed over a series of screens, and dewatered. The re-
maining stream of starch and protein (termed "millstarch")
is pumped to disk-nozzle type centrifuges, where heavier
starch is separated from the gluten. The gluten is dewa-
tered using additional centrifuges and vacuum filters.
Some protein (3-5%) and impurities remain in the starch
slurry, which are removed by starch-washing hydroclones.
It is at this point that fresh water enters the process. Cen-
trifuges and/or vacuum filters dewater the purified starch.
2. Wet-Milled Products
The most valuable fractions are starch and germ. The wet-
milling process and its equipment are designed to maxi-
mize the yields and qualities of these fractions. Typical
yields of wet-mill products are shown in Table 21 along
with their respective compositions in Table 22. The lower-
valued co-products account for one third of the mill output.
Most of the co-products, except the oil recovered from the
germ, are utilized as livestock feed [32].
54 Johnson

TABLE 18 Estimated Utilization of Corn (a) Feed Products. Corn gluten feed, corn gluten meal,
Dry-Milling Products and occasionally spent corn germ meal and steep liquor are
sold to the formulated feed industry or directly to feed lot
Consumption of corn
products operators. Usually the fiber, spent germ meal after extrac-
tion of oil, and steep liquor are combined and sold either
Million wet or dry as corn gluten feed. Despite the additional ex-
Application pounds % of Total pense of transporting water, wet gluten feed is increasing
Animal feeds 2,200" 36.2 in popularity with local cattle feeders due to greater pro-
Food uses 3,300 54.3 tein digestibility and lower selling prices, both of which re-
Brewing 1,850b 30.4 sult from lack of drying. Corn gluten feed contains a mini-
Breakfast cereals 800b 13.2 mum of 18% protein at 10% moisture. Because of the high
Fortified foods (PL 480) 325" 5.4 fiber content of corn gluten feed, very little is used in poul-
Mixes (pancake, cookie, muffin, try or swine rations.
etc.) loob 1.6 Corn gluten meal is considerably more valuable as a
Snackfoods loob 1.6 feed ingredient because of its high protein, vitamin A, and
Baking 50b 0.8
xanthophyll contents. Most corn gluten meal contains 60%
Other foods (breadings, batters,
75b protein at 10% moisture, but occasionally small amounts
baby foods, etc.) 1.2
Industrial (nonfood) uses 580 9.5 of corn gluten meal are sold at 41% protein. This lower
Gypsum board 100h 1.6 protein level is achieved by diluting with corn gluten feed.
Pharmaceuticals/Fermentation 200" 3.3 The poultry-feeding industry utilizes almost all of the corn
Foundary binders 90h 1.5 gluten meal because the xanthophylls are important for
Ore refining 65" 1.1 pigmenting poultry skin and egg yolks.
Charcoal binders 75b 1.2 Most spent germ meal is sold along with the other frac-
Drilling fluids 25" 0.4 tions as corn gluten feed. Occasionally small amounts are
Paper, paperboard, corrugating 15" 0.3 used as carriers for vitamins and minerals because it ab-
Other 10e 0.2 sorbs large amounts of water and oil.
'From Ref. 92. (b) Starch. Starch is the primary product of a corn wet
"From Ref. 93. mill. Starch may be sold as native or after modifying with
`Estimates of author. heat, chemicals, or enzymes, or it may be converted to
sugars for use as sweeteners or as fermentation substrates.
Wet-mill starch yields in excess of 67% or 32.7 lb/bu are
strived for. The starch should be at least 99% pure and con-
TABLE 19 Size and Significance of the Corn Wet-Milling
tain no more than 0.3% protein. Higher levels of impurities
Industry, 1996
alter critical physical, functional, and handling properties
Number of plants 25 of the starch.
Plant locations 13 states Three types of native corn starches can be produced:
Annual corn wet-mill grind 980 million bu normal, waxy, and high amylose. The latter two are special-
Value of corn purchased $3 billion ty starches commanding premium prices. Table 23 com-
Employment 10,000 persons pares the properties of normal and waxy corn starches. Na-
Capital investment $6 billion
tive corn starch is composed of nearly spherical granules,
Starch products (starch, modified starch
5-30 vim in diameter, and exhibits birefringence on micro-
and dextrins) 5.5 billion lb
Refinery products (glucose syrup, high- scopic examination with plane-polarized light. Starch gran-
fructose syrup, dextrose, corn syrup ules contain crystalline and amorphous regions. Normal
solids and maltodextrins) 30.2 billion lb dent corn starch is composed of 26-28% apparent amylose
High-fructose corn syrup (42%) 8.6 billion lb and 74-72% amylopectin; waxy, 99% amylopectin and 1%
High-fructose corn syrup (55%) 12.5 billion lb amylose; and amylomaize, 50-20% amylopectin and
Corn oil 1.2 billion lb 50-80% amylose. Amylose content is usually estimated by
Corn gluten feed and corn germ meal 11.3 billion lb iodine affinity procedures and overestimates actual amy-
Corn gluten meal 2.2 billion lb lose content; absolute amylose content of normal dent corns
Steepwater 0.9 billion lb is about 18% [33]. On heating in water suspensions, the
Source: The member companies of the Corn Refiners Association, Wash- crystalline regions are disrupted with consequent loss of
ington, DC. birefringence, the granule swells, and amylose exudes from
Corn 55

TABLE 20 Shipments of Products of the Corn-Refining Industry (million lb)

Products 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Starch products (starch,
modified starch, dextrins) 4,401 4,601 4,488 4,959 5,150 5,419 5,556 5,640 5,658 5,528
Refinery products (glucose
syrup, high-fructose corn
syrup corn syrup solids,
maltodextrin) 20,574 21,477 21,582 22,772 23,753 25,488 26,955 28,119 29,340 30,172
High-fructose corn syrup
(42%) 5,435 6,272 6,335 6,796 7,086 7,786 8,140 8,326 8,550 8,571
High-fructose corn syrup
(55%) 8,893 8,735 8,610 8,751 9,124 9,595 10,441 11,163 11,823 12,513
Corn oil (crude and refined) 1,035 1,129 1,109 1,131 1,098 1,027 799 619 647 1,171
Corn gluten feed and germ
meal 8,749 9,474 9,679 9,372 9,329 10,665 11,388 11,575 11,156 11,329
Corn gluten meal 1,604 1,707 1,815 1,782 1,873 2,129 2,031 2,049 2,269 2,240
Steepwater 183 170 169 306 386 423 458 624 855 870
Source: The Corn Refiners Association.

the granule. The solution of starch, termed "paste," increas-
es in viscosity as gelatinization progresses. The properties
of starch pastes are usually measured using a viscoamylo-
graph. Viscometric properties of corn starch pastes are
compared to pastes of starches from other sources in Fig-
ure 15.
Over 80% of the world's starch production comes from
wet milling corn (potato, wheat, and cassava being other
important sources), with the United States producing
almost 60% of the world's supply of starch. Figure 16 es-
timates the utilization of corn starch in various food and
industrial applications. Food applications utilize about
35% of the corn starch production [34]. Major food uses
for starch include brewing adjuncts; chemicals, drugs, and
pharmaceuticals; viscosity control agents in canning;
starch-based confectionery products; and bakery appli-
cations. Starches are used in food as stabilizers, thick-
eners, viscosity-control agents, and gelling agents. Addi-
tional food applications for corn starches, native and
modified, are described by Moore et al. [35]. The other
65% of the starch production is utilized in nonfood indus-
trial applications, including adhesives in paper and build-
ing materials and coatings and sizings in textiles and pa-
per products.
(c) Corn Bran as a Source of Dietary Fiber. Recent in-
creased consumer awareness of the importance of fiber in
the human diet has increased demand for high-fiber ingre-
dients such as those derived from corn bran. Corn fiber
from wet mills can be refined into products having compo-
sitions and properties similar to those in Table 24. Refined
corn bran has at least 92% dietary fiber, which places it
among the most concentrated sources. Refined corn bran is
used as a fiber supplement in dietary beverages, extruded
breakfast cereals and snack foods, and breads and other
bakery products.
(d) Edible Oil Recovery from Corn Germ. Oils capable
of being refined into edible products are routinely recov-
ered from both dry-milled and wet-milled corn germs.
However, due to a wide difference in their oil contents, the
two sources are processed differently (Fig. 17). Dry-milled
germs contain about 18% oil and can be rolled into thin
flakes and directly extracted with hexane. Wet-milled
germs, on the other hand, contain about 52% oil and can-
not be rolled into flakes that will retain their integrity dur-
ing extraction. Consequently, wet-milled germs are
processed by prepress solvent extraction, where the germs
are heated and screw pressed to reduce the oil content to
18-20% prior to extraction with hexane. In both processes
the desolventized, defatted germ meal contains less than
1.2% residual oil.
The crude oil is subjected to refining operations to re-
move undesirable compounds affecting appearance and
sensory properties (Fig. 18). These compounds include
phosphatides, free fatty acids, pigments, waxes, and trace
amounts of undesirable flavors and odors. Properly refined
corn oil is bland and pale yellow and does not produce a
cloudy haze at refrigerator temperatures. Often, corn oil is
partially hydrogenated to convert the liquid oil into a semi-
plastic fat suitable for use in margarine. Although some
sites of unsaturation are reduced, corn oil margarines usu-
56 Johnson

Shelled Com

CLEANING t---Cleanings

I STORAGE

CLEANING I—Cleanings

SO2 —I STEEPING —Steep Water —I EVAPORATION}- Steep Liquor •---i

MILLING
Corn Steep
Liquor
H
CYCLONE I_Ge
SEPARATION (MS DRYING

1_1 OIL
1--1 GRINDING
EXPELLING
SO2 SCREENING Hulls

r+ ...,CENTRIFUGAL
SEPARATION ( Gluten
SOLVENT
EXTRACTION .Meal
I WET FEED
BLENDING
Crude 01
I DRYING
ALKALI
• REFINING

DEODORIZING
BLEACHING

Corn Gluten Reined Soapstock Com Germ Corn Gluten

Meal Corn oa 'Meal Feed

Fresh ti CLONE
WYC
Starch Slurry
ASHING
Water I HCI or
Enzyme
L FILTERING OR

I
CENTRIFUGING
SYRUP SUGAR MODIFICATION
CONVERSION CONVERSION
DRYING

HCI REFINING I DRYING

COOKING I EVAPORATION DRYING

Corn Starch Deictrins Com Synxis Dextrose Mochfted

Corn Starch

FIGURE 13 Process flow chart for wet corn milling (Modified from Ref. 29.)

ally are more polyunsaturated than many competing mar-
garines.
Compositions and important properties of crude and re-
fined corn oils are compared in Tables 25 and 26. A high
level of polyunsaturated fatty acids is claimed to be advan-
tageous for diet and health. A low level of linolenic acid
and high levels of the natural antioxidant tocopherols give
corn oils unusual stability to oxidative rancidity. The high
smoke point and low solidification point make corn oils
ideal cooking and salad oils, respectively.
Some work is underway to increase the contents of oleic
acid and saturated fatty acids of corn oil [36]. One seed
company has increased the oleic acid content from the typi-
cal 24% to more than 60%. High-oleic corn oil is more sta-
ble to lipid oxidation. Another group has increased the con-
tent of saturated fatty acids from the typical 13% to more
than 20%. However, even higher levels will be required to
achieve the goal of replacing hydrogenation and reducing
the attendant production of trans fatty acids for margarine
production. Several years ago corn oil sold at premium
prices relative to soybean oil due to better flavor stability.
Corn oils are primarily used as cooking and salad oils
and as base fats for margarine after partial hydrogenation
(Table 27). Recent expansion of the corn wet-milling in-
dustry has catapulted corn oil to the second-most-utilized
vegetable oil in the United States and has caused corn oil
to be more equitably priced with soybean oil, the major
food oil in the United States.
Corn 57

Germ Separation

F--
c01114 FRou STEEP WATER
GLEANING ANL,---1 GERM WASHING
STORAGE OSM SCREENS

STEEPING

PROCESS
STEEP WATER
WATER
EVAPORATORS DSL4
SCREEN

DSM SCREEN

PRWARY GERM PALL

GERM SECONDARY GERM
SLUICE WATER CYCLONE SYSTEM
PROCESSOC CYCLONE SYSTEM
OECARTING
CYCLONE

Fiber Separation

OSLI SCREENS

0511 SCREENS

MILL PROCESS WATER

FIBER DRYER
Deemer

AIULTPLE STAGE FIBER WASH SYSTEM

Gluten Separation
STEEPS
DEGRITTING
CYCLONE

GRIT MILL STREAM THICKENER

0j......._
WASH
PROCE SS WATER
WATER
140CESS WATER
PRIMARY STARCH BEL T
SEPARATOR FLIER

GLUTEN — TO DRYING
CLARIFIER
THICKENER

GLUTEN
FLTRATION

CYCLONES

0 FOR ST ARCH
MUL TIPLE STAGE STARCH WASHING SYSTEM WASH OR SYRUP
WATER

DEGFVTIING
CYCLONE

GRIT

FIGURE 14 Process flow chart for starch separation in wet corn milling. (Modified from Ref. 60.)
58 Johnson

TABLE 21 Typical Yields of Wet-Milled Products TABLE 23 Compositions and Properties of Commercial
Corn Starchesa
Yield Yield
Product (% db) (lb/bu db) Normal Waxy

Starch 67.5 32.7 Composition (% as is)

Fiber 11.5 5.6 Moisture 11 11
Germ 7.5 3.6 Starch 88 88
Oil 3.9 1.9 Portion as amylose 28 0
Cake 3.6 1.7 Portion as amylopectin 72 100
Gluten meal (60% protein) 5.8 2.8 Protein (N x 6.25) 0.35 0.28
Steep liquor solubles 7.5 3.6 Fat (ether extractables) 0.04 0.04
Loss 0.2 0.1 Total lipids 0.87 0.23
Gluten feed (fiber, germ cake, steep Fiber 0.1 0.1
liquor solubles to yield 21% protein) 22.6 11.0 Ash 0.1 0.1
SO2 0.0004 NA
Source: Ref. 29. Properties
Granule size, average (µrn) 9.2 NA
Granule size, range (p.m) 5-30 NA
(e) Recovery of Zein from Corn Gluten Meal. There are Gelatinization temperature range
four major classes of proteins in corn distinguishable on (°C) 62-72 63-72
the basis of their solubilities: albumins, globulins, Swelling power at 95°Cb (%) 24 64
Solubility at 95°C (%) 25 23
glutelins, and zein (prolamines) (Table 28). Zein is the ma-
Critical concentration at 95°Cb
jor protein in corn gluten meal, comprising about 47%.
(%) 4.4 1.6
Zein, as a sole source of protein, will not support the Brabender pasting temperature
growth of animals because it is deficient in lysine and tryp- (8%, °C) 75-80 65-70
tophan. Zein has a low content of ionizable amino acids Brabender peak viscosity
and a high content of nonpolar amino acids, which confer (8%, BU) 700 1,100
unique solubility properties. Zein is poorly soluble in wa- Paste textureb Short Long
ter but highly soluble in 70-90% ethanol or 70-90% iso- Paste clarityb Opaque Translucent
propanol and is the basis for its industrial separation. Resistance to shearb Medium Low
Zein is extracted from corn gluten meal with hot aque- Rate of retrogradationb High Very high
ous ethanol or propanol. The extract is treated with sodium Specific gravity 1.5 1.5
Bulk density (lb/ft3) 41 15 44-45
hydroxide, cooled, acidified, and filtered. The extract is
then subjected to liquid-liquid extraction with hexane to NA denotes data not available.
remove oil, carotenoids, and some of the alcohol. The pro- °Data compiled by Watson [94] unless otherwise noted.
tein is precipitated by adding cold water, recovered by fil- bFrom Ref. 95.

tering, and dried.

Unlike most other commercially available proteins,
zein is highly resistant to water and forms tough films and

TABLE 22 Compositions of Wet-Milled Products (dry basis)

Starch Protein (%) Fat Crude fiber Pentosans

Product (%) (N x 6.25) (%) (%) (%)
Starch 99.0 0.3 0.02 0.03 NA
Fiber 23.0 12.0 1.0 14.0 30.0
Germ 10.0 12.0 52.0 10.0 12.0
Oil 0 0 100 0 0
Solvent-extracted meal 20.0 25.0 1.0 10.0 25.0
Gluten 18.0 70.0 7.0 2.0 NA
Steep liquor solubles NA 46.0 0 0 0

Source: Ref. 29.

Corn 59

TABLE 24 Typical Composition and

Potato Starch Properties of Refined Corn Bran (as-is basis)a
2400 Wheat Starch
Viscosity ( Brabender Units)

•--- Corn Starch

— — Tapioca Starch Moisture (%) 3
2000 Waxy Corn Starch
Dietary fiber (%) 92
1600 —
Celluloseb (%) 22
Xylanb (%) 41
1200 Ligninb (%) 5
Fat (%) 3
800 ...... •••• Protein (%) 5
Starch (%) 5
400 ./ Ash (%) 0.04
I Id/ t I I i Energy (calories/g) 0.5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Water-holding capacity (g H20/g) 3.5
Time (Minutes)
I I
Total titratable acidity 4
50°C 95°C 95°C 50°C 50°C SO2 (ppm) <25
Temperature
aData provided by A. E. Staley Mfg. Co., Decatur, IL,
FIGURE 15 Visco-amylograph curves for important unmodi- unless otherwise noted.
b From Ref. 96.
fied starches. (Modified from Ref. 35.)

VIII. CONVERSION OF RAW FRACTIONS

fibers. As a result, zein has a number of industrial applica-
tions [37], which are shown in Table 29. Zein has been
produced commercially since 1938 [38]. Peak production
occurred in 1954, when nearly 6 million lb were produced
[39]. Around 1960, nonfood markets for zein eroded al-
most overnight as newer synthetic plastics became avail-
able [40]. Today's zein market is about 0 6 million lb for
food coatings and binding and coating agents in pharma-
ceutical tablets.
INTO VALUE-ADDED INGREDIENTS
AND CHEMICALS
Once separated by wet or dry milling, corn fractions can be
converted to a large number of food ingredients and indus-
trial chemicals of increased value. These conversions can
be either chemical (Table 30) or biochemical (enzymatic or
microbial fermentation) (Table 31). The largest conversion
industries using corn products are nutritive sweeteners,

Others
14%
Pregelatinized starches
3%
Oxidized starches
5%
Dextrins
5%

Cationic starches
3%

Acid-modified starches
11% Unmodified starch
59%

FIGURE 16 Estimated utilization of corn starch. (Based on Refs. 34 and 61.)

60 Johnson

ng press.
Wet 'Mod CAniGe"n
From fi
® r Pre-Press Preparation
PP-I Surge Bin PP-5 Mechanical Screw Presses
Drfe
---IDev4
PP.1 " PP-2 Scale PP-6 Foots Settling Tank
PP-3 Flaking Mill PP-7 Filter Press
PP-4 Conditioner PP-8 Filter Press Cake
PP-2

PP-4 PP.6
PP-3
Dry rfot
tl
— P-1 PP.7
To oil
S? °rage

P.2

P-3

Direct Extraction
Preparation
P-1 Surge Bin
P-2 Scale
P-3 Conditioner
P-4 Flaking Rolls Solvent Extraction
E-1 Raw Flake Elevator E-7 1st Stage Evaporator
Meal Handling E-2 Extractor Feed Conveyor E-8 1st Stage Condenser
14-1 Meal Grinder E-3 Extractor E-9 2nd Stage Evaporator
M-2 Meal Screen E-4 Spent Flake Elevator E-10 2nd Stage Condenser
E-5 Desolvenitzer-Thaster• E-11 Final Oil Stripper
Dryer-Cooler E-12 Vacuum Condenser
E-6 Vapor Scrubber

FIGURE 17 Process flow for recovery of oil from corn germ. (Modified from figures provided by French Oil Mill Machinery Co., Pi-
qua, OH.)

modified starches, and ethanol. In the past, conversion of
corncobs into furfural has also been important.
A. Modified Starches
Starch modification operations are usually integrated with
wet-milling operations because most reactions are aqueous
and take place in the wet slurry stage after the starch-wash-
ing step in wet milling This saves one drying step. Modifi-
cations are carried out in batch or continuous reactors (Fig.
19). The major types of modifications to starch include
acid thinning, dextrinizing, pregelatinizing, oxidizing,
bleaching, and derivatizing [41]. Reactions, properties,
and applications for major modified starches are described
in Table 32. Whistler et al. [42] and Wurtzburg [43] pub-
lished detailed treatises on starch and its modification.
In 1899 the first patent was granted for a process to
modify starch, acid modification [44]. Treatment with acid
is done in a controlled manner to cleave a small number of
glycosidic bonds between glucose units and weaken the
structure of the starch granule. This reduces the viscosity
of the warm paste but allows the starch to retain a strong
tendency to gel on cooling. These properties are important
in starch-based gum candies, paper coatings, and textile
sizings.
Oxidation is another means of reducing viscosity and
altering other functional properties of native starch. A
number of agents are capable of oxidizing starch, but sodi-
um hypochlorite is almost exclusively used today. Sodium
hypochlorite randomly oxidizes hydroxyl groups to car-
bonyl or carboxyl groups with consequential breakage of
the glycosidic bond. Once the desired degree of oxidation
Corn 61

Crude
Corn Oil Water
Foots
ALTERING GUMS HYDRATION I— — — CENTRIFUGATION
optional

Alkali ALKALI REFINING

DRYING -Moisture
Soapstock (free fatty acids.
[CENTRIFUGATION phosphates, color)
Water WASHING Lecithin
Wash Water (residual
CENTRIFUGATION
soapstock)
VACUUM DRYING Moisture
Bleaching H BLEACHING
Earth
Spent Bleaching Earth
FILTERING (color. residual soapstock)

WINTERIZATION NI Catalyst HYDROGENATION

FILTERING Wax FILTERING

Bleaching Earth
DEODORIZATION I-- Deodorizer POST BLEACHING
Distillate Spent Bleaching Earth
F l FILTERING
OTTEri (flavor, odor,
color, free fatty
FILTERING (color; residual catalyst)

adds) DEODORIZATION Deodorizer Distillate

Salad and Cooking Oils (flavor, odor, color,
I POUSH FILTERING free fatty adds)

Hydrogenated Oil
(base stock for margarine)

FIGURE 18 Process flow for refining corn oil.

is achieved, the reaction is stopped by adding sodium
bisulfite. Oxidized starch retains its granule structure, is in-
soluble in water, produces clear pastes with reduced thick-
ening tendency on cooling, and produces clear tough films.
The major uses for oxidized starches are in laundry starch-
es and paper manufacture.
Dextrinization is the process of dry heating or roasting
starch with or without an acid or alkaline catalyst. The
granule integrity is disrupted and weakened without de-
stroying the granule. Dextrinized starch granules swell
when suspended in water and heated, and layers of the
granule separate and disperse. Dextrins have reduced vis-
cosities and tendencies to gel, have appreciable cold water
solubilities and produce tacky films. Dextrins are widely
used as quick-setting pastes in paper products.
Starches are often pregelatinized by cooking the raw
starch before drying. When slurried in water these starches
have properties comparable to gelatinized starch without
the need for additional cooking. This facilitates "instan-
tized" products such as instant puddings.
Occasionally very pure white-colored products are re-
quired. Stark white color is achieved by treating the starch
with small amounts of sodium hypochlorite or other
bleaching agents. The functionality of bleached starches is
substantially the same as that of the parent starch.
Starch can be derivatized by a number of agents react-
ing with hydroxyl groups. There are two types of deriva-
tives: cross-linking derivatives and stabilization deriva-
tives. Starches are cross-linked to impart greater stability
in viscosity of starch sols to shear, heat, and acid. Cross-
linking can be achieved by reacting hydroxyl groups on
two different molecules within the granule to form distarch
phosphates or distarch adipates. Starch can also be deriva-
tized to stabilize it against gelling by introducing sub-
stituents that interfere with inter- and intramolecular hy-
drogen bonding. Other derivatives achieve specific
functional properties such as increased water-combining
capacity or viscosity, impeded retrogradation, or improved
freeze-thaw stability. These types of derivatives include
the introduction of phosphate, hydroxyethyl, hydrox-
ypropyl, acetate, succinate, carboxymethyl, cationic, and
xanthate groups. Figure 20 shows pasting properties of dif-
ferent starch derivatives.
Modified starches comprise about 40% of total starch
62 Johnson

TABLE 25 Compositions of Crude and Refined Corn Oils TABLE 26 Chemical and Physical Properties of Crude and
Refined Corn Oils
Component Crude Refined
Property Crude Refined
Triglycerides (%) 95.6a 98.8"
Saturation Refractive index 1.470-1.478a 1.470-1.474b
Saturates (%) 12.9" Iodine value 110-128a 125-128"
Monounsaturates (%) 24.8" Thiocyanogen value 77° NA
Polyunsaturation (%) 61.1" Saponification value 187-196a NA
Ratio of polyunsaturation to Unsaponifiable matter (%) 1.0-2.2a 1.2"
saturated 4.8" Titer (°C) 16-20a NA
Triglyceride fatty acid profile (%) Acetyl value 8-12a NA
Palmitic (16:0) 11.1-12.8' 11.1-12.8' Reichert-Meissl value <0.5a <0.5b
Stearic (18:0) 1.4-2.2' 1.4-2.2° Polenske value <0.5a <0.5"
Oleic (18:1) 22.6-36.1' 22.6-36.1' Hehner value 93-96"
Linoleic (18:2) 49.0-61.9° 49.0-61.9' Cold test (hr) 24"
Linolenic (18:3) 0.4-1.6' 0.4-1.6' Solidifying point (°C) —20 to —106
Arachidic (20:0) 0.0-0.2' Melting point (°C) —16 to-11"
Phospholipids (%) 1.5d 0.04a Smoke point (°C) 221 to 260"
Free fatty acid (% as oleic) 1.5-4.0d 0.02-0.03' Flash point (°C) 302 to 338"
Waxes (%) 0.05a Oa Fire point (°C) 310 to 371b
Cholesterol (%) Oa Oa Specific gravity
Phytosterols (%) 1.2a 1.1° at 15/15°C 0.920-0.928° NA
Tocopherols (%) 0.12d 0.09a at 25/25°C 0.914-0.921° 0.918-0.925"
Carotenoids (%) 0.0008d NA Bulk density at 20°C
(kg/liter) 0.92c 0.92°
NA denotes data not available. (lb/gal) 7.672" 7.672"
'From Ref. 97.
Viscosity at 20°C (cp) NA 15.6"
bFrom Ref. 98.
`From Ref. 99. Flavor and odor Trace Bland"
dFrom Ref. 100.
Color
yellow (Lovibond) 20-35"
red (Lovibond) 2.5-5.0"
Heat of combustion (cal/g) 9,420d
sales in nonfood applications (Fig. 21) Acid treating is the NA denotes data not available.
most widely practiced form of starch modification. 'From Ref. 101.
b From Ref. 97.
`Estimates of author.
B. Corn Sweeteners 'From Ref. 102.
Starch is a polymer of glucose and, as such, can be hy-
drolyzed to glucose syrups and further converted to crys-
talline sugars. Around 1820, the Russian chemist G. S. C. sweeteners because of the potential for numerous side re-
Kirchoff discovered that starch could be transformed into a actions, which may darken the color of the syrup. There-
sweet substance by heating in dilute acid [45]. However, it fore, acid is used only to thin the starch and increase the
was not until 1857 at a plant in Buffalo, New York, that susceptibility of starch to enzymatic attack. Thinning is
corn starch was commercially converted into syrup. Ad- more often accomplished by gelatinizing in the presence of
vances in enzyme technology in the early 1950s greatly thermostable a-amylase. a-Amylase randomly attacks
advanced the commercialization of glucose syrups. Later starch in an "endo" fashion, producing high molecular
advances in the use of glucose isomerase in the 1970s weight polysaccharides such as maltodextrins (Fig. 23).
made high-fructose corn syrups possible. Now the industry The thinned starch is neutralized, filtered, and decolorized
is capable of making both simple sugars that comprise su- before treating with the enzyme glucoamylase (amyloglu-
crose. cosidase), which hydrolyzes starch unit by unit along the
Both the a-1,4 and a-1,6 bonds of starch are suscepti- chain to glucose. Glucoamylase can hydrolyze a-1,6 link-
ble to acid hydrolysis, and acid hydrolysis may be used as ages, as well as, a-1,4 ones. Alternatively, the thinned
the first step in producing corn sweeteners (Fig. 22). How- starch may be treated with 13-amylase, which hydrolyzes
ever, acid hydrolysis alone does not make very satisfactory every other a-1,4 glycosidic bond in an "endo" fashion to
Corn 63

TABLE 27 1996 Utilization of Corn Oil Compared to Other Edible Oils (million lbs)a
Application
Baking and Salad and Other edible Total
Oil frying fats Margarine cooking oils products utilization
Corn 82 78 434 0 594
0" Oh 0" 221" 221
Coconut
Cottonseed 219 31" 235 12" 497
Lard 265 27" 0 3b
295
Palm 274" 0" 33b 0 b 307b
Peanut 0" 0" 129" O b 129
Rapeseed 102" 0" 217 Oh 319
Safflower 0" 0" 33b O b 33
Soybean 4,701 1,697 5,321 159 11,878
Sunflower 0" 0" 90" 0" 90
Tallow 333 6" 0" 0" 339
Total 5,976 1,834 6,498 395 14,702
'Data compiled by the USDA, Economic Research Service [103] for period Oct. 1995 to Sept. 1996.
bEstimates of author.

produce maltose and a few higher saccharides where oc-1,6
branch points in amylopectin occur and stop the reaction.
Depending on how far towards complete hydrolysis the re-
action is allowed to proceed, syrups with different sweet-
ness intensities are produced.
Once saccharified to the appropriate degree, the syrup is
filtered or centrifuged to remove residual protein. The
syrup is then passed through a column of activated carbon
to remove color and flavor compounds. Some corn syrups
are also demineralized using an ion-exchange column.
Corn syrups can be concentrated and dried to produce corn
syrup solids or crystallized to produce dextrose monohy-
drate. Dextrose monohydrate may be converted to anhy-
drous crystalline dextrose by redesolving in hot purified
water and refined again. The dextrose is recrystalized un-
der vacuum, heat, and agitation using a vacuum crystalizer.
The crystals are removed from the "mother liquor" using
centrifuges, and the crystals are dried.
Dextrose equivalent (DE) is the term used to describe
the extent of hydrolysis and reducing power of a syrup rel-
ative to dextrose (dextrose and glucose are used inter-
changeably). The higher the DE, the greater the sweetness
intensity. Table 33 summarizes the saccharide composition
and properties of different maltose and glucose syrups.
More detailed data on properties of corn sweeteners have
been published by Pancoast and Junk [46].
Within the past 15 years, the technology to convert glu-
cose syrups to fructose-containing syrups has been sub-
stantially improved [47]. Fructose is much sweeter than
glucose and somewhat sweeter than sucrose, and conse-
quently less sugar and the associated calories are required
to achieve the same sweetness. The first steps in producing
high-fructose corn syrups (HFCS) are the same as those
used to produce high-DE glucose syrups (Fig. 24). Then
the glucose syrup is converted to an equilibrium mixture
containing 42% fructose, 50% glucose, and 6% higher sac-
charides by treating with glucose isomerase. Glucose iso-
merase is immobilized on a solid support phase so that the
reaction can be carried out continuously in column reac-
tors and thus prevent the loss of expensive enzyme. The
mixture of sugars can be fractionated using fructose-adsor-
bent columns. As high as 98% pure fructose can be recov-
ered. This level of purity is required in order to crystallize
fructose. Usually 90% fructose is blended with the lower
fructose-containing syrup exiting the isomerization
columns to produce 55% fructose syrup, which is the
HFCS product having the highest market volume. The
55% HFCS has the same sweetness intensity as crystalline
sucrose (invert sugar) on an equivalent dry weight basis
and is preferred by soft drink manufacturers; 25% HFCS is
used in bakery products, fruit drinks, canned foods, frozen
desserts, and other dairy products. Other properties and the
compositions of common HFCS products are shown in
Table 34.
Corn sweeteners have become widely accepted food in-
gredients for imparting sweetness and various functional
properties [48,49]. However, major shifts in types of
sweeteners have occurred as a result of HFCS develop-
ment, especially since the adoption of HFCS by soft drink
manufacturers in 1989 (Table 35). Total consumption of
64 Johnson

TABLE 28 Compositions and Properties of Major Proteins in Corn

Zein Albumins Globulins Glutelins

Portion of whole grain protein

39a 8a 9' 40a
(%)
Portion of endosperm protein
(%) 47b 4" 4' 396
Portion of germ protein (%) 5a 30' 30" 25a
Soluble in 60-90% ethanol, 70-90% isopro- Water 0.5 M NaC1 Dilute alkali (pH 10) +
panol, aqueous acetone, ethanol: 0.6% ME Dilute alkali
benzene, ethanol: chloroform, (pH 10) + 0.05% SDS
ethanol: nitromethane, ethylene
glycol
Amino acid composition
(mg/100 g protein)
Alanine nob 85C
60" 79b

Arginine lob 43' 72' 30b

Aspartic acid 41b 73' 58' 496
Glutamic acid 166" 86' 114' 1316
Glycine 17" 93C
73' 62b
Histidine 8b 16' 25' 18"
Isoleucine 31b 28' 23' 29"
Leucine 151b 49" 45' 856
Lysine lb 44' 41' 186
Methionine lob 10' 7' 25b
Phenylalanine 43b 21' 28" 27"
Proline 94b 45' 33" 736

Serine 52b 48' 53' 47b

Threonine 24" 45' 28" 34b
Tryptophan ob 6' 4' 3b
Tyrosine 316 49" 17" 31b
Valine 316 50' 49" 456
Ammonia 148" 84" 80' 2026

'From Ref. 39.

bFrom Ref. 104.
`From Ref. 105.

caloric sweeteners has steadily risen, and per capita con-
sumption is now 153 lb/yr/person, but the market share
supplied by corn sweeteners has steadily grown at the ex-
pense of refined sugar. The consumption of HFCS has dou-
bled in this period and now stands at about 60 lb/yr/person
or 40% of the sweetener market. This is largely the result
of the HFCS becoming the preferred sweetener in soft
drinks, which has now obtained over 95% of this market.
The potential market for HFCS is approaching maturity,
fewer dramatic shifts in future consumption of sweeteners
are anticipated, and growth rate will be slightly greater
than that of population growth.
C. Furfural Production from Corncobs
Corncobs are composed of inner and outer glumes, which
subtend the kernels, a woody ring of lignified conducting
tissue, and an inner pith [50]. Corncobs can be ground and
fractionated into three fractions: grits, pith/chaff, and
mixed. The properties of these fractions are shown in Table
36. Each fraction has a number of industrial uses.
The largest single use for corncobs is the furfural in-
dustry. Furfural has been produced from corncobs since
World War II and has been the largest single use for corn
cobs. Furfural is produced by destructive distillation over
Corn 65

TABLE 29 Properties and Uses for Zein

Normal industrial yield' 20-24% db gluten meal
Peak market' 6 million pounds in 1954
Current market Less than 0.5 million pounds
Properties Forms tough, glossy, scuff-proof, and grease-proof coatings
Unique film- and fiber-forming properties
Thermoplastic
Films, fibers, etc. are resistant to microbial attack
Films, fibers, etc. can be cured with formaldehyde to an essentially
inert product
Uses Paper sizings
Paper and paperboard adhesive
Additives in oil cloth and linoleum
Felt stiffener
Moisture and oxygen barrier in food coatings (nuts and confections)
Pharmaceuticals (binding and seal coating tablets)
Varnish substitutes
Printing inks
Cork binding
Spun textile fibers
Floor coatings
Paper coatings
Suppliers Freeman Industries
Tuckahoe, NY
'From Ref. 39.

sulfuric acid. The hemicellulose fraction (xylan) of corn-
cob cell walls is hydrolyzed to pentose sugars (Fig. 25)
The pentoses are dehydrated with heat and strong acid to
furfural, which is then recovered by steam distillation.
Furfural is marketed directly or converted to a number of
other useful chemical derivatives and products. Although
the theoretical yield of furfural from corncobs is 21-23%,
actual yields are closer to 10% [51,52].
IX. FUTURE PROSPECTS
Continued progress in increasing productivity and ad-
vances in utilizing corn assure the importance of corn in
providing food, feed, and industrial products, which are so
important to the standards of living in developed countries.
The potential for corn products to replace those currently
derived from nonrenewable resources, such as petroleum
and minerals, and to possess environmentally friendly
properties will increase demand for corn in nonfood, non-
feed industrial products (plastics, building materials, etc.).
Advances in fermentation and product recovery may pro-
vide the bases for substantial growth in providing com-
modity and specialty chemicals. Advances in biotechnolo-
gy will create new opportunities for "designer" corn—corn
designed for specific uses. Marketing systems for identify-
ing specific traits, preserving identity, and increasing re-
turns to farmers are quickly evolving. The important unan-
swered question is whether productivity can keep pace
with expected increased demand, especially as Asian coun-
tries increase their economic status, allowing for increased
world trade and improved nutritional status of Asian popu-
lations.
66 Johnson

TABLE 30 Chemical Conversions of Corn Products

Corn product Product class Product

Starch Modified starches Pregelatinized starch

Oxidized starch
Esterified starch (starch acetate, maleate, succinate, phosphates)
Starch ethers (hydroxypropyl, hydroxyethlyl, carboxymethyl,
cationic derivatives)
Cross-linked starch
Dialdehyde starch
Grafted starch
Starch hydrolysates Dextrins
Acid-modified starch
Glucose syrups
Maltose syrups
Maltodextrins
Dextrose
Maltose
Massee
Saccharides Organic acids Gluconic acid
Lactic acid
Oxalic acid
Glucuronic acid
Glucaric acid
Fumaric acid
Saccharinic acid
Arabonic acid
Maltobionic acid
Levulinic acid
Polyols Sorbitol
Mannitol
Maltitol
Glycerol
Ethylene glycol
Methylglycerol
Sucropolyols
Erythritol
Glucosides Glycerol glucoside
Methylglucoside
Alkylglucoside
Hydroxyalkylglucoside
Glucose esters Glucose phosphate
Acetone glucose
Polyurethanes
Polyol ether
Levoglucosan
Hydroxymethylfurfural
Corn cobs (pentosans) Furfural derivatives Furfural
Furfuryl alcohol
Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol
Furan
Tetrahydrofuran
Polytetramethylene ether glycol

Source: Adapted from Ref. 106.

Corn 67

TABLE 31 Biochemical Conversions of Corn Products

Conversion Product class Product

Enzyme modification of starch Starch hydrolysates Maltodextrins

Cyclodextrins
Maltose syrups
Glucose syrups
Enzyme modification of glucose Sugar isomerization Fructose syrups
Fermentation of cellulose (corn cobs or stover) Alkanes Methane
Ethane
Silage Corn silage feeds
Fermentation of starch Organic acids Acetic acid
Citric acid
Gluconic acid
Malic acid
Succinic acid
Fumaric acid
Lactic acid
Propionic acid
Butyric acid
Ketogluconic acid
Itaconic acid
Kojic acid
Alcohols Ethanol
Isopropanol
Butanol
Ketones Acetone
Glucosone
Polyols 2,3 Butanediol
Glycerol
Mannitol
Arabinitol
Amino acids L-Glutamic acid
L-Methionine
L-Lysine
Nucleotides Guanyl acid
Inosinic acid
Xanthyl acid
Biopolymers Xanthan
Pullulan
Alginate
Scleroglucane
Curdlane
Erwinia polysaccharide
Polyhydroxybutyric acid
Glycane
Polysaccharide P.S.7
Beyerinckia polysaccharide
Fats and lipids Single-cell oil
Proteins Single-cell protein
Enzymes
Vitamins
Antibiotics
Hormones
Phosphorylated sugars

Source: Adapted from Ref. 106.

 68 Johnson

Starch Slurry

r
Chemical Reactants REACTION
and Catalysts (stirred tank readors
or continuous reactors)

optional WASHING

CENTRIFUGING
Wash Water
OR FILTERING

Water RESLURRYING

SCREENING

SPRAY CENTRIFUGING Water DRUM

DRYING DRYING
FILTERING Water FLASH
DRYING
BELT
DRYING GRINDING

EXTRUDING
DRY DEXTRIN
REACTING —Chemicals HCI— COOKING

Modified Starch

FIGURE 19 Processes for modifying corn starches. (Modified

from Ref. 62.)

700 I I
Cross-linked and Derivatized Corn Starch
Hydroxypropyl Corn Starch
600 Unmodified Corn Starch
Viscosity (BrabenderUnits)

500

400

300

200

100

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (Minutes)
t I I I 1
50°C 95°C 95°C 50°C 50°C
Temperature

FIGURE 20 Visco-amylograph curves for important modified

corn starches. (Modified from Ref. 35.)
Corn 69

Others
14%
Pregelatinized starches
3%
Oxidized starches
5%
Dextrins
5%

Cationic starches
3%

Acid-modified starches
11% Unmodified starch

FIGURE 21 Estimated market shares of different types of starches in industrial applications (nonfood). (Modified from Ref. 61.)

Starch Slurry
(35-40% d.s.)

CONVERSION
NCI (to 0.015.0.02N) (140.160•C)
(15-30 min.)

Na2CO3 EXPELLING
(to pH 4.5-5.0) NEUTRALIZATION

Filter Aid FILTERING Insoluble Animal

Residue Feeds
Activated Charcoal DECOLORIZATION

FILTERING Spent Charcoal

Glucoamylase -Amylase
CONVERSION DECOLORIZATION CONVERSION

EVAPORATION FILTERING EVAPORATION

1 1

58-80 DE 20-38 DE Corn Syrup 38-55 DE 43-49 DE

High Glucose Corn Solids Corn High Maltose
Corn Syrups Syrups Syruos Corn Syrups

FIGURE 22 Process flow for acid-converted dextrose corn sweeteners. (Modified from Ref. 29.)
TABLE 32 Important Modifications to Corn Starch

Modification Reactants Mechanism Reaction Result Application

Acid modified Mineral acid Hydrolysis Weakened Reduces viscosity Gum candies; textile warp
granule Firmer gels sizes; paper coatings

Oxidation Sodium hypochlorite Random oxidation of Reduces viscosity; gives Paper and textile sizings;
hydroxyl groups to clear pastes; reduces adhesives; food appli-
carboxyl or carbonyl gelling and retrogra- cations for high solids,
groups, with rupture dation; retains origi- low viscosity
of adjacent glycosidic nal granule structure
bond

Dextrinization Dry heat with acid or Disrupts granule Reduces viscosity; Adhesives in paper
alkaline catalyst integrity increases water products
solubility
Pregelatinization Heat and water Gelatinizes starch Cold water dispersible Instant adhesives and
granule puddings
Bleaching Hydrogen peroxide No reaction with starch Produces stark white Fluidizing agents for dry
Peracetic acid Am- Destroys chromophore color powders such as con-
monium persulfate of trace contaminating fectioner's sugar
Potassium permag- pigments such as xan-
anate Sodium chlo- thophyl
rite Sodium hypo-
chlorite
Phosphated derivatives Monosodium ortho- Introduction of phos- Starch-OH + NaH2PO4 Produces stable gels; Foods, paper textile siz-
phosphate or so- phate group improves clarity; in- ings, fiocculants, emul-
dium tripoly- creased viscosity; sifiers, and adhesives
phosphate 0 longer, more cohesive
1,-0-Na.
Starch-0-1, textures; improved
paper strength
Hydroxyethyl derivatives Ethylene oxide Introduction of hydroxy- 0 Reduces gelatinization Nonfood uses such as sur-
ethyl group / \ temperature; produces face sizings, paper coat-
Starch-OH + CH,-CH,
more clear stable ings, and adhesives
NaOH pastes; reduces gell-
ing on cooling; im-
Starch-O-CH,CH,OH
proves strength and
stiffness of paper
Hydroxypropyl derivatives Propylene oxide Introduction of hydroxy- 0 Improved viscosity, tex-
/ \ Food uses in gravies,
propyl group Starch-OH + CH,-CH,-CH, ture, and stability sauces, pie fillings, and
salad dressings; also
used in adhesives and
Starch-O-CH,CHOH-CH, wallboard binders
Acetate derivatives Acetic anhydride or vi- Introduction of acetyl 0 0 Prevents retrogradation; Food thickeners and sta-
nyl acetate groups Starch-OH + CH3-C-0-C-CH, reduces tendency to bilizers in fruit pies,
congeal; reduces gela- gravies, salad dressings,
NaOH tinization tempera- and filled cakes; warp
ture; increases hot- sizings for textiles;
Starch-O-C CH,+ CH,COOH peak viscosity; reduc- gummed tape adhesives
8 es cold paste viscosity
0 R
Succinate derivatives Succinic anhydride Introduction of succi- Imparts surface activity Food thickeners; encap-
nate groups Starch-OH + o sulating media; paper
and textile sizings; ad-
i
NaOH 6' hesives

Starch-O-C-CH-CH,-COONa
0
Carboxymethylation Sodium monochloro- Introduction of anionic Starch-OH + CI-CH2-COONa Improves cold water sol- Paints, oil drilling muds,
acetate groups ubility wallpaper adhesives,
ION and detergents

Starch-O-CH2-COONa
Cationic derivatives Tertiary or quarternary Introduction of cationic Improves adsorption by Paper strengtheners; sur-
amines groups cellulose; improved face sizing, adhesives,
Starch-OH + CI-CH2-(CH2)-N1-1*
pigment retention of and flocculants
R, paper

Starch-O-CH-(CH2),,-NJH.+ HCI
R2
TABLE 32 Continued

Modification Reactants Mechanism Reaction Result Application

Starch xanthates Carbon disulfide Introduction of xanthate Starch-OH + S=C=S Improves wet strength in Paper manufacturing; rub-
groups 1,0H- paper; bonds cellulose ber manufacturing.
fibers; accelerates vul-
,S
canization
Starch-0-C

Cross-linking
Starch-OH + POCI3 + H2O
Distarch phosphates Phosphorus oxychloride Cross-linking glycosidic Reduces swelling; re- Retortable thickeners;
or trimetaphosphate chains duces loss of viscosity salad dressings; baby
0 due to temperature, foods and fruit pie
Starch-O-P-O-Starch shear, and acid fillings
OH
Starch-OH
Distarch adipate Adipic acid and acetic
anhydride 99
HOOC-(CH3),-COOH + 2C1-1,-C-0-C-CH3

0 0
C-0-Starch
Starch-O-C-(CH,);

4CH3COOH
Corn 73

Starch Slurry Starch Slurry

(30-35% d.s.) (30-35% d.s.)

NaOH (to pH 6.5) LIQUEFACTION NaOH (to pH 6.5) LIQUEFACTION

FILTERING a-Amylase (105°C, 2 hrs.)
a-Amylase (105°C, 2 hrs)

HCI (to 4.0-4.5 pH) SACCHARIFICATION

HCI (to 4.0-4.5 pH) SACCHARIFICATION
Glucoamylase Glucoamylase (35-60°C, 72 hrs.)
(35-60°C, 72 hrs.)

Filter Aid d--FILTERING--k Insoluble Animal Filter Aid FILTERING

Insoluble
Residue
Animal
Feeds
Residue Feeds
Activated Charcoal DECOLORIZATION
Activated Charcoal i DECOLORIZATION
Spent
FILTERING
FILTERING Spent Charcoal
Charcoal
ISOMERIZATION
EVAPORATION Isomerase (Enzyme Columns)

42% Fructose
CRYSTALLIZATION
(45-25°C) DEIONIZATION
(3-5 days) 1

CENTRIFUGATION EVAPORATION FRACTIONATION

(Fructose Adsorbent Columns)
1
90% Fructose Glucose 97% Fructose
REDISSOLUTION 1
DRYING EVAPORATION EVAPORATION

EVAPORATIVE SPRAY
CRYSTALLIZATION DRYING CRYSTALLIZATION
BLENDING (3-5 days at
45-25°C)

Liquid Dextrose Anhydrous Hydro! 5-20 DE

Dextrose Hydrate Dextrose (corn sugar Maltodextrin 42% Fructose 55% Fructose 90% Fructose Crystallized
molasses) Corn Syrup Corn Syrup Corn Syrup Fructose

FIGURE 23 Process flow for enzyme-converted dextrose corn FIGURE 24 Process flow for producing high-fructose corn
sweeteners. (Modified from Ref. 29.) sweeteners. (Modified from Ref. 29.)
TABLE 33 Composition and Properties of Maltose and Dextrose Corn Sweeteners

Carbohydrate compositions (%db)

DP7 Viscosity at Bulk Relative
Dextrose & Solids' Ashb RI at 38°C density at sweetness to
Product equivalent Process DP1 DP2 DP3 DP4 DP5 DP6 higher (%) (%) 20°Cb (centipoise) 38°C5 sucrose' (%)

Maltodextrin 5 Enzyme tb tb 1b 1b 1b 1b 96b 97 0.5 NA NA 35 lb/ft3 0-5

12 Enzyme 1 3 4 3 3 6 80 97 0.5 1.42577 NA 38 lb/ft3 10-15
High-maltose corn syrup 43 Dual 8 40 15 7 2 2 26 81 0.05 1.49709 21,000' NA 35
49 Dual 9 52 15 1 2 2 19 81 0.05 1.49573 17,000b 11.9 ib/gal 40
Dextrose corn syrup 27 Acid 9 9 8 7 7 5 54 78 0.3 NA 22,000° 11.7 lb/gal 30-35
36 Acid 14 12 10 9 8 7 40 80 0.3 NA 20,000' 11.8 lb/gal 35-40
42 Acid 20 14 12 9 8 7 30 80 0.3 1.49670 12,500' 11.9 lb/gal 45-50
55 Acid 31 18 12 10 7 5 17 80 0.3 1.49434 7,500' 11.8 lb/gal 50-55
65 Dual 39 31 7 5 4 3 11 82 0.3 1.49263 5,500' 11.9 lb/gal 60-70
70 Dual 47 27 5 5 4 3 9 82 0.3 1.49135 5,000b 11.8 lb/gal 65-75
95 Dual 92 4 1 1 t t t 71 0.3 NA NA 11.2 lb/gal 90-100
Crystalline maltose NA NA 996 tb 0b Oh 01' Ob 0b 100 0.01 NA NA NA 16-32
Crystalline dextrose NA Dual 996 e ob 06 ob 06 ob 100 0.01 NA NA NA 65-70

NA denotes data not available; t denotes trace amounts present.

Acid denotes acid conversion, enzyme denotes enzyme conversion, and dual denotes acid-enzyme conversion.
'DP denotes degree of polymerization. Composition data complied by Corn Refiners Association [45] unless otherwise noted.
bEstimates of author based on product specifications of suppliers and data compiled by Lloyd and Nelson [107].
`From Ref. 108.
Corn 75

TABLE 34 Compositions and Properties of Fructose Sweeteners'

42% 55% 90% Crystalline
HFCS HFCS HFCS fructose
Dry matter (%) 71 77 80 100
Ashb (%) 0.05b 0.05b 0.03b 0.03b
Sugar composition (%)
Fructose 42 55 90 97
Dextrose 52 41 8 3
Maltose 4 3 1 0
Higher saccharides 2 1 1 0
pH 4.0-4.4 3.5-4.0 3.5 -
Viscosity at 28°C (centipoise) 160 670 1,100
Bulk density (lb/gal) 11.23 11.55 11.75
Refractive index at 20°C' 1.46441 1.47869 -
Relative sweetness to sucroseb (%) 90-100 100-110 120-160 180
'Data from Ref. 108 unless otherwise noted.
bEstimates of author based on product specifications provided by suppliers and data from Ref. 107.
`At 50% solids; from Corn Refiners Association [45].

TABLE 35 U.S. Total and Per Capita Consumption of Caloric Sweeteners (dry basis)
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Total Consumption
Total caloric sweeteners
(million tons) 16.199 16.448 16.600 17.340 17.688 18.188 18.868 19.520 20.057 20.533
Refined sugar (million tons) 7.767 7.771 7.879 8.214 8.257 8.351 8.471 8.711 8.833 9.012
Total corn sweetener (million
tons) 8.221 8.488 8.525 8.924 9.229 9.637 10.195 10.614 11.028 11.345
High-fructose corn syrup
(million tons) 5.792 5.999 5.961 6.235 6.408 6.683 7.129 7.456 7.796 8.057
Glucose syrup (million
tons) 1.988 2.037 2.100 2.210 2.332 2.462 2.566 2.647 2.704 2.750
Dextrose (million tons) 0.441 0.452 0.464 0.479 0.489 0.492 0.500 0.513 0.528 0.538
Pure honey (million tons) 0.160 0.139 0.146 0.152 0.152 0.149 0.152 0.146 0.146 0.146
Edible syrups (i.e., maple)
(million tons) 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050
Per Capita Consumption
Total caloric sweeteners (lb) 131.6 132.4 132.4 136.8 138.0 140.3 144.0 147.5 150.3 152.6
Refined sugar (lb) 63.1 62.6 62.8 64.8 64.4 64.4 64.6 65.8 66.2 66.9
Total corn sweeteners (lb) 66.8 68.3 68.0 70.4 72.0 74.3 77.8 80.2 82.6 84.2
High-fructose corn syrup (lb) 47.1 48.3 47.5 49.2 50.0 51.6 54.4 56.4 58.4 59.8
Glucose syrup (lb) 16.2 16.4 16.7 17.4 18.2 19.0 19.6 20.0 20.3 20.4
Dextrose (lb) 3.6 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.0
Pure honey (lb) 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1
Edible syrups (lb) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Source: Ref. 107.
76 Johnson

TABLE 36 Composition and Properties of Corncobs

Pith/Chaff Mixed
Corncobs Grit fraction fraction fraction

Component parts (%)

Woody ring 60 100 0 75
Coarse chaff 34 0 85 21
Fine chaff 4 0 10 3
Pith 2 0 5 1
Constituents (% as is basis)
Moisture 9.6 7 6 8
Cellulose 41 47 36 44
Hemicellulose 36 37 37 37
Xylan 30 32 30 31
Lignin 6 7 5 6
Pectins 3 3 3 3
Starch 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.014
Nutritional values
Protein, N x 6.25 (%) 2.5 1.4 4.4 2.0
Fat, ether ext. (%) 0.5 0.2 0.9 0.4
Crude fiber (%) 32 37 29 36
Ash (%) 1.5 1.2 1.6 1.3
Nitrogen-free extract (%) 53.5 53 58 52.5
Neutral detergent fiber (%) 83 92 78 87
Total digestible nutrients (beef) (%) 42 44 43 43
Metabolizable energy (beef) (kcal/kg) 1,537 1,604 1,536 1,573
Industrial values
Constituent sugars (%)
Xylose 22 24 21.5 23
Arabinose 3.1 2.2 4.7 2.7
Glucose 28 32 24 30
Galactose 1 0.5 1.8 0.8
Mannose 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Hexuronic acid 7 7 7 7
Furfural potential (%) 20 21 20 20
Acetic acid yield (%) 19 19 20 19
Gross energy (kcal/kg) (BTU/lb) 4,000 4,110 4,160 4,070
7,200 7,400 7,480 7,320
Ignition temp. (°C) 205 205 205 205
Bulk density (lbs/ft3) 15.5 28 8.5 14
Specific gravity 1.4 1.3 1.6 1.4
Water absorption 369 133 727 279
Oil absorption 259 100 500 198
Mohs' hardness - 4.5 - -
Source: Ref. 29.
Corn 77

OH OH
Corn Cobs
Hemicellulose (Pentosan Fraction)
Hp hi- hydrolysis
OH OH

Pentoses HOCH,(CHOH)3
'H
dehydration

Fudural solvents, varnishes,

(23% potential db 0 wicanization, insecticides
yield from corn cobs)

Furturyl Alcohol Furoic Add /Melo Add Adpic Add

HOOC(CH1),C001-1
resins,
0
044 solvents 001,4

/.7 resins, polymers Nylon 6.6

1,5 Pentane:Id Tetrahydrofurfury1 NNo. resins, urethane
HOCI-1,(CH,),CH2OH Alcohol Furan Valerolactone foams, baking
plasicizers, resins, 0,4
powders
emulsifiers, adhesives
0CHT
solvent
Tetrahydroturan Valerolactam

0
Won 5
solvent

Sucdnic Acid 1,4 Butanedol Pclytetramethylene Ether Glycol (Polymeg)

HOOC(CMCOOH HOCI-12(CH2)2CH,OH HO(CH,C1-12CH,CH20) H
lacquers, dyes,
photography 4
plasticizers, resins

FIGURE 25 Process scheme for producing furfural and furfural derivatives.

78
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3
BARLEY
Eugene A. Hockett
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Montana State University,
Bozeman, Montana
I. HISTORY
A. Origin
Barley has been associated with the earliest beginnings of
agriculture. Reviews of the origin of barley have been made
by several authors [1-8]. The most likely origin of cultivat-
ed barley is from a wild progenitor growing in the fertile
crescent 35,000-40,000 years ago [6]. Probably this pro-
genitor was a two-rowed type from which evolved the pres-
ent wild-type weed barley Hordeum vulgare sp. spontaneum
and the Hordeum vulgare cultivated two- and six-rowed
types [4]. The present distribution of the H. vulgare sp. spon-
taneum is shown in Figure 1, with additional sites found in
northwestern India and Morocco. The archeological sites
containing the oldest samples of barley are 9,000-10,000
years old [8] in the Near East (Fig. 2). From this area barley
culture spread to Europe, western Asia, and the Nile Valley
(Fig. 3) [8].
Recorded history began on Sumerian clay tablets [4],
which described and recommended cultural practices for
raising barley around 1700 B.C. Barley was an important
crop throughout the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age
(8) and continues to be an important worldwide crop up to
the present time. Barley has been associated throughout its
history with both the production of beer and as a food and
feed crop [5].
B. Distribution
Barley was first grown in North America in 1492 or 1494
by a colony founded by Columbus [9] (see Fig. 4). The
81
Spaniards introduced barley into Mexico during the con-
quest, and from there it was introduced by missionaries
into California. The second point of introduction was in
1602 on the south coast of Massachusetts. Barley spread
from these points of introduction westward and northward,
as shown in Figure 4. By 1958 the crop was widely grown
in North America (Fig. 5). Since 1958 the distribution of
barley has changed somewhat to the present areas (Table
1). Winter barley is grown mainly in the southern United
States except for some acreage in the eastern and north-
western United States. Spring barley makes up the bulk of
the barley acreage in both the United States and Canada,
with the leading states being North Dakota, Montana, Ida-
ho, Minnesota, and Washington. Barley has always been
an important crop worldwide and is fourth in cereal pro-
duction behind wheat, maize, and rice [10]. The leading
countries in production of barley for the 1994/95 period
are shown in Table 2.
II. GENETICS AND BREEDING
A. Inheritance, Heritability, and Mapping
Barley is a crop with worldwide distribution, and it is a
preeminent plant for use in experimental genetic studies. It
is a diploid (2n = 2x — 14) with a small number of chromo-
somes, which are relatively large (6-8 [tm). Barley has a
high degree of self-fertilization but is easily hybridized.
Several generations can be grown in one year over a wide
array of environmental conditions. Seed can be stored for
long periods, and numerous genetic stocks are available
82 Hockett

• TASHKENT

TAI ZA8
•
*TABRIZ • A000140800 XOKNUI "HAMAR
• OSMERAR• •BASHLAN
GRAN • PUL -I-
• .• MARMARA KUMRI
,KAB
• • TEHRAN
• • OUR
*MASCO • •
• 130RUJERD KASHAN
• • • • KNORRONA8A0 •
••®I AM
.-JERUSALE
•
• OtIET TA

FIGURE 1 Distribution of Hordeum spontaneum. Each dot represents a collection site that has been verified by J. R. Harlan. (From
Ref. 4.)

/ > f

•••
CAYONO
HACILAR
CAN HASAN

mum() —2
TELL ABU
HUREYRA
•
.. \
TELL .. '-‘,
)11I einkorn wheat ASWAD... ..--
\ .)
. .
.. \ ',...
emmer wheat s...... \.
JERICHO /'----- ALI
KOSH
a( barley
•
•
/010 pea
BEIDHA
lentil
.J r•-
0 sp 00 I50 miles
flax
0 100 200 km

FIGURE 2 Crop assemblage in the early Neolithic farming villages in the Near East (before 6000 s.c.). A short whisker indicates that
the crop is relatively rare, a long whisker that it is relatively common among the excavated plant remains. (From Ref. 8.)
Barley 83

Age of sites Explanation of whiskers

A 3000-2000 BC two-rowed, hulled

4000-3000 Bi- forms

O 511M-4000 BC
I six-rowed, hulled
forms
• 601X1-500(1 BC
I naked forms
• before 600)) BC

FIGURE 3 The spread of barley to Europe, western Asia, and the Nile Valley. (For details of numbered sites, see Ref. 8.)

FIGURE 4 National centers of barley production, 1839-1959, and two historical sites, 1492 and 1609. (From Ref. 9.)
84 Hockett

EACH DOT REPRESENTS

2,000 ACRES

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 5 Barley-growing areas in the United States and Canada, 1955-1958. (From Ref. 11.)

for physiological and morphological characteristics. Re-

views of the genetics of barley have been made by several
authors [2,12-16]. Lists of the genetic stocks have been
published by Tsuchiya [17], Sogaard and von Wettstein-
Knowles [18], and von Wettstein-Knowles [19], with more
than 900 genes listed. rt Reg 6
f5
Figure 6 is a current linkage map of the morphological Run I
-or C5
Irbk15(
oioari-c) Rph 4
-a 2
markers located on the seven chromosomes of barley. A -f (rig) bt-bt2
msg„ bk
913('914) Reg 1
list describing these genes is given in Table 3. Special col- br msg 3
fc on br
ce2r-zg Rps 4
lections are available for some genes, such as the genetic gs 3(ceFo) YFYx Rh
ddt
male sterile collection with 48 separate loci and approxi- wx yst 2 g
Rle(.g
g 212) Reg 4
al
mately 450 stocks available. Heritability of agronomic and Yc -e lb 2
Reg 5
ac t ac
quality traits in barley have been extensively studied xc 1g4
f8 ea7
(Table 4). The genetics of breeding for disease and pest re- yst Ig2 0
C_ C C C —
sistance have been reviewed by Sharp [21]. Rs 5(cer-s) fs 2 gs 4
Chromosome maps by von Wettstein-Knowles [19], cer-e msg 6 nld
nsg
s 2 ert-b
Sh 3 uc2, sexl
Laurie et al. [22], and Kleinhofs et al. [23] integrate the ert-a wst 4 -zb -fs
nec I mt„f
b12 h -mt2
morphological marker maps and restriction fragment wb K series r„e
lin wst 2
length polymorphism (RFLP), DNA RFLP, random ampli- cu 2 xo
msg 14 v,Lk,lr -Ryd 2 series
fied polymorphic DNA, (RAPD), specific amplicon poly- msg 0
Int cm
n f7
morphism (SAP), and isozyme loci. Mapping of the barley -f4 Pr series
lk 2,u4 Ha als Amy I va 3
genome has been explosive in the last 5 years [24] with nu- Reg -gs 2
trd
mt„e f9
merous reports of RFLP, AFLP polymorphic bands [25], xo Pau
-uz Ok mull -Sh2
li
RFLP maps compared to other Gramineae [26], quantita- 9P (9P 2) 19 Clt
tr
tive trait loci (QTL) localization by RFLP markers [27], and L L L
simple sequence repeat DNA markers [28]. A recent map of 2 3 4 5 L
these molecular markers is shown in Figure 7. The applica- FIGURE 6 Linkage maps of barley. C = Centromere, L = long
tion of these maps ranges from identifying the location of arm, 1-7 = chromosome number. Refer to Table 3 for gene list.
genes that modify characters including disease resistance, (From Ref. 20.)
Barley 85

TABLE 1 U.S. Production of Barley: Harvested Area, Yield, and Production by State, Three-Year Average,
1985-1987, and Two-Year Average, 1995-1996a
Harvested area (1000 ha) Yield (kg/ha) Production (1000 mt)
State 1985-87 1995-96 1985-87 1995-96 1985-87 1995-96
Arizona 14.2 15.2 5499 5246 75.9 79.7
California 148.5 85.0 3279 3497 483.1 297.2
Colorado 118.8 38.9 3370 5596 398.5 217.7
Delaware 18.5 12.1 3241 3982 59.6 48.2
Idaho 432.0 301.5 3370 4116 1446.3 1241.0
Kansas 80.3 4.0 2026 1829 166.3 7.3
Kentucky 7.7 7.1 2311 3874 16.8 27.5
Maryland 33.7 23.7 3316 3820 110.9 90.5
Michigan 18.6 9.7 2994 2637 55.4 25.6
Minnesota 376.0 222.6 2618 3067 1042.7 682.7
Montana 665.5 485.6 1451 2556 1034.2 1241.2
Nebraska 42.5 4.7 1919 2421 82.8 11.4
Nevada 13.6 1.8 4660 4170 63.3 7.5
New Jersey 6.2 1.6 3349 3363 20.8 5.4
North Carolina 20.1 10.1 2526 3363 48.8 34.0
North Dakota 1174.5 981.4 2311 2690 2930.8 2640.0
Oklahoma 14.2 1.6 2059 1553 28.9 2.5
Oregon 123.5 49.6 3349 3767 399.5 186.8
Pennsylvania 25.6 30.4 3370 3659 86.1 111.2
South Carolina 9.2 1.8 2112 2475 18.8 4.5
South Dakota 280.1 61.7 1919 2206 568.2 136.1
Texas 13.9 3.6 2241 2152 32.9 7.7
Utah 59.3 39.1 4085 4627 241.6 180.9
Virginia 34.3 31.4 3118 4089 105.8 128.4
Washington 356.4 147.7 2757 3605 965.1 532.5
Wisconsin 30.8 29.7 2779 2717 83.6 80.7
Wyoming 62.7 43.5 3548 4708 222.3 204.8
Total U.S. 4186.5 2643.9 2521' 3115b 10814.3 8235.7

'1985 and 1986 barley statistics from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Statistics, 1987; 1987 and 1995-96 barley statis-
tics from American Malting Barley Association, Inc., Gleanings, August 1988 and January 1997, respectively.
bAverage yield.

TABLE 2 Harvested Area, Yield, and Production in 10 Leading Barley-Producing Countries, 1994-1995
Area (1000 ha) Yield (metric, t/ha) Production (1000 metric t) World production (%)

Former Soviet Union 30,859 1.73 53,386 33.2

Canada 4,092 2.86 11,690 7.3
Germany 2,070 5.27 10,900 6.8
United States 2,698 3.03 8,162 5.1
France 1,404 5.47 7,675 4.8
Spain 3,602 2.11 7,596 4.7
Turkey 3,600 1.89 6,800 4.2
United Kingdom 1,106 5.38 5,945 3.7
China, Peoples Rep. of 1,200 3.17 3,800 2.4
Morocco 2,582 1.44 3,720 2.3
Ten country total 53,213 2.25 119,674 74.3
World total 73,143 2.20 161,007 100.0

Source: U.S. Foreign Agric. Serv., Production Estimates and Crop Assessments Division.
86 Hockett

TABLE 3 Genes Located on the Barley Chromosomes, Their Symbols and Description

Symbol Characteristic Symbol Characteristic

Chromosome 1 Chromosome 2
f5 Chlorina5 rt Rattail spike
Run 1 Resistance to U. nuda or Orange seedling
br Brachytic plant a2 Albino seedling 2
fc Chlorina seedling f(=lg) Chlorina seedling (viridis)
gs3(cera) Glossy sheath msg3 Male sterile 3
wx Waxy endosperm y Virescent seedling
yc Virescent seedling yx Xantha (yellow) seedling
ac2 Albino seedling e Wide outer glume
F8 Chlorina 8 gs5(cera) Glossy sheath
Rs Red Stem msg2 Male sterile 2
ert-a Erectoides wst4 White streak 4
b12 Nonblue (white aleurone) h Short culm
1 Lax (long spike) lin Low internode number
msg14 Male sterile 14 Six-rowed
msg10 Male sterile 10 Lk Long awn
n Naked caryopsis lr Lateral spikelet lemma appendage reduced
f4 Clorina 4
1k2 Short (fine) awn Pr Purple straw
u4 Unbranched style Ha Reaction to Heterodera (cereal cystnematode)
xa Xantha seedling Re2 Purple lemma and pericarp
mt„e Mottled leaf
Pau Purple auricle
li Liguleless
gp(gp2) Grandpa
Tr Triple-awned lemma

Chromosome 3 Chromosome 4
xs Xantha seedling Reg6 Resistance to E. graminis
bt-bt2 Nonbrittle rachis bl Nonblue (white) aleurone
an Albino seedling min Minute (dwarf)
Rh Reaction to Rynchosporium secalis (scald) 1k5(ari-c) Short awn
g13(=g12) Glossy seedling (leaf) 3
yst2 Yellow streak br2 Brachytic 2
zb Zebra stripe cer-zg Eceriferum-zg214
wst(=wst3) White streak 3 Reg2 Resistance to E. graminis
cu2 Curly gl(=g12) Glossy seedling (leaf)
Ryd2 Resistance to barley yellow dwarf virus 1b2 Long basal internode 2
1g4 Light green 4
Int Low number of tillers 1g2 Light green 2
als Absent lower laterals K series Hooded lemma
gs2 Glossy sheath i series Deficiens
uz Uzu or semi-brachytic f9 Chlorina 9

Chromosome 5 Chromosome 6
Rph4 Reaction to P hordei msg 36bk Male sterile 36
Regl Reaction to E. graminis ea7 Early heading 7
Rsp4 Reaction to P. hordei 0 Orange lemma
Reg4 Reaction to E. graminis gs4 Glossy sheath
Reg5 Reaction to E. graminis msg6 Male sterile 6
fs2 Fragile stem uc2 Uniculm 2
cer-e Ecerferium-e8 sexl Shrunken endosperm, xenia
Barley 87

TABLE 3 Continued
Symbol Characteristic Symbol Characteristic
ert-b Erectoides mt„f Mottled leaf
Sh3 Spring habit of growth r„e Smooth awn
necl Necrotic leaf xn Xantha seedling, Nepal
at Albino seedling, Trebi Amyl a-amylase
B series Black lemma and pericarp mull Multiflorous 2
Chlorina 7 19 Dense spike
trd Third outer glume
eak Early heading

Chromosome 7
ddt DDT resistance
nld Narrow-leafed dwarf
fs Fragile stem
mt2 Mottled 2
wst2 White streak 2
Short-haired rachilla
cm Cream seedling, Black Hulless III
r smooth awn
va3 Variegated 3
Sh2 Spring habit 2
lb Long basal rachis internode
Clt Purple color at leaf tips
Source: Ref. 15.

grain protein content, enzymatic characters, and extract to
providing excellent markers for varietal identification.
The barley chloroplast genome is small (approximately
134,000 base pairs of DNA), and its structure was first elu-
cidated at Carlsberg Laboratory [19,29]. The undetermined
structure of the mitochondrial genome is much larger than
the chloroplast, and it exhibits more variability than the
chloroplast among genotypes of barley [30].
B. Transformation
Systems to produce large numbers of independently trans-
formed, self-fertile, transgenic barley plants have recently
been developed. These systems will allow the production
and protection of barley in a more precise and rapid man-
ner by the introduction of foreign desirable germplasm
into the barley genome. The first successful production of
transformed barley plants was made through use of parti-
cle bombardment of immature embryos by Wan and
Lemaux [31], Ritala et al. [32], and later by Hagio et al.
[33]. Immature inflorescence tissue bombarded by micro-
projectiles by Barcelo et al. [34] resulted in transgenic
plants. Transgenic plants were also obtained by bombard-
ment of microspores [35] and by direct DNA transfer to
protoplasts [36]. Reviews of the genetic transformation of
barley have been made by several authors [37-39], listing
the methods tried and uses of transformed plants. Although
great advances have been made in the last 5 years, prob-
lems still present "include multiple insertions, breakup of
gene constructs during incorporation, control and loss of
gene expression and stability of insertion" [39]. Progress is
being made in the area of pest resistance and quality traits.
C. Cytogenetics
The cytogenetics of barley has been reviewed by Tsuchiya
[40] and Ramage [41]. Collections of inversions and
translocations are maintained in barley by international co-
ordinators. Deficiencies and duplications have also been
studied in barley [41]. An extensive set of 52 new recipro-
cal translocations and 9 pericentric inversions were recent-
ly induced and identified in both standard and cytological-
ly marked karyotypes by Gecheff [42].
Aneuploids have been extensively used in barley
[40,41] to associate genes with chromosomes (primary tri-
somics); produce hybrid barley (tertiary trisomics); associ-
ate genes with chromosome arms and localize the cen-
tromere on the linkage maps (telotrisomics); locate genes
in a linkage group (acrotrisomics); and establish eight-
paired barley (partial tetrasomics). Euploids are found in
88 Hockett

TABLE 4 Broad and Narrow Sense Heritability and Genetic Advance Estimates for Grain Yield Components and Other Agronomic
Characteristics Since 1964
Heritability"
Broad sense Narrow sense Genetic advanceb
Number Number Number
Average Range references Average Range references Average Range references
Characteristic (%) (%) reviewed (%) (%) reviewed (%) (%) reviewed
Grain yield 44 5-93 26 27 0-54 11 23 3-46 10
Spike number 49 3-98 24 34 14-66 9 33 4-113 12
Kernels/spike 64 15-99 23 39 2-91 12 28 3-71 8
Kernel weight 63 24-99 22 43 13-78 10 12 2-22 9
Heading date 74 19-100 17 60 34-92 6 10 1-23 9
Lodging score 66 41-88 5 27 6-38 3 123 1
Plant height 66 4-99 30 41 8-73 13 15 1-44 11
Grain protein 53 5-98 14 32 8-76 4 16 5-22 3
Grain plumpness 62 34-90 5 43 24-58 3 18 11-24 2
Diastatic power
Barley 82 55-94 5 58 23-94 3 20
Malt 68 50-86 2
Extract
Barley 59 43-71 3 12 8-16 2 1 1
Malt 57 46-69 3
Spike length 66 3-98 17 50 44-56 5 20 4-34 8
'Computations were most often on the plot basis, but some were on a plant or trial mean basis.
'Given as percentage of the mean.
Source: Ref. 15.

barley [41] and have been used to produce homozygous
lines and study segregation ratios and linkage values in ga-
metes produced by F1 plants (haploids); produce aneu-
ploids (triploids); and attempt to produce commercial, 2n =
4x = 28 chromosome barleys (autotetraploids). Individual
pairs of barley chromosomes have been added to the chro-
mosome complement of wheat [41] and used to make ge-
netic and evolutionary studies of barley. Figure 8 shows a
micrograph of barley chromosomes.
A new strategy to physically relate RFLP-based genetic
linkage maps with cytological markers of the barley chro-
mosomes has been devised by Sorokin et al. [44]. Morpho-
logically distinct translocation chromosome were mi-
croisolated, and their DNA was used as a template for
polymerase chain reaction with sequence-specific primers.
A recent review of these techniques in cereals is given by
Kunzel and Korzun [45].
D. Germplasm Resources
1. Collections
About 25,000 barley landraces plus 25,000 breeder lines
and cultivars are preserved in collections of barley
throughout the world [46]. In addition, the wild H. vulgare
sp. spontaneum and bulbosum have about 3000 and 600
ascensions, respectively [46,47]. The locations of the ma-
jor base germplasm collections are shown in Table 5.
Working germplasm collections are found in Brazil, Bul-
garia, the Czech Republic, England, Germany, Slovakia,
Syria, the Netherlands, the United States, and Russia [48].
Many composite crosses of barley are maintained in the
United States, with CCXLVII being the last one assigned a
number by the USDA-ARS collection [49].
Recent attempts have been made to set up "core" col-
lections of barley germplasm [50,51]. Selection of these
genotypes can be divided into four steps: (1) definition of
domain, (2) division into genetically distinct types, (3) al-
location of entries over types, and (4) choice of entries
[51]. Cross [50] has integrated both simply inherited phe-
notypically obvious markers with electrophoretic patterns
in setting up a core collection.
2. Wide Crosses
Reviews describing the wide crosses made in barley are
given by von Bothmer [47,52] and Fedak [53,54]. The ori-
gin, taxonomy, and related species of barley are described
[52], as are the incompatibility, mechanisms, and cytoge-
netics of wild barley crosses [53]. There is a general lack
 Chr. 1 Chr. 2 Chr. 3 Chr. 4 Chr.5 Chr.8 Chr.7
cM
Hor5 — P5R167 A80705
0 ABG320 A80008 — ABC171 W0622 Hart
RbcS AB3708
A804611 ABG497
HVM4(SM) - HVM36(SM)
— ABG318 MWG7988 MW0036A AB33711
000475 MWG077
— ABC156A A
EIVIII2(SM)
AB0460
AB0360 — MWG858 ABG471 HVM40(SM) — Hai HVM3 0(SM)Ic
20 C00669 Cap] 812Db
AB3358 Hirai) — W3541
— ABC15B CD 064 ABA004 t
832E W0530
ksuAl A HMI _ W0889
Pox 00099 HVI20(HM) ~HVLEu(sivr)
— ABC454
40 8004028 PSR106
AdhB HVM9(HM) A8038711
Br[ ABC323 A8C302
*83458
8CO2658
ABC485
OhnB ABG074
*03396 i?Il 1 (SM)
I
DTIMSO(SM) ABG 500A
HVM27(SM)
80
HVM26(HT) A80462
TiVmnapic r A 0130571
C130537
C HVM74(SM
HVCMA(HT) HVM44(SM) grain( ) HVM43(SM) ABC168
Pcr2 II VM14(S
HVM2B(SM) I
\IIVM23(SM) A80703A HVM.341I
ABR337
*83701 HVBKASI(SM) lirlf3(SM) — C001068 HVM22 SM)F A80473
ABC451 P58166 WG464
80 - Dor2 laltg65 HT)IC
0130588 HVM33(SM)
ABC308 71\574468(SM) ABC175
ABC455 A83377 ABC160
His3C k.uA3D
— C00673
IC HVM60(SM) BCD4538
Amy2 Neel
A80453 *80472
100 Amyl
Rm5S1 bBE548
ABR320 ABG319A ABG454
A83499 MWG934
lizuF15 ,HVDHN7(HT)
MWG 503 MOB HVDHN9(IIT)
— Ubll — ABC307A PSRI 54
CO011311 lAca 2
120 A8C3108 *835008 000504
ABC49B HVM31
PSR129 ABG394
A8G366 A8G712
bBE646
His45 ABG397 480257 WG908
140
WMS6(HT) — cMWG733
*83072
*83461 kruD 22 Mobs — ABC:1495A
A834 A803190 A80702
*63852
W33804 W0110 HVM 63 ABG496

HVM67(IF) HVM64
160 HVMS4(HM) *80482
ABC252 ABA302
HVM49(HT) Bmyl AB0391
kzuH11 *80390
MWG6358 ABC157
HVMS(SM) 8C0131 C00484
PSR10611
HVM62(HT) AB 3463
180 HVM51 ABG317A
1891 ABC309
HVCSG(HT) IIVM70(HT)
ABC165
ABG4956
HVM6(SM)
HVM1 5 HVhf 7

FIGURE 7 Linkage map of barley based on the linkage data from (Ref. 23.) (For detailed description of map see Ref. 28.)
90 Hockett

consisting of H. bulbosum, and (3) the tertiary gene pool of

the remaining species of the genus Hordeum.

FIGURE 8 Giemsa banded somatic chromosomes of barley
E. Breeding
Reviews of barley breeding dating from 1936 to 1994 are
given by several authors [2,6,55-59]. Barley is the most
widely grown cereal crop, and with this diverse mix of en-
vironmental conditions the breeding objectives become
quite diverse. The major objectives of barley-breeding pro-
grams in the United States are (priority depends on the lo-
cation of the breeding program) yield, quality (malting and
feed), disease resistance, drought resistance, winter hardi-
ness, straw strength, maturity, insect resistance, plant
height, seed size, salinity tolerance, and shattering resis-
tance. Conventional breeding methods such as use of mu-
tagenesis, pedigree selection, backcross breeding, and bulk
selection are described in the references above.

1. Population-Breeding Methods
TABLE 5 Major Hordeum Germplasm Collections Barley was the first cereal crop used in an innovative way
No. of for the development of population-breeding methods. H.
Collection accessions V. Harlan was the first to advocate the mixing and later hy-
bridization of cultivars as composite crosses to be grown
National Small Grains Collection Aberdeen, ID 27,274 on a long-term basis [6]. Suneson and Wiebe continued the
Australian Winter Cereals Collection Tamworth, development of the theory and release of composite cross-
NSW, Australia 6,000+ es utilizing genetic male sterility and the concept of evolu-
CNPT-EMBRAPA Brasilia, Brazil —20,000
tionary plant breeding. Composite crosses were developed
Plant Gene Resources of Canada Saskatoon, SK,
Canada 21,000+ for many different specific uses by other scientists [6]. Re-
Plant Genetic Resources Centre Addis Ababa, current selection has been used in many crops, but a refine-
Ethiopia —13,000 ment was suggested by R. F. Eslick called "male sterile fa-
FAL Braunschweig, Germany 10,000 cilitated recurrent selection" (MSFRS) [6]. MSFRS has
IPK Gatersleben, Germany —11,000 been used by Ramage, Eslick, Hockett, D. R. Clark, and
Barley Germplasm Centre Okayama Univ., others to develop populations for specific purposes. A dis-
Kurashiki, Japan —6,000 advantage of the population method of breeding can be an
Nordic Gene Bank Alnarp, Sweden 14,000+ inability to devise a suitable screening method on a single
ICARDA Aleppo, Syria 20,000+ plant basis for the characteristics desired (examples are
AFRC Cambridge, England, UK 10,000+
yield and quality).
Source: Directory of Germplasm Collections. 3. Cereals. 1990. IBPGR, 2. Hybrid Barley
Rome and H.E. Bockelman, ARS, USDA, Aberdeen, ID. Ref. 49.
Methods of hybrid barley production have been reviewed
[6,57,60,61]. Methods proposed for the production of hy-
brid barley are use of synthetic hybrid populations, DDT re-
sistance linked to male sterility, balanced tertiary trisomics,
of knowledge of the agronomic potential of wild species of preflowering gene linked to male sterility, haplo-viables,
Hordeum [47], but Table 6 shows some uses that have been chemical restoration of fertility, photoperiod-sensitive male
made of wide crosses to produce desirable agronomic steriles, cytoplasmic male sterility, apomictic lines, and
traits. Intergeneric crosses of barley and Triticum, Secale, male gameticides. The most promising method appears to
Elymus, Sitanion, Hystrix, Agropyron, Horedelymus, and be the use of the cytoplasmic male sterility discovered by
Psathyrostachys species have been made [53,54]. Von Ahokas [62]. Apparently sufficient heterosis exists in bar-
Bothmer [52] divides the barley gene pool into (1) a pri- ley for it to be commercially successful [61,63] if a suitable
mary group of advanced breeding lines, varieties, mutant method can be found. Other problems in hybrid barley pro-
stocks and ssp. spontanteum, (2) a secondary gene pool duction are sufficient female receptivity and male pollina-
Barley 91

TABLE 6 Potential Agronomic Traits as Identified in Wild Species and Interspecific Hybrids

Species or hybrid Trait

H. vulgare Resistant of leaf rust

cv. (Ono) 4x x H. bulbosum 4x x E. mollis 4x Partially resistant to net blotch
Partially resistant to spot blotch
Tolerant to barley yellow dwarf virus
(H. brachyantherum 4x x H. bogdannii 2x) 2 x H. vulgare cv. Tolerant to barley yellow dwarf virus
Traill 4x Partially resistant to net blotch
Partially resistant to spot blotch
Leaf pubescence
Winter hardiness
H. vulgare x [H. jubatum x H. compressuma x H. vulgare] Cytoplasmic male sterility (2n = 28)
H. compressum x H. pusillum Resistance to spot blotch
H. vulgare cv. Traill 4x x H. bulbosum 4x Resistance to spot blotch
H. jubatum 4x x S. cereale Winterhardiness
H. arizonicum 6x x A. spicatum 2x Forage grass
Perennial
Postharvest dormancy
H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum Mildew resistance
Salt tolerance
Winter hardiness
Flooding tolerance
Epidermal trichomes
Cytoplasmic male sterilityb
H. bulbosum Mildew resistance
Winterhardiness
Outcrossing habit
Anther extrusion
Elymus spp. Rust resistance
Leaf spotting resistance
Strong straw
Drought tolerance
Betzes barley x Th. intermediam 6x Helminthosporium resistance
C S wheat x C.F. 3208-4 BYDV resistance
Klages barley x E. trachycaulus 4x Russian wheat aphid resistance
Fukuno wheat x Luther barley Karnal bunt resistance
C S wheat x H. bulbosum 4x Wheat yellow mosaic virus resistance
Mildew resistance
Winter hardiness
Protein content
H. californicum 2x x C S wheat Unique storage proteins
Possible Fusarium resistance
H. chilense 2x x T turgidum 4x Unique storage proteins
H. vulgare 2x x T turgidum 4x Apomixis
H. vulgare 2x x R. scabrus 6x Apomixis
H. chilense 2x x T turgidum 4x (Tritordeum) Potential new crop

'Synonym for H. stenostachys.

b See Ref. 62.
Source: Refs. 53 and 54.
92 Hockett

tion ability. Composite crosses have been developed that

greatly enhance crossing potential [64], but these geno-
types need to be integrated with appropriate parental
stocks. Both desirable and undesirable heterosis for malting
quality was detected by Hockett et al. [65].

3. Other Breeding Methods

The selection of barley lines derived from tissue culture
was hindered by unselected and potentially undesirable so-
maclonal variation [66]. Barley haploids have been uti-
lized for identification of superior hybrid combinations,
linkage analysis, studying pleiotropic effects of specified
genes, mapping RFLP's and biotechnology programs [67].
QTL (multiple linked loci) have been evaluated for use in
breeding programs for yield, head shattering, lodging,
malting quality, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stress-
es [68,69]. Some practical applications of molecular mark-
er—assisted selection are direct selection of markers, accel-
erated backcrossing, pyramiding genes, analysis and
selection of quantitative traits, identification of hybrids,
FIGURE 9 Germination of the barley grain. (From Ref. 76.)
multiple trait screening, selection for resistance to pests,
and analysis of alien chromosome segments [70].

leys have one fertile floret, whereas six-rowed barleys

III. STRUCTURE
The structure of barley is of interest practically and theo-
retically and has been reviewed by several authors
[2,11,71-73]. The taxonomic value of the morphological
characteristics of barley was studied by Aberg and Wiebe
[74]. Ward [75] considered the evolutionary behavior of
morphological markers. He determined their frequency of
occurrence and geographical distribution and how these
markers are associated with each other.
A. Plant
A covered barley kernel is shown germinating in Figure 9
at from 3 to 7 days (depending on the cultivar) after condi-
tions are favorable for germination. Figure 10 shows a lat-
er stage in plant development, when tillering occurs. Bar-
ley has large overlapping auricles (Fig. 11) compared to
wheat (smaller nonoverlapping auricle) and oats (rudimen-
tary auricles), which are readily distinguished at the
seedling stage. The beginning of root development is also
shown in Figure 10. Figure 12 shows root development in
different types of barley depending on whether the area
from which they come is dry (xerophyic) or wet (meso-
phyic). The apex of a barley root is shown in Figure 13.
B. Spike
The most common types of barley spikes are shown in Fig-
ure 14. The spike is made up of spikelets with three florets
attached to each of the nodes of the rachis. Two-rowed bar-
have three. Samples of two- and six-rowed barley kernels
can be distinguished from each other because two thirds of
the kernels in the six-rowed sample are twisted. The devel-
opment of the floral structures of barley have been re-
viewed by Bossinger et al. [79].
C. Kernel
The barley floret at anthesis is shown in Figure 15. Double
fertilization of the barley egg cell is shown in Figure 16. A
mature barley caryopsis or grain is shown in Figure 17.
The kernel dry weight is made up of approximately the fol-
lowing percentages of tissue: husk and pericarp, 10%;
aleurone and associated testa, pigment strands, and some
nuclear tissue, 14%; starchy endosperm and nuclear re-
mains in sheaf cell region, 73%; embryo, 3% [2]. The
structure of the barley grain has been reviewed by Duffus
and Cochrane [81] and the relationship of endosperm
structure to malting quality by Brennan et al. [82].
IV. PRODUCTION
Cultural practices involving barley have been reviewed by
several authors [2,83-85], while Poehlman [10] discussed
adaptation of cultivated barley.
A. Soil and Climatic Requirements
Barley grows best under cool dry conditions and can stand
heat under low humidity or high humidity under cool con-
Barley 93

Main stem

1st tiller

Main stem
Pseudostems
Tiller
Stem apex;
ear
primordium
Withered basal
leaf Leaf sheaths
forming the
pseudostem
Crown
Crown--1. Apex of
tiller
Adventitious root Adventitious
root
Rhizomatous stem

Seminal roots
Rhizomatous
stem

(a)
(b)

FIGURE 10 A seedling in which the pseudostems of the main axis and the first tiller are visible and erect. (From Ref. 2 after Ref. 77.)

Pulvinus; barley is not as good as that of rye or wheat but is better

base of sheath than that of oats. Barley grows under a wide range of pho-
of next leaf
Leaf blade toperiod, temperature, and moisture conditions, but it is
best grown in the area where the cultivar was bred. Pho-
toperiod was more important than temperature in deter-
mining spike emergence in a long-term study in Europe
Ligule
Auricles [86], and available energy influenced the ripening phase
more than temperature. Barley is the most drought-resist-
ant cereal, but this may be because of its shorter matura-
Leaf sheath tion period.
Well-drained fertile loam or light clay soils are best for
barley production, since sandy soils do not hold enough
FIGURE 11 Schematic view of the manner in which the auri- water and heavy clay soils may become waterlogged. Of
cles and ligule are placed at the junction between the leaf blade. the three cereals—barley, wheat, and oats—barley is most
(From Ref. 2.) tolerant to alkaline conditions and most sensitive to acid
soils [10].

ditions. It does not grow well in a hot humid environment

primarily because of diseases. When both wheat and bar-
ley grow well in an area, wheat is the cereal of choice for
food and barley for feed and malting. Barley matures more
quickly than other cereals and thus can be grown at broad-
er latitudes and higher altitudes. The winter hardiness of
B. Cultural Practices
Production costs of several cropping regions of Montana
are shown in Table 7. The break-even price for barley pro-
duction changes drastically as farm size and other physio-
graphic characteristics change between these areas.
94 Hockett

-20

-40

-60

-80
3ft-
-100
E
-120

-140 0
5f t-,"
-160

'-180

(c) -200 (d )

FIGURE 12 The extent of four types of rooting systems encountered in Indian barleys: (a) mesophytic; (b) semi-mesophytic; (c) semi-
xerophytic; (d) xerophytic. (From Ref. 2 after Ref. 78.)

1. Rotations The inclusion of barley in the farm rotation in the typi-

The use of barley in a rotation depends on the length of the
growing season, moisture available in the soil profile and
expected rainfall, availability of other crops adapted to the
region, disease problems, soil type, and soil fertility [83].
Barley is a desirable companion crop, since its early matu-
rity and early harvest aids in the establishment of the inter-
seeded crop.
cal wheat-fallow system of the northern Great Plains helps
control winter annual weeds and diseases of wheat as well
as balance the workload [84]. Barley is an important com-
ponent in flexible cropping systems presently used in the
major spring barley areas, since its early maturity and
drought tolerance make it the crop of choice when stored
water is low.
Barley 95

Pericycle Endodermis
Outer metaxylem
Inner metaxylem 1 Cortex
Rhizodermis
so tip . -
sir Aiemblot
imp
0% loriPt
Thickened

' fa Isais• a wag

outer walls

''A srpropi-
.sluittersisi vo,....ga
tt.zt,
neiplam.....
ns.
v te thill i
I ,..tusos Is'isi il'al
‘ ill 04
Ar
Generative
flift
s
itti
ta
\ vs, te
centre
Calyptrogen
‘1 i Oa a Metifiri
r lat
Root cap
114•1 (Calyptra)
NIVItire i."11
lIttl

4 Vetlijv
\V "AW Starch-containing
cells
Outer cells being

*or
sloughed off
`WI

FIGURE 13 Schematic longitudinal section through the apex

of a barley root. (From Ref. 2.) FIGURE 14 Barley spikes: (A) six-rowed; (B) two-rowed.

Barley also fits into southern and southeastern cropping
rotations with corn and double cropped soybeans [84].
Double cropping systems in the southwestern United
States benefit by using barley in the rotation because of its
early maturity or suppression of cotton diseases.
2. Planting
In general, spring barley should be seeded as early in the
spring as possible for the highest yields, unless early
spring frosts are a problem. The best seeding time for fall-
planted spring barley in the Southwest is usually in No-
vember unless the area is subject to frost at heading time.
Winter barley should not be planted too early in the fall be-
cause of increased aphid and disease problems [84]. In the
southeast barley is generally planted 1 or 2 weeks before
winter wheat [83]. Barley should be seeded 2-6 cm deep
and at a rate of 50-108 kg/ha [84].
3. Fertilizing and Water Use
Barley responds well to applied fertilizers and increased
water, but a good management plan must be in place to uti-
lize these inputs. Soil tests are absolutely essential to apply
the correct amount of fertilizer. Barley is not as lodging re-
sistant as wheat and oats, so it may not tolerate such high
fertility levels.
Nitrogen balance is the most critical nutritional factor
determining the yield and quality of the barley crop and is
especially critical when recropping after a nonlegume
crop. Barley production is affected by the nitrogen source,
type of growing season, level of carryover in the soil, time
and method of application, and cultivar grown [84]. In
subhumid and humid areas measurement of the residual ni-
trate, N, in the soil is not as effective in determining a cor-
rect recommendation as it is in the semi-arid areas. For
winter barley a split application of nitrogen in the fall and
spring usually gives the best results. The interaction of ni-
trogen and water is the major factor determining yield
(Fig. 18). Much more N can be applied if adequate water is
available through irrigation. With irrigation yield can be
increased compared to dry land, where yields stabilize at
112 kg/ha of N. The protein content of the grain (Fig. 19) is
also strongly influenced by N application. Excess N can
decrease the value of malting barley, since high protein can
96 Hockett

Pollen grain
Stigmatic hairs
4

Strand of
pollen-conducting
tissue
Route of
pollen tube Lateral
(dashed) procambial
strand
Tip of outer
integument
Antipodal cells
Outer)
Inner integuments
Polar nuclei
Egg cell and two
synergids
Micropyle

FIGURE 16 The route of the pollen tube from the stigmatic

hair to the egg cell. (From Ref. 2 after Ref. 80.)

Great Plains (Table 8). This relationship is important in de-

termining the time of application and amount of water to
apply when irrigating barley.
Many studies have been made on drought tolerance or
resistance in barley. There are several reviews of the mor-
phological and physiological characteristics associated
with barley yield [88,89].

4. Harvesting

Barley flower with anthesis beginning. (From

FIGURE 15
Ref. 76.)
result in rejection of the sample. An expected yield curve
shown in Figure 20 indicates that in the northern Great
Plains no yield can be expected with less than 160 mm of
plant-available water (stored soil water and growing sea-
son rainfall).
Soil tests for phosphorus, P, are reliable and should be
used for fertilizer recommendations for barley. In the Great
Plains banding of P at seeding time below or with the seed
is the preferred method of application in deficient soils
[84]. Adequate P increases survival of winter barley and
increases the percentage of plump grain and malt extract in
malting barley [83].
Correct timing of irrigation water is important for bar-
ley culture in maintenance of high yields and malting qual-
ity. If water is limited, the most critical time of application
is the late boot-heading stage [84]. Temperature and water
use are closely related in barley grown in the northern
Barley harvested for grain can be cut and threshed directly
with a combine at <13.5% moisture, but wheat and barley
exhibit different threshing characteristics, so close atten-
tion is needed to cylinder speeds. Operators need to be es-
pecially careful with malting barley, because skinning and
breaking of the kernels results in discounts or rejection by
the maltster. Barley reaches physiological maturity at
about 40% moisture and can be swathed at this moisture
content or below with no loss of yield. Swathing can re-
duce kernel shattering, reduce losses from hail, insects,
and frost, and facilitate harvest of unevenly ripening fields.
C. Pest Control
1. Diseases
Although a strict definition of disease includes any abnor-
mality of the plant, only infectious pathogens are consid-
ered in this section. The diseases that most commonly in-
fect barley are shown in Table 9. Most barley diseases
occur under irrigated or high-moisture conditions, but
some diseases thrive when plants are stressed [85]. Losses
due to disease for 1951-1960 were estimated to be 13.5%
Barley
DORSAL
Scutellar Crushed and depleted
epithelium cells
Scutellum
Coleoptile
Embryonic
leaves
Provascular
Embryo strands
Rootlet
Root cap
Micropylar
region
Coleorhiza
BASE Rachilla Pigment
strand
VENTRAL
FIGURE 17 Idealized diagram of a barley grain, with a sector removed, to show the disposition of the tissues. (From Ref. 2.)
of the total barley production in North America [92] with-
out including those areas where disease has made barley
unprofitable. North America is affected by about 15 eco-
nomically important barley diseases. The region and cli-
matic conditions of a particular area determine which dis-
eases are serious there. Diseases reduce quality as well as
yield, causing shriveled kernels, high protein, reduced seed
viability, and poor quality kernels. Disease organisms pres-
ent may be toxic to animals and humans [92,93]. Diseases
are controlled best by resistant cultivars, fungicides, or
cultural practices. Breeding of disease-resistant cultivars is
difficult since new pathogen strains often evolve as the
new resistant cultivar is grown in monoculture [2,21]. At-
tempts have been made to overcome some of the
pathogen's ability to change through use of multilines
[21,94] or polygenic resistance [21].
2. Weeds
Weeds may be defined as "plants out of place." Losses due
to weeds in barley in the United States are estimated at $5
billion each year [95]. A wide spectrum of weeds are found
in barley because it is grown in such a wide range of envi-
ronments. Probably the most troublesome weed in barley
is wild oats (Avena Fatua L.). Weeds compete for light, nu-
trients, and moisture and reduce yield, grain, and forage
quality. They increase labor and equipment costs and re-
duce land values. Weed reduction can be accomplished
97
Vascular
bundle 'nerve' APEX
Starchy
endosper
Endosperm
Aleurone
layer
Testa
Pericarp
Lemma
Husk
Palea
Ventral Sheaf cells
furrow
through prevention, suppression, control, and eradication
[95]. Sanitation and prevention of weed establishment
through cultural and chemical means is the best way of ac-
complishing the above objectives. Chemical control is
only part of an integrated management program. Operators
should use specific herbicides for specific weeds or herbi-
cide combinations best suited to a particular situation. Ta-
bles 10 and 11 give recommendations current at this time
for the Pacific Northwest area of the United States. Effec-
tiveness of the different chemicals varies, and tolerance of
barley to the chemicals also should be taken into account
since barley cultivars vary in sensitivity to a particular
chemical [84,90,96].
3. Insects
Over 100 species of arthropod pests attack barley in the
United States and Canada, and they are estimated to cause
5-7% loss of the annual grain crop [97]. Other losses are
due to the forage value of barley, reduction of quality of
malting and food barley, and indirectly as vectors of virus
diseases. The presence of insects does not automatically
mean that damage will occur, so an "economic injury lev-
el" must be reached before control is advisable [97]. This
injury level has been established for only a few pests of
barley, and only a few pests such as the greenbug and
Russian wheat aphid cause damage every year. The Rus-
sian wheat aphid spread from Mexico in 1980 as far north
98 Hockett

TABLE 7 Estimated Production Costs for Feed Barley Based on 50-50 Crop Fallow Cropping System and
1982-1983 Input Prices

Montana cropping areas

North central East central North western

Average hectare cropland/farm 810 405 122

Expected yield, in metric tons/hectare 2.04 1.83 2.58
Variable costs/hectare ($)
Preharvest:
Seed 11.86 14.82 11.86
Chemicals & application 9.26 9.26 5.71
Fertilizer & application 21.00 18.77 46.31
Crop insurance 12.35 12.35 12.35
Tractor operating costs 3.56 3.95 12.70
Machine operating costs 5.11 7.14 31.52
Hired labor 7.58 9.39 19.64
Miscellaneous 8.25 4.62 3.93
Interest on operating capital 4.92 5.85 9.34
Subtotal, pre-harvest costs 83.89 86.15 153.36
Harvest 30.11 49.77 68.96

Total variable costs/hectare ($) 114.00 135.92 222.32

Fixed costs/hectare ($)
Fallow costs 113.87 119.00 149.58
Fixed costs for growing crop
Farm machinery & building depreciation 40.63 65.53 114.53
Insurance on machinery & buildings 1.14 1.83 3.19
Personal property taxes 3.38 5.46 9.53
Real estate taxes 6.18 6.18 6.18
Opportunity cost on inventory 57.60 64.52 78.13
Family labor opportunity cost 0.00 0.00 0.00
Management opportunity cost 5.31 6.32 10.13
Subtotal, fixed costs for growing crop 114.24 149.84 221.69

Total fixed costs/hectare ($) 228.11 268.84 371.27

Total costs/hectare 342.11 404.76 593.59

Break-even price/metric ton ($) 147.70 221.18 230.07

Source: Ref. 85.

as Montana in 1987 and is reported as more likely to dam-
age barley than wheat, with oats being the least susceptible
of the small grains.
Crop damage due to insects usually occurs during the
larval stage, with most insects having one generation per
year (an exception is aphids, which have many generations
per year) [98]. Some insects can be controlled with contact
and some with systemic insecticides depending on their
life cycle and method of plant infestation. Beneficial in-
sects are an important agent in controlling many pest
species, but they usually work slowly, and often chemical
control is necessary to prevent crop loss [98]. Care must be
taken that the chemicals to control the pests do not also kill
the predators and parasites. Insects of economic impor-
tance in North America and suggested control measures
are shown in Table 12.
Postharvest pests of barley are also very important; they
will be discussed in Section VI.
V. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The chemical composition of the growing plant described
by Briggs [2] is best known in regard to its value as hay or
silage. Barley grain is rich in starch and sugars, relatively
poor in protein, and very low in fat. The husk (lemma and
palea) is mostly composed of lignin, pentosans, mannan,
Barley 99

B 5.5 r
A
5
x
L
E 4.5
Y EXPECTED YIELD
Dry land 4

3.5 125
E
L 3
D
Protein content ofBarley (%)

2.5
G
R 2
A
L 1.5

1
Irrigated T SOIL NOO N • 34 KG/HA (Example only.
0.5
Determine this by soil tests.)
0
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 600
AVAILABLE WATER - MM

FIGURE 20 Expected curve for spring barley on recrop sand

in eastern Montana as related to nitrogen requirements (soil + fer-
tilizer) and plant available water (stored soil water + growing
season rainfall). (From Ref. 87.)

1 I 1 i
56 112 224 336
uronic acids, hemicelluloses, and cellulose fibers. Silica is
N Applied (kg/ha)
present in the outer walls of the husk, and the awns contain
large amounts of silica [2]. The pericarp lacks lignin but
FIGURE 18 The effect of nitrogen fertilization and moisture
otherwise resembles the husk in chemical composition
supply on the yield of barley in Saskatchewan. (From Ref. 84.)
[99]. The testa contains crude cellulose and pigment
strands of alkane waxes, which are a barrier for chemical
substances and microbes. Polyphenols, which may com-
plex with proteins, are abundant in the pericarp, testa, and
aleurone layer. The aleurone has thick cell walls comprised
of arabinoxylans and has aleurone grains of protein and
phytic acid, spherosomes rich in fat, and abundant miner-
als. The subaleurone layer of the endosperm has relatively
4000 low starch content and is rich in proteins and 13-amylase.
The starchy endosperm is composed of about 85-89%
Irrigation
starch enclosed in cell walls. [3-Glucans make up 75% of
the cell wall, and the rest is arabinoxylans [99]. The em-
Barley Grain Yield (kg/ha)

bryo consists of about 7% cellulose, 14-17% lipids,

3000 14-15% sucrose, 5-10% raffinose, 5-10% ash, and 34%
protein [2]. The cell walls of the embryo contain uronic
acids, pectin, and hemicellulose [99]. The chemical com-
position of the parts of the barley grain is shown in Table
13. The chemical composition of the barley kernel is re-
2000
viewed by Newman and Newman [101].

A. Carbohydrates
1. Starch
Starch is a polysaccharide, a-glucan, and can be divided
1 1
1000
56 112 224 336 into straight-chain amylose and branched-chain amy-
N Applied (kg/ha) lopectin. The starch granules in the barley endosperm are
laid down within amyloplasts and fall into two size groups:
FIGURE 19 The effect of nitrogen fertilization and moisture 1.7-2.5 p.m and 22.5-47.5 pm. These starch granules con-
supply on the protein content of barley. (From Ref. 84.) tain traces of lipids, minerals, proteins, and nucleotides
100 Hockett

TABLE 8 Average Barley Water Use (mm/day) Based on Week During Crop Growth Period and Average Air Temperature
Week after crop emergence
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Air temperature (°C) Average daily water use (mm/day) Average total (mm/season)
10-15 1.02 1.02 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.03 1.02 1370
15.5-20.5 1.02 2.03 3.81 3.81 3.81 2.54 1.02 2490
21-26 1.27 3.05 5.33 5.33 5.59 3.81 1.02 3540
26.5-31.5 1.27 3.56 6.35 6.38 6.60 4.32 1.02 4162
32-37 2.03 4.06 7.37 7.37 7.62 5.08 1.27 4856
Approximate growth stage 4-5 Heading Milk
leaf
Source: Ref. 85.

[2]. The starch is synthesized in plastids, but the mecha-
nism is uncertain. The "diastatic" enzymes responsible for
degrading the starch in germination are phosphorylase, (X-
glucosidase, a-amylase, 13-amylase, debranching enzymes,
and transglucosylase [2]. The starch in the endosperm is
95% deposited in 11-28 days after ear emergence, and the
ratio of amylose to amylopectin increases to the final ratio.
In normal barleys the ratio of amylose to amylopectin is
about 1:3, in high-amylose Glacier about 1:1, and waxy
barley is 97-100% amylopectin [102]. Some workers have
reported altered starch and free sugars in Riso 1508 barley,
but others found no changes in the major carbohydrate
constituents of the high-lysine barleys [102]. The starch
composition of several normal, high-lysine (Hiproly and
Riso 13) and high-sugar (MT 1337-1) barleys is shown in
Table 14 and varies from 21.2 to 64.4%.
2. Soluble Sugars
At least nine monosaccharides and seven closely related
compounds occur in barley [2]. Glucose and fructose are
found free and in combination, whereas other monosac-
charides are polymerized as oligosaccharides, polysaccha-
rides, glycosides, glycolipids, and glycoproteins [2]. The
composition of some barleys grown in Montana are shown
in Table 15. Soluble sugar content of normal barley is
about 2-3%, hulless barleys 2-4%, high-lysine barleys
2-6%, and high-sugar barleys 7-13%. The total sugars and
reducing sugars decline from anthesis to maturity, whereas
nonreducing sugars are constant in amount during plant
growth [2]. The major sugar found in living tissues of bar-
ley is sucrose.
3. Nonstarch Polysaccharides
Briggs [2] defines these polysaccharides in barley as
"pectin fractions" or hemicellulosic materials, which are
then divided into gums if soluble in hot water and hemicel-
lulose if soluble in alkali. The material remaining after
delignification and removal of gums and hemicelluloses is
termed "holo-cellulose." Endosperm gums consists of 13-
glucan and an arabinoxylan. Endosperm cell walls in bar-
ley are unique in cereals, since they completely enclose the
cell-forming barriers to proteolytic and amylolytic en-
zymes. Some of the polysaccharides are linked to phenolic
acid and some to lignin [2]. The dietary fiber of barley is
comprised of the nonstarch polysaccharides, resistant
starch, and lignin (Fig. 21). This was determined by Aman
and Newman [103] for the barleys shown in Table 14 and
15 and by Oscarsson et al. [105] for naked and covered
barleys in Table 16.
B. Protein
"Crude protein" (N x 6.25) contains about 80% "true pro-
tein" with the rest nonprotein N and amides [2]. The
growing plant contains 6-7% of the dry matter as protein,
but this decreases to 0.6-0.8% of the dry matter in the lat-
ter growth stages. The crude protein levels of barley
grains for normal and exotic barleys are shown in Tables
14 and 15. The limiting amino acid in barley protein is ly-
sine followed by methionine, threonine, and tryptophane.
Amino acid contents of normal two- and six-rowed barley
are shown in Table 17. When barley is grown with high
levels of N fertilizer, the crude protein in the grain in-
creases but the proportion of lysine in the protein decreas-
es [2,102]. The cereal proteins are classed as albumins,
globulins, prolamines, and glutelins. In barley the albu-
mins and globulins (salt soluble), which are rich in lysine
(5-7%) and threonine, are mainly metabolic proteins. The
prolamines are the major storage proteins of the en-
dosperm and are low in lysine (<2%). The glutelins, also
found in the endosperm, are associated with bound struc-
tural proteins of the membranes and are about 4% lysine
Barley 101

TABLE 9 Diseases of Barley, Their Causal Organisms, and Suggested Control Methods

Disease Causal organism Control

Bacterial
Bacterial leaf blight Pseudomonas syringae None
Bacterial leaf streak and black chaff Xanthomonas translucens Clean seed, crop rotation, seed treatment
pv. transluscens
Fungal
Common root rot and seedling Cochliobolus sativus, Fusarium Clean seed, seed treatment, tolerant cultivars,
blight culmorum, F. graminarium optimum fertilization
Pythium root rot Pythium species Cultural practices
Bare patch Rhizoctonia solani (AG-8) Cultural practices
Take-all Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici Crop rotation, ammonium nitrogen fertilizer
Barley stripe Pyrenophora graminea Clean seed, seed treatment, resistant cultivars
Net blotch Phrenophora teres Resistant cultivars, clean seed, seed
treatment, crop rotation, foliar
fungicides
Powdery mildew Erysiphe graminis f. sp. hordei Resistant cultivars, foliar fungicides
Scald Rhynchosporium secalis Resistant cultivars, sanitation, crop rotation,
foliar fungicides
Spot blotch Cochliobolus sativus Resistant cultivars, clean seed, seed and
foliar fungicides, crop rotation
Septoria leaf blotch and glume Stagonospora avenae triticea, Clean seed, crop rotation, seed treatment,
blotch S. passerinii, S. nodorum sanitation, resistant cultivars, foliar
fungicides
Leaf rust Puccinia hordei Resistant cultivars, foliar fungicides
Stem rust Puccinia graminis Resistant cultivars
Stripe rust Puccinia striiformis Resistant cultivars, foliar fungicides
Covered smut Ustilago hordei Resistant cultivars, seed treatment
True loose smut Ustilago nuda Resistant cultivars, seed treatment
False loose smut Ustilago nigra Resistant cultivars, seed treatment
Ergot Claviceps purpurea Crop rotation, clean seed, deep planting,
grass weed control, closed flowering
cultivars
Scab Fusarium species Crop rotation, deep plowing, seed treatment
Storage molds Aspergillus and Penicillium species Proper harvest and storage conditions
Black point Alternaria and Fusarium species and Tolerant cultivars, seed treatment
Cochliobolus sativus
Viral
Barley stripe mosaic Barley stripe mosaic virus Virus-free seed, resistant cultivars
Barley yellow dwarf Barley yellow dwarf virus Resistant cultivars, aphid control, cultural
practices
Barley yellow streak mosaic Barley yellow streak mosaic virus Mite control, cultural practices, ceop rotaion,
prevent drought stress
Other
Aster yellows Aster yellows None
Cereal cyst nematode Heterodera avenae Resistant cultivars, crop rotation

Source: Ref. 91.

TABLE 10 Some Herbicides Used for Weed Control in Barley
Herbicide Time
PREPLANT/PREEMERGENCE
Buckle (10 G) triallate and trifluralin Fall or spring prior to planting
FarGo triallate Preplant or postplant in fall or spring
POSTEMERGENCE
Ally (60 DF) metsulfuron Before 3-leaf stage
Assert (2.5 AS) imazamethabenz When wild oats are in the 1- to 4-leaf stage,
and barley is in the 2-leaf to internode stage
Avenge (2 AS) difenzoquat When wild oats are in the 3- to 5-leaf stage
Banvel (4 S) & 5GF (2 S) dicamba When weeds are actively growing in 2- to 3-
leaf or rosette is less than 5 cm across, and
before barley exceeds 4-leaf stage
Buctril bromoxynil Before weeds have 4 leaves, and barley is in 3-
leaf to boot stage
Curtail (2.38 E C) clopyralid+ 2,4-D When weeds are actively growing and barley is
in tillering to boot stage
Express (75 D F) tribenuion (methyl) From 2-leaf stage to flag-leaf stage
Glean chlorosulfuron Fall or spring after grain reaches 2-leaf stage
but before boot stage; when weeds are
actively growing, but less than 5 cm tall or
across
Hoelon diclofop methyl When weeds are in the 1- to 4-leaf stage and
before barley reaches 1-node stage
Landmaster B W glyphosate + 2,4-D Apply to emerged weeds prior to planting or
emergence of barley
Peak prosulfuron When weeds are 2-15 cm tall and barley is
from 3-leaf to 2nd node stage
Roundup Ultra (3 W S) glyphosate Spring or fall, before planting or emergence of
barley; may apply prior to harvest
Stinger clopyralid When weeds are actively growing and barley is
from tillering to boot stage
2, 4-D or MCPA When barley is 5 cm high and before jointing
'Rate of application must be in accordance with local and state regulations.
Source: Ref. 96.
Applicationsa
Weeds controlled
Wild oats, green and yellow foxtail
Wild oats, downy brome
Annual broadleafs and Russian knapweed
Wild oats, some annual braodleafs,
bedstraw
Wild oats
Annual broadleafs and suppression of
certain perennial broadleafs
Annual broadleafs, and suppression of
Canada thistle
Canada thistle and wild buckwheat
Mustard, kochia, prickly lettuce, and
Russian thistle
Annual broadleaf weeds and suppression of
Canada thistle
Wild oats, green foxtail, and downy brome
Wild oats, green foxtail, downy brome,
field bindweed, and certain annual
broadleafs
Annual broadleafs
Nonselective on annual, biennial, or
perennial grasses and broadleafs
Annual broadleafs, perennial sowthistle,
and suppresses Canada thistle
Annual broadleafs and suppression of
certain perennial broadleafs
Remarks
Incorporate 24 hours after application; high
temperature or drought unfavorable for
control
Incorporate thoroughly to depth of 2-5 cm
When mixing with other herbicides, use
nonionic surfactant
May be mixed with other herbicides; do not
graze treated fields or harvest for forage
Can be mixed with 2,4-D, MCPA, or Buctril;
do not graze treated fields
Do not tank mix with 2,4-D or apply to
underseeded legumes
Do not graze fields for 30 days after
application
Do not graze or feed forage or hay to
livestock
Do not rotate land to other than grain crops;
rainfall or irrigation necessary to activate
chemical
Preplant application controls downey brome
Do not apply during poor growing
conditions; do not feed treated vegetation
within 8 weeks
Do not graze for 30 days or harvest until 60
days after application
Will kill all barley sprayed
May be applied with mixtures of Buctril and
Ally
Do not graze for 2 weeks or feed straw
TABLE 11 Effectiveness of Some Herbicides for Control of Selected Weeds in Barley
Herbicide'
Weedb Ally Assert Avenge Banvel Buckle Buctril Curtail Express Fargo Glean Hoelon Landmaster MCPA Peak Roundup Stinger 2,4-D
Perennials
Bindweed, field P — X P ____ P
Knapweed, Russian X P
Quackgrass — X
Sowthistle P P P X
Thistle, Canada P P P X P P X p
Grasses
Brome, downy — P X X X X
Foxtail, green — X X X
Oats, wild X X X X X X X
Annual broadleaves
Bedstraw, common X P
Buckwheat, wild X X X X P P X X X
Catchfly X X
Flixweed X x P X P
Kochia X x X X P X X
Lambsquarters X X X X X X X X X X X X
Lettuce, prickly X X — X X P X X p
Mallow, common X X X X P P
Mustard, wild X x X X X X X X X X X
Nightshade, cutleaf X X X
Pigweed, redroot X X X X P X — X X X X P
Ragweed, common X X X X X X X
Smartweed X X X X X X X X p
Sunflower, wild P X X X P X X X
Thistle, Russian X X X X X X X X p

ax = Control; P = partial control;— = weed not listed on label.

b Level of control considered "acceptable" for inclusion of a weed on labels may vary among herbicide manufacturers. Absence of a weed from a label does not necessarily mean complete lack of control.
Source: Ref. 96.
TABLE 12 Insects and Related Pests on Barley in North America and Their Control
Types
Aphids
Corn leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis)
English grain aphid (Sitobion avenae)
Greenbug (Schizaphis graminum)
Oat birdcherry aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi)
Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia)
Yellow sugarcane aphid (Sipha flava)
Mites
Banks grass mite (Oligonychus pratensis)
Brown wheat mite (Petrobia latens)
Wheat curl mite (Aceria tulipae)
Winter grain mite (Penthaleus major)
Chewing insects
Armyworms (Pseudaleta unipuntcta)
Identification
Pear-shaped, greenish blue with darker spots
surrounding the cornicles, cornciles short
and broad, all black
Pear-shaped, green or yellow-green,
cornicles long and narrow, all black
Pear-shaped, pale yellowish-to bluish-green
with dark green stripe down the back, tips
of cornicles black
Pear-shaped, reddish-orange band on rear of
abdomen, tips of cornicles black
Spindle-shaped, uniform pale green,
antennae short, supracaudal process
(=double tail)
Bright lemon yellow, cornicles no longer
than wide
Half as large as brown wheat mite, ligher
color than other mites
Large, oval, brownish mite with yellowish
legs, front legs usually longer than rest
Very small, white, spindle shaped, only 4
legs, located anteriorly
Dark brown with reddish legs, orange spot
on top
Larvae pale green when young, and yellow
to brownish-green striped when mature
Control
Insecticides, tolerant cultivars,
parasites, adverse weather
Insecticides, resistant cultivars,
parasites, adverse weather
Insecticides, resistant cultivars,
parasites, adverse weather
Insecticides, adverse weather
Insecticides, adverse weather
Insecticides, tolerant cultivars,
parasites, adverse weather
Contact insecticides, rainfall
Irrigation or rainfall, insecticides
Systemic insecticides, remove
volunteer small grains
Irrigation or rainfall, insecticides
Insecticides, parasites
Remarks
Control with contact insecticides difficult
Vectors BYDV; causes damage in northern
United States and Canada
Causes more damage than most aphids,
injects toxins during feeding, causing
yellow-red area
Infected plants have white, yellow, or purple
streaks on leaves and leaves are tightly
curled, severe yield losses possible
Infected plants have white, yellow, or purple
streaks on leaves and leaves are tightly
curled, severe yield losses possible
Injury similar to that of greenbug, not a
vector of viruses
Webbing on upper part of plant, damage
found along margin of feld
Vector of barley yellow streak mosaic virus,
scatters when disturbed
Vector of wheat streak mosaic virus, direct
damage seldom important
Active in cold temperatures, early-
appearing, nocturnal
Nocturnal feeders, young larvae feed on leaf
surface, older larvae eat all the leaf tissue
 Cereal leaf beetle (Outlema melanopus)
Cutworms, army (Euxoa auxiliaris)
Cutworms, pale western (Agrotis
orthogonia)
Grasshoppers (Melanoplus and Camnula
species)
Thrips (Various species)
Other insects
Barley jointworm (Harmolita hordei)
Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor)
Sawfly (Cephus cinctus)
Wheat stem maggot (Meromyza species)
White grubs (Phyllophaga species)
Wireworms and false wireworms (Agriotes
mancus, Ctenicrea sp. and Eleodes sp.)
Source: From Refs. 85, 97, and Dr. G. D. Johnson, Entomologist, Department of Entymology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.
Larvae yellowish covered by black fecal
coating, adults metallic bluish-black
wings and head, legs and thorax orange
Larvae tan with dark stripes, 3 cm long at
maturity
Larvae white with brown head capsules, 3
cm long at maturity
Body elongate and narrow, forewings
leathery, hindwings membranous, very
diverse with respect to size and color
Dusky colored, cigar-shaped,
<2 mm long
Larvae pale green to lemon. average 3 mm
in length
Reddish orange eggs on upper leaves, white
larvae behind leaf sheath, overwinter as
brownish puparium, small dark-colored
flies emerge in spring
Adults black and yellow wasps, larvae
cream colored, 2 cm long with hardened
head capsule
Maggots pale green with mouth parts 2
blacks hooks
Larvae whitish, G-shaped, dark posterior
abdomen
Cylindrical, hard-shelled, segmented larvae,
reddish-yellow to brown
Insecticides, parasites
Insecticides, diseases, parasites,
predators
Parasites, predators, insecticides
The pathogen Nosema locustee,
insecticides
Insecticides
Resistant cultivars
Delayed fall planting,
insecticides, crop rotation,
sanitation
None
Sanitation, early-maturing
cultivars
Parasites, cultural practices, soil
insecticides
Seed treatment, clean tillage
Larvae eat leaf epidermis, damage mainly to
spring grains
Larvae feed above ground and spend
nonfeeding time below ground
Larvae are below-ground feeders, thrives in
drought years
Feed on leaves and chew stems causing head
drop
Flecking and light-colored streaks on leaves,
may cause flower sterility
Galls form on stems disrupting nutrient
transport causing shriveled spikes
Larvae kill tillers and stunt plant growth in
fall by feeding on the sap, in spring culms
are broken over
Barley less susceptible than wheat to
damage
Damages seedling tillers causes "white
head"
Damage is severe pruning of roots and
underground stems
Damage seeds, seedlings, roots, and
underground stems
106 Hockett

TABLE 13 Chemical Composition of Barley Components C. Fats

(dry matter basis)
Barley lipid content is low (2-3%) compared to that of
Whole Pearled Hulls maize and oats [101,102]. Triglycerides comprising 77.9%
barley (%) barley (%) (%) of barley lipids contain palmitic acid and the unsaturated
Dry matter 91.21 90.67 92.64 fatty acids oleic, linoleic (the principal one in barley), and
Crude protein 11.73 12.45 13.31 linolenic. The barley kernel also contains diglycerides,
Crude fat 1.52 1.20 4.51 free sterols, free fatty acids, and sterol esters and hydrocar-
Crude fiber 6.56 1.85 17.98 bons [102]. Most of the lipids are found in the endosperm
Crude ash 2.52 1.53 5.58 (77%), embryo (18%), and hull (5%). The fat content of a
Nitrogen-free extracta 77.67 82.97 58.62 developing plant increases and then may decrease slightly
Cellulose (included in [2]. The fat content of normal covered, normal hulless,
crude fiber) 5.92 1.45 19.48 high-sugar, and high-lysine barleys range in percentage
Principally starch and free sugars, but includes part of the total or dietary from 1.9 to 2.4, 2.7 to 3.9, 4.4 to 7.3, and 2.9 to 5.8, re-
fiber. spectively (Table 15), and prowashonupana contained 7%
Source: Ref. 100. total lipid on a dry basis [101].

[102]. High-lysine barleys (Table 18) such as Riso 1508
have increased lysine, lower seed weight, and decreased
yield when compared to the mother line Bomi [102].
Table 19 shows maximum and minimum values for the
limiting amino acids of barley. These samples include
high-lysine and high-protein lines. Hordeum spontaneum
or wild barley lines were found to contain protein 15-28%
and 2.2-3.6% lysine, indicating that about 5-10% of the
strains could be considered high-lysine, high-protein lines
[107].
D. Minerals
The ash content of barley (2-3%) is influenced by the
growing season, soil zone, soil type, and soil fertility
[2,102]. The distribution of minerals is uneven throughout
the kernel (Table 20), and the rachis (5-14%) and awns
(17-38%) contain a large portion of the minerals [2]. The
ash content of barleys in Table 14 and 15 range from 2.2 to
3.9%, with MT 1337-2 the lowest in ash and Riso 1508 the
highest. The phytic/nonphytic phosphorus ratio of barley
was about 2 in barley compared to 3 in wheat and oats and
13 in rye [108]. These ratios are meaningful because phyt-
ic acid decreases the availability of certain minerals.

TABLE 14 Grain Chemical Compositions of Some Barley Types with Different Starch Contents (%, w/w dry basis)

Constituent Betzes Shabet Klages Hiproly Riso 13 Mt 1337-1

Carbohydrates
Starch 64.4 58.1 57.9 47.1 25.2 21.2
Soluble sugars' 2.4 2.7 2.5 4.7 5.9 12.8
Nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) 10.5 11.2 11.6 15.4 29.7 25.3
Arabinose residues 1.7 1.6 1.7 2.9 3.7 3.4
Xylose residues 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.2 5.7 4.7
Mannose residues 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.3
Galactose residues 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4
Glucose residues 5.6 6.1 5.9 8.1 18.7 15.2
Uronic acid residues 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.4
Crude protein (N x 6.25) 13.6 15.4 14.8 21.0 16.1 20.5
Crude fat 3.9 3.7 3.7 4.6 5.9 7.3
Ash 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.4 3.0 2.5
Lignin 1.5 1.9 2.6 1.0 4.2 0.6
Total 98.8 95.3 95.5 96.2 90.0 90.2
Dietary fiber (NSP + lignin) 12.0 13.1 14.2 16.4 33.9 25.9

aSum of glucose, fructose, sucrose, and fructans.

Source: Ref. 103.
Barley 107

TABLE 15 Compositions of Two-Rowed Barley Grain (%, w/w dry basis)

Crude protein Dietary

Cultivar Glucose Fructose Sucrose Fructans Starch (N x 6.25) Crude Fat Ash fiber

Normal (covered)
Betzes 0.1 0.1 1.9 0.7 58.1 15.4 2.2 2.3 19.3
Compana 0.2 0.1 2.1 0.9 59.5 13.1 2.4 3.0 18.8
Waxy Compana 0.2 0.1 2.2 0.5 57.1 12.5 1.9 2.9 22.6
Normal (hulless)
Nubeta 0.1 0.1 1.6 0.6 64.4 13.6 3.9 2.5 13.3
Nupanab 0.1 0.1 1.4 0.5 65.2 12.1 2.7 2.3 15.6
Washonupana` 0.2 0.1 3.2 0.7 60.5 16.6 2.7 3.5 12.6
High-sugar (hulless)
MT 1337-1d 0.5 0.4 8.3 3.6 21.2 20.5 7.3 2.S 35.8
MT 1337-2d 0.5 0.3 5.3 1.3 43.3 19.7 4.4 2.2 22.9
High-lysine
Riso 7' 0.2 0.2 1.2 0.4 54.0 13.2 3.0 3.8 24.2
Riso 13' 0.2 0.4 4.2 1.6 25.0 15.0 5.8 3.4 44.4
Riso 29f 0.4 0.2 2.0 1.2 42.8 13.0 4.5 3.0 33.0
Riso 56f 0.4 0.4 2.0 0.2 53.9 15.4 2.9 3.2 21.7
Riso 861 0.3 0.5 3.5 1.0 40.0 15.9 4.1 2.9 31.9
Riso 1508' 0.2 0.2 3.1 1.0 50.1 13.9 4.4 3.9 24.7

°Hulless line from backcross of Sermo on Betzes.

bHulless line from backcross of Sermo on Compana.

`Hiltless, short-awn, waxy line from backcross of Waxy Oderbrucker on Nupana.

d Chemical-induced mutants of Washonupana.

"High-lysine mutants of Bomi.

tHigh-lysine mutants of Carlsberg II.

Source: Ref. 103.

dietary fibre vitamin E is found in the germ, and some biotin and fo-
lacin, but no carotene or vitamin A, BI2, or D are found in
non-starch polysaccharides resistant ungerminated grain [2,102].
lignin
(NSP) starch

F. Phenolic Compounds
cellulose non-cellulose
polysaccharides
In plants the phenolic compounds can be divided into ben-
zoic acids, cinnamic acids, terpenoids, and flavonoids
[109]. Barley contains a wide range of phenolic com-
pounds in one form or another ranging from free and com-
hemicelluloses gums and
(includes B-glucans)
pectins bined tyrosine, tyramine and derivatives, phenolic acids,
mucilages
esters and glycosides, and numerous other phenols through
lignans and substances related to lignans [2]. The antho-
FIGURE 21 Chemical composition of dietary fiber. The non-
cellulose polysaccharides (hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, and cyanidines have been of interest recently since proantho-
mucilages) tend to be water soluble. (From Ref. 104.) cyanidin-free barley used in brewing may prevent the for-
mation of chill haze in beer [110]. Phenolic compounds
may also inhibit nutrient utilization [101].
E. Vitamins
VI. PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION
Barley is an excellent source of the vitamins thiamine (B1),
pyridoxine (B6), riboflavin (B2), and pantothenic acid. It is Barley is used worldwide for animal feed, brewing, and
also quite high in niacin, but only 10% of the niacin is human food. In the United States the amount used for ani-
available to monogastric animals [102]. A small amount of mal feed fluctuates with the supply available, since other
TABLE 16 Contents of Dietary Fiber Polysaccharide Residues, Klason Lignin Cellulose, Enzyme-Resistant Starch, and Total and Unextractable13-Glucan
of Different Barley Genotypes (%, dry matter)
Uronic Klason Resistant Total f3- Unextractable Extractability
Genotype Arabinose Xylose Mannose Galactose Glucose acids lignin Cellulose starch glucan (3-glucan P-glucanb

Covered
High-amylopectin
starch, waxy 2.6 5.6 0.4 0.3 10.3 0.8 1.2 4.8 0.12 5.4 2.5 53.7
High protein,
normal starch 2.3 5.0 0.4 0.3 8.1 0.5 1.7 4.1 0.16 3.8 1.7 52.3
Low P-glucan 2.2 4.9 0.3 0.3 8.5 0.7 1.3 4.3 0.16 4.0 2.3 42.5
High (3-glucan 2.3 5.2 0.3 0.3 9.5 0.8 1.0 4.2 0.13 5.2 2.2 57.7
Normal starch 2.2 5.3 0.4 0.3 11.8 0.8 1.2 6.3 0.27 5.2 3.0 42.3
High-amylose starch 2.8 6.9 0.7 0.4 13.7 1.1 1.9 7.0 0.39 6.3 4.5 28.6
Naked
High-amylopectin
starch, waxy 2.2 3.0 0.4 0.4 7.6 0.7 0.9 1.7 0.10 5.8 2.6 55.2
High protein,
normal starch 3.1 4.0 0.4 0.4 11.0 0.6 0.6 5.0 0.13 5.9 1.8 69.0
Normal starch 2.1 3.1 0.4 0.3 7.7 0.6 0.7 2.7 0.15 4.9 2.4 51.0
High-amylose starch 2.5 3.9 0.6 0.3 10.6 0.7 0.7 2.3 0.39 7.9 5.0 36.7

aRhamnose and fucose content measured <0.1.

bTota113-glucan = unextractable (3-glucan content/total (3-glucan.

Source: Ref. 105.

Barley 109

TABLE 17 Protein and Amino Acid Content of TABLE 19 Minimum, Maximum, and Average Selected
Two-Rowed and Six-Rowed Montana Barley Grain' Nutrient Composition of Barley Grain Observed
at the Montana Station
Type (%)
Minimum Maxim
Item 2-rowed 6-rowed Item observed observed Average
Protein (N x 6.25) Protein (%) 9.9 24.1 12.8
Alanine 3.65 3.69 Crude fiber (%) 1.9 9.9 5.3
Arginine 4.83 5.16 Ether extract (%) 1.8 4.9 2.1
Aspartic acid 5.82 5.69 Lysine (%) 0.29 0.87 0.40
Cystine/2 2.17 2.53 Methionine (%) 0.11 0.36 0.21
Glutamic acid 27.02 26.23 Cystine (%) 0.20 0.43 0.26
Glycine 3.35 3.48 Threonine (%) 0.34 0.69 0.44
Histidine 2.37 2.32 Tryptophan (%) 0.14 0.49 0.23
Isoleucine 3.65 3.69 Phosphorus (%), 0.29 0.68 0.37
Leucine 6.90 7.06 Kernel weight (mg) 25 51 46
Lysine 3.35 3.58
Methionine 1.68 1.79 Source: Ref. 102.
Phenylalanine 5.23 5.27
Proline 12.03 11.59
Serine 4.54 4.64
Threonine 3.55 3.58
Tryptophan 1.97 1.90
Tyrosine 2.96 2.85 TABLE 20 Quantities (1.(g/g tissue) of Some Minerals
Valine 4.93 4.95 in Naked Himalaya Barley and Some Fractions Prepared
by Hand-Dissection
Weans represent eight samples of each row type and amino
acids are expressed as percent of protein. The two-rowed Hand-dissected
barley was Compana (C1 5438), and the six-rowed barley Element Whole kernels Germ endosperm
was Unitan (C110421). All barleys were grown at Bozeman,
MT, in the same year. P 5630 12,930 1120
Source: Ref. 102. K 5070 10,900 1440
Mg 1410 2,940 78
Ca 406 740 132
Na 254 58
Fe 36.7 56.5 10.0
Zn 23.6 71.3 4.7
Mn 18.9 69.4 10.0
Cu 15.1 3.5
Al 4.9 26.5 tr
TABLE 18 Productivity and Seed Composition of Mutant No. Mo 1.35 2.32 0.41
1508 and the Parent Variety Bomi
tr = Trace quantity detected.
Mutant Relative value Source: Ref. 2.
Bomi No. 1508 of mutant
Lysine content
(g/16 g N) 3.75 5.20 139
Lysine yield (g/plot) 10.4 13.7 132
Protein content feeds can be substituted if the supply is short and the price
(6.25 x N%) 9.7 11.0 113 high (Fig. 22). Malting barley demand is relatively in-
Protein yield flexible from year to year since substitution by other crops
(g/plot) 278 263 95 is very limited. The use of barley for animal feed was
Seed size (mg) 40.8 37.5 92 slightly higher than the nonfeed uses (malting, seed, and
Number of seeds/ other uses) in 1987 and 1988. The supply decreased drasti-
plot x 10-3 70.7 63.4 90
cally in these 2 years because of increased exports in 1986
Grain yield (kg/plot) 2.88 2.38 83
and 1987 and greatly decreased production in 1988 (Fig.
Source: Ref. 106. 22).
110
Million Metric Tons
25
20
15
10
FEED
• • • . EXPORTS
I I -T" -7" r
0
1972 1974 1976 1978 1980
FIGURE 22 Supply and disposition of barley in the United States, 1972-1988: (a) supply includes beginning stocks, production and
imports; (b) 1988 values are projected. (1972-1985 data from Agricultural Statistics 1987, USDA; 1986-1988 data from Barley Bulletin,
N.D. Barley Council, August 1988.)
A. Feed and Food Barley
1. Animal
(a) Grain. Barley nutritional quality refers to relative
merit in providing essential total nutrients biologically bal-
anced and available to humans and other animals. Payment
to farmers is on the basis of quantity of feed barley, not
feed quality, produced, so breeders have concentrated on
yield and malting quality. Hockett and White [111] found
that the best malting cultivars have the highest feed value.
Barley is high in starch and sugars, low in fat, and relative-
ly poor in protein [2,101,102].
Analysis of hulled and hulless barleys and brewing by-
products, which are fed to animals, are shown in Table 21.
The barley fiber is of little or no value for nonruminant an-
imals, and the water-soluble mixed linked 13-glucans may
cause digestive problems in poultry [101,102]. When bar-
ley grain is fed to swine, grinding, pelleting, cubing,
rolling, and micronizing improves feed value. Pigs fed
high-lysine barleys showed improved growth rate and in-
creased biological value of the barley. Removal of hull ge-
netically improved feed value of barley in most pig-feed-
ing trials [102]. Numerous reports show beneficial effects
of feeding brewers' dried grains to pigs, but the reasons for
this improvement are not clear. The nutritional value of
new high-lysine barley cultivars is greatly enhanced be-
}Lockett
N
lb)
1982 1984 1986 1988
cause of increased availability of indispensable amino
acids for monogastric animals [112].
A recent review [113] of feeding barley to poultry gives
the chemical composition of barley, lists the antinutritive
substances (tannins, pentosans, and [3-glucans), shows the
metabolizable energy of barley, and lists methods of barley
treatment for improvement of feed value to poultry.
Barley fed to poultry in combination with corn im-
proved egg production and feed efficiency compared to ei-
ther fed alone [102]. Although barley has a higher protein
content and a better balance of amino acids than corn, its
commercial use in feeding poultry is restricted because of
its lower productive energy and the sticky wet droppings
that create sanitation problems. Supplementing barley with
various enzyme preparations such as f3-glucanase im-
proved feed consumption, weight gain, feed efficiency, and
cage cleanliness of chickens [2,102,113].
In the western, northwestern, and northern Great Plains
of the United States, barley is a major energy source and
major cereal grain of feedlots and dairy diets. When it is
processed properly to obtain its maximum feeding value, it
is equal to maize in feed value for ruminants [102]. Cattle
tend to bloat more and tire more quickly of barley than oth-
er cereal grains, but less roughage and protein supplemen-
tation is required because of the high-fiber and high-pro-
tein content of barley. Bowman and Blake [114] found in
Barley 111

TABLE 21 Proximate Analyses of Some North American Barleys and Other Materials Used in Animal Feeds
Moisture Protein N-free extract
Product (%) (%) Fat (%) Fiber (%) (%)a Ash (%)
Barley, lightweight 10.2 12.3 2.3 8.5 63.7 3.0
Barley, hullers or bald 9.8 11.6 2.0 2.4 72.1 2.1
Barley, bran, nearly all hulls 8.1 5.9 1.3 26.4 51.8 6.4
Barley feed, low grade 9.9 12.3 3.5 14.7 56.2 5.3
Barley feed, high grade 8.0 13.2 3.5 8.4 61.0 4.0
Barley malt 6.6 12.7 2.1 5.4 70.9 2.3
Barley screenings 11.4 11.5 2.8 9.5 60.6 4.2
Brewers' grains, dried, 25% protein or over 7.4 26.6 6.8 14.6 41.0 3.6
Brewers' grains, dried, 23-25% protein 6.1 23.8 6.5 14.9 44.9 3.8
Brewers' grains, dried, below 23% protein 7.0 21.6 6.2 16.1 45.2 3.9
Brewers' grains, dried, from Californian barley 8.9 20.0 5.7 18.1 43.6 3.7
'Principally starch and free sugars, but includes part of the total or dietary fiber.
Source: Ref. 2.

studies with beef cattle that improved feeding performance 2. Human

is obtained with barley with high rates of digestion, high
starch content, and high rate of intake. They are using QTL
for increased barley digestibility and processing character-
istics to allow marker assisted selection in barley. Test
weight is not a good indication of feed quality [114,115],
but starch and (or) fiber content may be more reliable. Im-
proper processing of barley may negate potential improve-
ments expected from higher-quality barley [115].
(b) Hay, Silage, and Straw. Barley hay should be cut
when the nutritive value is suitable and yield is high. If
harvested in the milk to soft dough stage and promptly
dried, this objective can be reached (Table 22). If awned
barleys are harvested too late, the awns may damage ani-
mals' eyes, mouths, and gut linings [2,102].
If barley is ensiled it should contain more than 30%
dry matter and enough carbohydrates to support adequate
lactic fermentation (at early dough stage) [2] (Tables 22,
23). Consistent differences have not been found in feed
values of barley, wheat, and oat silage, but all are inferior
to maize silage for beef and dairy cattle [102]. Barley
straw is a useful roughage, which can provide significant
energy to ruminants [2,102]. Cultivar differences in straw
feeding value have been found. Barley straw has a low
protein content, low digestibility, and low energy value
(Table 24), but chopping and grinding the straw increases
its value. The digestibility of straw can be significantly in-
creased by treatment with dilute solutions of NaOH
[2,118,119] (Table 24). Proper treatment of straw with
ammonia is more convenient than using NaOH and im-
proves digestibility, energy value, protein, and intake
[118].
In the last century barley has been used less for food than
has wheat because of lesser palatability, baking quality,
and milling characteristics. From the nutritional point of
view, barley is equal to or better than wheat [99]. Barley is
eaten as popped barley, barley flakes, sprouts, barley starch
and sweeteners, barley malt flour supplements, malted
milk, infant food syrups, barley tea or coffee substitute,
and rice extender [102]. After Riso 1508 barley is steamed,
milled, and supplemented with vitamins and minerals, it
will produce an infant baby food where all the protein and
carbohydrates come from barley. This infant food would
be equal to presently produced commercial baby foods
marketed in developing countries at a far lower cost [99].
The [3-glucan content of barley is of great interest to the
chicken feed industry as well as from a human nutrition
point of view. The [3-glucans of barley, barley oil, and pos-
sibly other barley components will lower blood cholesterol
levels in chickens, rats, and swine [2,101,102,120] and in
humans (Table 25). Barley cultivars differ inI3-glucan con-
tent, which can be estimated by viscosity measurement
(Table 26). Soluble dietary fiber (relatively high in barley)
may have a significant effect on human health and nutri-
tion. Increased amounts of dietary fiber have been shown
to help in controlling diabetes, hyperlipidemia, obesity, hy-
pertension, coronary heart disease, and gastrointestinal
disorders such as hiatus hernia, gallstones, appendicitis, di-
verticular disease of colon, bowel polyps and colorectal
cancer, and hemorrhoids [122-125].
Recent studies with rats indicate that phytate or fiber
contents of cereal grains may affect the uptake of iron,
zinc, and cadmium [126]. The diets used in this study are
TABLE 22 Analyses of Horsford Barley (covered, hooded, six-rowed) Cut at Different States of Maturity to Leave Approximately 11 cm of Stubble

Composition on a water-free basis

Date Crude Crude Nitrogen- Fraction

harvested Height Age Water Ash protein fiber free extracta Fat Calcium Phosphorus of whole
(1933) (in.) Stage (days) (%) (%) (N x 6.25, %) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) plant (%)

14 June 16 55 84.3 9.7 17.0 20.2 48.3 4.8 0.33 0.46

21 June 26 Bloom on some heads 62 82.4 8.0 17.0 22.8 48.6 3.7 0.37 0.35
28 June 35 Full bloom 69 79.5 7.2 9.9 28.4 52.2 2.3 0.24 0.25
5 July 42-43 Kernels wafer stage 76 74.7 6.9 9.2 27.8 53.9 2.3 0.24 0.25
8 July Milk 79 15.76 7.8 8.4 32.3 49.6 1.9 0.26 0.31
14 July Medium dough 85 14.2" 7.2 8.0 24.2 58.4 2.3 0.19 0.29
26 July Dead ripe 97 15.0b 7.5 7.3 19.3 64.4 1.5 0.14 0.30
Whole Plants
Milk 7.0 10.2 29.8 50.9 2.1 0.26 0.30 100
Dough 7.1 8.2 22.6 60.0 2.0 0.18 0.29 100
Ripe 7.5 7.0 18.6 65.3 1.7 0.14 0.29 100
Leaves
Milk 14.0 8.1 28.8 45.1 3.9 0.47 0.31 22.8
Dough 16.8 10.1 26.6 42.7 3.9 0.44 0.29 20.7
Ripe 15.0 8.2 29.8 43.0 4.0 0.51 0.27 20.9
Stems
Milk 3.7 3.8 38.9 52.4 1.2 0.12 0.19 36.8
Dough 4.2 3.1 36.5 55.1 1.2 0.11 0.15 30.2
Ripe 6.1 2.2 47.9 43.1 0.84 0.06 0.07 15.2
Heads
Milk 6.3 13.1 17.1 61.7 1.7 0.11 0.42 40.4
Dough 5.6 10.2 11.8 70.9 1.5 0.10 0.35 49.3
Ripe 4.8 9.0 8.8 76.1 1.4 0.09 0.39 63.9

°Principally starch and free sugars, but includes part of the total dietary fiber.
bSamples dried.
Source: Refs. 2 and 116.
Barley 113

TABLE 23 Composition of Whole Barley and Silage Biotechnology advances with brewer's yeast allow
(% of dry matter)" them to ferment normally unfermentable carbohydrates,
Item Barley Silage chill proof beer, or degrade [3-glucans [133]. Yeasts have
also been developed that produce less diacel, have altered
Dry matter 32.4 32.4 flocculation properties, or are resistant to contamination.
Ash 12.8 15.3 McElroy and Jacobsen [134] argue that we may now con-
Inorganic matter 87.2 84.7 sider improving barley for use in malting and brewing
Crude protein 6.3 6.4 through biotechnology (Fig. 23). QTL are being used in
Ether extract 1.3 1.5
breeding programs in Scotland to select for malt extract,
Crude fiber 24.3 24.8
Total N 1.0 1.0 milling energy, extract viscosity, and grain nitrogen [135].
Protein N 0.77 0.39 2. Malting Cultivars
Nonprotein N 0.24 0.63
The spring barley cultivars are concentrated in the states
Volatile N 0.07
Water-soluble carbohydrates 25.3 11.7 shown in Table 30. Minnesota, North Dakota, Wyoming,
Cellulose 25.6 24.6 and Colorado all have more than 65% of their acreage
Lignin 6.0 6.2 planted to malting cultivars. The barley breeder's require-
Acetic acid 1.6 ments for acceptable malting barley cultivars are shown in
Propionic acid 0.16 Table 31, and the composition of the six- and two-rowed
Butyric acid standards in Table 32. Cultivars for breeding programs are
Succinic acid 0.09 evaluated by micro malting (20-100 g), pilot scale tests
Lactic acid 3.4 (25-36 kg), and commercial plant scale tests (>45 t
Ethanol 0.53 amounts) [128]. Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
pH 5.8 3.9 shows promise in separating poor malting lines from good
'Plants of Ymer barley (1049 kg) cut at early milk-ripe stage and en- lines [128]. Modern malting barley is subject to more qual-
siled in small towers. No effluent was produced. ity requirements than any other crop and is the only grain
Source: Refs. 2 and 117. crop sold on the basis of a specific cultivar (see Chapter 22).
In a study on improvement of malt quality over time with
similar to baby formula and breakfast cereals, porridge, or six-rowed North American barley cultivars, the greatest ad-
a sandwich with milk, which suggests that similar studies vances were made in kernel plumpness, malt extract, wort
should be carried out with humans. protein, a-amylase activity, and diastatic power [136].

B. Malting Barley
1. Uses
Barley is used in preference to wheat and rye for malting
because of the cemented lemma and palea, which protects
the acrospire during germination, serves as an aid for filter-
ing during brewing, and produces a firmer kernel at the
high moisture content required in steeping and malting
[127,128]. Although 251 breweries operated in the United
States in 1996, the top six companies sold 98.6% of the
beer [129] (Table 27). Most of these breweries are "craft"
or local companies and sell as little as 300 barrels per year
[129]. Total malt utilization has almost doubled from 1959
to 1986, while malt used per barrel has decreased (Table
28). In addition to brewing beer, the remaining 5% of bar-
ley malt is used in the United States for baking, malt ex-
tracts (powders and syrups), diastase (energy rich powder),
whisky, gin, vodka, alcohol, and malt vinegar [2]. Barley
syrups and malt extracts, which are variable in composi-
tion (Table 29), are prepared by concentrating worts by
evaporation [2].
C. Marketing
1. Classification and Prices Received
The classes and subclasses of barley are shown in Table
33. Further details of the U.S. market classes of barley can
be found in Wilson [137]. Malting barley is usually pur-
chased on the basis of samples drawn from rail cars loaded
at country elevators and sold directly to the maltster as
consigned by a commission firm or sometimes directly to
the maltster by farmer contract. A futures market now ex-
ists for barley, and the regional markets are located in Min-
neapolis, Portland, Stockton, Los Angles, and Duluth
[137]. Acceptable malting barley lots command a higher
price than feed barley (Fig. 24). The U.S. brewers demands
are mostly for six-rowed barley, except for Coors, who use
100% two-rowed barley [138].
2. Storage
Most barley in the United States is harvested directly or
from the swath by combining. Malting samples are binned
separately by the farmer, country or regional elevator, and
the maltster. Some of the stored grain insects and their de-
114
scriptions are shown in Table 34. Current recommenda-
tions in local areas should be consulted for control of stor-
age pests.
3. Exports
In some years barley exports from the United States are
low (Fig. 22), but in other years they are quite significant.
Hockett
World price, world production, and political considera-
tions, such as export subsidies, largely determine the
amount of barley exported. Tables 35 and 36 show export
figures for barley and malt, respectively. Global markets
for malt and malting barley were reviewed recently by
Brophy [139] and Satyanarayana et al. [140].
TABLE 24 Chemical Composition (A) and Digestibility (B) of Barley Straw Treated in Various Ways and Used in Feeding Trialsa

Neutral- Acid- Gross

Crude ash detergent detergent Acid-detergent Lignin Cellulose energy
A. Treatment (% DM) protein (% DM) fiber (% OM) fiber (% OM) (% OM) (% OM) (Mcal/kg)
(C) Chopped 6.1 5.0 85.6 57.5 7.4 46.0 4.23
(M) Milled 6.1 5.0 85.6 57.5 7.4 46.0 4.23
(CIL) Chopped, 1.5% NaOH 4.4 3.2 89.7 66.9 8.3 58.5 4.36
(CIH) Chopped, 3.0% NaOH 3.0 2.4 93.4 74.7 8.2 63.7 4.40
(CS) Chopped, sprayed 14.8 5.3 70.0 53.4 6.6 41.1 4.10
(MS) Milled, sprayed 14.8 5.3 70.0 53-4 6.6 41.1 4.10
Treatments
S.E. of
B. C M CIL CIH CS MS differences
Digestibility (%)
Organic matter 45.5 44.9 71.1 69.9 60.8 63.5 ±2.89
Energy 40.4 39.1 65.0 34.4 57.3 60.2 ±3.23
Energy as straw 40.4 39.1 65.0 34.4 53.2 56.5
Acid-detergent fiber 49.4 47.9 71.9 73.6 59.0 62.9
Cellulose 58.4 57.1 81.5 81.6 73.1 73.8
Intake (per day)
Dry matter (g) 501 696 742 869 950 1048 ±90
Organic matter (g) 471 654 704 841 809 893 ±78
Digestible organic matter (g) 218 494 587 492 568 ±54
Gross energy (Mcal) 2.13 2.94 3.21 3.82 3.90 4.30 ±54
Energy as straw (Mcal) 2.13 2.94 3.21 3.82 3.56 3.94
Intake (per kg W per day)
Dry matter (g) 26.7 36.2 37.1 44.2 48.4 53.6 ±4.2
Digestible energy (kcal) 46 60 105 125 132
114
'The treatments were: C-straw was chopped; M-straw was milled; CIL-chopped straw was soaked in 1.5% NaOH, then washed; dry weight loss 28%; CIH-chopped straw was
soaked in 3% NaOH, then washed; dry weight loss 32%; CS-chopped straw sprayed with 16% NaOH, neutralized with propionic acid before feeding; MS-milled strewed treated as
CS; DM-dry matter; OM-organic matter.
Source: Refs. 2 and 119.
116 Hockett

TABLE 25 Barley Studies Showing Evidence of Plasma Cholesterol Lowering

Cholesterol
Species reduction (%) Comment Authors'
Chickens 23 Spent brewers' grain Benger et al., Atherosclerosis, 51:75-87 (1984).
Chickens 35 Spent brewers' grain Qurshi et al., Biol. Chem., 23:10544-10550 (1986).
Chickens 13 Waxy, hulless barley Fadel et al., Nutr. Rep. Int., 35:1049-1058 (1987).
Rats 19 7% P-Glucan for barley Klopfenstin and Hoseney, Nutr. Rep. Int., 36:1091-1098 (1987).
Chickens 25 Waxy, hull-less barley Newman et al., Nutr. Rep. Int., 36:693-699 (1987).
Rats 14 Barley vs. wheat McIntosh and Russell, Royal Aust. Chem. Inst.: 49-54 (1988).
Humans 3 Barley vs. wheat Newman et al., Nutr. Rep. Int., 39:749 (1989).
Humans 5 Barley and oats Newman et al., Cereal Foods World, 34:883-886 (1989).
Rats 30 3% 13-Glucan from barley McIntosh and Oakenfull, Chem. Aust., 57:294-296 (1990).
Humans 6 Barley vs. wheat McIntosh et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr , 53:1205-1209 (1991).
Rats 52 Barley vs. wheat Oakenfull et al., Proc. Cereals Int. Conf.: 344-349 (1991).
Rats 41 Compared to oat bran Ranhorta et al., Cereal Chem., 68:548-551 (1991).
Mice 5 Barley bran Hundemer et al., J. Nutr, 121:1360-1365 (1991).
Chickens 32 Ground barley Newman et al., Cereal Chem., 69:240-244 (1992).
Rats 19 Ground barley Newman et al., Cereal Chem., 69:240-244 (1992).
Chickens 53 Various dietary fats Martinez et al., J. Nutr., 122:1070-1076 (1992).
Chickens 21 Waxy, hulless barley Wang et al., J. Nutr. 122:2292-2297 (1992).
Hamsters 11 Whole barley Kahlon et al., Cereal Chem., 70:435-440 (1993).
Rats 15 Barley vs. wheat McIntosh et al., Nutr. Cancer., 19:213-221 (1993).
Humans 8 Barley bran flour Lupton et al., J. Am. Diet. Assn.: 94:65-70 (1994).

'First 11 listings from Ref. 120. Last 9 listings as shown in table.

TABLE 26 Cultivar Means for P-Glucan and TABLE 27 Beer Sales by U.S. Breweries
Brookfield Viscosity in 1983'
Million barrels'
Brookfield viscosity 10-year gain
Identification P-Glucan (%) centipoise units Company 1986 1996 or loss (%)

Opaque Glenn 3.7 a 153 a Anheuser-Busch, Inc. 72.3 91.1 26.0

Glenn 5.2 b 262 b Miller Brewing Co. 38.7 43.8 13.2
Karla 5.2 b 274 bc The Stroh Brewery Co. 22.8 23.0 0.9
Robust 5.2 b 285 bcd Adolph Coors Co. 15.2 20.0 31.5
Triumph 5.2 b 288 bcd Pabst Brewing Co. 7.2 5.7 -20.6
Gallatin 5.2 b 301 bcde Others 22.3 2.7 -88.0
Morex 5.3 b 291 bcd Total sales 181.5 186.3 2.7
Hector 5.7 b 328 bcdef
'119 million liters.
Clark 5.8 b 326 bcdef Source: Refs. 129 and 130.
Steptoe 6.0 be 399 f
Lewis 6.1 bc 341 bcdef
Harrington 6.2 be 337 bcdef
Klages 6.2 bc 360 cdef
Short Betzes 7.0 c 490 g

'Means from eight locations in Montana followed by the same letter

are not significantly different at p = 0.05 by Newman-Keuls sequen-
tial studentized range test.
Source: Ref. 121.
Barley 117

TABLE 28 Malt Utilization and Barrels of Beer

in U.S. Brewing Industry, 1959-1987
Total Barrels Malt/
utilization of beer Barrel
Year (1000 t) (million) (kg/h1)
1959 1186 91.0 11.2
1963 1246 98.0 10.9
1967 1485 116.6 10.9
1971 1670 134.1 10.6
1975 1918 157.9 10.4
1979 2220 183.5 10.3
1983 2190 195.7 9.7
1986 2156 194.0 9.5
Source: Brewers Almanac 1987, U.S. Brewers Association.

TABLE 29 Levels of the Main Carbohydrates Found in Commercial Syrups Compared with Wort from an All-Malt Masha
Carbohydrates Barley syrup Green malt syrup Malt extract All malt brewing wort
Glucose (G) and Fructose (F) 7-27 5.6-7.5 12.5-33.5 8-12 (G, 8-11; F, 1-4)
Sucrose 0-5.5 4.6-7.7 0-3.8 1-5
Maltose 46-60 48.4-55.1 18.1-54.0 42-50
Maltotriose 7.5-17.3 8.9-18.5 5.8-9.3 13-16
Dextrins 5.1-27 22.6-23.1 20.7-39.4 21-30
Total N (%) 0.62-0.80 0.6-0.70 0.7-1 (80-95 mg/100 mg)
'Carbohydrates expressed as % total carbohydrates. Nitrogen expressed as % syrup solids, except for wort.
Source: Refs. 2, 131, and 132.
118 Hockett

Steeping—initiation of cell metabolism and Modifying seed metabolism to ensure a rapid loss of dormancy prior to malting
induction of endosperm hydration

Germination—growth phase following Developing genetic "switches" to ensure uniform, rapid, and complete germination in the malt
house
steeping to produce "malt"

Kilning—interruption of growth and metabo-

Ensuring retention of high levels of (1-3,1-4)-8-glucanase, diastatic, protease, and other malt
lism, development of malt color and flavor, enzymes
and reduction of malt moisture

Malt Aging—slow diffusive balancing of ker-

nel moisture

BREWING
Mashing—conversion of malt components
and adjunct materials into a fermentable sub-
strate. The "mash" is carried through a se-
ries of controlled temperature rises in order
to promote starch gelatinization and hydroly-
sis of starch to sugars and proteins to amino
acids by malt enzymes
Modifying seed starch structure and composition to increase starch deposition and maximize
starch hydrolysis
Increasing diastatic activity (a-amylase, 3-amylase, a-glucosidase, and limit dextrinase) to
guarantee adequate endosperm conversion
Developing novel market opportunities by modifying seed enzymology, e.g., introducing
glucoamylase genes for increased dextrin conversion and reduced beer calorie content

Lautering and Wort Boiling—settlement Reducing wort viscosity and improving beer filtration by lowering f3-glucan content through the
and filtration of the mash through its own in- germination-specific over-expression of (thermostable) 3-glUcanase genes
soluble components. The emerging "wort" is Utilization of antisense or co-expression technologies to lower the potential for the formation of
then boiled (with hops) to: extract hop com- "off" flavors from dimethyl sulphide and the products of lipoxygenase action
ponents; improve flavor; inactivate any re-
maining enzymes; and sterilize prior to fer-
mentation

Fermentation—consumption of fermentable Increasing glucose availability (and thus wort fermentability) by the genetic modification of limit
sugars by yeast resulting in the production dextrinase expression
of alcohol

Aging—completion of fermentation and fla- Developing proanthocyanidin-free barley to reduce haze formation
vor maturation

FIGURE 23 Opportunities for biotechnology in barley malting and brewing. (From Ref. 134.)

TABLE 30 Spring Barley Planted in the United States

Seeded area (1000 ha) Malting barley (%)

State 1987 1996 1987 1996

North Dakota 1220 1072 79.7 91.3
Montana 930 526 37.8 50.0
Idaho 340 303 31.9 56.2
Minnesota 490 223 96.0 98.5
Washington 270 182 6.4 14.8
South Dakota 340 65 68.2 51.9
Oregon 110 65 4.6 14.0
Wyoming 60 51 66.8 78.0
Colorado 90 40 37.1 68.0

Source: American Malting Barley Association Inc., Gleanings, 1988

and 1997, for 1987 and 1996 statistics, respectively.
Barley 119

TABLE 31 Recommended Values for Acceptable Malting Barley in United States

Valuesa

Factor Six-rowed Two-rowed

Barley factors
Kernel shape Ellipsoidal, axial ratio 2.0-2.5 to 1.
Kernel size:
On 2.78 mm (7/64") screen No minimum 60% minimum
On 2.38 mm (6/64") screen 70% minimum 85% minimum
Through 1.98 mm (5/64") screen Less than 3% Less than 3%
Protein Less than 14.0% Less than 13.5%
Germination Uniform, rapid germination of at least 96%.
Barley should mature rapidly and break
dormancy quickly.
Skinned and broken Less than 10%
Hull characteristics Should be thin, bright, and adhere tightly to
kernel during harvesting, cleaning, and malting.
Malt factors'
Overall modification Satisfactory modification should be obtained
with a 4-day germination cycle.
Total protein (d.b) Less than 14.0% Less than 13.5%
Soluble protein (d.b.) 6.0% 6.0%
Soluble/Total Protein (d.b.) 40-46%
Extract (fine grind d.b.) Equal to or greater than standard cultivar.
Fine-Coarse difference Less than 2.0%
Diastatic power Equal to the standard cultivar.
Alpha Amylase Equal to the standard cultivar.
Wort viscosity Equal to or less than standard cultivar.
Wort turbidity Equal to or less than standard cultivar.

aCultivar standards: Morex (six-rowed); Harrington (two-rowed).

b2.78 x 19 mm (7/64 x 3.4 in.) openings.
c(ASBC) procedures or their equivalent.
Source: American Malting Barley Association, 1997.
120 Hockett

TABLE 32 Composition of American Malts' TABLE 33 Classes and Subclasses of Barley

Barley typeb Barley' class/subclass Characteristics

Morex Harrington Six-rowed barley <10% two-row barley

Six-rowed malting <90% kernels with white
Barley barley aleurone layers
Protein (%) 14.9 14.5 Six-rowed blue malt >90% kernels with blue aleurone
Kernel weight (mg) 34.9 39.9 barley layers
Plump (% on 0.24 mm screen) 78.6 82.8 Six-rowed barley Does not meet previous classes
Color (agtron) 69 67 Two-rowed barley <10% six-row barley
Malt Two-rowed malting
Extract (%) 77.3 78.2 barley >95% suitable malting types
Extract difference (F-C) (%) 2.0 2.4 Two-rowed barley >90% two-row barley not
Wort color score 1.7 1.4 meeting class above
Wort protein (%) 4.83 4.40 Barley not meeting requirements
Barley
Protein ratio: soluble as % of total 33.2 31.1 for six-row or two-row barley,
Diastatic power (deg.) 150 124 or with >10% black barley
a-Amylase (20° dextrinizing units) 45.0 48.0
fl-Glucan 598 602 a50% or more whole kernels of cultivated barley and less than 25% other
grains.
aAnalyzed by American Society of Brewing Chemists methods. Data Source: Ref. 85.
from 1996 Western Regional Spring Barley Nursery, average of six loca-
tions, courtesy USDA-ARS, Cereal Crops Research Unit, Madison, WI,
June 1997.
bMorex is a six-rowed barley, and Harrington is a two-rowed barley.

150

100

$/mt

50

0
79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
Year

FIGURE 24 Average annual malting and feed barley prices at farms in 1979-1992. (—), Malting; (— — —), feed. (From American
Malting Barley Assoc., Inc.)
TABLE 34 Appearance, Temperature, and Humidity Requirements of Some Common Pests of Stored Grain

Optimum Minimum Rate of

Length and temp. temp. Minimum increase in
Pest appearance (°C) (°C) r.h.(%)a 4 weeksb Comments

Granary weevil (Sitophilus 1.5-3.5 mm, dark brown, black 26-30 15 50 15 Over 35°C life cycle not
granarius) completed, adults cannot fly
Rice weevil (Sirophilus 3.S mm, dark; reddish spots on 27-31 17 60 25 Adults can fly
oryzae) wing-cases
Lesser grain borer 2.5-3 mm, dark brown, black, 32-35 23 30 20 At 27°C the period from egg to
(Rhizopertha dominica) cylindrical, head turned down adult is about 1 month
under thorax
Rusty grain beetle 1.6 mm, flattened, reddish- 32-35 23 10 60 Adult can fly
(Cryptolestes ferrugineus) brown
Red flour beetle (Tribolium 4 mm, reddish-brown, similar in 32-35 22 1 70 Adults fly
casrancrum) appearance to T confusum
Confused flour beetle 4 mm, reddish-brown, shiny 30-33 21 1 60 Adult does not fly, most abundant
(Tribolium confusum) somewhat flattened pest in U.S. flour mills
Saw-toothed grain beetle 2.5-3 mm, dark red-brown 31-34 21 10 50 Common pest in grain bins
(Oryzaephlus surinamensis) narrow, flattened; edges of elevators, mills, etc.; feeds on
thorax saw-toothed broken kernels and grain
residue
Khapra beetle (Trogoderma Adult 2-2.5 mm, light brown; 33-37 24 1 12.5 Easily seen, adults do not fly
grananium) larva 3.5 mm, hairy
Angoumois grain moth 10-14 mm, buff-colored, stored 26-30 16 30 50 Injurious in southern U.S. where it
(Sitotroga cerealella) grain moths attacks grain in fields as well as
in storage
Australian spider beetle About 2.5 mm, dark brown, 23-25 10 50 4 Nocturnal, rarely shows up in
(Ptinus tectus) globular economic numbers in U.S.
Flour mite (Acarus siro) 0.4-0.5 mm, whitish globular, 21-27 7 65 2500 Taints infested grain, highly
eight brown legs; no division allergenic
between head and body

ar.h. = required humidity.

bThe rate of increase in 4 weeks is for favorable conditions. Life cycles vary greatly in length according to the ambient conditions.
Source: Refs. 2 and G. D. Johnson, Dept. of Entymology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.
122 Hockett

TABLE 35 United States Barley Exports (1000 mt) 8. Zohary, D., and Hopf, M., Domestication of Plants in the
by Leading Destinations, June-May, 1989/90 to 1995/96 Old World, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1988.
9. Wiebe, G. A., Introduction, in Barley, USDA Agricultural
Country/Region 1989/90 1992/93 1995/96 Handbook 338, Washington, D.C., 1979, pp. 2-9.
10. Poehlman, J. M., Adaptation and Distribution, in Barley,
Japan 104 50 522
ASA Monogr.26 (D.C. Rasmusson, ed.), American Soci-
Saudi Arabia 532 579 373
ety of Agronom Madison, WI, 1985, pp. 1-17.
Mexico 149 82 190
11. Wiebe, G. A., and Reid, D. A., Classification of barley vari-
Israel 147 263 42
eties grown in the United States and Canada in 1958, USDA
Algeria 124 115 0
Tech. Bull., No. 1224, Washington, D.C., 1961, p. 10.
Others 774 659 220
12. Smith, L., Cytology and genetics of barley, Bot. Rev.,
Total 1830 1748 1347
17:1-51,133-202, 285-355 (1951).
Source: Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. 13. Nilan, R. A., The cytology and genetics of barley,
1951-1962. Monog. Suppl. 3, Res. Stud., Vol. 32, No. 1,
Washington State University Press, Pullman, WA, 1964.
TABLE 36 U.S. Malt Exports (mt) by Leading Destinations, 14. Wiebe, G. A., Genetics in Barley, USDA Agricultural
1992, 1994, and 1996a Handbook 338, Washington, D.C., 1979, pp. 128-135.
15. Hockett, E. A., and Nilan, R. A., Genetics, in Barley, ASA
Country/Region 1992 1994 1996 Monog. 26 (D. C. Rasmusson, ed.), American Society of
Agronomy, Madison, WI, 1985, pp. 187-230.
Canada 316 8,082 1,487
16. Tsuchiya, T., Gene analysis and linkage studies in barley,
Mexico 55,407 27,616 37,784
Proc. 5th Int. Barley Genet. Symp. Okayama, Japan, 1987,
Central America 1,867 5,843 3,356
pp. 175-187.
West Indies 18,082 22,905 6,458
17. Tsuchiya, T., Barley Genet. Newsl., 16:81-121 (1986).
South America 11,013 7,418 8,065
18. Sogaard, R., and von Wettstein-Knowles, P., Carlsberg
United Kingdom 20,814 19,278 1,282
Res. Commun., 52:123-196 (1987).
Western Europe 0 283 336
19. von Wettstein-Knowles, P., Cloned and mapped genes:
Philippines 1,480 5,437 13,433
current status, in Barley: Genetics, Biochemistry, in Mole-
Japan 16,529 19,105 33,949
cular Biology and Biotechnology (P. R. Shewry, ed.), CAB
Other Asia 1,640 3,495 2,217
Int., Wallingford, UK, 1992, pp. 73-98.
Republic of South Africa 0 0 18,083
20. T. Tsuchiya, Barley Genet. Newsl., 16:40-43 (1986).
Other Countries 5 81 211
21. E. L. Sharp, Breeding for pest resistance, in Barley, ASA
World Total 127,153 119,544 126,661
Mono. 26 (D. C. Rasmusson, ed.), American Society of
alncludes both not roasted and roasted malt. Agronomy, Madison, WI, 1985, pp. 313-333.
Source: National Trade Data Bank and Economic Bulletin Board, Prod- 22. Laurie, D. A., Snape, J. W., and Gale, M. D., DNA Marker
ucts of STAT-USA, U.S. Department of Commerce. techniques for genetic analysis, in Barley: Genetics, Bio-
chemistry, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (P. R.
Shewry, ed.), CAB Int., Wallingford, UK, 1992, pp.
115-132.
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4
OATS
Michael S. McMullen
North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota
I. HISTORY
A. Origin of Cultivated Oats
A probable chain of events that led to the development of
modern cultivated oats was developed by Coffman [1].
The exact sequence of events that resulted in development
of cultivated oats will likely remain a mystery. The Asia
Minor region is generally accepted as the place of origin of
the wild hexaploid oat species, Avena sterilis L. and A. fat-
ua L., which are believed to be the progenitors of cultivat-
ed oats [1-4]. Early investigators [5] assumed that A. fatua
was the wild progenitor of cultivated hexaploid oats. Coff-
man [3] presented evidence suggesting that A. sterilis is
more likely to be the true progenitor. The issue still re-
mains the subject of conjecture, and Ladizinsky [6] sug-
gested that cultivated hexaploid oats originated as a sec-
ondary crop from the weedy form of A. fatua during the
late Bronze and Iron Ages in central and western Europe.
Vavilov [7] suggested that oat culture expanded to the
north from its Asia Minor center of origin as a weed ad-
mixture in cultivated emmer (Triticum dicoccum Schlub.)
and einkorn (T monococcum L.), which are less adapted to
northern latitudes than oats and died out while oats thrived
in the new environment. According to Coffman [8], Slays
and Scythians, warlike horsemen from the region of the
Black Sea in central Asia, migrated over vast regions prior
to A.D. 450, probably carrying with them cereal grain con-
sisting mainly of barley, emmer, and spelt with oats pres-
ent as weed-like mixtures. The oats in this mixture were
assumed to be of A. byzantina C. Koch derivation similar
to A. sativa L. A. sativa types were probably better adapted
to cooler northern climates and favored by natural selec-
127
tion, resulting in A. sativa becoming the most widely culti-
vated oat type in northern Europe.
B. Expansion of Oat Cultivation
By the beginning of the seventh century oats were exten-
sively established in western Europe as a grain and forage
crop and by 1024 oats had become an important crop in the
British Isles [1]. During the period of 1000-1500 a new
system of agriculture evolved in northern Europe that in-
cluded oats as an important component of crop rotations
and contributed to utilization of the horse as a source of
power, allowing more efficient farming and transportation
[9,10]. The use of oats for feed to provide horsepower was
established and greatly influenced increased culture of oats
during the period when horsepower was important and
contributed to decreased oat culture during the period of
decreased dependence on horses for power.
Oat cultivation probably developed simultaneously in
other regions of the world. Ancient Chinese historical
records indicate that naked-seeded oats were grown in
China prior to A.D. 1000 [1,11]. Harlan [12] observed wild
oats tolerated as mixtures in wheat and barley fields in
Ethiopia which were subsequently used by the farmers as a
source of forage for livestock and food for humans. Mur-
phy and Hoffman [2] provide a thorough review of the ori-
gin and distribution of oats.
Oats were first planted in the United States on Cutty-
hunk, an island off the Massachusetts coast, in 1602 [1].
Culture of oats became important within 30 years of its ini-
tial introduction. Oat culture expanded slowly westward
and hardly at all to the south because oats were not eco-
128
nomically competitive with tobacco in the tobacco-grow-
ing regions.
The early farmers of Pennsylvania were general and
livestock farmers, a system to which the culture of oats
was well suited, resulting in expansion of oat production.
Census reports of 1840 indicated production of 1.79 mil-
lion tons of oats in the United States, with New York,
Pennsylvania, and Ohio ranking first, second, and third, re-
spectively, in production. Nearly all oat production oc-
curred east of the Mississippi River at this time. Immigrant
farmers from northern Europe who settled in the upper
Mississippi Valley were familiar with oat production and
moved oat culture westward as new land was settled. By
1879, oat production had moved westward and the upper
Mississippi Valley became the center of oat production in
the United States. U.S. oat production continued to expand
until the mid 1950s when acreage and production began to
decline.
Culture of fall-sown oats developed simultaneously in
the southern states. Many of the fall-sown cultivars were
selected from a landrace variety, Red Rustproof. Accord-
ing to Coffman [4], Red Rustproof was first grown by a
farmer in South Carolina and was reported not to rust. The
landrace was originally called Red Mexican Rust Proof
Oats and was brought back from Mexico by a soldier in the
Mexican War in 1848.
C. Development of Oat Milling in the
United States
Prior to 1850, oats were not used extensively as human
food in the United States but were widely consumed by hu-
mans in other areas of the world [13]. Until that time oat-
meal was imported into the United States from Scotland
and Germany, where oat milling was well developed, and
dispensed by apothecaries in half-pound packages to make
an easily digestible food for invalids and convalescents.
Ferdinand Schumacher, a pioneer miller of Akron, Ohio,
began hand-grinding oats in a rear room of his grocery
store in 1854. Demand for his product was high, and he or-
ganized the German Mills American Oatmeal Factory in
1856, which produced 20 180-lb barrels of oatmeal daily
with a water-powered stone mill. Raw oats were hulled by
grinding between two circular stones rotating in opposite
directions. The groats were separated from the residue and
crushed through another set of millstones, resulting in a
meal that was considered edible after 3-4 hours of cook-
ing. A Schumacher employee, Asmus J. Errichsen, devel-
oped a method of producing steel-cut oats in 1877 that
eliminated the millstones and was the first significant mod-
ernization in oat milling. Steam and water power cut
hulled oats into a fine meal using fine, rotating knife
McMullen
blades. This process reduced the amount of flour produced,
thus increasing the amount of recovered product.
An influx of German and Irish immigrants in the 1870s
and 1880s, who were accustomed to oats as a staple food,
created increased market demand for oatmeal. In 1878
Schumacher imported porcelain rollers from England to
manufacture rolled oats. This process reduced the amount
of powdery oat flour that previously had accounted for one
fourth of the oats. Rolled oats required considerably less
cooking time than previous products, subsequently in-
creasing the popularity of oatmeal as a breakfast food. As
the demand for oatmeal increased, many milling compa-
nies began manufacturing oatmeal, and the modern U.S.
oat-milling industry began.
II. GENETICS AND BREEDING
A. Cytogenetic Relationship of Species
Within Avena
Cultivated hexaploid oats (A. sativa) belong to the genus
Avena within the family Gramineae [4]. The genus Avena
consists of cultivated, wild, and weedy species with a basic
chromosome number of n = 7. Species within Avena are
classed cytologically according to the number of chromo-
somes in their cells as diploids (2n = 14), tetraploids (2n =
28), and hexaploids (2n = 42) [14-17]. Rajathy and
Thomas [18] classified 19 species of Avena on the basis of
chromosome number, genome, and diaspore (unit of dis-
persal) (Table 1). Baum [20] used micromorphological
characteristics and various clustering procedures to identi-
fy and describe 27 species within Avena. Two new taxa, A.
atlantica [19,21] and A. agadiriana, have been described
since Baum's 1977 monograph. A. atlantica is a diploid
and A. agadiriana is a tetraploid. The genome of the peren-
nial tetraploid A. macrostachya appears somewhat related
to that of A. sativa, but further work is needed to assign a
genome designation [19].
A. sativa and the wild hexaploid species are allopoly-
ploids combining three related genomes designated A, C,
and D, which have the same basic chromosome structure
as A. sativa [22]. Even though the hexaploids contain three
sets of partially homologous chromosomes, meiotic be-
havior is diploid in nature, leading to disomic inheritance.
The cytogenetic structure of oats is similar to hexaploid
wheat with diploid-like pairing under genetic control [23].
The homeologous relationship of chromosomes can be es-
tablished through evaluation of nullisomic-tetrasomic
compensation [24]. Due to the polyploid cytogenetic struc-
ture of A. sativa, chromosome deficiency and duplication
are tolerated, which permits development of aneuploid
lines [25-27] that are useful in studying the cytogenetic
structure of the cultivated oat. Jellen et al. [28] developed
Oats 129

TABLE 1 The Species of Avena and Their in the intergenomic spacer region among cultivars of oats
Genomic Compositions that may be useful as markers for individual chromosomes.
Ploidy Species Genome Chen and Armstrong [31] demonstrated that microdissec-
tion of a single oat chromosome is an effective means to
Diploid characterize molecular markers associated with a specific
(2n = 2x = 14) A. strigosa Scheb. ASAS chromosome.
A. hirtula Lag. ASAS Leggett [32] demonstrated that cytoplasmic variability
A. brevis Roth. ASAS
among six Avena species is observed when the A. sativa
A. nuda L. AS AS
ASAS nuclear genome is substituted into alien source of cyto-
A. weistii Steud.
A. atlantica Baum et Fedak ASAS plasm. Robertson and Frey [33] provided evidence to sug-
A. longiglumis Dur. gest that cytoplasmic diversity provided by A. sterilis may
A. prostrata Ladiz. ApAp be useful for improving productivity of cultivated oats.
A. canariensis Baum Rajhathy
et Sampson
B. Genetic Markers
A. damascena Rajhathy
et Baum AdAd Breeding of cultivated oats has been facilitated through in-
A. hispanica Ard. AA? creased understanding of the genetic control of desired
A. lusitanica (Tab. Mar.) characteristics of oat cultivars. The amount of genetic in-
Baum Comb et Stat. AA?
formation available relative to a species is usually closely
A. matritensis Baum Sp. Nov ??
C,C,
related to its economic importance and the ease with which
A. ventricosa Bal.excoss.
A. clauda Dur. CpCp genetic research can be performed. The allopolyploid na-
A. eriantha Dur. CpCp ture of oats and the difficulty in producing large numbers
Tetraploid of hybrids relative to other crop species such as maize have
(2n = 4x = 28) A. barbata Pott.ex Link AABB limited the amount of oat genetic research possible. Jensen
A. vaviloviana (Malz.) Mordv. AABB [34] and Marshall and Shaner [35] extensively reviewed
A. abyssinica (Hochst) AABB the genetics and inheritance of oats, and Murphy and Coff-
A. agadiriana Baum et Fedak AABB? man [36] and Ohm and Shaner [37] reviewed the genetics
A. murphyi Ladiz. AACC of disease resistance. A catalog of identified genes control-
A. morocanna Gdgr. AACC ling characteristics of oats and a system of standardized
A. macrostachya Bal.exCass.
gene and chromosome nomenclature were developed by
et Dur. 99
Simons et al. [38].
Hexaploid
(2n = 6x = 42) A. sativa L. AACCDD Although many genes have been characterized, an ex-
A. byzantina C. Koch. AACCDD tensive linkage map of the oat genome was not available
A. sterilis L. AACCDD until recently. This is partially due to the dearth of genetic
A. fatua L. AACCDD markers, the few multiple marker stocks available, and the
A. hybrida Peterm AACCDD difficulty in working with oat aneuploids. Recent develop-
A. atherantha Presl AACCDD ments in the use of molecular markers for mapping plant
A. occidentalis AACCDD chromosomes [39] allowed more efficient mapping of the
A. trichophylla C. Kock AACCDD oat genome. A molecular linkage map of cultivated oats
Source: Ref. 16. developed by O'Donoughue et al. [40] allowed localiza-
tion of two stem rust resistance genes on a molecular link-
age map [41].
Penner et al. [42] used bulk segrant analysis to identify
and characterized, by C-banding, eight monosomics from a primer that, using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tech-
Sun II. These monosomics were obtained from haploids nology, produced a randomly amplified polymorphic DNA
derived from Sun II by maize crosses. Kianian et al. [29] (RAPD) marker tightly linked with a gene, Pc-68, that
used nullisomic stocks to assign 134 DNA sequences to 10 confers resistance to crown rust. Wilson and McMullen
chromosomes associated with syntenic groups. The A and [43] identified a RAPD marker tightly linked with Pc-91,
D genome chromosome nullisomics could not be distin- and Rooney et al. [44] identified restriction fragment
guished from each other, but the C genome chromosomes length polymorphisms (RFLP) linked with Pc-91 and Pc-
were distinguished by genome in situ hybridization 92.
(GISH). Polanco and DeLeVega [30] identified variations Van Deynze et al. [45] described the relationship of oats
130
in comparative mapping of grasses. They used probes
common to Triticeae, rice, or maize and found 84, 79, and
71% conservation, respectively, between these species and
oats. Their work indicated that the relative positions of ma-
jor genes have conserved synteny between the grass
species. Sorrells and Wilson [46] suggested using databas-
es of gene sequences to allow direct discovery of genes in
higher plants. By comparing sequence variants with their
contribution to plant performance, the breeding value of
genes associated with the variants may be determined.
C. Utilization of Germplasm Resources
Although A. sativa is the most widely cultivated species,
the related species within the genus comprise a valuable
genetic resource base for use in oat breeding [47]. Nearly
20,000 accessions are included in the USDA World Oat
Collection, 45% of which belong to wild and weedy
species [48]. The hexaploid accessions, including wild and
weedy species, comprise 95% of the collection and have
been demonstrated to provide useful genetic variability for
cultivar improvement. Minor structural differences are in-
dicated by the meiotic behavior of hybrids between the
hexaploids [49,50], but relatively free flow of genes be-
tween the hexaploid species occurs since there are no dis-
tinct isolation and sterility barriers. A. sterilis germplasm
has been used to improve crown rust resistance, stem rust
resistance, barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) tolerance,
grain protein content, and grain yield [48]. Lawrence and
Frey [51] described methods based on backcrossing for in-
trogression useful genes from A. sterilis germplasm into
the A. sativa gene pool.
Utilization of germplasm from diploid and tetraploid
species has been limited due to difficulties in achieving
gene transfer to cultivated oats related to sterility and iso-
lation barriers between the species. Understanding the cy-
togenetic relationship between A. sativa and the diploid
and tetraploid species and application of appropriate chro-
mosome-manipulation techniques has allowed introgres-
sion of useful characteristics, especially disease resistance
from the lower ploidy species into A. sativa [52-54].
D. Breeding
1. Breeding Objectives
Objectives of most breeding programs include developing
cultivars with genetic potential for increased grain yield
with improved quality. The quality characteristics desired
in a cultivar may vary relative to the end use of the crop.
Special quality characteristics such as a white hull color
and high test weight may be desirable for oats intended for
the premium racehorse market. Most quality characteris-
McMullen
tics considered by breeders are related to nutritional value
and milling yield. These characteristics include grain pro-
tein and oil content, hull content, and test weight.
Recognition of nutritional attributes of oats related to
diabetes and control of blood cholesterol levels [55-64]
stimulated research activity to develop cultivars with in-
creased levels of mixed-linked (1—>3), (1-4)-P-n-glucan
((3-glucan) or gum content. Peterson et al. [65] evaluated
the variation in P-glucan content of elite oat lines and the
relationship of 3-glucan content with various agronomic
characteristics. P-glucan content is relatively stable under
differing environmental conditions [66,67], therefore eval-
uation of genotypes for P-glucan concentration in a single
environment should be representative of relative perfor-
mance in other environments. Increased P-glucan content
may be undesirable for feeding certain classes of animals.
Oat breeders [68-70] described methods for improving
the yield and quality of oat cultivars and pointed out the
need to protect new cultivars from factors such as lodging,
diseases, and pests that may reduce yield and quality short
of the genetic potential. Many diseases and pests can re-
duce productivity of oat cultivars, but BYDV, crown rust,
and stem rust are generally considered the most important
diseases of oats in North America. Brown and Jedlinsky
[71] developed germplasm that provides good levels of
protection from BYDV. Baltenberger et al. [72] demon-
strated the utility of recurrent selection to improve BYDV
tolerance. Because of volatility in virulence in crown rust
and stem rust populations [73,74], specific strategies for
providing stable protection from crown rust [75,77] and
stem rust [76] have been suggested and incorporated into
breeding programs.
2. Breeding Procedures
Genetic improvement of cultivated oats has been in
progress since domestication of the crop nearly 2,000
years ago [1]. Oat breeding involves identification or cre-
ation of a population with useful genetic variation, and ap-
plication of appropriate breeding procedures utilizes ge-
netic variability to develop improved germplasm. Early
improvement probably involved mass selection, which re-
sulted in heterogeneous landraces that were adapted to lo-
cal areas. Oat breeding prior to 1930 mostly involved sin-
gle plant selection from the landraces to produce improved
pure line cultivars. Shirreff described a technique for
crossing oats in 1873. By 1885 hybridization was used in
oat breeding by personnel of Gartons, Ltd. in England, but
the success of selection from landraces in the United States
precluded extensive use of hybridization in oats until the
1930s. Brown and Shands [77] described methods for
crossing oats, and McDaniel et al. [78] developed a cross-
ing method that reduced labor requirements.
Oats 131

Many breeding procedures have been applied to oat im- concluded that the oat cultivars studied appear to be more
provement including pedigree selection, backcross breed- diverse than either soft or hard red winter wheat.
ing, bulk breeding, mass selection, and more recently re- The genetic base for improving oats appears quite di-
current selection. Stuthman [79] discussed oat-breeding verse, suggesting that adequate variability is present in the
strategy issues and suggested that design of a breeding gene pool for further improvement of desired characteris-
program involves, first, the issues of selection of parents to tics. However, the value of maintaining genetic diversity
create desired genetic variability in a population and, sec- should not be underestimated, and systematic procedures
ond, the choice of procedures for selection among the for maintaining valuable germplasm require continued at-
progeny. Various methods for handling of progeny that ad- tention [47].
vance populations more than one generation per year have
been described [80-82]. Methods that allow rapid genera-
tion advance often do not allow effective selection for Ill. STRUCTURE
traits of low heritability but may allow more genetic gain The morphology and development of the oat plant was
per unit of time. Rodgers et al. [82] suggest that greater well described by Bonnett [89] and Kaufman and Brock
emphasis on rapid generation advance in oat breeding has [90]. Fulcher [91] has thoroughly described the morpho-
contributed to recent yield improvements in oat cultivars. logical and chemical organization of the oat kernel.
Recurrent selection proved to be very effective for
modifying important characteristics of oats. DeKroeyer et A. The Oat Plant
al. [83] described the effects of five cycles of recurrent se-
lection program for grain yield on kernel morphology as The oat plant is an annual grass with a structure similar to
determined by digital image analysis. They found that a that of other cereals. The leaf consists of the blade, sheath,
26.8% increase in grain yield was accompanied by an in- and ligule. The absence of auricles (Fig. 1) may be used
crease in kernel size, but not kernel density. Schipper and during vegetative stages of growth to differentiate oats
Frey [84] increased mean groat oil content to 162.85 g kg-1 from other small grains. The elongated internodes of ma-
through six cycles of recurrent selection for high oil con- ture stems have hollow centers, and the nodes are solid.
tent. McPherson and Frey [85] compared recurrent selec- The leaves are solitary, alternate, distichous, and sessile
tion methods for increasing protein yield in oats and found
that the greatest increase in groat protein yield was
achieved through selection for high groat protein yield
when compared to selection for high groat protein content
or high grain yield.
To maintain progress in cultivar improvement, genetic
variability must be available in the gene pool. Wych and
Stuthman [86] evaluated oat cultivars adapted to Minneso-
ta released in the period 1923-1979 and found a 0.9% in-
crease in groat yield per year. Langer et al. [87] analyzed
production and stability characteristics of oat cultivars re-
leased over a 40-year period in the United States and con-
cluded that the oat germplasm introduced into the Upper
Mississippi Valley of North America from Northern Eu-
rope contained little genetic variation for yield. They sug-
gested broadening the cultivated oat germplasm base
through the use of germplasm from A. sterilis and A. sati-
va. Rodgers et al. [82] suggested that recent oat yield in-
creases were due to use of a wider array of germplasm in
breeding programs. Souza and Sorrells [88] used cluster
analysis of coefficient-of-parentage calculated from pedi-
gree analysis of North American oat cultivars released
from 1951 to 1985 to identify parents of divergent clusters
that are most likely to produce transgressive segregation
for desired characteristics. They also found a trend towards
broadening of the oat germplasm base over time. They FIGURE 1 Culm and leaf sheath of Avena sativa.
132 McMullen

[89]. Tillers arise from axillary buds in the axils of the fo-
liage leaves. Under normal growing conditions the oat
plant commonly matures two to three tillers. The number
of tillers may be influenced by genotype, day length, and
many other environmental conditions. The culm usually
has four or five nodes and internodes, with the upper in-
ternode called the peduncle.
The oat plant has two root systems: the seminal roots,
which originate during development of the embryo, and
the adventitious roots, which arise in the nodes of the main
stem and tillers just beneath the soil surface.
The influorescence is a panicle composed of the rachis,
rachis branches, and spikelets (Fig. 2). Panicle size and FIGURE 3 Spikelet and florets of mature A. sativa: left, nor-
shape varies greatly with genotype and environment. The mal oats; right, hulless oats.
main axis or rachis of the panicle is a continuation of the
stem and ends in a single pedicellate spikelet. Each rachis
branch terminates in a pedicellate spikelet. Spikelets are
subtended by two empty glumes or bracts on a rachilla,
which usually bears one to three fertile florets (Fig. 3). The
glumes are membranous and generally longer than the
spikelet. A floret includes the rachilla segments, lemma,
palea, and the sexual organs or later the mature caryopsis.

FIGURE 4 Panicle of hulless oat.

The rachilla segments of naked or hulless varieties are ex-

tremely long (Figs. 3, 4), and three or more fertile florets
per spikelet are normaly produced. Mature spikelets sepa-
rate from their pedicels and florets from rachilla segments.
FIGURE 2 Panicle of A. sativa. Awns, if present, arise dorsally on the lemma.
Oats 133

B. The Mature Grain

At maturity the caryopsis, usually called the groat, is tight-

ly enclosed within a fibrous lemma and palea, which per-
sist after threshing during harvesting operations and form
the hull except in the case of hulless oats (Fig. 3). The HAIRS (TRICHOMES)
caryopsis usually accounts for 65-75% and the hull
25-35% of the whole oat. Environment and genotype in- HULL

fluence the ratio of groat to hull. Youngs [50] found a range

of 68.2-76.4% groat and a range in groat weight of
ENDOSPERM
16.7-22.7 g per 1000 kernels among seven genotypes
grown in the same environment (Table 2). The lemma and
ALEURONE CELLS
palea of hulless oats are more membranous and are mostly
removed from the caryopsis during threshing and cleaning.
BRAN
A crease in the groat on the side opposite the embryo ex-
tends the entire length of the caryopsis. The caryopsis is
covered with monocellular hairs called trichomes (Fig. 5).
SCUTELLUM
The wall of the caryopsis consists of several cell layers
derived from three different sources: (1) the pericarp from
the ovary wall, (2) the testa from the inner integumant, and
(3) the epidermis from the nucellus [48]. The endosperm is PLUMULE - EMBRYO
located inside the wall layers of the caryopsis and is com- EMBRYONIC
posed of the aleurone cells and the starchy endosperm AXIS
(Fig. 5). The layer or two of cells that comprise the aleu- ROOT
rone layer, which are more rectangular in shape and thick-
er walled than the starchy endosperm cells, contain aleu-
rone grains. The aleurone cells secrete a variety of
FIGURE 5 Mature oat floret indicating source of groat frac-
hydrolytic enzymes during germination, which digest and
tions.
mobilize the starchy endosperm reserves. Hydrolytic en-
zymes also reside on the surface of the groat. The wall and
aleurone layers form the milling fraction referred to as the TABLE 3 Weight Distribution of Groats (A. sativa)
bran. However, the milling fraction referred to as oat bran
Starchy
is composed of inner portions of the kernal as well as the Embryonic Scutellum Bran endosperm
layers generally referred to as bran. Youngs [92], using Variety axis (%) (%) (%) (%)
hand-dissection of groats of seven different genotypes
found a range of 28.7-41.4% bran content (Table 3). Vari- Orbit 1.2 1.8 28.7 68.3
ation of bran thickness was found to vary among geno- Lodi 1.1 2.0 33.6 63.3
Garland 1.4 2.1 33.9 62.7
Froker 1.0 1.8 30.2 67.0
Portal 1.2 1.6 39.8 57.4
TABLE 2 Physical Characteristics of Oats (A. sativa) Dal 1.1 2.6 34.4 61.8
Goodland 1.1 1.7 41.4 55.8
Groat Hull Groat Groat bran
Groats protein protein 1000 Kwt. thickness Source: Ref. 92.
Variety (%) (%) (%) (g) (mm)
Orbit 71.9 13.8 1.7 21.5 0.063 types (Table 2). Lower bran yield was recovered using an
Lodi 68.2 14.6 1.6 20.7 0.058 experimental mill.
Garland 72.0 14.8 1.4 14.4 0.065 The starchy endosperm, composed of large, thin-walled
Froker 74.9 15.5 1.4 22.7 0.079 parenchyma cells filled with starch, contributes approxi-
Portal 73.4 16.5 1.9 16.7 0.075 mately 55.8-68.3% of the weight of the mature kernel
Dal 76.4 20.8 1.5 19.5 0.087
(Table 3). The starchy endosperm is the primary source of
Goodland 73.4 22.5 1.9 20.3 0.101
nutrients used by the embryo during germination.
Source: Ref. 92. The oat embryo, comprised of scutellum and the em-
134 McMullen

TABLE 4 Worldwide Area, Yield, and Production of Oats, 1995-1997

Area harvested (1000 ha) Yield (kg/ha) Production (1000 t)

Country 1995 1996 1997 1995 1996 1997 1995 1996 1997

North and Central America

Canada 1203 1684 1499 2375 2590 2325 2858 4361 3475
Mexico 20 54 54 1790 1723 1723 36 94 94
United States 1199 1087 1178 1961 2074 2170 2351 2254 2556
Europe
Albania 11 11 11 1238 1364 1182 13 15 13
Austria 41 42 46 3964 3670 3667 162 153 169
Belarus 337 335 335 1893 2109 2299 638 707 770
Belgium-Lux 9 8 11 4222 4000 4919 38 32 55
Bosnia Herzg. 8 19 19 1500 1900 1900 11 36 36
Bulgaria 36 10 16 1318 1400 1500 47 14 24
Czech. Rep. 60 66 74 3106 3244 3334 187 214 247
Croatia 16 16 16 2426 2427 2427 38 40 40
Denmark 34 42 25 4.67 3.97 4.44 158 168 111
Estonia 38 49 49 2078 2344 2344 80 115 115
France 149 140 134 4040 4455 4246 601 622 569
Finland 329 374 365 3332 3368 3373 1097 1261 1231
Germany 309 302 310 4592 5320 5039 1420 1606 1564
Greece 44 43 43 1884 2233 2308 83 96 99
Hungary 53 48 51 2603 2333 2392 139 112 122
Ireland 20 21 21 6482 6986 6554 129 146 140
Italy 135 150 138 2238 3867 2020 301 580 278
Latvia 46 54 59 1605 1934 1855 73 105 110
Lithuania 47 45 56 1407 1800 1929 67 81 108
Moldova Rep. 6 4 4 1515 945 945 9 4 4
Netherlands 3 2 2 5345 5632 5050 16 11 10
Norway 93 91 91 3792 4176 4000 354 380 364
Poland 595 625 650 2511 2530 2154 1495 1581 1400
Portugal 73 71 78 785 857 538 58 60 42
Romania 239 234 219 1693 1242 1485 404 291 325
Russian Fed. 7928 6904 6904 1080 1202 1485 8562 8300 11000
Slovakia 16 18 19 2679 2276 2560 42 41 50
Slovenia 2 2 2 2389 2413 1413 4 5 5
Spain 367 394 380 631 1658 1403 231 654 533
Sweden 273 284 309 3468 4231 4139 947 1200 1279
Switzerland 8 9 9 5287 5680 5680 44 49 49
Ukraine 560 482 500 1993 1517 2000 1116 731 1000
United Kingdom 112 96 100 5491 6146 5350 615 590 535
Yugoslavia 74 86 86 1857 1531 1531 138 131 131
Oceania
Australia 1136 1089 849 1651 1551 1441 1620 1875 1689
New Zealand 10 10 11 3813 4075 3810 38 41 40
Asia
Azerbaijan 3 2 2 4000 1048 3000 12 2 5
P.R.China 400 400 400 1875 2000 1875 750 800 750
Japan 2 1 1 1500 2000 2000 3 2 2
Kazakhstan 492 452 336 508 794 851 250 359 286
Korea DPR 7 7 7 1429 1429 1429 10 10 10
Kyrgyzstan 3 2 2 1333 1679 1750 4 3 4
Tajiikistan 4 4 4 500 500 500 2 2 2
Turkey 148 162 162 1689 1703 1728 250 275 280
Oats 135

TABLE 4 Continued
Area harvested (1000 ha) Yield (kg/ha) Production (1000 t)
Country 1995 1996 1997 1995 1996 1997 1995 1996 1997
Africa
Algeria 74 95 50 720 1160 600 53 110 30
Ethiopia 60 71 72 867 887 903 52 63 65
Morocco 21 39 25 495 707 400 10 28 10
South Africa 698 677 703 55 49 51 38 33 36
Tunisia 9 9 9 111 111 111 1 1 1
Mongolia
South America
Argentina 214 246 259 1217 1200 1240 260 310 310
Bolivia 5 5 5 826 830 870 4 4 4
Brazil 161 161 180 1102 1366 1392 177 220 250
Chile 65 81 104 3100 2469 3218 202 200 335
Peru 5 6 5 930 1061 1000 5 6 5
Uruguay 29 37 37 853 1027 1027 25 38 38
World 18055 17462 17106 1584 1777 1894 28602 31033 32401
Source: FAO quarterly bulletin of statistics 1998.

bryonic axis, is located on the anterior side, near the base
of the caryopsis (Fig. 5). The epidermal layer of the scutel-
lum or epithelium is in contact with the endosperm and se-
cretes enzymes that digest contents of the endosperm dur-
ing germination [89]. The embryonic axis consists of the
plumule and the radicle. The plumule is made up of the
coleoptile, which encloses the shoot apex and two leaf pri-
mordia. The root is comprised of the radicle and two or
three adventitious roots, which produce the seminal root
system. Youngs [92] determined that the embryonic axis
and the scutellum comprise 1.0-1.4 and 1.7-2.6%, respec-
tively, of the groat.
IV. PRODUCTION
A. World Production
Oats is a cool season crop best adapted to areas between
latitudes of 35-50° north and 20-40° south, which is re-
flected by the areas of greatest production (Table 4)
[93,94]. Oats account for less than 5-7% of world coarse
grain production and ranks sixth in world cereal produc-
tion after wheat, maize, rice, barley, and sorghum [95].
World production of oats has decreased from about 50 mil-
lion tons in the early 1960s to slightly more than 30 million
tons. The Russian Federation has the greatest number of
hectares under oat production and the most oat production,
accounting for more than 30% of total production (Table
4). The 10 leading oat-producing countries account for
more than 80% of world production. Recent average high-
est yields per hectare have been achieved in the Nether-
lands, Switzerland, Germany, the United Kingdom, Ire-
land, Sweden, and France. Grain yield per unit of land has
nearly doubled since World War II because of improved
production practices and improved disease-resistant culti-
vars [96].
B. U.S. Oat Production
Oat production in the United States has declined since the
1950s, when more than 17 million tons were produced an-
nually [96], until reduced planting during 1996 resulted in
record low production of 2.25 million tons. Grain yield has
been increasing at a steady rate, but the area harvested for
grain has decreased continually since 1960. Although oats
are produced in many regions of the United States (Table
5), production has been concentrated in the north-central
states of Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota,
and Wisconsin, which account for more than 65% of oats
harvested for grain each year [94].
Demand for oats for human consumption has steadily
increased during a period when production has steadily de-
clined (Table 6), leading to a greatly increased proportion
of U.S. oat production used for human food. Prior to 1982,
the United States was a net exporter of oats, with a market
share of world exports averaging 16% in the 1960s [95].
During 1970-74, the U.S. export share rose to 21.7%, but
this declined to 5% during 1980-85; the United States has
been a net importer of oats since 1982. During this period
imports have originated mainly in Canada, Sweden, and
136
Finland with the Netherlands, Australia, and Argentina
contributing smaller amounts. Increased demand for oats
for human consumption and for quality feed for horses has
renewed interest in oat production, but commodity target
price levels designated by the Food Security Act of 1985
apparently hindered expansion of oat production to meet
domestic demand. Consequently, U.S. oat consumers rely
on net imports of approximately 100 million tons to meet
demand.
V. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
A. Protein
The protein quality and content of oats is recognized as su-
perior to that of other cereals for livestock feed and human
nutrition. Peterson and Brinegar [97] extensively reviewed
the characteristics of oat storage protein that make oats nu-
tritionally valuable. Frey [98] published a review of the ge-
netics controlling oat protein content.
1. Protein Content and Distribution
Protein concentration of oat groats is considerably higher
than that of other cereals. Groat protein concentration of
cultivated genotypes is typically 15-20%. Most of the pro-
tein of the whole oat is located in the groat, and a low con-
centration is found in the hull (Table 7). Pomeranz et al.
[99] evaluated a sample of commercial milling oats and
found that light oats had a higher hull content and lower
protein content than heavy oats (Table 8).
Although the bran comprises a smaller portion of the
groat than the starchy endosperm (Table 3), the higher pro-
tein concentration of the bran (Table 9) causes it to con-
tribute to the kernel a protein amount similar to the contri-
bution of starchy endosperm (Table 10). The scutellum and
embryonic axis, even though relatively high in protein,
contribute little to the total protein of the groat due to their
small proportion relative to the mass of the groat.
Pomeranz et al. [99] observed a much wider range of
protein content among Avena species other than A. sativa,
with groats of samples of some accessions reaching 37%
protein. A large genetic variability for improvement of
grain protein content in cultivated oats is available in both
A. sativa and the related wild and weedy species.
2. Solubility Classification
Peterson and Brinegar [97] discussed extraction and classi-
fication of oat storage protein using the classic technique of
Osborne [100]. Oats and rice, unlike other cereals, have a
low prolamin (alcohol-soluble fraction) and high globulin
(salt-soluble fraction) content relative to other cereals. The
globulin fraction is relatively rich in lysine. Using Osborne
McMullen
classification of the protein of five oat cultivars, Peterson
[101] reported that prolamine content ranged from 7 to 13%
of total protein; the water-soluble albumins, 10-19%; the
salt-soluble globulins, 52-56%; and glutelins, 21-27%.
The actual globulin concentration may be as high as 75%
since the Osborne method probably does not completely
extract the globulins.
Peterson [101] found that increased protein in cultivars
grown in diverse environments was related to increased
levels of the globulin fraction. Since the amino acid profile
of globulins is similar to that of the total protein, the amino
acid profile of oats, unlike other cereals, remains relatively
constant, with increased protein content due to environ-
mental conditions. The amino acid profile remains rela-
tively constant over a broad range of protein levels.
3. Amino Acid Composition and Distribution
Robbins et al. [102] surveyed 289 groat samples from cul-
tivars grown in the United States and Canada from
1900-1901. Little variability was detected among the nu-
tritionally limiting amino acids lysine, threonine, and me-
thionine (Table 11). The average lysine and threonine con-
centrations of 4.2 and 3.3 g/100 g of amino acids recovered
are higher than for other cereals but below the FAO refer-
ence standards of 5.5 and 4.0 g/100 g, respectively [103].
Similar amino acid composition was found for commer-
cially milled oats (Table 8). Amino acid composition of
oats is considered quite constant over a wide range of pro-
tein contents.
Separating groats into the components of the milling
fractions, Pomeranz et al. [99] found a higher concentra-
tion of lysine in the embryonic axis and scutellum than in
other portions of the kernel (Table 12). Lysine, threonine,
and methionine concentrations in the bran were similar to
those in the endosperm. Fulcher [91] found an approxi-
mately 25% higher lysine content in the bran protein than
that of the endosperm protein and similarly higher levels
of threonine, serine, and alanine in the bran of groats of the
cultivar Scott. This suggests that significant differences ex-
ist in the amino acid composition between the bran and
starchy endosperm of some cultivars.
B. Lipids
Oats are unique among the cereals for their high lipid con-
tent. Although oat oils are not used commercially, they are
important nutritionally and must be considered in commer-
cial milling operations because of problems associated
with rancidity caused by lipid-related enzymes activated
during milling operations. Genetic manipulation of lipid
content may become more important in the future to im-
138 McMullen

TABLE 7 Protein Content of Oats (A. sativa) TABLE 9 Protein Content of Groat Fractions (A. sativa)

Groats Hulls Starchy

Variety (%) (%) Embryonic Scutellum Bran endosperm
Variety axis (%) (%) (%) (%)
Orbit 13.8 1.7
Lodi 14.6 1.6 Orbit 44.3 32.4 18.8 9.6
Garland 14.8 1.4 Lodi 36.5 26.2 19.6 10.7
Froker 15.5 1.4 Garland 40.5 28.9 18.5 10.9
Portal 16.5 1.9 Froker 26.3 28.0 20.7 9.7
Dal 20.8 1.5 Portal 35.3 29.1 23.0 10.3
Goodland 22.5 1.9 Dal 40.9 24.2 26.5 13.5
Goodland 40.7 32.4 32.5 17.0
Source: Ref. 92.
Source: Ref. 92.

TABLE 8 Protein Content and Amino Acid Composition of

Commercially Milled Oats TABLE 10 Distribution of Total Protein in Groats (A. sativa)

Protein or Heavy Light Starchy

amino acid oats oats Groats Hulls Flakes Embryonic Scutellum Bran endosperm
Variety axis (%) (%) (%) %)
Protein (%) 13.4 9.6 18.9 5.7 17.6
Lysine 4.2 5.2 3.9 4.9 4.1 Orbit 4.0 4.5 41.3 50.2
Histidine 2.4 2.7 2.3 2.4 2.4 Lodi 2.8 3.6 46.2 47.4
Ammonia 3.4 3.8 3.2 3.6 3.2 Garland 4.0 4.2 43.9 47.8
Arginine 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.8 6.0 Froker 1.9 3.7 46.3 48.1
Aspartic acid 9.2 11.1 9.0 10.5 9.0 Portal 2.7 2.9 57.3 37.2
Threonine 3.3 4.1 3.1 4.1 3.1 Dal 2.4 3.4 49.2 45.0
Serine 4.0 4.5 3.9 4.6 4.0 Goodland 1.9 2.3 56.2 39.7
Glutamic acid 21.6 20.0 22.4 20.3 22.7
Source: Ref. 92.
Proline 5.7 3.1 6.2 2.4 6.1
Cystine 1.7 0.4 2.0 0.5 1.7
Glycine 5.1 6.0 5.0 6.1 5.0
Alanine 5.1 5.5 5.0 5.4 5.0 able amounts of an essential fatty acid for humans, linoleic
Valine 5.8 6.2 5.7 6.4 5.8 acid. An extensive survey of lipid content among oat geno-
Methionine 2.3 1.5 2.5 1.5 2.4
types [105] found a range in lipid concentration of
Isoleucine 4.2 4.5 4.3 4.5 4.3
3.1-11.6%. Other studies have found similar ranges in
Leucine 7.5 7.6 7.4 7.8 7.5
Tyrosine 2.6 2.4 2.5 2.9 2.1 lipid concentration [104]. Schipper et al. [106] identified
Phenylalanine 5.4 5.3 5.5 5.3 5.6 oat lines with mean groat oil contents greater than 16%
from a recurrent selection program for increased groat oil.
Protein on dry matter, N x 6.25. Grams amino acid per 100 g amino acid Youngs et al. [107] used hand-dissection of groats of
recovered.
two cultivars to determine lipid distribution within the oat.
Source: Ref. 99.
The greatest lipid concentration was in the scutellum
(Table 13), but since the scutellum accounts for only a
small portion of the mass of the kernel, it contains only a
prove milling quality or to increase energy of oats for live- small amount of the total lipid in the groat [104]. In both
stock feeding. Youngs [104] published a review concern- cultivars, the starchy endosperm and bran contained in ex-
ing oat lipids and lipid-related enzymes that will be useful cess of 90% of the total groat lipid even though lipid con-
to the reader interested in oat lipids. centration is relatively low in these fractions. Most of the
lipid is not bound and is easily extracted.
1. Lipid Content and Distribution
Oat groats have the highest lipid concentration among all 2. Lipid Composition
the cereals. Oat lipids can add a significant amount of en- Youngs [108] used hand-dissection of groats to determine
ergy to livestock feed and are important in human nutrition the distribution of lipid components in the groat. Thin lay-
because they are highly unsaturated and contain consider- er chromatography was used to separate and quantify 12
Oats 137

TABLE 5 Area, Yield, and Production of Oats in the United States, 1996-1998

Area harvested (1000 ha) Yield (t/ha) Production (1000 t)

State 1996 1997 1998 1996 1997 1998 1996 1997 1998

North Dakota 154 162 170 1.79 1.61 2.22 276 261 378
South Dakota 146 125 142 2.15 1.97 2.40 314 248 340
Wisconsin 121 134 121 2.08 2.26 2.19 253 302 266
Minnesota 109 125 125 2.01 2.08 2.26 220 261 284
Iowa 77 99 75 2.44 2.62 2.12 188 259 158
Pennsylvania 55 65 65 2.01 2.12 1.90 110 137 123
Ohio 36 40 40 2.04 2.80 2.33 74 113 94
New York 30 45 42 2.04 2.51 2.22 62 112 95
Nebraska 42 28 35 2.55 2.33 2.01 108 66 69
Texas 40 45 53 1.22 1.87 1.90 49 83 100
Illinois 28 30 28 2.37 2.65 2.01 67 81 57
Michigan 24 36 42 2.15 2.19 1.65 52 80 70
Kansas 32 32 24 1.87 2.30 1.61 60 74 39
Oregon 14 12 14 3.48 3.41 3.95 49 41 56
Montana 20 28 24 1.44 1.97 1.94 29 56 47
California 12 14 12 2.69 2.51 2.69 33 36 33
Georgia 14 16 10 2.30 2.01 1.90 33 33 19
Idaho 10 8 12 2.69 2.69 2.69 27 22 33
Maine 11 10 9 2.69 2.51 2.69 30 25 25
Colorado 14 11 10 1.87 2.44 2.51 26 28 25
Indiana 10 14 12 2.30 2.15 1.79 23 30 22
Wyoming 13 12 8 1.90 2.19 2.22 25 27 18
S. Carolina 12 12 10 1.94 2.15 1.61 24 26 16
N. Carolina 8 10 8 2.15 2.44 2.08 17 25 17
Oklahoma 7 18 12 1.29 1.65 1.47 9 30 18
Missouri 12 11 5 1.90 2.22 1.69 22 24 9
Arkansas 10 7 4 2.58 2.69 2.87 26 19 10
Washington 6 7 6 2.87 2.87 2.69 16 20 16
Alabama 8 9 7 1.61 1.79 1.72 13 17 12
Utah 4 4 4 2.58 2.65 2.51 9 10 9
Maryland 3 4 3 2.22 2.15 1.79 6 10 5
W. Virginia 1 2 2 1.79 1.79 1.79 2 3 3
United States 1087 1178 1136 2.07 2.17 2.17 2254 2557 2467

Source: USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service Small Grain Summary, 1999.

TABLE 6 Oats in the United States: Supply and Disappearance

Area Imports (1000 t) Exports (1000 t) Domestic Domestic Ending

Market year harvested Yield Production feed use total use stocks
(June/May) (1000 ha) (t/ha) (1000 t) Mkt Yr. Trade Yr. Mkt. Yr. Trade Yr. (1000 t) (1000 t) (1000 t)

1993/94 1539 1.9 3001 1841 1923 44 21 3555 4909 1532

1994/95 1622 2.0 3322 1606 1677 14 17 3641 4986 1460
1995/96 1195 2.0 2338 1388 1091 30 36 2859 4194 962
1996/97 1074 2.1 2224 1681 1961 37 26 2491 3862 968
1997/98 1138 2.1 2428 1696 1942 31 32 2610 3987 1074
1998/99 1119 2.2 2426 1810 1700 29 25 2826 4205 1076

Source: USDA-FAS Grain: World Markets and Trade Historical Data Tables 1999.
Oats 139

TABLE 11 Mean, Maximum Value (Max.), Minimum methanol extract from oat. The antioxidant activity of the
Value (MM.), and Standard Deviation s for Crude Protein extract was evaluated in soybean oil and cottonseed oil and
and Amino Acid Composition of 289 Oat Samples found to be equal or better than tertiarybutylhydroquinone
Protein or amino acid Max MM Mean (TBHQ) in antioxidant activity as measured by peroxide
values of the oils. The groat methanol extract efficiently re-
Percent protein 24.4 12.4 17.1 2.010 duced oil oxidation relative to TBHQ, suggesting that
Lysine (Lys) 5.2 3.2 4.2 0.324 components of oat oil may be valuable for stabilizing
Histidine 3.1 1.2 2.2 0.316 cooking oils [111].
Ammonia 3.0 2.5 2.7 0.079
Arginine 7.8 6.2 6.9 0.231 C. Polysaccharides
Aspartic acid 9.9 8.3 8.9 0.278
Threonine (Thr) 3.5 3.0 3.3 0.098 1. Starch
Serine 4.8 3.8 4.2 0.187 Oat starch requires different extraction techniques than
Glutamic acid 26.9 21.9 23.9 0.938 does wheat starch. Wet-milling techniques have been de-
Proline 5.8 3.8 4.7 0.416 veloped that produce starch yields in the range of 43-61%,
Half cystine 2.6 0.6 1.6 0.442 with protein and lipid contents of less than 0.4% and 0.3%,
Glycine 5.5 4.4 4.9 0.210
respectively. Amylose content of oat starch has been found
Alanine 5.5 4.2 5.0 0.187
in the range of 16-27% [113,114]. Environment and prob-
Valine 5.7 4.9 5.3 0.106
Methionine (Met) 3.3 1.0 2.5 0.347 ably genotype contribute to variation in the physical and
Isoleucine 4.1 3.4 3.9 0.088 functional properties of oat starch [112].
Leucine 7.8 4.8 7.4 0.205 2. f3-Glucan
Tyrosine 4.4 2.3 3.1 0.232
A nonstarch polysaccharide that dissolves in water to form
Phenylalanine 5.7 4.9 5.3 0.138
Sum of Lys + Thr + Met 11.1 8.2 10.0 0.487 a viscous gum appears concentrated mainly in the cell wall
of the subaleurone layer of the groat when evaluated by
Proteins given as N x 6.25 (db), %; amino acids given as g/100 g of polysaccharide-specific dye interactions [115]. This poly-
amino acids and ammonia recovered. saccharide is a mixed linkage P-D-glucan [116]. However,
Source: Ref. 102.
a milling fraction obtained from pearling the outer layers
of the oat groat was only slightly enriched in (3-glucan rel-
ative to fractions from the remaining portion of the kernel
lipid components (Table 14). The percentage of triglyc- [117]. This suggests that (3-glucan is likely distributed in
eride was least in the bran and greatest in the embryo. the cell walls throughout the kernel rather than concentrat-
Youngs [108] determined the relative fatty acid composi- ed in the subaleurone layer. The properties of 13-glucan
tion of 15 oat strains. The mean relative composition was have been extensively reviewed [118]. The mixed-linkage
myristic, 0.6; palmitic, 18.9; stearic, 1.6; oleic, 36.4; and f3-glucan of oat is an unbranched polysaccharide com-
linoleic, 40.5. Other workers have obtained similar results. posed of (1-4)- and (1-3)-linked 13-n-glucopyranosyl
Wide variation in individual fatty acid concentrations oc- units in varying proportions. A milling fraction produced
curs among cultivars, which should allow genetic manipu- by course grinding and sieving and enriched in 13-glucan,
lation of fatty acid composition. Schipper et al. [106] eval- referred to as oat bran, has demonstrated beneficial effects
uated changes in fatty acid composition in oat lines in lowering serum blood cholesterol and moderating glu-
produced from recurrent selection for increased groat oil. cose metabolism in diabetics. These nutritional benefits at-
Oleate increased and linoleate decreased under selection tributed to 13-glucan have recently greatly increased inter-
for high groat oil. The variation observed for each fatty est in oats as a human food.
acid suggested that selection for different desired fatty acid Obtaining complete extraction of oat (3-glucan free
composition should be possible. Peterson and Wood [109] from contaminating starch, pentosan, and protein for quan-
evaluated tocotrienol levels in oat selections that varied titative purposes is difficult. The nonenzymatic Calcofluor
from 6.8 to 18.1% groat oil. They observed a high correla- method of Wood and Weisz [119] and hydrazinolysis
tion of total tocotrienol content with oil concentration, but method of Martin and Bamforth [120] appear useful for
tocotrienol concentration was not related to oil concentra- quantifying 13-glucans in oats. Welch and Lloyd [121] used
tion. Protein and (3-glucan did increase with oil concentra- a modified Calcofluor and hydrazinolysis methods to eval-
tion. Tocotrienols are antioxidants associated with choles- uate f3-glucan content in 100 oat genotypes. They observed
terol-lowering properties of oats. a range in glucan content from 3.2 to 6.3% among culti-
Tian and White [110] identified antioxidant activity in a vars. Doehlert et al. [122] observed increased viscosity of
140 McMullen

TABLE 12 Protein Content and Amino Acid Composition of Hand-Separated Fraction of

Groats of Orbit

Protein or Whole Embryonic

amino acid groats axis Scutellum Bran Endosperm

Protein (%) 13.8 44.3 32.4 18.8 9.6

Lysine 4.5 8.2 6.9 4.1 3.7
Histidine 2.4 3.9 3.6 2.2 2.2
Ammonia 2.7 1.9 1.8 2.5 2.9
Arginine 6.8 8.3 9.0 6.8 6.6
Aspartic acid 8.7 10.2 9.7 8.6 8.5
Threonine 3.4 5.0 4.7 3.4 3.3
Serine 4.6 4.8 5.0 4.8 4.6
Glutamic acid 21.7 14.2 14.9 21.1 23.6
Proline 5.5 3.3 3.6 6.2 4.6
Cystine 2.1 0.5 1.0 2.4 2.2
Glycine 5.2 6.3 6.2 5.4 4.7
Alanine 5.0 7.2 6.9 5.1 4.5
Valine 5.5 6.0 6.2 5.5 5.5
Methionine 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.4
Isoleucine 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.8 4.2
Leucine 7.6 7.1 7.1 7.4 7.8
Tyrosine 3.0 2.9 3.0 3.5 3.3
Phenylalanine 5.2 4.2 4.4 5.1 5.6

Protein content on dry matter basis, N x 6.25. Amino acid content, g amino acid per 100 g amino acid re-
covered.
Source: Ref. 99.

flour produced after a heat pretreatment of oat kernels be-

fore milling. They attributed increases in viscosity to inac-
TABLE 13 Lipid Concentration in the Groats and Oat tivation of fl-glucan hydrolases located on the surface of
Fractins of Two Oat Cultivars raw oat groats [123]. Heat inactivation of 13-glucan hydro-
lases by steaming allowed development of a method for
Ether extractions WSB b extractionsa
comparing P-glucan concentration of oat genotypes by
(free lipids) (bound lipids)
Source % + SD % + SD
evaluating viscosity of flour slurries [124].
Comparing 9 barley genotypes and 10 oat genotypes at
Dal two locations for 2 years indicated that the total r,-glucan
Groats 8.0 0.75 1.6 0.22 content of oat and barley genotypes was similar when
Hulls 2.3 0.71 0.6 0.06 compared across genotypes [125]. However, the soluble 13-
Bran 9.5 0.21 1.2 0.14
glucan of oat genotypes was higher than that of the barley
Endosperm 6.8 0.25 1.0 0.11
genotypes. Beer et al. [126] extracted P-glucan from oat
Scutellum 20.6 2.04 2.8 0.80
Embryonic axis 12.6 1.63 3.3 1.00
and barley by hot water and found that the molecular
Froker weight of P-glucan extracted from oat was higher than that
Groats 5.5 0.30 1.4 0.35 of f3-glucan extracted from barley. The molecular weight
Hulls 2.0 0.11 0.6 0.06 of 13-glucan extracted from a cooked muffin by an in vitro
Bran 6.4 1.41 1.3 0.14 digestion system was lower when compared to the original
Endosperm 5.2 0.35 1.0 0.21 bran [127].
Scutellum 20.4 0.91 4.2 0.37 Lehtinen and Laakso [128] evaluated antioxidative-like
Embryonic axis 10.6 0.61 4.1 0.63 effects of cereal fractions in aqueous suspensions. An
Try basis. oat-water suspension was the most effective of barley,
bWater saturated n-butanol. wheat, or rye for inhibition of linoleic acid oxidation. The
Source: Ref. 107. inhibitory capabilities were highest for soluble fiber and
Oats 141

TABLE 14 Distribution of Lipid Components in Oat Groat Fractions from Two Cultivars in Two Crop Years
(% of total lipids)
Embryonic
Component Groats Bran Endosperm Scutellum axis
Triglycerides 41 39 41 50 58
1,3-Diglycerides 2 2 2 1 2
1,2-Diglycerides 1 1 1 2 2
Free fatty acids 5 3 3 2 2
Sterols 1 1 1 1 1
Sterol glucosides 1 1 1 1 1
Monogalactosyl-monoglycerides 4 4 5 -
Digalactosyl-diglycerides 7 9 8
Phosphatidyl-ethanolamine 2 3 2 1 1
Lysophosphatidyl-ethanolamine 1 2 2
Phosphatidyl-choline 5 4 4 3 3
Lysophosphatidyl-choline 2 3 3 -
Components not measured 28 28 27 39 30
Source: Ref. 108.

fiber. Inhibition was related to the capability of the flour to TABLE 16 Mineral Concentration of Bran
bind linoleic acid from the aqueous system. and Endosperm Fractions of Dal Oats
Bran Endosperm
D. Minerals
P (%) 1.02 0.26
Morgan [129] surveyed the mineral content of 171 oat K (%) 1.00 0.16
samples and found that oats can contribute significantly to Mg (%) 0.38 0.07
mineral nutrition (Table 15). Peterson et al. [130] deter- Ca (%) 0.11 0.02
mined the mineral composition of the bran and endosperm Fe (ppm) 89.8 18.2
portions of oats and found that the mineral components are Zn (ppm) 58.5 24.3
concentrated in the bran fraction (Table 16). Since oats are Mn (ppm) 87.8 30.8
Cu (ppm) 4.93 2.82
normally consumed as a whole grain, oat products can
B (ppm) 2.82 0.00
contribute significantly to human nutrition. Peterson et
Ba (ppm) 2.50 0.10
al.'s study [130] also indicated genetic variability among
Source: Ref. 130.

TABLE 15 Mineral Content of 171 cultivars for mineral content, suggesting that mineral nutri-
Welsh Oat Samples
tion could be improved by breeding.
Mean Range
E. Vitamins
Ca (%) 0.11 0.07-0.18
Mg (%) 0.13 0.10-0.18 Shukla [131] summarized the vitamin composition infor-
K (%) 0.47 0.31-0.65 mation available for groats and rolled oats (Table 17). Oat
Na (%) 0.02 0.004-0.06 products can contribute significant amounts of thiamine
P (%) 0.38 0.29-0.59 and pantothenic acid to human nutrition.
Cl (%) 0.09 0.04-0.18
Cu (ppm) 4.7 3.0-8.2
Co (ppm) 0.05 0.02-0.17 VI. PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION
Mn (ppm) 45 22-79
Utilization of oats for food and other industrial products
Zn (ppm) 37 21-70
was extensively reviewed by Shukla [131]. Webster [132]
Source: Ref. 129. has published a more recent review of oat utilization.
142
TABLE 17 Vitamin Content of Groat and
Rolled Oats
Rolled oats
Vitamin Groat (mg/g) (mg/g)
Thiamine (B1) 0.77 0.67
Riboflavin (B2) 0.14 0.14
Niacin 0.97 0.98
Pantothenic acid 1.36 1.48
Pyridoxine (B6) 0.12 0.13
Folic acid 0.06
Tocopherol (E) 1.94
Source: Ref. 131.
A. Utilization
Although recent interest has increased the demand for oats
as a human food, the largest portion of the U.S. oat crop is
still used as livestock feed (Table 6). Many livestock pro-
ducers recognize the unique nutritional value of oats, espe-
cially for classes of livestock that require feed with a rela-
tively high level of good-quality protein but with lower
energy content. Most horse owners prefer oats over other
grains because their bulky hulls produce a loose mass that
is easily digested [133,134]. Delisle et al. [135] evaluated
using an oat protein concentrate to replace skimmed milk
powder in milk replacers for piglets. Hulless oats provide
an energy-dense animal feed and have a high protein-re-
placement value relative to other feed grains [11]. Experi-
ence with storage of naked oats under various conditions
indicates that hydrolytic rancidity of hulless oats will ex-
ceed that of whole oats only if the grain was severely
bruised [136]. Rancidity is not likely to be a problem in
hulless oats if they are stored at 10.5% moisture.
Most oats used as food are consumed as whole grain
products so that the nutritional quality characteristics of
the groat are reflected in the food product. The major food
uses of oats are in hot cereals, cold cereals, bread products,
cookies, and infant foods [132]. Rolled oats are mostly
used in hot cereals, but recognition of the nutritional qual-
ity of oat bran has greatly increased its consumption as a
hot cereal. Oat flour is often used as an ingredient in cold
cereals. Oat products are often used in bakery items to pro-
duce a desired texture or to increase moisture retention.
The demand for foods containing oat products has in-
creased substantially since the health benefit of including
oat products was demonstrated [55]. Oat bran is enriched
in soluble fiber that is active in lowering blood serum cho-
lesterol levels. D' Appolonia and Youngs [137] found that
addition of oat bran to bread dough increased farinograph
absorption and produced doughs with good stability but
decreased loaf volume.
McMullen
Unique antioxidant properties have been attributed to
oat flour [104,128]. Oat flour was formerly used commer-
cially as an antioxidant but has been largely replaced by
butylated hydroxyanisole BHA and butylated hydroxy-
toluene BHT. Compounds that contribute to oat antioxi-
dant properties include glyceryl esters of hydroxycinnamic
acid, ferulic, and caffeic acids.
Wood et al. [138] found that oat gums produce viscosi-
ties in solution that equal or exceed other biological col-
loids. When dissolved in hot water the gums produce high-
ly viscous solutions that slowly lose viscosity on standing
and may have potential for use as an industrial hydrocol-
loid.
Oat hulls contain an average of 29.5% pentosans, which
are used in the manufacture of furfural through a series of
reactions initiated by the hydrolysis of pentosans and com-
pleted by a complex cyclodehydration to furfural [139].
Oat hulls have cariostatic properties, which may provide
the potential to produce sweeteners used in chewing gum
to provide protection from dental caries.
B. Processing
Deane and Commers [140] provided a detailed description
of oat cleaning and processing. Much of the information in
the following discussion of processing is taken from their
description. Many different procedures can be used in the
cleaning and processing of oats, and each processor, de-
pending on the size of operation and market requirments,
has preferred methods to achieve maximum efficiency.
Even with the great diversity of approaches, some opera-
tions are essential in the milling process and must be ad-
dressed for efficient processing and production of a quality
product. The general steps in oat processing are cleaning,
hulling, steaming, and flaking. Oats must be cleaned and
graded for size prior to hulling for efficient operation of the
huller. Groats must be steamed to inactivate lipolytic en-
zymes, which will result in rancidity and short shelf life of
the product if the enzymes are activated during cutting and
rolling of the groats. The products of oat milling and aver-
age percentages expected from the milling process are as
follows: rolled oat, 45-60%; oat hulls, 24-27%; feed oats
10-20%; mixed grains and seeds, 2-3%; and fines, 2-5%
[83]. These values will vary with the quality of the oats and
the overall efficiency of the milling operation.
1. Cleaning
Preliminary cleaning of field oats received at the process-
ing plant usually involves passing the oats over a perforat-
ed inclined screen of a receiving separator or a horizontal,
slowly rotating, coarse wire-mesh reels or cylinders of a
scalper-reel—type receiving separator. The perforations al-
low the oats to fall through while the coarse impurities
Oats
such as straw and sticks are overtailed. Aspiration is usual-
ly used in the preliminary cleaning process to remove
some light impurities. The preliminary cleaning is intend-
ed to be rapid enough for use when unloading trucks or
railroad cars. After the preliminary cleaning, the oats are
usually graded and binned by degree of contamination,
milling yield, and moisture content so that the oats in each
bin are relatively uniform. The processing equipment will
require less frequent adjustment if the oats being processed
have consistent quality. The binned oats are stored until
needed for further processing.
After the preliminary cleaning, the first step in oat pro-
cessing is a specialized cleaning system that may involve
various types of cleaners to remove all grain and seed im-
purities, and other undesirable materials are separated
from the oats before milling. Oats that are not suitable for
milling are also removed in this step. These include bosom
oats, pin oats, light oats, and other undesirable types of
oats.
The next step usually involves a milling separator com-
bining coarse and fine screening with aspiration. In the
milling separator the oats and fine material fall through the
top sieve layer, which is clothed with perforated sheet met-
al or wire mesh to provide a close scalping operation onto
the lower sieve layer with finer screens for removal of
fines. After the milling separator cleaning, various special-
ized cleaning machines are employed for further cleaning
and grading. These machines include disk and indented
cylinder separators that perform length separation of parti-
cles, a width sizer that separates grains when their length is
the same but their width is different, a gravity separator
that separates impurities that have a different specific grav-
ity than oats, and a paddy separator, which is used to sepa-
rate materials of nearly equal size, shape, and specific
gravity but that have different surface texture. The cleaning
machines can be used in various combinations but usually
involve the use of the disc or indented cylinder separators
to first separate the grain into large and small fractions.
From the disc separators, the large and small fractions pass
to the width sizer and then to the gravity table. The objec-
tive of cleaning and grading is to produce well-cleaned
oats graded according to size for hulling or hull removal.
2. Drying and Cooling
Oats are heated prior to dehulling to partially inactivate the
lipase enzymes, which will prevent development of unde-
sirable flavors during and after processing. The heating
also develops a slightly roasted flavor considered desirable
by most processors. Heating also makes the oat hulls more
brittle for easier hulling. During the heating, the tempera-
ture of the oats usually ranges from 88 to 93°C and mois-
ture content is reduced to the 7-10% range. The oats are
cooled before further processing.
143
3. Hulling
Impact hullers have replaced stone hullers. The dried,
graded oats enter the center of a high-speed rotor fitted
with fins that centrifugally throw the oats against a car-
borundum or hard rubber ring on the machine housing,
where the hulls are separated from the groats by impact
and abrasion. Rotor speed, which is usually between 1400
and 2000 rpm, is adjusted to obtain maximum efficiency
depending on the condition of the oats. The hard rubber
ring on the dehuller is preferred by some millers to reduce
the breakage of groats and less formation of fines. The
hulls and fines are separated from the stream by aspiration.
The groats are polished with mild abrasion in a scourer,
which is a horizontal cylinder lined with a moderately
rough material. A horizontal shaft with inclined blades
conveys the groats against the rough surface, removing
any small pieces of husk still adhering to the groats. Aspi-
ration removes the husk pieces. Disc or indented cylinder
separators are used to separate the unhulled oats from the
groats. Use of the paddy separator may be necessary since
the unhulled oats are often clipped in the hulling operation
so that they are nearly the same length as the groats. The
recovered unhulled oats are passed through the huller a
second time.
4. Cutting and Flaking
Whole groats produce very large flakes when rolled, so
groats are usually cut into two to four uniform pieces be-
fore rolling. Cutting in a rotary granulator is achieved by
passing the groats through a rotating drum with counter-
sunk holes that align the oats so that the end passes through
the hole against stationary knives on the outside and bot-
tom of the drum. As the tip of the groat passes through the
perforation, it is sheared off by the knife. The fines pro-
duced by the cutting operation are removed using a shaker
screen. The fines consist of oat middlings and flour and are
used to produce high-quality animal feed. The cut groats
are conditioned for flaking by steaming with live steam.
The heat and moisture serve to bind the flattened groat to-
gether and prevent disintegration during the flaking
process. Consistent and homogeneous heat and moisture
distribution are essential to produce a good yield of quality
flakes. The steaming also completes the inactivation of the
lipase enzymes. The cut groats are retained in a steamer for
about 12-15 minutes, during which time the temperature
of the groats is increased to 99-104°C.
The steamed groats pass directly to the rolls from the
steamer. The rolls run at the same speed in the same direc-
tion and rotate at 250-450 rpm. Cut groats are rolled into
thin flakes (0.10-0.015 in.) for instant or quick-cooking
oatmeal. Flakes marketed as regular oatmeal are about
50-75% thicker. After the rolls the flakes pass over a shak-
er screen, where fines are removed and agglomerations of
144
overcooked flakes are scalped off. The flakes are cooled to
around 43°C and are ready for packing.
5. Oat Flour
The same procedures are used to produce oat flour that are
used to produce flakes. The oats are cleaned and graded,
dried, and hulled and cleaned to produce groats. The groats
are steamed before milling to improve the stability and
complete the inactivation of lipolytic enzymes. A rotary
granulator is used to cut the groats after they are steamed.
The cut groats are ground with an impact-type hammer
mill, and the ground product is sifted on a gyratory sifter
equipped with wire meshes to separate the oat flour frac-
tion according to the granulation requirements.
6. Oat Bran and Novel Products
The American Association of Cereal Chemists developed
the following definition of oat bran: "Oat bran is the food
which is produced by grinding clean oat groats or rolled
oats and separating the resulting oat flour by sieving, bolt-
ing and/or other suitable means into fractions such that the
oat bran fraction is not more than 50% of the starting ma-
terial, and has a total 13-glucan content of at least 5.5% (dry
weight basis) and a total dietary fiber content of at least
16% (dry weight basis), and such that at least one third of
total dietary fiber is soluble fiber."
Oat bran is generally produced by coarse grinding oat
groats and sieving to remove the flour that will contain
starchy endosperm. The resulting coarse oat fraction that
does not pass through the sieve is enriched in f3-glucan and
can be processed to meet the oat bran definition [143].
Other processes involving air classification of ground oat
fractions or aqueous processing may be applied to produce
products with unique properties.
Many products that are potentially useful in human nu-
trition can be derived from oats [144]. Dietary fiber com-
ponents derived from oats function to reduce serum cho-
lesterol. Tocopherol and other natural antioxidants may
find increased use in human nutrition. The value of biolog-
ically active minor components of oats in human nutrition
remains to be discovered.
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5
SORGHUM
Lloyd W. Rooney
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
Sergio Othon Serna-Saldivar
Instituto Tecnologic° y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Monterrey, N.L. Mexico
I. INTRODUCTION
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a unique cereal
due to its drought tolerance and adaptation to tropical con-
ditions. Because of these characteristics, sorghum is main-
ly utilized as a subsistence and cash crop in arid regions.
To assure grain supply in semi-arid tropical agricultural
systems, sorghum is often intercropped with maize,
legumes, and millets. Among cereals, sorghum ranks fifth,
with 69.1 million metric tons total production in 1996 [34].
The major sorghum-producing centers are in Asia and
Africa (55% of total production), although about 29% of
the world supply of sorghum is grown in the United States
(Table 1). Production in the United States is concentrated
in Kansas, Texas, Nebraska, and Missouri.
Sorghum is the major food staple in many African
countries and India where agricultural and environmental
conditions are unfavorable for the production of other
crops. In the Western Hemisphere, where 42.3% of
sorghum is produced, it is a major ingredient in livestock
feeds. In Latin America, sorghum grits have been used as
an adjunct for brewing European barley beers. Sorghum
utilization directly for human foods is limited in the West-
ern Hemisphere, but it is increasing. Sorghum tortillas are
consumed in some areas of Central America. Sorghum
flour and grits have been used in breads and as a rice-like
product. Pitimi, a thick porridge made from boiled
sorghum grits, is used extensively in Haiti.
149
Sorghums are referred to as grain sorghums, forage
sorghums, sweet sorghums, and grassy or grazing types.
Grain sorghum refers to short, mechanically harvested
sorghum varieties, whereas forage sorghums are tall and
yield fodder and grain for livestock and foods. Sweet
sorghums produce a juice high in soluble carbohydrates
that can be further processed into syrups and sugar or fer-
mented into alcohol. Grassy types of sorghums are used
for grazing, silage, or hay crops. The stalks and roots of tall
sorghums grown in Africa and India are used as fuel and
building material. Special sorghums are used for roasting
in the dough stage in India and Ethiopia. Some of these
have increased levels of sugar and free amino acids. Waxy
and yellow endosperm types are available. Sorghum ashes
are leached to produce alkali, which is utilized in some tra-
ditional food systems.
Sorghum has been classified as high- and low-tannin
types [28,41,42]. Brown or high-tannin sorghums have a
reduced nutritional value and are grown because of their
agronomic advantages, including bird resistance and de-
creased weathering, mold infestation, and grain sprouting.
Because the "low-tannin" types do not contain any con-
densed tannins, they should be referred to as sorghums
without tannins, but this is unlikely to happen since so
many publications report tannins in sorghums. These are
really phenols and not tannins since there is no tannic acid
in sorghums. Sorghums without pigmented testa have a
nutritional value similar to that of maize (Zea mays).
150 Rooney and Serna-Saldivar

TABLE 1 Statistics of Sorghum Production, 1996

Area harvested Yield Total production
Country (1000 ha) (kg/ha) (1000 MT)
Africa 24,243 843 20,434
Nigeria 6,196,000 1,144 7,084
Sudan 6,289,080 634 3,987
Ethiopia 1,760 1,125 1,980
North and Central America 6,794 3,780 25,678
United States 4,816 4,235 20,397
Mexico 1,574 3,061 4,817
South America 1,164 3,034 3,531
Argentina 550 3,876 2,132
Asia 14,041 1,229 17,252
India 11,700 897 10,500
China 1,222 4,726 5,778
Europe 148 4,234 630
Oceania 770 2,067 1,593
Australia 770 2,067 1,592
World 47,204 1,465 69,147
Developed countries 5,953 3,885 23,128
Developing countries 41,252 1,116 46,018
Source: Ref. 33.

White sorghums without a pigmented testa are the most
suitable for use in traditional food systems, although red
and brown sorghums are preferred for some foods.
II. ORIGIN
Sorghum originated in Africa and Asia, where it has been
grown for more than 2000 years. More than 42,000 selec-
tions are present in the world sorghum collection in India.
This gene bank is used by plant breeders to improve the
crop. Sorghum was introduced to the United States in the
middle of the last century and was first cultivated on the At-
lantic coast. By 1900, sorghum production spread to the
southwest and California [77]. The successful development
of sorghum hybrids in the 1950s increased production in the
United States, Argentina, and Mexico, where sorghum is
the second most important cereal. Hybrid sorghum out-
yields corn in regions where irrigation water is scarce. In
Mexico, sorghum is grown under irrigation because the hy-
brids are more productive than corn hybrids.
III. STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
The sorghum kernel is a naked caryopsis with a thousand
kernel weight that varies from 3 to 80 g. The size and
shape of the grain varies widely among sorghums in the
world collection. Grains of commercial sorghum hybrids
have a flattened-spherical shape 4 mm long, 2 mm wide,
and 2.5 mm thick with a thousand kernel weight of 25-35
g. Test weight and grain density generally range from 55 to
61 lb/bu and 1.26 to 1.38 g/cc, respectively.
The sorghum kernel is composed of three main anatom-
ical parts: pericarp (outer layer), endosperm (storage tis-
sue), and germ (embryo) (Fig. 1). The relative proportions
of these components vary, but in most cases they account
for 6, 84, and 10% of the kernel, respectively. The pericarp
originates from the ovary wall and is subdivided into three
parts: epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The epicarp is the
outermost layer and is generally covered with a thin waxy
film. The middle structure or mesocarp varies in thickness
from a few remnant cells with few starch granules to three
to four cell layers containing many starch granules. Thick
pericarps are referred to as chalky [93]. Sorghum is the
only cereal grain known to have starch in this anatomical
part. The endocarp is composed of cross and tube cells. A
stylar area is located on the tip of the caryopsis, opposite
the germ.
The hilum or black layer is the scar tissue that develops
when the caryopsis reaches physiological maturity. The
seed coat or testa is a thick pigmented layer present only in
sorghums with dominant B i_B2_ genes [13]. These sor-
ghums are higher in tannins when a dominant S gene is
present. The "low-tannin" sorghums do not contain a pig-
mented testa, which is the major way of identifying tannin
or brown sorghums.
Sorghum 151

FIGURE 1 Structure of the mature sorghum kernel: (A) cross section, (B) pericarp, (C) peripheral endosperm, (D) comeous en-
dosperm, (E) floury endosperm. P = Pericarp; PE = peripheral endosperm; C = corneous endosperm; F = floury endosperm; G = germ; E
= epicarp; M = mesocarp; CC = cross cells; T = tube cells; Te = testa; A = aleurone; S = starch granule; PB = protein body; PM = protein
matrix; Cw = cell wall.

The endosperm, composed of the aleurone layer, pe-
ripheral, corneous, and floury areas, is the major storage
tissue. The aleurone layer is composed of a single layer of
rectangular cells adjacent to the tube cells or pigmented
testa (if present). Aleurone cells contain spherosomes or
oil bodies, enzymes, and many protein bodies with inclu-
sions containing phytic acid, phosphorus, and minerals.
Phytin bodies are also present.
The relative proportions of protein and starch in the en-
dosperm is the most important factor affecting grain hard-
ness and density. Each endosperm cell is composed of a
thin cell wall, protein matrix, protein bodies, and starch
152
granules. The diameter of starch granules varies from 4 to
25 p.m (average 15 pm). In the corneous endosperm, the
protein has a continuous interface between the starch gran-
ules with protein bodies embedded in the protein matrix.
The outer portion of the corneous endosperm, called pe-
ripheral endosperm, consists of several layers of densely
packed cells containing large quantities of protein and
starch granules. Starch granules in the corneous en-
dosperm are polygonal and often contain dents where pro-
tein bodies were embedded in the starch. The corneous en-
dosperm is translucent (vitreous). On the other hand, the
floury endosperm has a discontinuous protein network
with loosely packed starch granules in the endosperm
cells. Thus, small voids occur between the spherical starch
granules and particles of protein matrix. The voids diffract
light and result in opaque or chalky appearance when
viewed with transmitted light [76,85].
The germ is composed of two major parts: the embry-
onic axis and the scutellum. The embryonic axis, plumu-
lae, and primary root develop into the new plant, whereas
the scutellum is a reserve tissue with large amounts of oil
(spherosomes), protein, enzymes, and minerals. The germ
proteins are of excellent nutritional quality, with high lev-
els of lysine and tryptophan.
IV. APPEARANCE OF SORGHUM GRAIN
AND ITS GENETICS
Pericarp color, pericarp thickness, presence of the pig-
mented testa and endosperm, and testa and glume color are
the main genetic factors affecting grain appearance [84].
Grain appearance is also affected by environmental factors
such as insect damage, mold infestation, and weathering. It
is impossible to judge pericarp and seed color when grain
is moldy and off-color.
Pericarp color is controlled by R and Y genes. The com-
bination of these genes can produce a white (R_ yy or
rryy), lemon-yellow (rrY_), or red (R_Y J color. Grain
color and appearance are influenced by the presence of the
testa and the condition of the spreader gene. The testa is
controlled by B1_B2 _ genes. The pigmented testa is absent
when the genes are homozygous recessive (b1b1b2b2,
B1_b2b2, or b1b1B2 _).
Another gene, tp tp, controls the color of the testa,
which is brown or purple. Sorghums with pigmented testa
(B1_B2 _; S_) are classified as type III and are the brown,
bird-resistant sorghums. The Z gene controls pericarp
thickness, which affects kernel appearance. Sorghums that
are homozygous recessive (zz) have a thick pericarp and
chalky kernel appearance, which masks the testa and en-
dosperm color [84].
Endosperm color (e.g., yellow) can affect grain appear-
ance, especially in those sorghums with a thin pericarp
Rooney and Serna-Saldivar
without a pigmented testa. In the United States, yellow en-
dosperm sorghums are referred to as cream, white, or
bronze hybrids depending on pericarp color or thickness
and intensity of the yellow endosperm. Heteroyellow en-
dosperm sorghums are hybrids with one yellow and one
nonyellow parent. Food-type sorghums are defined as
those that have white pericarp, no pigmented testa, a white
endosperm, and tan secondary plant color with straw-col-
ored glumes. White sorghums with purple or red plant col-
or are not considered as food-type sorghums [89]. Waxy
and heterowaxy hybrids have 0 and 15% amylose contents
in the starch, respectively. The heterowaxy hybrid results
from a cross of a waxy and nonwaxy sorghum.
Several environmental factors affect grain appearance.
An environment that is hot and humid during grain matu-
ration negatively affects grain quality due to grain weath-
ering and deterioration, which results from insect and mold
attack. Insect-attacked grain secretes phenolic compounds,
which produce pigmented spots in the affected areas. The
anthocyanin pigments migrate deep inside the starch en-
dosperm and are not removed by milling. Molds discolor
grain, break down the kernel, reduce hardness, and signifi-
cantly affect processing qualities.
V. SORGHUM MARKET CLASSES
The U.S. Federal Grain Inspection Service (GIPSA) cur-
rently recognizes four market classes of sorghum: tannin
(brown) sorghums have kernels with a thick pigmented
testa; white sorghums have kernels with white pericarp
without pigmented testa and contain no more than 2% of
kernels with colored pericarp or pigmented testa; sorghum
(formerly called yellow) contains kernels of any pericarp
color but cannot contain more than 3% tannin (brown)
sorghum kernels; and a mixed class where the sorghum
does not meet requirements for any of the three previous
classes. The tannin sorghum class would contain 90% or
more kernels with a pigmented testa. Most sorghum mar-
keted in the United States is classified as "sorghum." Table
2 shows the current U.S. grade requirements for all classes
of sorghum [108]. Grade is determined by bushel weight,
damaged and broken kernels, foreign material, and other
factors. Tannin (brown) sorghums contain condensed tan-
nins that negatively affect nutritional value. The white and
sorghum classes cannot contain more than 2 and 3% of
tannin sorghums, respectively. Moisture is not a part of the
grade. Tannin sorghums are determined by using a bleach
test to look for kernels with the pigmented testa—they ap-
pear dark after bleaching [108,110].
VII. COMPOSITION
Sorghum composition (Table 3) varies significantly due to
genetics and environment. For example, high-nitrogen fer-
Sorghum 153

TABLE 2 U.S. Grade Requirements for Sorghum' TABLE 3 Typical Composition of Sorghum Grain
Broken kernels Number
Damaged kernel and foreign Mean Range of samples
material
Minimum Heat- Proximate analysis
test weight Total damaged Total F.M. Protein (N x 6.25), % 11.6 8.1-16.8 1463
Grade (lb/bu) (%) (%) (%) (%) Ether extract, % 3.4 1.4-6.2 1462
Crude fiber, % 2.7 0.4-7.3 1383
U.S. No. 1 57.0 2.0 0.2 4.0 1.5 Ash, % 2.2 1.2-7.1 1436
U.S. No. 2 55.0 5.0 0.5 7.0 2.5 Nitrogen-free
U.S. No. 3b 53.0 10.0 1.0 10.0 3.5 extract%a 79.5 65.3-81.0 1372
U.S. No. 4 51.0 15.0 3.0 13.0 4.5 Fiber, %
'U.S. sample grade is sorghum that (a) does not meet the requirement Dietary insoluble 7.2 6.5-7.9 2
for U.S. grades 1, 2, 3, or 4, (b) contains 7 or more stones that have an Dietary soluble 1.1 1.0-1.2 2
aggregate weight in excess of 0.2% of the sample weights, one or more Acid detergent 3.3 2.9-3.6 2
pieces of glass, two or more crotalaria seed (Crotalaria spp.), one or Protein fractionation
more castor beans (Riccinus comunis), three or more particles of an un- Prolamine, % 52.7 39.3-72.9 5
known foreign substance(s) or a commonly recognized harmful or tox- Glutelins, % 34.4 23.5-45.0 5
ic substance(s), seven or more cocklebur (Xanthium spp.), or similar Albumins, % 5.7 1.6-9.2 5
seeds singly or in combination, 9 or more rodent pellets, bird droppings,
Globulins, % 7.1 1.9-10.3 5
or equivalent quantity of animal filth per 1000 g of sorghum or (c) has a
musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except smut
Essential amino acids" (g AA/100 g protein)
odor), or (d) is badly weathered, heating or otherwise of distinctly low Lysine 2.1 1.6-2.6 640
quality. Leucine 14.2 10.2-15.4 582
"Sorghum that is distinctly discolored shall be graded not higher than Phenylalaninec 5.1 3.8-5.5 582
U.S. No. 3. Valine 5.4 .0-5.8 582
Source: Ref. 108. Tryptophan 1.0 0.7-1.3 92
Methionined 1.0 0.8-2.0 582
Threonine 3.3 2.4-3.7 582
tilizer levels increase grain protein content and decrease Histidinee 2.1 1.7-2.3 582
the amount of starch (NFE) in the grain. The prolamine Isoleucine 4.1 2.9-4.8 582
protein fraction, which is very low in lysine, increases pre- All values are expressed on dry matter basis.
dominantly with increased grain protein content; therefore, 'Calculated by difference.
the lysine proportion of the higher protein grain does not 'FAO/WHO [33] suggested pattern (g AA/100 g protein): lysine, 5.44;
increase. High-lysine sorghum types exist, but they are not leucine, 7.04; phenylalanine + tyrosine, 6.08; valine, 4.96; tryptophan,
0.96; methionine + cysteine, 3.52; threonine, 4.0; isoleucine, 4.0.
grown because of reduced grain yields and soft-floury en-
Thenylalanine requirement can be partially spared by tyrosine.
dosperm characteristics. aMethionine requirement can be partially spared by cysteine.
Sorghum is similar in composition to corn. Starch is the aHistidine is considered an essential amino acid only for children.
major grain component followed by protein. Most Source: Adapted from Refs. 9 and 85.
sorghum starches contain 70-80% branched amylopectin
and 20-30% amylose. However, waxy or glutinous
sorghum contains starch with 100% amylopectin and has sine. Kafirins are found mainly in the protein bodies and
unique properties similar to those of waxy corn for indus- increase with increased levels of protein in the grain.
trial and feed use. Glutelins are the second major protein fraction and the
Generally, sorghum contains 1% less fat and more wax- most difficult to extract. Glutelins are isolated after being
es than corn. The waxes are located on the outer part of the solubilized in dilute alkali or acid solutions. Better fraction
pericarp and protect the kernel. They have properties use- yields are obtained when mercaptoethanol is utilized to
ful in shoe polish but are present in very low levels and so break disulfide bonds. Glutelins are high molecular weight
are difficult to commercialize. Protein content of sorghum proteins that form the structure of the endosperm (protein
is more variable and is usually 1-2% points higher than matrix). Albumins and globulins are soluble in water and
corn. dilute salt solutions, respectively. These fractions predom-
Approximately 80, 16, and 3% of the protein is in the inate in the germ and have the highest quantities of lysine.
endosperm, germ, and pericarp, respectively [105]. The kafirins consist of a, (3, and y types that are similar
Kafirins, alcohol-soluble proteins, comprise 50% or more to the a, [3, and 7 zeins of maize [45,100,101]. The major
of the protein. The kafirins are hydrophobic, rich in pro- kafirin, a, is located in the interior of the protein bodies,
line, aspartic acid and glutamic acid, and contain little ly- while the [3- and 7-kafirins are located in the periphery. The
154 Rooney and Serna-Saldivar

y- and f3-kafirins have high levels of cysteine and undergo ble and alkali-soluble pentosans, respectively. Most sor-
cross-linking through disulfide linkages, which form a pro- ghum pentosans are located in the pericarp and consist
tective cap around the oc-kafirins and retards their diges- almost entirely of the alkali-soluble fraction. The carbohy-
tion. The effect of cooking is dramatic because heating in drate content of the pentosans ranged from 68 to 85%; glu-
water promotes disulfide bond formation, significantly re- cose and arabinose were found in the largest quantities
ducing in vitro protein digestibility. It is important to rec- [49].
ognize that extrusion cooking, fermentation, cooking and Sorghum contains high levels of insoluble fiber with
grinding (e.g., masa production), and other processes used low levels of soluble fiber and has low levels of 13-glucans.
to produce traditional foods result in relatively high pro- Most of the crude fiber is present in the pericarp and en-
tein digestibilities. In addition, swine-feeding trials show dosperm cell walls. The fiber is composed mainly of cellu-
clearly that sorghum proteins are only slightly less di- lose, hemicellulose, and small quantities of lignin. This
gestible than maize proteins when they are based on fraction is generally associated with phenolic compounds,
ground raw grain, alkaline cooked or processed sorghum, such as ferulic and caffeic acids [87]. Some of the high-
and maize [14,96,97]. tannin sorghums have higher levels of dietary fiber be-
Nutritionally, sorghum protein is first limiting in lysine cause of complexes between sorghum tannins and proteins
followed by threonine. Lysine of sorghum protein provides [9].
about 45% of the recommended FAO/WHO requirement Germ and aleurone layers are the main contributors to
(5.44 g/100 g protein) [33]. Although not commercially the lipid fraction. The germ itself provides about 80% of
grown, high-lysine sorghum seed contains approximately the total oil. The fatty acid composition consists primarily
52% more lysine than its normal counterpart [69]. of linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids [91] (Table 5). Refined
Table 4 compares soluble sugars of sorghums with dif- commercial sorghum oil and corn oil can be used inter-
ferent endosperm types, including high-lysine sorghum. changeably.
The total sugar content varies according to the stage of Table 6 shows the average mineral and vitamin compo-
grain development. The sugar content decreases as the sitions of sorghum grain. The calcium content is low, and
grain approaches physiological maturity. Sucrose, glucose, most of the phosphorus is found in the phytic acid mole-
and fructose are the major soluble sugars found in physio- cules. The composition of phytin in sorghum is similar to
logically matured kernels [103]. Maltose is a minor com- that in corn [60].
ponent of the soluble sugar fraction. Sugary sorghums
contain approximately twice as many sugars as normal VIII. TANNINS AND POLYPHENOLS AFFECT
sorghum. Raffinose and glucose/fructose are present in SORGHUM QUALITY AND
high amounts in sugary types compared to normal sor- NUTRITIONAL VALUE
ghum.
All sorghums contain phenols, which affect the color, ap-
The major pentosan fraction of sorghum is water solu-
pearance, and nutritional quality of the grain. Phenolic
ble. The whole grain contains 0.9% and 0.42% water-solu-
compounds can be subdivided into three groups: phenolic
acids, flavonoids, and tannins. All sorghums contain phe-
nolic acids and most contain flavonoids, but only brown
TABLE 4 Soluble Sugar Composition of Sorghum Grainsa sorghums (types II and III) contain condensed tannins. The
Glucose
Sorghum and
type Total Stachyose Raffinose Sucrose fructose TABLE 5 Typical Fatty Acid Composition of
Sorghum Lipids
Normalb 2.25 0.10 0.23 1.68 0.25
Normal` 1.34 0.06 0.15 0.61 0.52 Component Sorghum (%)
Sugarya 2.21 0.06 0.39 0.81 0.95
Ether extract 3.4
High 14.3
Palmitic (16:0)
lysinea 2.57 0.11 0.39 0.94 1.13
Palmitoleic (16:1) 1.0
'Values are expressed as percentage (g/100 g). Sugars were extracted with Stearic (18:0) 2.1
80% ethanol and estimated colorimetrically by the phenol-sulfuric acid Oleic (18:1) 31.0
method. Linoleic (18:2) 49.0
b Information obtained from Subramanian et al. [103]. Average of 10 Linolenic (18:3) 2.7
sorghum cultivars (range of hard to soft endosperm) grown at ICRISAT, Arachidic (20:0) 0.2
Patancheru, India.
`Information obtained from Murty et al. [69]. High-lysine data is the av- Fatty acid composition is expressed as percent of total.
erage of two lines. Source: Ref. 91.
Sorghum 155

TABLE 6 Mineral and Vitamin Composition of 3'

Sorghum Grain 2',
"
1 B
Sorghum 0
3 2 3 2 C2N 5'
Whole Decorticated' CH=CHCOOH COOH A I 6'
5 6 5 6 C3
Minerals C/
4
Calcium, % 0.05 0.03 A B
Phosphorus, % 0.35 0.35 C
Potassium, % 0.38 0.37
Sodium, % 0.05
Magnesium, % 0.19 0.02
Iron, mg/kg 50.00 50.00 HO
Cobalt, mg/kg 3.10
Copper, mg/kg 10.80 7.92
Manganese, mg/kg 16.30 18.70
Zinc, mg/kg 15.40
Vitamins
Thiamine, mg/kg 4.62 4.84
Riboflavin, mg/kg 1.54 1.76 OH
Niacin, mg/kg 48.40 53.24
Pyridoxine, mg/kg 5.94 10.34
Pantothenic acid, mg/kg 12.54 12.76
Choline, mg/kg 761.20 FIGURE 2 Basic structure of phenolic acids (A and B),
Biotin, mg/kg 2.90 flavonoids (C), and tannins (D). A = Cinnamic acid; B = benzoic
Folic acid, mg/kg 0.20 acid. The major flavonoid groups are: flavanones (carbonyl at 4),
Carotene, mg/kgb 1.32 flavonols (carbonyl at 4, hydroxyl at 3), flavones (carbonyl at 4
double bond between 2 and 3), and flavans (no carbonyl at 4).
All values are expressed on dry matter basis. The major flavans are leucoanthocyanidins (hydroxyls at 3 and 4)
aThe extent of decortication is not reported.
and catechin (hydroxyl at 3, double bond between 3 and 4). D =
bSorghums with yellow and heteroyellow endosperms have a higher
amount of carotenes. Carotenes are precursors of vitamin A. Proanthocyanidin (tannin) polymer (n = 2-4). (Adapted from
Source: Adapted from Refs. 22 and 65. Ref. 42.)

These chemical assays usually correlate well with the

phenolic acids are derivatives of benzoic or cinnamic acid
(Fig. 2). Flavonoids consist of two units: a C6-C3 frag-
ment from cinnamic and a C6 fragment from malonyl-
CoA (see Fig. 2). The major groups of flavonoids in
sorghum are the flavans. Flavan-3-en-3-ols (double bond
between C3 and C4; hydroxylated at C3) are anthocyani-
dins [28]. Tannins are oligomers of five to seven flavan-3-
ol units (Fig. 2). In strong acids, such oligomers depoly-
merize to yield anthocyanidin.
Tannins protect the kernel against attack by insects,
birds, and microorganisms. In addition, the rate of prehar-
vest germination is significantly lower for most high-tan-
nin sorghums. Unfortunately, these agronomic advantages
are accompanied by nutritional disadvantages and lower
food quality [15,42]. For example, alkaline food products
(i.e., tortillas and to) produced from high-tannin grains or
flour usually have undesirable off-colors.
Several techniques are currently used to characterize
phenolic compounds in sorghum grain [15,28,42]. Most
tannin assays measure the level of phenols in sorghum,
which may or may not be condensed tannins (Table 7).
time-consuming measurements of antinutritional effects as
determined with feeding tests [15], but they are not accu-
rate enough to use to discount the price of high-tannin
grains. In Table 8, the catechin equivalents for different
types of sorghums (I, II, III) measured by different tech-
niques [28] show that significant levels of "tannins" are re-
ported in type I sorghums even though it is known that
condensed tannins are not present in type I sorghums.
IX. INDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION
A. Wet Milling
Sorghum was commercially processed into traditional wet
milling products at Corpus Christi, Texas, for 22 years. In
1975, sorghum wet milling was discontinued because
sorghum prices increased to a level similar to maize. Re-
cently, Caransa and Bakker [16] reported the establishment
of a modern sorghum starch plant in the Sudan with a pro-
duction capacity of 150 tons per day.
The procedure for sorghum wet milling is very similar
156 Rooney and Serna-Saldivar

TABLE 7 Assays Used to Determine Phenols and Tannins of Sorghum

Method Standard Reagents Extraction Time Assayed compounds
Vanillin Catechin 4% HC1, 1% vanillin Methanol 1% HC1 24 h 20 min Leucoanthocyanidins,
in methanol in methanol proanthocyanidins
(tannins)
Prussian Blue Catechin FeC13 in HC1 Methanol 1 min Total phenols
Folin-Denis Tannic acid Folin-Denis reagent Water 5h All reducing substances
Protein precipitation Tannic acid FeC13, alkaline detergent Methanol 20 min Proanthocyanidins
(tannins)
Folin-Ciocalteu Catechin or gallic Folin-Ciocalteu reagent Methanol 1% HC1 in 1 h 2 h Total phenols
acid methanol, dimethyl-
formamide
Relative degree of 4% HC1, 0.5% vanillin Methanol 20 min Anthocyanidins,
polymerization in acetic acid, 4% HC1 proanthocyanidins,
in acetic acid leucoanthocyanidins
Source: Ref. 42.

TABLE 8 Polyphenol Levels of Three Groups of Sorghum

Vanillin-HCI Modified vanillin-HC1
a-Amylase
Sorghum types Prussian Blue With blank Without blank With blank Without blank 24 h inhibition
Group I
Mean 0.07 0.03 0.12 0.02 0.37 0.55 3.7
Range 0.04-0.09 0.01-0.04 0.05-0.24 0.01-0.03 0.20-0.58 0.33-0.96 1.8-15.4
Group II
Mean 0.07 0.03 0.19 0.07 0.52 0.98 6.0
Range 0.05-0.09 0.02-0.04 0.09-0.52 0.02-0.19 0.34-0.88 0.68-0.98 2.3-15.8
Group III
Mean 0.39 2.39 2.68 1.10 1.75 2.14 31.7
Range 0.24-0.99 0.88-6.67 1.12-7.45 0.36-3.48 1.00-4.85 1.49-4.85 13.9-77.0
All values except for % a-amylase inbibition are expressed in mg catechin per 100 mg sample.
'Group I are sorghums without testa; Group II are sorghums with pigmented testa without a dominant spreader gene; Group III are sorghums with pig-
mented testa and dominant spreader gene. The Group I sorghums do not contain condensed tannins.
Source: Ref. 28.

to the one used for maize [111]. A diagram of the process is
shown in Figure 3. According to Watson [111], the major
difference between maize and sorghum wet milling is the
difficulty of separating sorghum starch and gluten. The
sorghum pericarp is more fragile than the pericarp of
maize, thus small pericarp particles impede the separation
of the starch and protein and give the starch an off-color.
The properties of sorghum starch and oil are similar to
those of corn. However, sorghum starch must be bleached
to remove polyphenols, takes slightly more energy to cook,
and is more difficult to recover in high yields. Other differ-
ences include reduced yields of sorghum oil compared to
corn oil, more refining needed for sorghum oils, and no
carotenoid pigments in the gluten. The intense yellow col-
or of corn gluten is highly desired by the broiler industry
for pigmentation of chickens prior to slaughtering. Even
yellow endosperm sorghums lack sufficient pigmentation.
Due to its smaller kernel size, sorghum requires more
grinding teeth in the plates of the degerminating mills and
changes in the steeping time to increase the disruption of
the sorghum during grinding [16].
The economics of using sorghum for wet milling could
be improved if new cultivars with improved properties are
developed. Yellow endosperm sorghum hybrids with sig-
nificantly improved wet-milling properties have been iden-
tified [73]. A plentiful supply of sorghum at low cost com-
pared to corn is necessary for economical wet milling of
sorghum.
Sorghum 157

Cleaning
(Screening, Air Aspiration, Magnetic Separators, Gravity Tables)

Stories, Impurities, Other

grains, Metallic

SO2 Steeping
(Countercurrent Advance Battery Operation)
30-40 hr, 48-52°C, 0.05-0.2% SO2, steep water:grain = 5:1

.1mil•4- Steep liquid

STEEPED SORGHUM
45% moisture, U.2-0.4 g S02/kg grain, 6-6.5% dry matter loss

Degermination
(Plate Mill)

Germ Separation with Hydroclones

momill•imme.SORGHUM GERM
i
Attrition Grinding

Screenin Washing

".
""'"'"•••••n •••0-FIBER (PERICARP)
/
Hydroclones

407r .4% Sk.

GLUTEN STARCH
(d = 1.1 g/cc) (d = 1.5 g/cc)

1 1
Drying Washing Cyclone

GLUTEN Drying

STARCH

FIGURE 3 Flow chart of the commercial wet milling process for sorghum grain. (Adapted from Ref. 111.)

B. Sorghum Starches
Nonwaxy and waxy sorghum starches were produced
commercially in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s.
The sorghum starch had properties and uses similar to corn
starch [53,111]. Table 9 summarizes starch properties of
waxy and normal sorghum starches. Starch from waxy
sorghum is notable for paste clarity, high water-binding ca-
pacity, and resistance to gel formation and retrogradation.
The pastes are rather stringy and cohesive [2,3,46,55,
83,94].
Enzymatic conversion of sorghum starch to liquid glu-
158 Rooney and Serna-Saldivar

TABLE 9 Properties of Starches from Normal and Waxy Sorghum

Sorghum Corn
Normal Waxy Normal Waxy
Gelatinization'
Temp. Range, °C 68.5-75.0 67.5-74.0 62.0-72.0 63.0-72.0
Swelling Powerb
@95°C 22 49 24 64
Solubilityb
@95°C 22 19 25 23
Amylograph behavior, Brabender units
Peak Viscosity' 386 896 295 680
Peak Viscosity' 750 1200
Viscosity @95°Cd 600 380
Viscosity after 1 h
@95°C 400 290
Viscosity @50°C 580 390
Viscosity after 1 h
@50°C 520 350

aKofler gelatinization temperature range. Information from Ref. 55.

°Estimated after 30 min heating at 95°C. Information from Ref. 55.
`Information from Ref. 46. Amylograph of a paste containing 6.6% solids. Nonwaxy and waxy sorghum values
are average of 5 and 3 cultivars, respectively.
dlnformation from Ref. 94. The nonwaxy and waxy slurries contained 34 and 35 g solids/500 mL, respectively.

core syrup can be achieved by heating a starch slurry (30%
w/v) at 105°C for 5 minutes, liquefying the gelatinized slur-
ry with TermamylTM (heat-stable oc-amylase) at 95°C for 2
hours at pH 6.5, cooling the slurry to 60°C, saccharifying
the liquefied media with amyloglucosidase for 72 hours, and
treating with activated charcoal to remove pigments [53].
The use of food sorghums may eliminate the need to remove
pigments since they are low in anthocyanins and produce
white starches without bleaching. Sorghum can be wet
milled, but the cost must be significantly lower than maize.
C. Dry Milling
The most highly refined sorghum products are produced by
abrasive removal of the pericarp followed by degermina-
tion and physical separation and/or classification of the
dry-milled fractions (Table 10). Most traditional African
and Indian foods are produced from decorticated sorghum,
which is milled into flour. Industrial sorghum decortication
involves the use of mills with abrasive disks or carborun-
dum stones [6,68,82]. Whole sorghum flour can be pro-
duced by the use of stone, hammer, pin, or roller mills In-
dian villages still use stone mills to produce a coarse flour
that is used for roti and sankati. Hammer, pin, and roller
mills are used to produce flours. Many sorghum flours im-
part a sandy texture to products unless care is taken to
control particle size. Most of the sorghum milled for pro-
duction of brewers' adjuncts is first decorticated, degermi-
nated by impaction, and separated into grits by gravity ta-
bles. Mechanical dehulling improves both the quantity and
quality of sorghum grits or flour [68]. Waxy sorghum grits
have advantages for brewing [32].
Soy-fortified sorghum grits (SFGS) have been supplied
by United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) to sorghum-consuming areas of Africa. SFGS
are cooked like rice or ground into flour for porridge and
eaten with a sauce. The nutritional value is similar to corn-
soy meal.
Several sorghum dry mills exist in the United States
that produce an array of industrial products and various
milled fractions, including grits, meal, dehulled whole ker-
nels, flours, and prepared mixes. Recently, bakery mixes
with sorghum flour produced from identity-preserved,
white, food-type sorghums has been marketed. These
products are aimed at special dietary groups such as celiac-
sprue (gluten-intolerant) patients and ethnic groups from
traditional sorghum growing areas who have migrated to
the United States. In Africa, many prepared packaged
flours, meals, and grits are available commercially. Most
of these are cooked as a rice-like product or used to pro-
duce thick or thin porridges.
D. Alcohol Production
Utilization of sorghum grain or sweet sorghum biomass
(Fig. 4) for ethanol production has been reviewed [19,23].
Sorghum 159

TABLE 10 Common Dry Milling Procedures for Sorghum

Milling operation Process Products Composition

Decortication/Degermination
Decortication
Roller milling
Semi-moist roller milling
The grain is tempered and
decorticated via an abrasive
process. Decorticated kernels
are degerminated by impaction
or pin milling. Fractions are
separated by sieving and gravity
separators.
Sorghum is decorticated by
abrasive mills, mortar and
pestle or mechanical dehullers
(rice mills; abrasive disk mills).
Tempering increases retention
of germ tissue with the kernel.
Sorghum is tempered and roller- High-extraction flours (90%
milled with wheat milling
equipment.
Sorghum is tempered to 30-
35% moisture and milled
using wheat flour rollers.
16, 7, 4, 23, and 50% yields of Fat content was 9, 15, 3.0, 0.5,
feed, germ, flour, +20 grits,
and +14 grits are obtained
respectively from yellow
sorghum.
Decorticated whole grain,
brokens, flour, and/or meal
depending upon the method
of grinding. Normally, 10-15% germ remains with the
of kernel weight, mainly
pericarp tissue, is removed.
yield) and lower-extraction
flours (70%) produced.
A whiter improved flour is
produced even from brown
sorghums
and 0.8 dry wt for feed, germ,
flour, +20 grits, and +14 grits,
respectively.
Composition depends upon the
degree of decortication.
Usually a significant amount of
endosperm so the products
contain 2% fat or more.
Keeping properties of the flour
are poor.
The 70% and 90% extraction
flours have 2 and 2.8% fat,
respectively.
The method is experimental
currently but may be useful
and practical since wheat flour
mills exist.

Source: Refs. 6, 68, 70, and 90.

Data provided by Coble et al. [19] indicated that one ton of
maize grain produces 387 L of 182 proof alcohol, whereas
the same amount of sorghum grain produces 372 L. A
bushel of sorghum (56 lb) produces about 2.5 gallons of al-
cohol. The fermentation of the grain produces distillers'
grain, which has a protein content of about 30% (N x
6.25). Sorghum is used extensively for alcohol production
in Kansas and Nebraska, where it is significantly less ex-
pensive than corn or wheat. The whole grain is ground, ge-
latinized, and converted to fermentable carbohydrates with
enzymes. By-products are fed to livestock.
The commercial technology required to ferment sweet
sorghum biomass into alcohol has been perfected in Brazil
[92]. Sweet sorghum crops have the potential to yield
22-45 tons/ha in 110 days. The percentage of fermentable
solids is 11.2% (2.5-5 tons/ha), which are composed of
80% soluble sugars and 20% starch. Therefore, to optimize
ethanol production, both liquefying and saccharifying en-
zymes are required [10,19]. One ton of sweet sorghum
stalks has the potential to yield 74 L of 200 proof alcohol.
In China and Taiwan, distilled spirits from fermented
sorghum grain are produced. They are referred to as
sorghum wine or Maltai. The alcohol content is around
60% or higher; this liquor commands a high price. The
production is similar to that of sake from rice in that the
sorghum is inoculated with a starter, which produces the
a- and [3-amylases needed to convert the starch into fer-
mentable sugars. The fermented material is distilled to pro-
duce the liquor. The Chinese often use Kaoilang, which is
a brown, high-tannin sorghum; however, others including
waxy sorghums are used.
Conventional procedures are used to produce distilled
spirits from sorghum if it is the least expensive carbohy-
drate source. Gin, whisky, vodka, and other distilled bever-
ages may contain alcohol from sorghum.
E. Use of Sorghum for Beer and Malt
1. Lager Beer
Major breweries in Mexico, Africa (especially Nigeria),
and Asia use sorghum grits as an inexpensive source of fer-
mentable carbohydrates in brewing barley beer. The most
desirable grit has light color, bland flavor, low oil content,
and high extract levels. In most cases red sorghums are
used, but white sorghums with tan plant color and straw-
colored glumes are preferred due to their improved milling
properties, which produce high yields of excellent quality
grits [32,89]. Major problems with sorghum grits are vari-
ation in run-off time, level of phenols, color, and grit
yields. These problems can be overcome by selecting
sorghum samples based on hardness and milling perfor-
mance. Weathering of sorghum reduces grit yields signifi-
160 Rooney and Serna-Saldivar

SORGHUM GRAIN SWEET SORGHUM BIOMASS

1 I
Grinding Stalk Chopping/Juice Extraction
(Hammer mill; 3 mm screen)
Easiwwwwwwwo-Baggase

Steam Cooking-Starch Gelatinization Steam Cooking 100°C for 1 hr)

(1.8 I water/kg grain)

Liquefying Starch Conversion Cooling

(94°C/1 hr)

Cooling Liquefying-Saccharifying Enzymes

(rate 0.5°C/min; 0.75 L cold water
/Kg grain)

Drop mash pH Screening

(Sulfuric Acid 5.0-5.4)

Add Distillers Yeast

Fermentation
(3 days @ 35-37°C)

Steam Distillation

, milimio.Distillers By-Products
/
ALCOHOL (180 proof)

FIGURE 4 Flow chart of the process to produce ethanol from sorghum grain or sweet sorghum biomass. (Adapted from Refs. 19
and 23.)

cantly and affects brewing properties. Recent changes in
Mexico have led to reduced use of sorghum as a brewing
adjunct. Economics and availability of a consistent supply
of good quality grain is critical. Sorghum grits, some with
high oil content, are used with industrial enzymes to pro-
duce a clear lager beer in Nigeria. This development was
initiated due to the Nigerian government's ban on importa-
tion of barley and barley malt.
2. Sorghum Malt
Sorghum malt is produced by traditional village processes
and on an industrial basis in Africa [26] and India [53,59].
A good sorghum variety for malting should produce high
diastatic activity with proper modification of the en-
dosperm after germination. The sorghum diastatic activity
(DP), measured as sorghum diastatic units (SDU), devel-
oped during malting depends on temperature, moisture
content, duration of malting, germination level, and type of
grain used. Sorghum malt is usually high in a-amylase and
too low in [3-amylase for use in brewing lager beer.
Sorghum does not respond to giberillins used in steeping.
Temperatures for steeping and germination of sorghum are
25-30°C, which is much higher than required for barley
malt. Losses during the malting of sorghum are about 20%.
Free amino nitrogen (FAN) is important as a source of ni-
trogen for yeast growth.
Traditional and industrial sorghum malting involves the
following steps: (1) steeping (1-3 days), (2) germination
(2-6 days), (3) sun-drying, and (4) grinding with a mortar
and pestle (Fig. 5). The industrial process steeps the
Sorghum
SORGHUM
Cleaning
Steeping 16 hr in Excess Water at 28-30°C
Germination
(Germination Beds; 6 days @ 25-30°C)
Kilning
(Hot air)
Grinding
(Hammer Mill)
Storage/Bagging
SORGHUM MALT
FIGURE 5 Typical industrial process for production of
sorghum malt. (Adapted from Ref. 74.)
sorghum in special aerated tanks. Germination is done in a
battery operation on concrete floors where the grain is
turned regularly and transferred daily to another bed; the
malt is dried by sun or hot air [26]. Other systems utilize
special humidity- and temperature-controlled Saladin box-
es that provide aeration and turning. These produce malt
with improved, more consistent quality. Different varieties
of sorghum have significantly different malting properties.
Usually kernels with softer endosperm with a bright red
pericarp without a pigmented testa are preferred. The floor
malt usually has low SDU levels and is used for home
brewing, while controlled aeration and temperatures pro-
duce high-SDU malts that are used in commercial brewing.
Roasted sorghum malt with a strong flavor and aroma is
used for breakfast cereals in southern African countries. In
India, sorghum grain is used to produce malt for weaning
foods and other products [53,59]. In Nigeria, sorghum malt
is used to produce excellent nonalcoholic beverages and
weaning foods such as MILO and Bournvita. Sorghum
malt is also used to prepare weaning foods with increased
nutrient density because the a-amylase can liquefy gelati-
nized starchy pastes rapidly [7].
161
3. Clear Sorghum Beer
Some African governments (e.g., Nigeria) restricted the
importation of barley and barley malt so that new tech-
nologies have been developed to produce European-type
beers (clear beer) from sorghum and maize grits treated
with commercial amylases, sorghum malt, or a combina-
tion of barley, sorghum malt, and commercial enzymes.
Clear beer (Fig. 6) is brewed using sorghum malt, sorghum
grits, and additional saccharifying enzymes. The gelati-
nized adjuncts are solubilized by the sorghum malt and en-
zymes during mashing. After filtration, the wort is fer-
mented with yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to yield
green beer, which is aged, carbonated, filtered, and bottled.
The alcohol content (3.9%), pH (4.6), color, and foam sta-
bility of sorghum clear beer is similar to that of barley
lager beer [52]. The beverage has a unique, acceptable
taste that is different from European barley beer. Clear
beer is currently made predominantly from sorghum and
maize grits converted with commercial enzymes [10]. The
high dry matter losses during malting (20%) and low [3-
amylase activity are major disadvantages involved in using
sorghum malt. In addition, adequate quantities of accept-
able sorghum for malting are difficult to obtain.
4. Sour, Opaque Beer
The opaque beer industry in southern Africa is of major
significance as an industrial user of sorghum. Tribal brew-
ing evolved into commercial production of opaque beer.
Different types of opaque beer are produced (e.g., Reef,
Juba, Kimberley). Some commercial large-scale opera-
tions produce dry sorghum beer powder, which can be
used to produce beer by dissolving the powder in water to
initiate fermentation.
The general procedure for the production of opaque
sorghum beer is presented in Figure 7. In contrast with Eu-
ropean brewing, in sour, opaque African beer there are two
mashing and two fermentation steps, which are not com-
pletely separated. A mixture of sorghum malt and water is
soured by lactic acid fermentation, which decreases the
pH. The second mashing step starts when sorghum malt is
added to convert the cooked adjunct (usually maize grits)
into fermentable carbohydrates. Control of the mash pH is
critically important because it affects viscosity, sugar con-
centration, and alcohol yield. The wort is obtained after a
differential centrifugation in which the very coarse cereal
particles (e.g., pericarp, plumules) are separated. In con-
trast to European brewing, the wort is not pasteurized and
hops are not utilized. The wort is inoculated with bakers'
yeast to undergo alcoholic fermentation [26].
Opaque sour beer contains 2-4% alcohol, 0.3-0.6%
lactic acid, and 10% solids with an acidic pH (3.3-3.5). It
is consumed while undergoing active fermentation. The
beer is opaque with a pale buff to pinkish-brown color.
162 Rooney and Serna-Saldivar

SORGHUM MALT ADJUNCT

(i.e. Corn or Sorghum Grits)

Add WATER/Sacchari fyi ng ENZYMES

Mashing
(Controlled Cooking)

Filtration
m'imimmilmul•mm•01,-Spent Grains

WORT

Boiling/Add HOPS

Cooling/Filtration
u•Immimilmmilisi.Spent Grains
j
Pitching with YEAST

Fermentation
(2-3 days;20°C)

Filtration

Chill (1-2°C)

Filtration

Carbonation

Aging
(3-5°C; 3-12 weeks)

Bottling

CLEAR BEER

FIGURE 6 Brewing process for the production of clear lager sorghum beer. (Adapted from Ref. 53.)

Opaque beer is more viscous than barley beer and is gener-
ally served warm. Throughout storage, beer after-souring
can occur due to residual enzyme activity, which promotes
growth of mesophilic heterofermentative organisms that
produce acetic acid. Thus the beer quality changes over
time and eventually is lost. Opaque sorghum beer is a good
source of vitamins, minerals, proteins, and carbohydrates
that are solubilized during malting and brewing [26]. Gen-
erally, sorghums with bright red pericarp without a pig-
mented testa with an intermediate endosperm are preferred
for malting. Brown sorghums (high tannin) are malted af-
ter treatment with formaldehyde to eliminate condensed
tannins.
In some areas of Africa, a beer that is not intentionally
soured is brewed using sorghum malt. It has a slightly
sweet taste and a turbid or cloudy appearance because
Sorghum 163

SORGHUM MALT ADJUNCTS

(Corn or Sorghum)

Grinding Grinding

Mix with Water Cooki ny

(Boiling Water)

Mix (1:1) at 37°C

Souring
(Lactic Acid Fermentation; 24 hr)

I
Boiling/Cooling

Add MALT

Differential Centrifugation

Coarse particles
( peri carp , sprouts)

WORT

Add Bakers YEAST

Alcoholic Fermentation
(21-30°C; 2 days)

1
Package in Milk Cartons or Bulk
Shipment in Tanker Trucks

I
OPAQUE BEER

FIGURE 7 Brewing process for the production of opaque sorghum beer. (Adapted from Ref. 74.)

most of the spent grains are removed prior to fermentation.
The beer quality changes from morning until evening,
when it becomes sour and often has an off-flavor. Usually
it will be drunk prior to this time. Children are often given
the sweet wort to drink.
X. PROCESSING FOR USE IN FEEDS
Sorghum and maize are major ingredients in swine, poul-
try, and cattle feeds in the Western Hemisphere [14]. Gen-
erally, U.S. No. 2 sorghum is utilized. Most of the sorghum
fed to monogastrics is ground by hammer-milling In the
United States, large feedlots containing 200,000 cattle use
sophisticated processes to improve palatability, enhance
consumption, and improve nutritional efficiency of high-
concentrate rations (Table 11). Steam flaking is the most
widely used method of processing sorghum and corn in
feedlots [63,64]. For sorghum, optimum feed efficiency is
achieved with a very thin flake in which the endosperm
structure is thoroughly disrupted. Of all cereals, sorghum
requires more through processing to achieve optimum re-
sults. Some of the yellow endosperm and new food-type
164 Rooney and Serna-Saldivar

TABLE 11 Common Methods of Processing Sorghum for Use in Livestock Feed

Category Type of process Procedure
Mechanical action Grinding/Rolling Particle size reduction using hammer,
plate, pin, or roller mills.
Wet process Reconstitution Increase grain moisture to 25-30%. Wet
grain is anaerobically stored for 2-3
weeks prior to grinding and feeding.
Early harvest Grain is harvested at 20-30% moisture
and stored anaerobically or with
organic acids (e.g., propionic). Grain
is ground prior to or after storage.
Soaking Soak grain in water for 12-24 h. Feed
whole or crush.
Heat and moisture Steam-rolling Grain subjected to live steam (180°F)
3-5 min then rolled.
Steam-flaking Grain exposed to high moisture steam
for 5-15 min to reach 18-20%
moisture. Then grain is rolled to
desired flake thickness.
Pelleting Ground grain is conditioned with steam,
forced through a die, and pellets are
cooled.
Exploding Grain exposed to high-pressure steam,
the starch is gelatinized, the pressure
is decreased, and rapid expansion of
the kernel occurs.
Hot dry heat Popping Hot, dry air expansion of grain. Bulk
density is low. Density is increased
by spraying with water and rolling
sometimes.
Micronizing Heat grain with gas-fired infrared
burners to the point of eversion
followed by rolling through a roller
mill.
Source: From Refs. 14, 43, 44, and 86.
Characteristics
Most commonly used, least expensive.
Increase feed efficiency and
digestibility by 10-20% of whole
grain.
Improves feed efficiency about 10-15%
over dry ground grain due to higher
protein and energy digestibility.
Similar to reconstitution.
Tendency for grain to ferment or sour.
Only limited use.
Slight increase over dry rolling. Reduces
fines and dust.
Most common method in feedlots. Thin
flaking of sorghum increases
digestibility and feed efficiency equal
to that of reconstitution.
Reduces dust, improves palatability,
uniformity, and handling of feeds.
Prevents segregation of
micronutrients.
Similar to puffing of cereals for breakfast
foods. Feed efficiency is similar to
steam flaked or reconstituted grain.
Ruptures endosperm increasing starch
availability. Feed efficiency is similar
to steam flaking or reconstitution.
Feed efficiency similar to steam flaking,
exploding or popping. Bulk density
similar to steam-flaked grain.

sorghums, especially waxy endosperm types, have im-
proved feed-processing properties [62].
Moist, dry, and semi-moist pet foods contain sorghum at
various levels depending upon the formulation. The avail-
ability of new food-type sorghums with light color and
bland flavor will lead to more use of sorghum in pet foods.
Xl. PROCESSING FOR FOOD
A. Traditional Food Systems
Sorghum is processed into many different traditional foods
around the world (Table 12). About 30-40% of world
sorghum production is consumed directly by humans
[71,88].
For the production of most traditional foods, sorghum is
decorticated using a wooden mortar and pestle. Hand-
decortication is a laborious chore generally done by house-
wives. Sorghums with thick pericarp and hard endosperm
are preferred because they are easier to decorticate [93]. In
some instances, mechanical dehullers are used to service
small villages and urban areas. Milling yields are related to
kernel hardness, size, and shape. Most of the sorghums are
milled to remove 10-30% of the original weight. The use
of diesel or electrically powered abrasive mills for de-
hulling and grinding has been increasing slowly.
Sorghum
Porridges are used extensively for sorghum foods. They
are eaten three times a day in various forms with suitable
sauces, milk, etc. Couscous is a favorite product in west
Africa that is made from sorghum, millet, and maize
[35,36]. It is made by agglomerating flour with water,
steaming the covered flour, mixing and sizing the partially
cooked flour, and addition of mucilaginous material during
final steaming. It is consumed with a sauce. Sometimes the
couscous is dried and used as a convenience food. Meth-
ods to produce couscous more efficiently have been de-
vised and are used in Senegal, Niger, Benin, and other
parts of Africa.
Parboiling has been used to produce good products
from sorghum and millet [98,113]. The cooked product has
excellent texture and color, provided that a good-quality
sorghum is used.
B. Sorghum in Baked and Pasta Products
Sorghum flour does not contain proteins that produce the
viscoelastic gluten of wheat; therefore, acceptable yeast-
leavened products from sorghum flour are difficult if not
impossible to obtain. However, sorghum and wheat flour
blends have been used to produce an array of baked prod-
ucts including yeast-leavened breads, cakes, muffins,
cookies, biscuits, flour tortillas, and others [67,90,99,104,
107]. The level of sorghum substituted for wheat flour de-
pends upon the strength and quality of gluten in the wheat
flour, the baking procedure, the definition of acceptable
bread, the color and particle size of the sorghum flour, and
the use of gums, emulsifiers, and other additives. Usually
5-50% sorghum flour is substituted for wheat flour. The
particle size of sorghum can increase the grittiness of
baked products; however, tempering and other modifica-
tions during processing can partially modify the sandiness
of the flour.
Composite blends of maize and sorghum masa have
produced acceptable tortillas when white pericarp grains
from tan plant sorghums with a bland flavor are used. This
is done commercially by villagers in Central America and
southern Mexico [5,18]. Sorghum requires less lime and
reduced cooking time for nixtamalization because of its
smaller kernel [38]. Serna-Saldivar et al. [99] produced ac-
ceptable tortilla chips from blends containing 50%
sorghum/50% maize. Flour from white sorghum can re-
place up to 20% of wheat flour for the production of flour
tortillas [107]. The use of sorghum flour in baked products
depends on the availability of consistent quality flour with
desired functionality at reduced cost versus wheat flour.
The advantage of sorghum over maize in composite flours
is its bland taste. Maize has a strong flavor that masks oth-
er cereals.
165
Sorghum grain, grits, and meal can easily be extruded,
flaked, puffed, micronized, and shredded to produce a
wide array of ready-to-eat breakfast foods, snacks, and
other products. The bland flavor and light color of food-
type sorghums permits blending with other ingredients to
provide substantial improvement in organoleptic proper-
ties in composite products [39]. Micronized waxy sorghum
flakes have made excellent granola bars [24]. Jowar crunch
is an interesting snack prepared from alkaline cooked,
dried sorghum pellets that are puffed by frying or hot air
[104]. Pop sorghum varieties are used in India and Africa
[106].
Noodles from 100% sorghum flour have been made us-
ing modified techniques used to produce starch-based
noodles like rice, mung bean, and sweet potatoes [54].
The sorghum flour color and particle size is critically
important, and the noodle quality is affected by drying
procedures [54,56]. Noodles from 100% sorghum flour
were not equal in quality to rice noodles, but they were
edible and could be cooked without losing their tex-
ture. Faure [31] summarized research designed to pro-
duce pasta products from sorghum-wheat composite
flours. Sorghums with soft texture, yellow endosperm,
with white pericarp, and without pigmented testa pro-
duced the best pasta products. Obtaining optimum ge-
latinization of sorghum flour and avoiding the oxidation
of phenolic pigments that produce brown color in the
pasta is necessary. Commercial sorghum and maize pas-
ta made in Nigeria had good quality, but properly cook-
ing the dried pasta was critically important. Overcook-
ing produced poor texture because the structure dis-
solved.
C. Sorghum Syrup, Molasses, and Sugar
Sweet sorghum varieties that produce extra quantities of
sugar in the juice are used to produce sorghum syrup or
molasses (Fig. 8) in the southern United States. Sweet
sorghum plants are generally harvested when the grain is
in the dough stage [20]. Earlier harvesting usually causes
problems during syrup clarification due to excess chloro-
phyll pigments. Therefore, the color, clarity, and viscosity
of the syrup improves with plant maturity. Sorghum stalks
are processed immediately after harvesting to avoid respi-
ration losses and sucrose inversion. The juice is extracted
from stalks that have been previously stripped of leaves.
Generally, roller mills are used to extract the juice. Clari-
fication is usually done with heat, although some proces-
sors use clay to improve syrup clarity. Solids are concen-
trated by evaporating part of the juice until a syrup is
obtained. The finished product usually contains 74-78%
solids, 68% carbohydrates, and 2.4% ash [102]. A good-
166 Rooney and Serna-Saldivar

TABLE 12 Traditional Foods Made with Sorghum

Type of food Common names Countries Description

Unfermented Chapati, roti, India Flour (95-100% extraction) is mixed with water and kneaded into a dough;
bread rotte dough is formed into a thin (1.3-3 mm) circular piece about 20-25 cm in
diameter. The dough piece is baked on a hot grill at 210°C for 25 s. Then the
outside is sprinkled with water; the dough piece is turned over and cooked for
25 s or until it puffs. Sorghums differ in extent of puffing, texture, color, taste,
and keeping quality. White sorghum makes the best chapati.
Tortilla Central A 3:1 ratio of lime solution to sorghum grain is cooked for 3-10 min at the
America, boiling point and steeped for at least 4 h. The lime solution contains 0.5% lime
Mexico based on grain weight. The cooked soaked nixtamal is washed with water,
ground into masa, and pressed into tortillas. The tortilla is baked on each side
for 30 s at about 210°C on a grill. Sorghum tortillas are off-colored compared
to those made with wbite maize. Usually mixtures of maize and sorghum are
used.
Fermented Kisra, dola, Africa, Whole sorghum is ground into a fin flour. A starter, which contains a
bread dosai Sudan, combination of yeast and Lactobacillus, usually obtained by saving part of the
India last batter, is mixed with water and flour (1:2:9 ratio, respectively) to form a
paste, which is fermented overnight. The fermented batter is fluid enough to be
spread in a thin layer on the surface of a hot griddle. The kisra is cooked for
about 30 s and removed from the grill. Good kisra is paper thin with a sour
taste and fermented flavor.
Injera Ethiopia Whole sorghum flour is mixed with about 40% of the total water and inoculum.
Usually starter from a previous batch is used. The mixture is kneaded into a
dough, which is fermented 12-48 h. Then about 10% of the fermented dough
is mixed with water and cooked. The cooked material is added to the
remaining dough with additional water. The batter is allowed to undergo
vigorous fermentation for 2 h; then it is poured in a thin layer onto a hot
griddle and baked. The injera is large (60 cm in diameter) and thin with a very
soft spongy texture and numerous "fish eyes" (4 eyes/cm2) on the surface.
Injera batter is thicker than that of kisra.
Stiff porridge Ugali, tuwo, sain, Africa, Decorticated sorghum flour in cool water is stirred into boiling water until a very
dalaki, aceda, atap, India, stiff paste is formed. The paste is stirred vigorously while it is cooked. The
bogobe, ting, tutu, Mexico, porridge is placed in a calabash (gourd), cooled for 1 h, and eaten by hand
kalo, kwon, karo, Central with a sauce. Sometimes acid or base is mixed into the cooking water. In Bur-
nshimba, nuchu, America kina Faso, tamarind pods are steeped overnight in the cooking water. In Mali,
t6, tuo, zaafi, alkali is added to the cooking water. Soured, fermented porridges are common
mato, asidah, in most countries. Granulation of the flour, composition of the sauce, and
sadza consistency of the porridge vary among countries and tribes within a country.
Thin porridge Uji, ambali, edi, eko, Africa, Decorticated sorghum flour in cool water is mixed into boiling water with stirring
kamu, nasha, India, until a thin paste is formed. The consistency is similar to that of cream. It is
obungi, bwa, kal, Mexico, made with acid or alkali in the cooking water. Sometimes a part of the flour is
obushera, atole Central fermented 24 h before cooking. Particle size varies. Flour is made from
America sprouted grain, pearled grain, or whole grain. The porridge is served with milk,
sour milk, sugar, honey, fruit, and other variations, depending on local
preference.
Thin porridge Ogi, oko, akamu Nigeria, Sorghum grains are steeped in water for 2-4 days at room temperature. The
kafa, koko akasa Ghana fermented grain is milled, and the bran is removed by screening. The sediment
in the pot is cooked in water to produce a porridge that is consumed warm or
cooled to form a gel or pudding. It is preferred as a weaning food and for
elderly people.
Sorghum 167

TABLE 12 Continued

Type of food Common names Countries Description

Steamed Couscous West Africa Finely ground sorghum or millet flour is kneaded with water until the flour
cooked particles agglomerate. Then the particles are forced through a coarse screen.
products The particles are steamed in a container with a perforated bottom, which is
placed on top of a pot filled with boiling water. Several times during steaming,
the couscous is removed from the pot, stirred, sieved, and returned to the
cooker. Usually, ground baobab leaves, okra, or some other additive is mixed
with the couscous during the final steaming. The cooked product is consumed
with a sauce or milk. Sometimes it is dried, stored, and used as a convenience
food.
Boiled whole Acha, sankati, Africa, Sorghums are pearled to remove the pericarp and cooked like rice. Special
or pearled mudde, kali, pitimi India, varieties of sorghum with a high proportion of corneous endosperm are
Haiti preferred. Whole grains are boiled, parched or steamed and consumed with
legumes or a sauce. Sorghum is mixed with rice as an extender.
Snack foods Worldwide Sorghums are popped, puffed, and parched. They may be consumed directly or
ground and mixed with other ingredients. Fried snacks are popular;
numerous variations exist.
Alcoholic Burukutu, dolo, West Africa Sorghum is steeped, germinated, and dried. Mash is prepared by mixing the
beverages pito, talla ground malt with water. The mixture is filtered to remove the bran. The wort is
boiled and inoculated with yeast from a previous batch of beer. Fermentation
occurs overnight. The actively fermenting beer is drunk the next day. Beer is a
Relatively clear red liquid with a sweet pleasant taste and low solids content.
Continued fermentation produces a sour taste. The beer is about 1-5% alcohol.
Sour/Opaque Marisa, busaa, Africa Ground sorghum malt is mixed with water, allowed to sour, boiled with adjunct
beers merrisa, urwaga, (corn grits), cooled to 60°C, and saccharified with more sorghum malt. Maize
mwenge, grits are often unavailable, so sorghum is used in many areas. The mixture is
munkoyo, banutu, filtered to remove the larger particles and fermented with top-fermenting yeast.
beer, kaffir beer, Beer has a high solids content with a sour taste and light pink color. It has the
sorghum beer, consistency of a milk shake. The alcohol content depends on fermentation time
utshwala, utywala, and ranges from 1 to 8% by volume.
ikigage

Source: Refs. 1, 11, 25, 36, 71, 76, 106, and 109.

quality sorghum syrup should be mild and sweet with a
light color.
Special sweet sorghums have been used to produce
crystalline sugar experimentally in the United States.
Smith [1021 summarized the technology, procedures, prob-
lems, and potential of using sweet sorghum for sugar. The
characteristics of sweet sorghum varieties for raw sugar
production are different from those desired for production
of syrup or alcohol. For example, sweet sorghum must
have a high content of sucrose in the stalks and low levels
of starch and aconitic acid. Sweet sorghum fields are not
burned because the leaves are too green. The main differ-
ence between sweet sorghum and beet and sugar cane re-
fining is the need to significantly reduce levels of starch
and aconitic acids, which impede sorghum sugar crystal-
lization. Juice extraction is identical to that used for sugar
cane. However, the raw juice from sweet sorghum is clari-
fied at higher pH (7.8) and at lower temperature (50-
58°C). Starch is flocculated and then removed by continu-
ous horizontal desludging centrifuges. About 90% of the
starch is removed during the first flocculation. More starch
is removed by adding more flocculent before syrup con-
centration. Sorghum syrup is concentrated by the use of
multiple effect evaporators. At 60-65% solids, the concen-
trated syrup is adjusted to pH 8.3, treated with calcium
chloride, and heated to 80-85°C to remove aconitic acid.
The insoluble calcium aconitate is removed and the clear
syrup is further evaporated and crystallized into sugar. One
ton of stalks produces 180-200 lb of sugar. Use of sweet
sorghums could extend the processing season for sugar
cane refineries, which could enhance the economics of
sugar production in some areas.
168 Rooney and Serna-Saldivar

SWEET SORGHUM TABLE 13 Comparison of the Nutritional Value of Yellow

and High-Tannin Sorghums with Maize Diets Fed to Swine
and Poultrya

Harvesting Sorghum
(Grain in Dough Stage)
Type I Type III Maize
Swine
1 Tannin contentb 0.85 3.28 0.01
Removal of LEAVES and HEADS
Digestibility
Energy % 88.8 84.9 88.8
Protein % 83.9 79.0 86.9
SORGHUM STALKS Digestible energy, kcal/g 3.97 3.82 4.02
Metabolizable energy, kcal/g 3.89 3.75 3.95
Feed-to-gain ratio 3.11 3.44 2.99
Juice Extraction imi liii-BAGASSE Poultry
(Roller Mills) Tannin contentb 0.03 4.80 0.00
Body weight gain, g/bird 512 473 506
Feed intake, g/bird 779 781 831
Feed to-grain ratio, 1-21 days 1.52 1.65 1.64
JUICE
'Swine and poultry data adapted from Refs. 21 and 27, respectively.
bExpressed as catechin equivalents without blanks subtracted. The type I
sorghums did not have any condensed tannins.
Clarification
(Application of Heat and Clay)

TABLE 14 Comparison of the Nutritional Value of Waxy and

I Nonwaxy Sorghum Grain Fed to Swine and Feedlot Steers
Evaporation by Boiling
Gain Feed/Intake
(g/day) (g/day) Feed/Grain

SORGHUM SYRUP Swine

Nonwaxy
FIGURE 8 Flow chart of sorghum syrup production. (Adapted endosperm 760 2550 3.35
from Ref. 20.) Waxy endosperm 840 2620 3.11
Feedlot steers
Nonwaxy
XII. NUTRITIONAL VALUE endosperm 878 7052 8.08
Waxy endosperm 1012 7073 6.95
Sorghum has proximate composition, amino acid contents, Nonwaxy
and nutritional value similar to corn. However, due to its endosperm 1398 12485 8.93
lower fat content, sorghum usually has lower gross, di- Waxy endosperm 1371 11350 8.28
gestible, and metabolizable energy levels than corn. In Nonwaxy
general, yellow sorghum has 95% the value of good yel- endosperm 1016 8476 8.35
Waxy endosperm 1144 8303 7.27
low dent corn for all livestock species. Feeding value of
sorghum hybrids has been improved relative to that of corn Source: Ref. 86.
hybrids during the past 20 years when brown, bird-resist-
ant high-tannin hybrids are excluded [86].
monogastrics, U.S. yellow (type I) and brown (high tannin,
A. Nutritional Value of Sorghum as
type III) sorghums have about 95 and 90% of the nutrition-
Livestock Feed
al value of corn, respectively. Brown sorghums generally
Animal feeding trials with swine, poultry, and feedlot have about 5 and 8% lower protein digestibility than yel-
steers have demonstrated that brown sorghums (type III) low sorghum and corn, respectively. Condensed tannins
have a lower protein digestibility and efficiency of feed bind dietary proteins and inhibit digestive enzymes
conversion than type I sorghums or corn (Table 13). For [17,21,48,66].
Sorghum
TABLE 15 Industrial Utilization of Sorghum
Building board Sorghum flour acid-modified binds
particles together
Ore refining Starch is used to separate particles
during refining
Foundry binders Adhesive to hold particles of sand
together to form molds
Packing materials Extruded flour or meal forms
biodegradable fill for cushioning
fragile components during transport
Building materials Sorghum stalks used as a veneer with
ground stalks forming the core
In ruminant diets, sorghum is generally processed more
rigorously than corn to disrupt the endosperm and improve
rates of nutrient digestibilities. In ruminants, processed
yellow sorghum had about 93-96% the value of corn. Ru-
minants fed brown sorghums have lower efficiency of feed
conversion than counterparts fed yellow sorghum or corn
[86].
Both monogastrics and ruminants fed waxy (100%
amylopectin) sorghum perform better than animals fed
nonwaxy (75% amylopectin, 25% amylose) sorghums
(Table 14). Animals gain weight faster and more efficient-
ly due to better rates of nutrient digestibilities. The nutri-
tional value of sorghum has been improved significantly
over the last 20 years.
Hoseney et al. [47] have presented an excellent review
of the nutritional value of sorghum grain. Following is a
summary of nutrition studies and the effects of processing
on the nutritional value of sorghum.
B. Human Digestibility Studies
Both livestock and human nutritionists recognize that the
protein digestibility of sorghum grain is slightly lower than
TABLE 16 Food Utilization of Sorghum
Flour, meal, grits, whole grain
Ethnic foods
Asian/African foods
Dietary foods Celiac-sprue patients utilize sorghum
gluten-free foods, i.e., breads,
cookies, snacks, ready-to-eat cereals,
pasta
Multigrain products Crackers, cookies, breads, cereals,
granolas
Sorghum molasses Sweetener, flavoring, used in or on
(syrup) baked products
Popped sorghum Grain parched/expanded in hot sands,
popped by hot air or in oil
169
that of other major cereals [14,22,29,51,86]. The proper
processing of sorghum is required to improve its digestibil-
ity. MacLean et al. [57,58], working with preschool chil-
dren, demonstrated that protein digestibility of sorghum
was significantly lower than other cereals and that
sorghum protein digestibility was considerably improved
when the grain was decorticated and extruded.
Sorghum proteins have reduced digestibility due to (1)
protein cross-linking [45], which lowers protein solubility,
(2) a stronger association of proteins with indigestible fiber
components [9,61], and (3) the presence of a high propor-
tion of peripheral endosperm with high levels of proteins
[86,114].
C. Effects of Processing
1. Effects of Sorghum Decortication
Most African and some Indian foods are processed from
decorticated sorghum, which reduces the amount of fiber,
minerals, proteins, and lysine significantly [29,30,95,96].
Eggum et al. [29] and Serna-Saldivar et al. [95,96] report-
ed 40% and 14% losses of lysine in manual sorghum
decortication (yield = 75-80%) and mechanical sorghum
decortication (yield = 90%), respectively. Nutrient di-
gestibilities of decorticated sorghums are slightly higher
than those of the parent whole grains, but nitrogen reten-
tion and protein efficiency ratios are considerably lower in
decorticated grain because germ, the grain fraction with
the highest amount of lysine [102], is partially lost.
Decortication of brown sorghums significantly reduces
the amount of condensed tannins and presumably can
overcome the deleterious effect of tannins on the nutrition-
al value of sorghum grain [72]. Stepwise removal of tan-
nins via decortication gradually increased the percentage
of nitrogen solubilized by pepsin and by trypsin-chy-
motrypsin. The decortication process reduced the tannin
content from 4.5 catechin equivalents to 0.2 in a kernel in
which 37% of its original weight was removed [17].
2. Effects of Cooking
When sorghum is cooked, the solubility of the proteins, es-
pecially that of prolamins, is altered. The amount of pro-
lamins extracted from sorghum is considerably reduced by
cooking (from 42 to 6%). Other cooked cereals have a re-
duced protein solubility, but the effect is considerably low-
er. Using SDS-PAGE and gel filtration chromatography,
sorghum proteins were shown to form intermolecular
disulfide bonds during cooking. The cross-linked protein
polymers occurred to a greater extent among glutelins fol-
lowed by prolamins. Treatment of glutelin and prolamin
extracts with mercaptoethanol improved protein digestibil-
ity of cooked sorghum to a level similar to that of the raw
grain [112,114].
170
3. Effects of Alkaline or Acid Treatment
Sorghum is cooked with alkali (e.g., ashes and lime) for
the production of popular traditional food systems such as
to, nixtamalized porridges, and tortillas. Such cooking
conditions have a slightly detrimental effect on protein
quality or availability [95,96]. Sorghum tortillas and ugali
have lower protein digestibilities than their corresponding
raw grain. On the other hand, lime cooking increases the
bioavailability of niacin in corn, but no studies have been
conducted on sorghum. Lime cooking also notably in-
creases the amount of calcium, one of the most important
and limiting minerals in childhood nutrition.
Porridges cooked in an acidic medium (acid to, acid
ugali, etc.) show no decrease in protein digestibility com-
pared to that of the uncooked sorghum flour [29].
4. Effects of Fermentation
According to Graham et al. [40], a traditional Sudanese
fermented food called Nasha had a better nutritional value
than the original grain source. The increased nitrogen uti-
lization was due to an increased rate of protein digestibili-
ty. Axtell et al. [8] found that kisra and abrey, two ferment-
ed sorghum products, were more digestible than the
unfermented grains. Aliya and Geervani [4] concluded that
rats fed fermented sorghum had better protein digestibili-
ties, nitrogen retention (biological value and net protein
utilization), and protein efficiency ratios than counterparts
fed unfermented grain.
5. High-Tannin Sorghum
Several studies have demonstrated that high-tannin
sorghums have lower nutritional value than sorghums
without tannins [48,61,66]. Mitaru et al. [66], working
with ileum-cannulated swine, found that reconstitution of
sorghum grain improved nutrient digestibilities of high-
tannin grain. Hydrophobic bonding between proteins and
tannins forms indigestible complexes in the digestive tract
of pigs. The treatment of high-tannin sorghum grain with
K2CO3, NH4OH, or NaHCO3 lowers the amount of as-
sayable tannins and improves the nutritional value of the
grain to a point that is equivalent to that of sorghum with-
out tannins [15,78,79]. Grain germination also lowers tan-
nins with a corresponding improvement in its nutritional
value [15,47,51].
6. Effects of Protein Fortification
The protein quality of sorghum is limited by the amount
and bioavailability of lysine. Addition of synthetic lysine
to increase dietary lysine content to 0.75% considerably
improved protein efficiency ratio of a sorghum-based diet
(1.36 vs. 2.11). The addition of roasted or boiled Indian
legumes (Bengal gram, Cicerarientum; black gram, Pha-
seolus mungus; red gram, Cajanus cajun; cowpea, Vignia
Rooney and Serna-Saldivar
unguiclata; soybeans, Glycine max, and green gram,
Phaseolus radentus) to a basal diet in which sorghum pro-
vided two thirds of the protein and the legume the other
third considerably improved dietary protein quality
[80,81]. In most cases, addition of raw legumes to the
basal diet did not improve the overall protein quality. Fur-
ther studies with Indian children demonstrated that ad-
dition of black or red gram to a sorghum-based diet
considerably improved both the nutritional status and an-
thropometric measurements of the children on the supple-
mented diets [80,81]. Addition of 8% defatted soybean
meal to maize/sorghum tortillas doubled the amount of ly-
sine, improved nitrogen-retention values, and considerably
improved the protein efficiency ratio [1.02 vs. 2.25] of tor-
tillas fed to weanling rats [97].
Sorghum is slightly lower in nutritional value than most
other cereals, and it must be properly processed to improve
its digestibility. Large numbers of healthy sorghum con-
sumers in Africa and Asia demonstrate that sorghum is a
useful staple cereal when consumed with appropriate lev-
els of legumes or other supplemental proteins.
XIII. MOLDS AND MYCOTOXINS
IN SORGHUM
Unlike maize, sorghum grain does not develop significant
quantities of aflatoxins or fumonisins in the field prior to
harvest [37,50]. These differences between maize and
sorghum are highly significant in drought-prone areas.
For example, Texas had serious aflatoxin damage to corn
prior to harvest during the 1990s. The levels were exces-
sive in maize, while sorghum was free of aflatoxin in the
field. Sorghum stored improperly at high moisture levels
develops high levels of aflatoxins. In fact, recent cases
of sorghum containing aflatoxins that were said to be
in the grain in the field probably developed in grain stored
in a truck over a hot, humid weekend in south Texas.
Plus, many elevators do not have adequate dryer capac-
ities.
Weathered, deteriorated sorghum contains significantly
high levels of ergosterol, but it has not been linked to ani-
mal health problems. Fumonisin has not been found in
sorghum probably because sorghum contains a different
species (F. thapsinum) than does maize [50]. This species
does not produce fumonisin but may develop other myco-
toxins. The lack of fumonisin and aflatoxins in the field in
sorghum is a great advantage over maize in dry areas.
Ergot (Claviceps africana) has recently infested
sorghum in the Western Hemisphere [75]. The sclerotia
contains alkaloids that may potentially cause problems
when it is fed to animals [12]. Ergot has existed in Africa
and Asia for centuries without causing significant docu-
Sorghum
mented livestock or human health problems. It is primarily
a challenge to the hybrid seed industry since the organism
invades sterile florets. The hot dry conditions in most
sorghum-producing areas, especially in commercial grain
fields, preclude the development of ergot. It bears watch-
ing but should not be a major problem. There may be a
combination of ergot toxins and fusarium mycotoxins that
affect animal performance, but this is yet to be confirmed.
Molds attack the developing kernel of sorghum after
anthesis and postphysiological maturity, which can seri-
ously degrade the quality of the grain for human food and
feed processing [37]. The grain is discolored, has a soft,
powdery endosperm, low density, low bulk density, and
cannot be used to produce foods of good quality. In areas
of west Africa, head bugs attack the maturing grain in the
milk or dough stage, introduce molds, and the combination
leads to reduced yields of extremely poor quality grain that
cannot be decorticated. This problem has caused most new
sorghum cultivars introduced into West Africa to fail. Cur-
rent strategies attempt to utilize photoperiod sensitivity to
mature the grain after the rainy season. Such grains with
tan plant color and straw color glumes have enhanced val-
ue for processing into foods for urban areas. Sorghum vari-
eties with moderate resistance to grain molds and weather-
ing exist. Surerio, a new variety released in Honduras, has
improved mold resistance along with improved tortilla and
forage quality [5].
XIV. SORGHUM IMPROVEMENT
Sorghum quality for processing has been improved signifi-
cantly by increasing the hardness of the kernel, using a
thin, white or red pericarp, elimination of the pigmented
testa, and use of tan, secondary pigments in the plant along
with straw color glumes [89]. These sorghums are called
food sorghums because they produce foods with the light-
est color and most bland flavor. Sorghums with a soft
floury endosperm usually weather and mold easily, which
precludes their use in commercial agricultural production
except in areas where they mature in hot, dry environments
such as the Sudan. Usually, the soft, floury sorghums are
protected by condensed tannins that reduce the nutritional
value. Thus there is a trade-off between grain yields and
kernel properties. Processing has been used to convert the
hard endosperm grains into readily available feeds and
foods for humans.
Sorghums with highly digestible endosperms have re-
cently been described [112]. The grains appear to have sig-
nificantly enhanced in vitro protein digestibility. However,
the highly digestible grains are extremely susceptible to
molding and weathering in the fields; thus, it will take time
to see if this trait can be put into a high-yielding, harder
171
sorghum. The goal of improving digestibility is the oppo-
site of what is needed to improve yield of grain and resis-
tance to weathering, so it may be an uphill battle. The al-
ternative to produce harder grains and use more efficient
processing to improve digestibility appears logical.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful for the long-term support of scien-
tists in the Texas Sorghum Improvement Program at Texas
A&M University. This work was part of the INTSORMIL
Title XII Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Research Sup-
port Program supported in part by Grant AID/DSAN/1254
G-TS-50-65 from the Agency for International Develop-
ment, Washington, DC.
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model, Cereal Foods World, 37(10):782-786 (1992).
88. Rooney, L. W., Kirleis, A. W., and Murty, D. S., Tradition-
al foods from sorghum: Their production, evaluation and
nutritional value, in Advances in Cereal Science and Tech-
Rooney and Serna-Saldivar
nology, Vol. VIII (Pomeranz, ed.), American Association
of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1986, pp. 317-353.
89. Rooney, L. W., Attributes of improved quality sorghums
for value-added marketing, in ASTA Proceedings of the
Fifty-First Annual Corn & Sorghum Research Confer-
ence, Chicago, 1996, pp. 112-124.
90. Rooney, L. W., Khan, M. N., and Earp C. F., The technol-
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ages: Recent Progress in Cereal Chemistry (G. E. Inglett
and L. Munck, eds.), Academic Press Inc., New York,
1980, pp. 513-554.
91. Rooney, L. W., Sorghum and pearl millet lipids, Cereal
Chem., 55:584 (1978).
92. Schaffert, R. E., Sweet sorghum substrate for industrial al-
cohol, Presented at the International Workshop on Policy
& Potential Relating to Uses of Sorghum and Millets,
SADCC/ICRISAT, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, June 8-12,
1988.
93. Scheuring, J. F., Sidibe, S., Rooney, L. W., and Earp, C. F.,
Sorghum pericarp thickness and its relation to decortica-
tion in a wooden mortar and pestle, Cereal Chem.,
60(1):86-89 (1982).
94. Schoch, T. J., Starch in bakery products, Bakers Digest,
39(2):48 (1965).
95. Serna-Saldivar, S. 0., Knabe, D. A., Rooney, L. W., and
Tanksley, T. D., Effects of lime cooking on energy and
protein digestibilities of maize and sorghum, Cereal
Chem., 64:247-252 (1987).
96. Serna-Saldivar, S. 0., Knabe, D. A., Rooney, L. W.,
Tanksley, T. D., and Sproule, A. M., Nutritional value of
sorghum and maize tortillas, J. Cereal Sci., 7:83 (1987).
97. Serna-Saldivar, S. 0., Cannett, R., Vargas, J., Gonzalez,
M., Bedolla, S., and Medina, C., Effect of soybean and
sesame addition on the nutritional value of maize and
decorticated sorghum tortillas produced by extrusion
cooking, Cereal Chem., 65:44 (1988).
98. Serna-Saldivar, S. 0., Clegg, C., and Rooney, L. W., Ef-
fects of parboiling and decortication on the nutritional val-
ue of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) and pearl
millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.), J. Cereal Sci., 19:83-89
(1994).
99. Serna-Saldivar, S. 0., Tellez-Giron, A., and Rooney,
L. W., Production of tortilla chips from sorghum and
maize, J. Cereal Sci., 8:275 (1988).
100. Shull, J. M., Watterson, J. J., and Kirleis, A. W., Proposed
nomenclature for the alcohol-soluble proteins (kafirins) of
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench based on molecular weight,
solubility, and structure, J. Agric. Food Chem., 39:83-87
(1991).
101. Shull, J. M., Watterson, J. J., and Kirleis, A. W., Purifica-
tion and immunocytochemical localization of kafirins in
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench endosperm, Protoplasma,
171:64-74 (1992).
102. Smith, B. A., Sweet sorghum, in CRC Handbook of Pro-
cessing and Utilization in Agriculture, Vol. II (A. Wolf,
ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1982, p. 611.
Sorghum
103. Subramanian, B., Jambunathan, R., and Suryaprakash, S.,
Note on the soluble sugars of sorghum, Cereal Chem.,
57:440 (1980).
104. Suhendro, E. S., McDonough, C. M., Rooney, L. W.,
Waniska, R. D., and Yetneberk, S., Effects of processing
conditions and sorghum cultivar on alkaline-processed
snacks, Cereal Chem., 75(2):187-193 (1998).
105. Taylor, J. R. N., and Schussler, L., The protein composi-
tion of the different anatomical parts of sorghum grain, J.
Cereal Sci., 4:361 (1986).
106. Thorat, S. S., Satwadeher, P. N., Kulkarni, D. N., Choud-
han, S. D., and Ingle, U. M., Varietal differences in pop-
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the National Seminar, Marathwada Agricultural Universi-
ty, Parbhani, India, 1987, p. 153.
107. Torres, P. I., Ramirez-Wong, B., Serna-Saldivar, S. 0., and
Rooney, L. W., Effect of sorghum flour addition on the
characteristics of wheat flour tortillas, Cereal Chem.,
70(1):8-13 (1993).
108. United States Department of Agriculture, The Official
175
United States Standards for Grain, Federal Grain In-
spection Service, Inspection Division, Washington, DC,
1995.
109. Vivas, N. E., Waniska, R. D., and Rooney, L. W., Thin por-
ridges (atole) prepared from maize and sorghum, Cereal
Chem., 64:390 (1987).
110. Waniska, R. D., Hugo, L. F., and Rooney, L. W., Practical
methods to determine the presence of tannins in sorghum,
J. App. Poultry Res., 1:122-128 (1992).
111. Watson, S. A., Corn and sorghum starches: Production,
2nd ed., Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1984.
112. Weaver, C. A., Hamaker, B. R., and Axtell, J. D., Dis-
covery of sorghum germ plasm with high cooked in vitro
protein digestibilities, Cereal Chem., 75(5):665-670
(1998).
113. Young, R., Haidara, M., Rooney, L. W., and Waniska,
R. D., Parboiled sorghum: development of a novel decor-
ticated product, J. Cereal Sci., 11:277-289 (1990).
114. Zhang, G., and Hamaker, B. R., Low ct-amylase starch di-
gestibility of cooked sorghum flours and the effect of pro-
tein, Cereal Chem., 75(5):710-713 (1998).
6
THE MILLETS
Cassandra M. McDonough and Lloyd W. Rooney
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
Sergio Othon Serna-Saldivar
Institute Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Monterrey, N.L. Mexico
I. INTRODUCTION
The grasses known collectively as millets are a set of high-
ly variable, small-seeded plant species indigenous to many
areas of the world (Table 1). They are well adapted to grow
under low soil fertility, low moisture, and hot environmen-
tal conditions. Millets are of value especially in semiarid re-
gions because of their short growing season and higher pro-
ductivity under heat and drought conditions. Often millets
are produced in areas where maize and sorghum crops may
fail. Some millets, such as teff or fonio, are prized for their
taste and functionality in nondrought years and can bring
higher prices per bushel than the more common millets
[133]. The grain and forage are valuable as food and feed
resources in Africa, Russia, India, and China.
Pearl millet is the most widely grown millet and is a
very important crop in India [72] and parts of Africa
[45,133]. There are more than 15,000 pearl millet lines in
the World Germplasm Collection located in India. Finger
millet is popular in East Africa and India [45,74]. Foxtail
and proso millets are cultivated primarily in the Near East
and China [109]. Proso millet is also widely cultivated in
the Russian Federation. Fonio (acha) and teff are grown in
West Africa and Ethiopia, respectively.
Millets are important cereals in the diet of many people
in Africa and India [30], where millets and sorghum are
used interchangeably in the same traditional food systems.
177
Proso millet is the only grain millet of economic impor-
tance grown in the United States, where it is grown for
birdseed [201]. Some yellow endosperm proso millets are
decorticated and sold in health food stores in the United
States or puffed and used in special breakfast cereals. In
the Western Hemisphere, millets are grown as emergency
forage and catch crops. Finger millet and teff straw are
commonly used for animal forage [133,152].
World production of millets has been stable during the
last decade. According to the Food and Agriculture Orga-
nization (FAO) [56], 36 1 million hectares of millet were
planted in 1996 with an average production of only 797
kg/ha; world millet production accounted for 28.8 million
metric tons (Table 2). Africa, India, and China harvested
43.8, 36.5, and 13.9%, respectively, of the total world pro-
duction. Nigeria produced 45.1% of all African production
(Table 2). Before the advent of pearl millet hybrids, grain
yields in India averaged 350-400 kg/ha. With the use of
fertilizer, hybrids, and limited irrigation, Indian farm
demonstrators were able to harvest 3500-8000 kg/ha [30].
Developing countries produced 96.9% of the total world
millet harvest.
Stoskopf [185] Hulse et al. [79], Rachie and Majmudar
[155], Rooney et al. [166], Hoseney et al. [77,78], Dendy
[50], and the National Research Council [133] have re-
viewed the agronomy, chemical composition, food uses,
and nutritional value of millets.
178 McDonough et al.

TABLE 1 Common and Scientific Names of the Major Types of Millets

Scientific names Common names Locations

Pennisetum glaucum P americanum

P. typhoides Pearl millet, bajra, cattail millet, bulrush, spiked millet Africa, India
Panicum milaceum Proso millet, broomcorn millet, hog millet, samai, China, Russian Federation,
panivarigu, common millet United States
Eleusine coracana Finger millet, ragi, bird's foot millet, African millet, tamba Africa, India, China
Setaria italica Foxtail millet, pavane, Italian millet, German millet, China, Near East, Europe
kangni
Digitaria exilis D. iburua Fonio, acha, pene, fundi, hungry rice, iburu West and North Africa
Panicum sumatrense P. psilopdium Little millet, sama India, Nepal, Burma
Eragrostis tef E. abyssinica Teff East Africa, Ethiopia
Paspalum scrobiculatum P. commersoni Kodo millet, varagu Southern Asia
Echinochloa crusgalli E. utilis
E. frumentacea E. colona Japanese barnyard, Japanese millet, barnyard millet sawa Asia

II. ORIGIN peared in east Africa and India around the same time
[49,75,130]. Multiple origins from several africana species
The millets originated primarily in East and West Africa,
were suggested for the domesticated finger millet in pro-
Eurasia, India, and China from wild seed stock [194]. Fo-
duction today [76]. Both grains were introduced into other
nio, perhaps the oldest of the millets, was grown through-
areas via trade routes as early as 4000 years ago [74,197].
out much of semi-arid West Africa [133]. Pearl millet is
Foxtail and proso millets originated in Eurasia and China
one of the earliest domesticated millets; carbonized grains
and spread via trade routes to India and Africa around 2000
have been found in sub-Saharan and West African sites in-
years ago; proso millet was used as a bread grain in Europe
habited 4000-5000 years ago [29,71]. Finger millet ap-
from the Bronze Age through medieval times [125,155].
Teff originated in the uplands of Ethiopia, most likely from
Eragrostis pilosa; carbonized seeds were found in the pyr-
TABLE 2 Statistics of Millet Production, 1996
amids of Dassur from 3350 B.C. [175].
Area Total
harvested Yield production
(1000 ha) (kg/ha) (1000 MT) III. STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
World 36,123 797 28,791
Africa 18,885 667 12,599 Kernel characteristics of the various millets are extremely
Burkina Faso 1,227 661 811 diverse. The structure of pearl millet has been reviewed
Ethiopia 445 809 360 extensively by McDonough and Rooney [126], Rooney
Mali 1,286 595 765 and McDonough [165], Zeleznak and Varriano-Marston
Niger 4,800 382 1,832
[202], and Sullins and Rooney [188]. The structure of fin-
Nigeria 5,356 106 5,681
ger millet has been characterized by McDonough et al.
Senegal 972 619 601
Sudan 1,549 271 420 [128]. Angold [11] also reviewed the structure of finger
Asia 15,943 958 12,272 millet, as well as proso, foxtail, and pearl millets, and Irv-
China 1,400 2,857 4,001 ing and Jideani [82] reviewed the structure of fonio.
India 13,500 778 10,500 The structure of the pearl millet kernel is similar to that
Europe 13 1,356 18 of most of the millets with caryopses (Table 3). Pearl mil-
United States 120 1,500 180 let varieties from the World Collection probably have more
Australia 23 1,298 30 variation in physical characteristics than any other millet
Argentina 45 4,044 47 [126,127]. Kernel colors range from white, yellow, and tan
Russian Federation 700 714 500 to gray, green, purple, and black. Kernel shape has five dif-
Developed countries 1271 698 887
ferent classifications: obovate, hexagonal, lanceolate,
Developing countries 34,852 801 27,905
globular, and elliptical. In West Africa, pearl millet is clas-
Source: Ref. 56. sified as either Sanio (globular, softer endosperm) or
The Millets 179

TABLE 3 Structural Comparisons of Some Milletsa

Finger Pearl Proso Fonio Teff
Seed type Utricle Caryopsis Utricle Caryopsis Caryopsis
Pericarp Unattached Attached Unattached Attached Attached
Seed coat: 5 layers 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer
Pigmented Yes Sometimes No No Yes
Thickness 10.8-24.2 0.4 0.2-0.4 0.5-1.5 1.5-2.0
Aleurone 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer
Cell size (L x W) 18.0 x 7.6 16.0-30.0 x 5.0-15.0 12.0 x 6.0 12.0 x 4.0 12.0 x 4.0
Starch granules:
Peripheral 8.0-16.5 6.4 3.9 7.2 5.6-7.2
Corneous 3.0-19.0 6.4 4.1 7.8 15.1-22.4
Floury 11.0-21.0 7.6 4.1 6.5 10.2-15.8
Type Simple/Compound Simple Simple Simple Simple/Compound
Protein bodies
Size 2.0 0.6-0.7 0.5-1.7 1.2-2.4 1.2-2.4
Location Peripheral/Corneous All areas Peripheral Peripheral All areas
Germb
Size (L x W) 980 x 270 1420 x 600 1100 x 310 517 x 977 160 x 725
Endosperm-to-germ ratio 11:1 2.5:1 12:1 6:1 3:1
values expressed as p.m.
a All

bMeasurements taken of surface area of longitudinally cut seeds: L refers to length of longitudinal axis of germ and W to the width.
Source: Data determined at Cereal Quality Lab, Texas A&M University. Yanez and Walker [201] reported proso millet starch granules to average
7 p.m in diameter. Irving and Jideani [82] reported that the embryo constituted one third of the caryopsis in fonio.

Souna (obovate, hexagonal, and lanceolate, harder en-
dosperm) varieties. Kernel density ranges from 1.28 to
1.42 g/cc, and 1000 kernel weight ranges from 2.5 to 14.7
g. By comparison, 1000 kernel weight values for finger
millet, proso millet, teff, fonio, and foxtail millet are 2.6,
4.7-7.2, 0.35-0.42, 0.63, and 1.86 g, respectively [127].
Jideani and Akingbala [87] reported 1000 kernel weight of
0.39-0.41 g and found that 72.5-78.4% of the fonio ker-
nels were overs on a 710-1.tm screen.
The millets can be separated into two types of seeds:
utricles and caryopses (Table 3, Fig. 1). In an utricle, the
pericarp surrounds the seed like a sac but is attached to the
seed at only one point. Finger, proso, and foxtail millets
are utricles. In these millets, the pericarp usually breaks
away from the seed coat or testa, which is well developed,
thick, and forms a strong barrier over the endosperm. In a
caryopsis, the pericarp is completely fused to the seed.
Pearl millet, fonio, and teff are caryopses. For pearl millet,
the kernels are composed of the pericarp, endosperm, and
germ, which comprise 8.4, 75.1, and 16.5% of the total
kernel weight, respectively [2]. Irving and Jideani [82] re-
ported that the germ constituted one third of the fonio cary-
opsis.
Pearl millet has a thick one- to two-layer epicarp, a
mesocarp that varies in thickness due to genetic factors,
and an endocarp layer that contains cross and tube cells.
Teff, fonio, pearl, proso, and foxtail millets have some pig-
ments in the pericarp that can contain antinutritional com-
pounds [127].
Pearl millet has a thin pigmented or unpigmented testa
(seed coat) beneath the endocarp. Red finger millet vari-
eties have a thick, pigmented testa, but white varieties do
not. Teff and fonio varieties have pigmented testas. In
many cases, it is desirable to remove the testa layer via
milling prior to use in food preparation. As with sorghum,
pearl millet varieties with a thick mesocarp are preferred
for traditional decortication with a mortar and pestle. Dur-
ing decortication, the pericarp usually separates from the
rest of the kernel at the endocarp or aleurone layer
[126,128]. Some of the other millets are ground into flour
without decortication, which can produce some undesir-
able nutritional effects [102]. Fonio is usually decorticated
in a mortar and pestle. However, Irving and Jideani [82]
suggest that fonio not be decorticated because of its small
size, with the result that the grain will then have better nu-
tritional properties.
The endosperm comprises the majority of the kernel
weight for all millets. There are four structural parts of the
endosperm: the aleurone layer and the peripheral, cor-
neous, and floury endosperm areas. All millets have a sin-
gle-layer aleurone that completely encircles the en-
dosperm. The aleurone cells are rectangular with thick cell
180 McDonough et al.

'VICAR,

iirSOCAAP
CROSS CMS
MIMIC
WOE CELLS
iLLEONgP
5100 COAT
10,10110

STAACM
OAAMULES

PRoTtito
ItooIEs IR
PROTEIN
EM CELLS NAM%

222pm

FIGURE 1 (A) Line drawing of the internal structure of Pennisetum typhoides (pearl millet) showing details of the pericarp. (B, C)
Scanning electron micrographs of pearl millet. (D) Scanning electron micrograph of Eragrostis teff (red tell). (E) Scanning electron mi-
crograph of Eleusine coracana (finger millet or ragi). (F) Scanning electron micrograph of Digitaria exilis (fonio). P-Pericarp; p-periph-
eral endosperm; C-corneous endosperm; F-flour; endosperm; G-germ; A-aleurone; M-mesocarp; cc-cross cells; s-seed coat; H-hilum.

walls, and they contain protein, oil, minerals, and en-
zymes. The peripheral, corneous, and floury endosperm ar-
eas are beneath the aleurone, in that order. The relative
amount of each type of endosperm varies among varieties
within a species. Regardless of endosperm type, just be-
neath the aleurone layer all millet varieties have at least
one layer of peripheral endosperm, which is typically high-
er in protein than the rest of the endosperm. The en-
dosperm cells contain starch granules that are embedded in
a protein matrix; protein bodies are distributed throughout
the matrix. The starch granules are spherical in the floury
area and become progressively more polygonal in the cor-
neous and peripheral endosperm areas. Pearl millet vari-
eties range from those with all floury endosperm to those
with all corneous endosperm. Irving and Jideani [82] re-
ported only polyhedral starch granules in fonio, i.e., that
most of the starch granules developed in hard endosperm.
Finger and proso millets are intermediate in texture. Finger
The Millets 181

millet has a very small amount of floury endosperm and
has both simple and compound starch granules [181]. Teff
has primarily simple starch granules with a small percent-
age of compound ones [127]. Pearl millet, fonio, and fox-
tail millet have simple starch granules only [82,127].
The germ can be large relative to the endosperm, as in
pearl millet or fonio, or very small, as in proso and finger
millets (Table 3). The pearl millet germ contains 24.5,
32.8, and 7.2% of the total protein, fat, and ash found in
the kernel, respectively [2].
IV. COMPOSITION
A. Major Compositional Analyses
The mean values and variation in proximate composition
of eight types of millet are presented in Table 4. The prox-
imate composition is affected by both environment and ge-
netics and varies widely between species. The amount of
protein depends upon the nitrogen level in the soil,
drought, and total grain yield, which is usually negatively
correlated with protein content. It also depends on other
environmental factors. Of all millets, pearl millet has the
highest average protein level, but the ranges of values for
all varieties overlap. Fonio and finger millet tend to have
the lowest protein values.
For all millets, the essential limiting amino acid is ly-
sine. The amino acid profile of pearl millet is better than
that of sorghum and maize and is comparable to wheat,
barley, and rice [55]. The endosperm protein fraction of
pearl millet contains low levels of lysine (1.4 g/100 g pro-
tein), whereas the germ contains 5.16 g/100 g protein [2].
Among millets, pearl and finger millets usually have the
most lysine (Table 5). Teff and kodo millets are also high
in lysine. Proso and Japanese millets have the poorest es-
sential amino acid composition. However, when germinat-
ed, proso millet demonstrated an increase in lysine, trypto-
phan, and other free amino acids as well as nonprotein
nitrogen levels [147]. There were also increases in albu-
mins and globulins and large decreases in prolamines
[148]. Proteins in finger millets were better balanced than
those in common and foxtail millets [159]. They also re-
ported that the antitryptic activities if these millets were
high compared to their antichymotryptic activities.
Using a Landry-Moreaux protein fractionation method,
the prolamine and cross-linked prolamine fractions were
the major protein fractions in pearl and foxtail millets
(Table 6); pennisetin was the major storage protein in pearl
millet [167]. The effects of chemically and thermally mod-
ified pennisetin are covered in depth by Sainani et al.
[167]. Parameswaran and Thayumanavan [148] reported
that the prolamine fraction was highest in foxtail millet,
while the glutelins were highest in Japanese, proso, kodo,
and little millets. Pearl millet resembles maize in its distri-
bution of proteins, especially with regard to prolamines
and cross-linked prolamines (fractions II and III) [55].
Pearl millet proteins contain a lower proportion of cross-

TABLE 4 Proximate Analysis of Milletsa

Ether
extract Crude Ash
Millet type Protein (%) (%) fiber (%) (%) NFE (%) Starch (%)
Pearl 14.5 5.1 2.0 2.0 76.4 71.6
6.9-20.9 3.3-6.9 0.9-3.6 0.3-5.1 59.8-80.6 63.1-78.5
Finger 8.0 1.5 3.0 3.0 84.5 59.0
4.9-11.3 0.9-7.7 0.7-8.0 2.0-5.0 6.93-88.7
Proso 13.4 9.7 6.3 4.2 69.4 57.1
6.4-15.9 2.9-11.1 4.6-19.2 1.4-8.8 53.5-84.7 56.1-58.0
Japanese 11.8 4.9 14.3 4.9 64.1 60.3
11.2-12.7 2.5-6.3 11.6-16.3 3.0-5.0 60.9-68.0 58.6-62.0
Foxtail 11.7 3.9 7.0 3.0 74.2 55.1
6.0-14.0 1.2-5.2 2.6-10.6 1.5-4.3 66.1-88.7 51.0-59.1
Kodo 10.4 3.7 9.7 3.6 72.6 72.0
6.2-13.1 3.2-4.9 8.4-11.0 3.0-4.1 66.9-79.2
Tef 10.9 2.4 2.4 2.2 82.1
7.9-12.6 2.3-2.5
Fonio 8.7 2.8 8.0 3.8 76.7
5.1-10.4 1.3-5.2 0.48-11.3 1.0-6.0 67.1-91.0
'All values are expressed on dry matter basis. Protein conversion factor = N x 6.25. NFE = Nitrogen-free extract.
Source: Refs. 79, 82, 84, 107, 108, 146, 150, and 151.
182 McDonough et al.

TABLE 5 Amino Acid Composition of Some Millets

Millet
Amino acida Pearl Finger Proso Japanese Foxtail Kodo Teff Fonio
Essential
Phe 5.2 6.2 5.2 5.9 5.3 5.8 5.1 4.0
4.4-5.6 3.2-8.4 4.3-5.6 5.5-6.3 4.3-6.7 5.6-6.0 4.5-5.9 2.3-5.7
His 2.2 2.6 2.2 1.9 2.3 1.8 2.6 1.35
1.8-2.6 0.3-4.0 1.8-2.9 1.8-2.0 1.7-4.0 1.5-2.2 1.6-3.7
lle 4.4 5.1 4.5 4.5 5.0 5.4 4.2 2.7
3.6-5.9 3.7-8.5 3.1-6.5 4.5-4.6 3.9-7.6 3.0-7.7 3.6-4.8 lA 4.0
Leu 12.2 13.5 12.9 11.5 13.3 10.2 7.9 7.5
8.0-25.1 6.4-16.2 10.6-15.4 11.4-11.7 11.4-16.7 6.7-12.7 6.5-8.8 4.5-10.5
Lys 3.3 3.7 2.2 1.7 2.1 3.3 3.1 2.2
1.7-6.5 2.6-5.5 1.4-4.3 1.6-1.8 1.5-2.8 3.0-3.5 2.0-4.0 1.9-2.5
Met 2.2 2.6 2.0 1.8 2.6 1.7 3.7 3.8
1.5-2.9 1.3-4.3 1.3-2.6 1.6-2.0 2.0-2.8 1.5-1.8 2.4-4.6 3.0-4.5
Thr 3.9 5.1 3.4 2.7 3.9 2.9 3.8 2.8
1.2-4.9 2.7-5.8 2.3-4.5 3.6-3.7 2.8-4.4 2.7-3.1 3.1-4.4 1.9-3.7
Trpb 1.6 1.3 0.9 1.0 1.5 0.8 1.4 1.3
1.1-2.8 1.0-1.7 0.6-1.7 1.0 0.4-1.9 0.5-1.0 1.2-1.7 0.9-1.6
Val 5.7 7.9 5.1 6.1 5.2 5.6 5.4 4.0
4.8-7.0 5.8-10.4 4.0-6.5 6.1-6.2 3.8-6.9 3.8-7.2 5.0-5.9 2.4-5.5
Nonessential
Asp 8.7 7.9 5.5 6.3 6.9 6.3 6.7 3.5
4.9-10.3 6.5-10.0 3.7-6.3 6.0-6.9 6.4-7.3 6.1-6.4 5.6-7.2
Glu 21.2 27.1 20.5 20.7 18.8 23.1 24.8 6.9
12.3-25.4 20.3-37.8 14.9-22.3 15.2-25.0 17.6-19.9 12.2-33.9 23.1-27.1
Ala 8.5 8.0 9.3 9.2 8.9 5.7 5.7 4.2
7.5-10.5 5.9-8.9 3.9-12.2 8.8-9.9 8.6-9.1 5.3-6.0 5.0-6.5
Arg 4.8 5.2 4.4 3.2 6.1 4.2 4.0 1.3
3.2-8.1 3.8-8.2 2.7-9.1 2.5-3.8 2.7-9.5 3.6-5.0 2.6-6.2
Cyst' 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.4 0.9 1.2 3.0
0.7-2.8 0.7-2.9 0.5-2.8 1.4-1.6 1.4-1.5 0.7-1.0 0.7-1.8
Gly 3.6 4.8 2.2 2.7 2.9 3.8 3.8 1.9
2.8-5.8 3.6-5.9 1.7-2.5 2.2-3.9 2.8-3.1 3.0-4.7 3.1-4.4
Pro 7.2 6.7 7.2 10.3 10.6 7.2 5.2 3.2
5.9-14.2 4.2-10.1 5.3-10.4 8.9-12.4 10.5-10.7 5.3-9.2 4.5-6.3
Ser 4.9 6.9 6.3 5.8 5.8 4.1 4.4 2.2
3.7-5.6 5.1-8.7 4.8-6.9 5.4-6.2 5.7-5.9 4.0-4.2 3.9-5.6
Tyr 3.2 3.6 3.9 2.7 2.7 3.8 2.9 1.0
1.7-4.8 2.0-5.6 1.8-4.0 2.3-3.4 2.2-3.2 3.4-4.2 1.7-4.0
Score % 60.6 68.0 40.4 31.2 42.3 60.7 57.0
aAmino acid data is expressed as per 100 g of protein.
bTrypsin and cysteine are not essential amino acids, but they can spare the requirement for phenylalanine and methionine, respectively
Source: Refs. 10, 16, 55, 64-66, 79, 84, 85, 91, 107, 110, 133, 166, 170, 174, 180, 189, 195, and 196.

linked prolamines than sorghum [55,84]. The reduced lev-
el of cross-linked prolamines may explain why pearl millet
proteins have higher in vitro digestibility values than sor-
ghum proteins [55]. Because of its higher lysine content
and its generally improved protein digestibility, pearl mil-
let has a better protein quality than sorghum grain. The ma-
jor prolamines of teff and finger millet were similar to the
a-prolamines of maize and sorghum [191]. Fonio is rich in
methionine due to the presence of two contributing pro-
teins: M1 (19,000 MW), making up 21.6% of extractable
proteins, and M2, 12.9% of extractable protein [48].
Using an Osborne fractionation method, foxtail and
The Millets 183

TABLE 6 Landry-Moreaux Protein Fractionsa of Some Millets

Cross-linked
Albumins/Globulins I Prolamines II prolamines III Gluten-like IV Glutelin V Residue VI
Pearlb 25.5 34.0 3.4 6.6 17.2 3.9
22.0-29.0 22.8-41.0 0.0-3.4 4.7-9.0 11.0-19.2
Foxtail` 17.4 57.2 9.1 9.4 6.8
Fingerd 12.1 10.3 32.3 2.8 21.2
9.6-13.0 7.0-29.7 24.6-36.2 2.5-3.0 12.4-28.2
aValues are % of total protein; fraction I extracted with 0.5 M NaC1 solution; fraction II extracted with 70% isopropanol; fraction III extracted
with 70% isopropanol and 0.6% 2-mercaptoethanol; fraction IV extracted with borate buffer and 2-mercaptoethanol, fraction V extracted with
borate buffer, 2-mercaptoethanol, and sodium laurel sulfate.
bFrom Refs. 55, 84, 137, and 196.
`From Ref. 195.
dFrom Refs. 156 and 196.

TABLE 7 Osborne Protein Fraction Distribution of Milletsa

Albumin Globulins Prolamines Glutelins
Total Lys Trp Total Lys Trp Total Lys Trp Total Lys Trp
Pearl 14.7 2.72 1.57 11.7 2.03 0.44 33.8 1.03 1.70 26.9 1.24 0.69
6.1-26.5 3.5-16.8 21.3-49.5 16.0-45.3
Finger 13.6 1.81 2.51 14.3 0.99 0.97 14.6 0.64 1.38 20.9 8.35 3.76
10.2-15.8 8.0-20.4 6.0-24.8 7.4-33.0
Proso 9.0 3.31 1.79 10.9 8.40 1.99 31.0 0.23 0.31 8.0 11.31 3.57
8.3-9.7 10.5-11.3 25.1-36.9 7.7-8.3
Japanese 2.8 7.30 2.51 3.0 5.99 1.48 5.7 0.41 1.10 7.5 6.09 1.69
2.0-3.2 2.6-3.4 2.6-8.1 7.1-8.1
Foxtail 4.4 3.39 1.45 18.0 1.74 1.48 38.5 0.41 0.56 22.7 5.25 1.76
3.2-5.6 12.2-23.5 37.8-39.7 21.0-23.7
Kodo 22.0 3.80 0.82 15.3 6.66 0.89 25.3 0.54 0.41 31.3 5.48 7.09
16.0-28.5 14.4-18.9 17.5-35.6 4.6-7.9
'Protein fractionation data are means and ranges as a percentage of total protein over all references. Data for lysine and tryptophan in pearl millet are
averages of two studies.
Source: Refs. 6, 37, 132, 170, 180, and 190.

pearl millets had the highest prolamine levels, kodo millet
had the highest albumins and glutelins, and foxtail had the
highest globulins (Table 7). Vincent-Monteiro et al. [195]
determined the amino acid composition of the protein frac-
tions of foxtail millet. As in other cereals, lysine was high-
est in the albumin/globulin fraction and lowest in the pro-
lamine fraction. A summary of lysine and tryptophan
contents in Osborne protein fractions for six millets is pre-
sented in Table 7. Landry and Delhaye [105] reported that
pearl millet had a higher tryptophan content in prolamines
(24%) than in nonprolamine (1.2-1.4%) proteins. Jideani
et al. [89] reported that the glutelin and residue fractions in
fonio were higher than the other Osborne fractions. They
also reported significant amounts of hydrophobic and sul-
fur amino acids [88].
The starch content of pearl millet varies from 56 to 65%
and the amylose content ranges from 17 to 29% [28,127].
Table 8 summarizes the starch properties of pearl, proso,
foxtail, fonio, finger, and kodo millets. Lorenz and Hinze
[111] reported that the starch of proso and foxtail millets
had higher water-binding capacity than starch isolated
from wheat. Amylograph viscosities of millet starches
were higher than those of the wheat starch at all reference
points in the amylograph curve. Waxy varieties of proso
and foxtail millets examined with differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) developed a co-relationship between
Tp (peak temperatures) and enthalpy; this relationship did
not hold for nonwaxy phenotypes [58]. In further DSC
work, Fujita et al. [59] reported additional correlations be-
tween granule size of foxtail millet starch and enzyme
184 McDonough et al.

TABLE 8 Starch Properties of Some Millets

Gelatinization Amylographa (Brabender Units)
Type of Water-binding Swelling Solubility
millet Amylose (%) Initial (°C) Final (°C) capacity (%) at 90°C at 90°C A
Pearlb 21.1 61.1 68.7 87.5 13.1 9.14 460 396 568 536
Proso° 11.4-27.1 56.1 61.2 108.0 12.0 6.89 688 520 826 1203
Foxtaild 53.5 59.5 128.5 11.2 4.65 840 620 1100 1220
Foxtaile 17.5 55.0 62.0 9.8 4.80 1780 1540 2000
Finger' 16.0-19.8 64.3 68.3 11.4 6.50 1633 1286 1796
Kodof 24.0 57.0 68.0 12.0 5.50 300 270 390
Foniog 18.7-26.1 50.0 80.0-88.0 25.0-35.9 12.9-15.1 790 380 750 740
'A = viscosity at 93-95°C; B = viscosity after holding sample at 95°C; C = viscosity cooling to 35 or 50°C; D = viscosity after holding sample at 35 or
50°C.
bData obtained from Beleia et al. [21]. The amylograph slurry contained 9% starch (14% mb) and was suspended in disodium phosphate/citric acid buffer.
First holding period (B) = 1 h; second holding period (D) = 1 h. Temperature of the slurry was cooled to 50°C.
`Amylose content obtained from Yanez and Walker [201]. Other information was obtained from Lorenz and Hinze [111]. The amylograph slurry contained
9 parts of starch solids per 100 parts (420 mL) water. First holding period (B) = 30 min. second holding period (D) = 30 min. Temperature of the slurry was
cooled to 35°C.
dData obtained from Lorenz and Hinze [111]. The amylograph slurry contained 9 parts of starch solids per 100 parts (420 mL) water. First holding period
(B) = 30 min; second holding period (D) = 30 min. Temperature of the slurry was cooled to 35°C.
°Data obtained from Wankhede et al. [199] and Jideani et al. [90]. The amylograph slurry contained 9.5% parts of starch solids per 100 parts water. First
holding period (B) = 30 min.
'Data obtained from Paramahans et al. [146]. Values were extrapolated from amylograph curve. Peak viscosity was achieved at 83.5°C.
gData from Jideani et al. [90], Jideani and Akingbala [87], and Carcea and Acquistucci [34].

degradation, amylose content, lambda-max (maximum ab-
sorbance in DSC), and blue value as well as a relationship
between lambda-max and amylose content, blue value, and
peak temperature. Carcea and Acquistucci [34] reported no
significant variation between two fonio varieties for lipid
levels in starch (2.8 and 2.9%), but there was a significant
variation in water-binding capacities (88 and 80%).
Brabender amylograph curves of 5% slurries revealed dif-
ferences during the heating and cooling cycles. Amylose
contents of fonio, determined by iodine affinity, were
18.7% for acha and 19.6% for iburu [90]. Rapid viscoamy-
lograph analyses of two fonios and one finger millet vari-
ety at 9% solids produced curves with lower peak and
breakdown viscosities than corn starch [90]. The molecu-
lar weight of finger millet starch is lower than that of
chickpea starch, and the amylose fraction is more linear
[118]. Finger millet starch is poorly birefringent and non-
ionic in nature and has low solubility in water and 65%
solubility in DMSO. It has a slightly higher hot paste vis-
cosity and minimal increase in setback viscosity [117].
Soluble carbohydrates in pearl millet range from 1.40 to
2.78%. About 63% and 29% of the soluble carbohydrates
are sucrose and raffinose, respectively. Other carbohy-
drates include stachyose, glucose, and fructose [182]
(Table 9). Soluble sugars in pearl millet increased to 15%
after 96 hours of germination [142] due to breakdown of
raffinose. Sucrose is the primary sugar in foxtail, finger,
and proso millets. Germination increased the reducing sug-
ar content in foxtail, Japanese, and proso millets [150].
Soluble and reducing sugar concentrations in foxtail millet
decreased during maturation [22]. Sucrose and glucose
constitute 33 and 12.5%, respectively, of the soluble carbo-
hydrates of finger millet [199].
Pentosans constitute 2-3% of the whole pearl millet
grain. As in other cereals, these polysaccharides occur
mainly in cell walls. Bailey et al. [17] isolated pearl millet
pentosans into four fractions and found that they were as-
sociated with proteins. Ribose was found only in the frac-
tion extracted with 80% ethanol. The ethanol-extracted
fraction contained mainly glucose, galactose, rhamnose,
and fucose, whereas the alkali-extracted fraction contained
various amounts of rhamnose, fucose, arabinose, xylose,
mannose, and glucose. Two water-soluble fractions (one
extracted at 25 and the other at 50°C) contained rhamnose,
fucose, arabinose, xylose, mannose, galactose, and glu-
cose. The alkali-extracted fraction contained the highest
amount of protein.
Rooney [164] reported that the free lipids extracted
from pearl millet vary from 3 to 7.4%. The fatty acid com-
position of pearl millet reported by Rooney [164] is very
similar to the one given by Jellum and Powell [86] (Table
10). Lai and Varriano-Marston [104] reported free and
bound lipid contents of 5.5-7% and 0.57-0.9% for pearl
millet, respectively. Of the free and bound fatty acids in
pearl millet, 70.3% and 51.7% are unsaturated, respective-
ly. Adeyeye and Ajewda [3] reported that pearl millet
The Millets 185

TABLE 9 Saccharide Composition of Some Millets'

Total Glucose,
sugar Stachyose Raffinose Sucrose fructose Maltose

Pearlb 2.56 0.09 0.71 1.64 0.11

2.16-2.78 0.06-0.10 0.65-0.86 1.32-1.82 0.08-0.16
Proso` 0.08 0.66
0.04-0.12 0.48-0.90
Foxtaild 0.10 1.01
0.08-0.12 0.9-1.12
Foxtail' 0.46 0.04 0.15 0.10 0.04
Finger' 0.65 0.07 0.21 0.18 0.07

'All values are expressed on a percent, dry matter basis.

bFrom Ref. 187. Average of nine cultivars.
`From Ref. 20. Average of six cultivars.
dFrom Ref. 20. Average of two cultivars.

'From Ref. 198. Foxtail data is the average of three cultivars. Finger millet data represents one cultivar.

TABLE 10 Fatty Acid Composition of Some Millets

Fatty acid Pearl' Proso Foxtail Kodob Finger'
Palmitic C 16:0 20.3 9.8 8.6 18.4, 19.9
16.7-23.7 7.2-11.3 6.9-9.9
Palmitoleic C 16:1 0.6 0.2 0.2
0.3-1.1 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.3
Stearic C 18:0 4.5 2.0 3.3 1.0
1.8-8.0 1.5-3.4 1.1-7.2
Oleic C 18:1 26.1 21.1 14.4 37.7, 38.7
20.2-30.6 18.1-24.2 11.1-16.4
Linoleic C 18:2 43.8 65.4 69.0 41.5, 43.0
36.7-54.4 62.2-69.5 64.9-72.2
Linolenic C 18:3 3.4 2.1 2.7
1.9-6.8 1.3-2.5 2.1-4.1
Arachidic C 20:0 20.0 0.06
Total fatty acidsd 9.0 11.0 5.2
Free 5.6 5.6 5.0 2.2
Bound 0.7 2.5 5.2 2.4
Structural 0.9 0.8 0.6
'From Refs. 86 and 164.
bFrom Ref. 145. First and second data points correspond to unpolished (endosperm + bran) and polished kernels, re-
spectively.
'From Ref. 93.
dFrom Ref. 183.

lipids were primarily stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids. Ac-
cording to Kahadevappa and Raina [93], the range of lipid
content of seven breeding varieties of finger millet was
1.85-2.1%. The lipid fraction consists of 70-72% neutral
lipids, 10-12% glycolipids, and 5-6% phospholipids. The
average fatty acid composition of finger and kodo millets
is reported in Table 10, as are the free, bound, and structur-
al fatty acid levels of foxtail, proso, and finger millets.
Sridhar and Lakshminarayana [183] reported that the total
lipid content (dwb), of free, bound, and structural lipids
were 11.0% (45.4, 47.3, and 7.3%) in foxtail, 9.0% (62.2,
27.8, and 10.0%) in proso, and 5.2% (42.3, 46.2, and
11.5%) in finger millets. Palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids
were the chief constituents of all lipid classes. Carcea and
Acquistucci [34] found no variation in the lipid content of
two varieties of fonio (2.8 and 2.9%).
Pearl millet is probably the cereal grain that most rapid-
ly develops off-odors and off-flavors after milling. The
186 McDonough et al.

possible reasons for the fast deterioration are that (1) fat
content is high, (2) unsaturated fatty acids are higher than
in other cereals, (3) millet does not have naturally occur-
ring antioxidants, and (4) enzymatic-hydrolytic activity is
greater [78,92]. Kaced et al. [92] suggested that the fat
content is the major contributing factor for the rapid in-
crease in fat acidity in ground millet. Hexanal is a major
product of oxidative degradation of lipids. Chaudamy and
Kapoor [40] reported that the whole grain flour of three va-
rieties of pearl millet became rancid after 6-10 days of
storage and inedible after 11-14 days of storage. Moisture,
sugar, free fatty acids, fat acidity, and peroxide levels in-
creased throughout storage [40,104]. Flours stored in poly-
ethylene bags deteriorated more slowly than flours stored
in gunnysacks. Pearl millet flour stored in polyethylene
bags for 15 days did not show any hexanal production
[92]. Reddy et al. [160] indicated that the characteristic
mousy, acidic odor generated in ground pearl millet during
storage was not associated with oxidative rancidity. The
generation of off-odors required a high moisture content in
the grits, suggesting that the deterioration might be enzy-
matic. The odor precursor was extracted with methanol
and had similar characteristics to apigenin, the aglycone of
the major C-glycosylflavone of pearl millet. Seitz et al.
[171] reported that 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline played a role in
the off-odor from wet millet. Parboiling pearl millet before
milling extended the shelf life of the millet products.
Millets generally have a higher ash content than other
cereals, with Japanese, fonio, kodo, and proso millets hav-
ing higher values than the other millets (Table 11). The
major minerals found in most millets are potassium, phos-
phorus, magnesium, manganese, calcium, iron, and zinc.
The millets are generally high in B vitamins (except for
B12) and vitamin E, and mature grains are low in vitamin
C. Decortication dramatically decreases B vitamin levels
due to aleurone and germ removal [172]. Foxtail millet has
higher amounts of vitamin E and niacin than other millets,
while proso has more thiamine and riboflavin. Fonio has
high levels of thiamine and iron. Teff is rich in iron, calci-
um, potassium, phosphorus, and manganese [133]. Do-
mesticated varieties of finger millet varied widely in calci-
um and iron contents, with ranges of 376-515 mg/100 g
and 3.7-6.8 mg/100 mg, respectively [19]. They also re-
ported that some wild species had higher iron, calcium,
and protein contents than the domesticated varieties.
B. Polyphenols and Antinutritional Factors
Phenols and condensed tannins bind with and precipitate
proteins in food systems, thus decreasing digestibility.

TABLE 11 Mineral and Vitamin Composition of Millets

Millet
Nutrient Pearl Finger Proso Foxtail Kodo Teff Fonio
Minerals:
Ca, % 0.01 0.41 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.17 0.03
P, % 0.35 0.24 0.23 0.31 0.32 0.45 0.18
K, % 0.44 0.43 0.32 0.27 0.17 0.31 0.16
Na, % 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02
Mg, % 0.13 0.11 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.18 0.40
Fe, ppm 74.90 50.30 52.00 32.60 7.00 14.90 36.00
Co, ppm 0.50 0.10 0.06 3.30
Cu, ppm 6.20 0.30 8.30 9.20 4.40 15.00
Mn, ppm 18.00 7.50 18.10 21.90 2.50 30.00
Zn, ppm 29.50 15.00 17.20 21.40 6.70 30.00
Vitamins:
Thiamine, mg/g 0.38 0.48 0.63 0.48 0.32 0.45 0.30
Riboflavin, mg/g 0.22 0.12 0.22 0.12 0.05 0.10 0.10
Niacin, mg/g 2.70 1.30 1.82 3.70 0.70 2.00 3.00
Pyridoxine, mg/g
Pantothenic acid, mg/g 1.09 1.10 0.82
Biotin, mg/g
Folacin, mg/g 0.02
Carotenes, mg/kg 5.40
Vitamin E, mg/kg 19.00 22.00 31.00
Source: Refs. 4, 19, 41, 42, 44, 79, 112, 151, 172, 174, 179, and 193.
The Millets 187

TABLE 12 Phenolic Acid Composition of Some Millets

Finger Pearl Prosoa Teff Fonio Foxtail
Phenolic assay
Folin/Ciocalteu 0.55-0.59 0.19-0.33 0.05-0.10 0.09-0.15 0.14 0.12
Vanillin-HC1 0.17-0.32 0.05 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Phenolic acids'
Protocatechuic 23.1 11.8 25.5
Gentisic 61.5 96.3 15.0 21.5
p-OH Benzoic 8.9 22.0 14.6
Vanillic 15.2 16.3 54.8 87.1
Caffeic 16.6 21.3 3.9 10.6
Syringic 7.7 17.3 14.9 93.6
Coumaric 56.9 268.2 36.9 2133.7
Ferulic 387.0 679.7 285.9 765.8
Cinnamic 35.1 345.3 46.0 781.7
'Lemma and palea attached.
b Values are expressed on mg/100 mg catechin equivalents, dry weight basis. All millets have phenols but only finger
millet has condensed tannins. Pearl millet gives a reading with the vanillin assay, but does not contain condensed tan-
nins.
`lig phenolic acid/mg samples, as is moisture basis.
Source: Ref. 127.

Phenolic acid content, determined by HPLC, of teff, pearl,
finger, and foxtail millets, is presented in Table 12. Many
of the millets test positive in the vanillin assay for trace
amounts of catechin equivalents, but only finger millet
contains condensed tannins. Ferulic, coumaric, cinnamic,
and gentisic acids were present in higher levels than other
phenolics. Foxtail millet contained the highest level of to-
tal phenolic acids, but the sample was not decorticated.
The decorticated grain contains fewer phenolic acids than
whole kernels; the levels are similar to those of whole
wheat [78].
Ramachandra et al. [156] reported that finger millet
contained condensed tannins at levels ranging from trace
amounts (0.04% catechin equivalents) to levels compara-
ble to some high-tannin sorghum varieties (3.47%). The
same study reported a range of 55.4-85.1% in vitro protein
digestibility (IVPD) for high-and low-tannin varieties, re-
spectively. They concluded that there was a strong rela-
tionship between tannin levels and IVPD among finger
millets; IVPD could be increased by 69.1% after dehulling
the grain. Zinc was also increased and free amino acids
were more available after tannin levels decreased during
germination [184]. Rao [158] reported that white finger
millet without tannins had higher protein efficiency ratio
(PER), dry matter, and protein digestibilities than compa-
rable diets with brown finger millets. He also reported that
malting decreased tannin levels by 54% and phytin by
58-65%, allowing for higher iron and zinc levels. Aking-
bala [7] reported that increasing the level of decortication
from 0 to 50% in pearl millet progressively reduced both
absorbance and flavonol concentration, but rates differed
among cultivars.
Lorenz [108] stated that whole grain proso millet con-
tained 0.055-0.178% tannins (catechin equivalents), but
after decortication the grains contained only trace amounts
of 0.23-0.034%. Several compounds in proso millet react
with vanillin to produce catechin equivalents, but the com-
pounds are not condensed tannins.
According to Reichert [161], pH-sensitive pigments
that are extracted with methanol are responsible for color
changes in pearl millet flour-water pastes. Pigments high-
ly sensitive to changes in pH were glycosylvitexin, glyco-
sylorientin, and alkali-labile ferulic acid. These com-
pounds are responsible for the intense yellow-green
discoloration of the flour in the presence of alkali and may
be responsible for the natural gray color of the peripheral
endosperm of the kernel. The concentration of C-glyco-
sylflavones and alkali-labile ferulic acid decreased
markedly after dehulling the grain.
Soaking pearl millet kernels in solutions containing
acid (i.e., sour milk, tamarind pods) markedly reduces the
color of the grain. Reichert and Youngs [162] mentioned
that the decolorizing effect is pH dependent. The acidic so-
lution penetrates the whole grain through areas around the
embryo. Dehulled grains decolorized faster than whole
grains because the acidic solution penetrated the grain at a
faster rate. Cooking pearl millet also reduced the ab-
sorbance and flavonol content of flour more than did steep-
ing in acid or sour milk [7].
Phytate phosphorus is undesirable in foods because it
188
decreases the bioavailability of divalent metal ions. Fer-
mentation and malting increase the bioavailability of phos-
phorus up to 60% by increasing phytase levels [184].
Lorenz [108] reported that the phytate was present at levels
of 0.17-0.47% in whole grain proso millet but was reduced
to 0.17-0.33% after decortication. Rao and Deosthale [157]
reported that malting reduced the phytate content in both
pearl millet and finger millet from 172 to 69 and 132 to 88
mg/100 g grain, respectively. Carr [35] also reported high
levels of phytate in finger millet. Phytate is located primari-
ly in the aleurone and germ in pearl millet [128], and decor-
tication of parboiled pearl millet increased protein and dry
matter digestibilities due to the loss of phytate and other an-
tinutritional factors [173]. Soaking grain containing phy-
tate can activate native phytase and thus improve zinc
bioavailability significantly [5]. Oxalate is another antinu-
tritional factor found in finger millets, especially the black
ones, at levels up to 4.65 mg/g [139].
Chandrasekhar and Pattabiraman [38] isolated two
trypsin inhibitors in pearl millet with molecular weights
around 11,000. The inhibitors were extracted with 0.1 N
HC1, fractionated with ammonium sulfate, and identified
on CM cellulose and by gel chromatography. Manjunath et
al. [124] reported on a trypsin inhibitor in finger millet.
Ravindran [159] reported that the antitryptic activities of
common, finger, and foxtail millets were higher than their
antichymotryptic activities. Foxtail millet had no de-
tectable antichymotryptic activity at all. Cooking im-
proved the IVPD of all millets [159].
A higher incidence of goiter among millet eaters in
West Africa has been attributed to a goitrogen found in
pearl millet. Epidemiological studies have suggested that
pearl millet might be at least partially responsible for the
higher goiter incidence in Sudan. C-Glycosylflavones and
their metabolites are thought to be the primary factors con-
tributing to goitrogenicity in pearl millet [23,24,62]. These
are the same compounds associated with color in the grain,
as well as the mousy off-odors [160,161,171]. Osman et al.
[144] isolated and attributed the goitrogenic effect of pearl
millet to a thionamide. Klopfenstein et al. [97,98] reported
that the millet goitrogen is found in the bran and en-
dosperm and that it inhibits the normal conversion of thy-
roxine (T4) to tri-iodothyroxine (T3). The T4 level was
higher and the T3 level lower in rats fed millet than in
those fed sorghum diets. Millet feeding resulted in en-
larged thyroid colloid follicles and flattened cells.
Histological changes in the thyroid glands and a distor-
tion of the thyroid hormone patterns in rats consuming
millet have been reported [143,144]. Addition of supple-
mental iodine to the diet did not improve the physiological
status of rats. Klopfenstein et al. [100] reported that in rat-
feeding studies, the semiwet milling process (25% of the
McDonough et al.
grain was removed as bran) successfully removed antithy-
roid properties, as demonstrated by patterns of serum thy-
roid hormones and thyroid histopathology in grey, brown,
and yellow seeded pearl millet varieties. Flavone concen-
tration was higher in the yellow than in the brown millet,
antithyroid effects seemed somewhat less severe for the
yellow millet, indicating differences in antithyroid potency
and/or concentrations for three C-glycosylflavones that
have been identified in pearl millet grain. Grain fermenta-
tion does not reduce the levels or activity of the antinutri-
tional factor, however, animals fed autoclaved or intensely
heated millet had a normal thyroid hormone pattern [97].
In most pearl millet—consuming areas, the incidence of
goiters has not been documented to be higher than for sim-
ilar non—millet-consuming populations. Thus, the impor-
tance of this goitrogenic effect awaits determination.
C. Enzymes
Chandrasekhara and Swaminathan [39] found that the
amylase enzymatic activity of finger millet malt was ap-
proximately twice as much as that of ungerminated grain.
The optimum pH for the amylases was 4.6-5.0. The same
authors reported no protease activity in ungerminated fin-
ger millet. Activity of malt proteases was optimum at pH
4.4. Lasekan [106] reported that 48-hour germination of
fonio significantly reduced the viscosity of flour slurries,
indicating large increases in a-amylase levels.
Skovron and Lorenz [182] studied the enzymatic activ-
ity of eight cultivars of proso millet. All cultivars showed
f3-amylase, protease, cellulase, and hemicellulase activity.
The optimum pH for 13-amylase was 5.0. Protease activity
was best at pH 3 and 5. Cellulase and hemicellulase activi-
ties were also present in proso millet.
V. POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY
A. Storage
After harvesting, millet grains are almost always processed
and consumed daily within the regions of production. For
long-term storage, pearl millet heads (Fig. 2a) are harvest-
ed, dried, and stored intact in storage bins (Fig. 2b). Some-
times a group of villagers have a community threshing
(Fig. 2c) when large amounts of grain are needed. Howev-
er, usually the heads are pounded in a mortar and pestle,
winnowed, and the grain required for daily consumption is
further processed (dehulled and ground) in the mortar and
pestle (Fig. 3a) as needed. The early millets are consumed
immediately after harvest since they represent the first
grain of the new crop year. The late millets mature in the
dry season, are air-dried outside, and are often stored with-
out threshing.
The NUnets
(a)
FIGURE 2 (a) Preparing pearl millet spikes for transport to village granaries. (b) Typical village granaries in northern Mali. (c) A com-
munity threshing operation in Central Mali.
McFarlane et al. [129] reviewed storage practices of
millets. In situations where millets were not going to be
consumed immediately after harvest, they are stored for
later use. Pearl millet keeps well in storage in dry climates
when grain moisture contents are low. It is traditionally
stored in clay pots or raised huts in most areas of West
Africa. In Botswana, pearl millet is mixed with beans to
reduce infestation by beetles; the millet fills the intergran-
ule spaces between the beans, making it harder for the bee-
tles to access the beans [129]. In Ethiopia, teff is stored in
clay pots to reduce damage from rodents. Similarly, fonio
in Mali is stored in tightly woven jute bags.
Millets have a reputation of being less susceptible to
insect attack than other grains, but this is only partially
true. Small grain millets like fonio and teff are more re-
sistant to insect damage during storage simply because the
seeds are so small. However, the embryo is still suscepti-
ble to attack. Larger-seeded millets like pearl and finger
millets are as susceptible to insect damage as any other ce-
189
(b)
real grain. Another reason that millets may be less suscep-
tible to damage is that they are commonly grown in semi-
arid areas of the world where the relative humidity is typ-
ically less than 40%, which is not optimum for many pests
[129].
B. Milling
In developing countries, millets are normally decorticated
and ground with a mortar and pestle prior to use (Fig. 3a)
Grinding stones are also used, followed by winnowing or
washing at various stages of grinding to remove bran,
coarse particles, and fine particles. These milling tech-
niques are labor intensive and usually performed by wo-
men. For example, in Senegal one person spends up to 6
hours per day milling whole millet kernels into the flour re-
quired to prepare one day's food for a family [193]. In an-
other Senegal study, an average family needed 2.5 kg of
grain per day, which required two women to decorticate
 McDonough et al.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 3 Common millet-milling procedures. (a) A typical mortar and pestle milling operation in West Africa. The mortar is used for
threshing, decortication, and pounding to produce flour. (b) A batch-type mechanical decorticator. The machine is gaining increased ac-
ceptance in Africa. It is most often diesel-powered. (c) Decortication is caused by abrasive action of the discs and abrasive kernel-to-ker-
nel friction.

the grain for 1.5 hours to produce 1.9 kg of endosperm and
0.3 kg of bran [43].
In India, the implement most widely used for grinding
is a stone hand-grinder, consisting of two round (60-cm-di-
ameter) stones rotating horizontally against each other.
Most millets except for finger millet can be decorticated
with rice or other modified mills. In some villages and ur-
ban areas, millets are decorticated with abrasive disks in
mechanical dehullers (Fig. 3b,c) and ground into flour with
diesel-powered attrition or hammer mills [36]. Milling
procedures and equipment are similar to the ones used for
sorghum (see Chapter 5). The milling quality of pearl mil-
lets with spherical kernels is significantly higher than those
cultivars with long cylindrical kernels. Pearl millets with
thick pericarp are more easily decorticated than those with
thin pericarps. The spherical kernels consistently have the
highest milling yields compared to long, hexagonally
shaped grains [165]. Kante et al. [94] found that the spher-
ical Sanio-type millets had greater endosperm recovery
with less time and effort than the elongated Souna-type
The Millets 191

millets. The Sanio kernels have a thick pericarp that sepa-

rates easily from the kernel. Among four locations, en-
dosperm recovery for three Sanio and two Souna varieties
averaged 63.4 and 58.9%, respectively.
Reichert and Youngs [163] monitored changes in pro-
tein, ash, and oil in pearl millet decorticated by traditional
village procedures, mechanical dehullers, and attrition
mills. Grains were decorticated to remove from 0 to 45%
of the total kernel weight. Protein, ash, and oil losses in-
creased as the level of decortication increased. There were
small differences in nutrient losses between the different
decortication processes when samples were extracted to
the same level. Carr [35] reported milling extraction rates
of 75 and 80% for pearl and finger millets, respectively, in
Rhodesia (Zimbabwe). Milling resulted in losses of some
nutrients in both types of millets. Pearl millet flour has the
tendency to become rancid after being ground into flour
for the reasons stated before. An effective milling opera-
tion should be able to remove most of the germ to increase
flour shelf life. The abrasive decortication equipment used
for milling sorghum has proven effective for pearl millet, FIGURE 4 Scanning electron micrograph of starch granules
although the germ is not fully removed. isolated from pearl millet. (Courtesy of R. D. Sullins.)
Experimentally, modern wheat flour milling equipment
has been found to be suitable for milling proso millet into
D. Food Utilization
flour (75% extraction) [15]. Lorenz and Dilsaver [110] pro-
duced proso millet flour by decorticating the grain in a bar- Millets have been utilized for human food from prehistoric
ley pearler and then reducing the decorticated kernel into times. Currently, millets are consumed in northern China,
flour with a roller mill. Compared to wheat flour, proso India, Africa, and southern Russia, with about 80% of the
flours were higher in ash and fat with lower lysine content crop consumed directly as human food [110]. In India, vir-
and in vitro protein digestibility. Foxtail, proso, and kodo tually all of the pearl millet and most of the finger millet is
millets must be dehulled prior to use; extraction was 71 and directly consumed as human food. Recent pearl millet sur-
54% in foxtail and kodo millets, respectively [153]. Using a pluses in India have promoted a search for alternative uses
Satake sheller to dehusk and a McGill rice polisher to for the grain. Traditional sorghum-based foods prepared
decorticate, foxtail, proso, barnyard, little, and kodo millets throughout the world can often be made using millet flour
produced yields of 69-77, 67-69, 64-68, 75, and 64%, re- (see Chapter 5). The most important use of pearl millet
spectively [119]. Brown and red finger millets are dehulled flour in India is in baking chapatis or rotis [187]. Millet
to remove the testa prior to use; the paper-thin pericarp rubs grain is also used for the production of rice-like products
off easily without milling. The traditional mortar and pestle and porridges (Fig. 5a). In Africa, millet is consumed pri-
method is used to dehull finger millet in India [119]. marily in the form of thick and thin porridges (fermented
or unfermented), flatbreads (fermented or unfermented),
steamed or boiled cooked products, snacks, alcoholic bev-
C. Wet Milling
erages, and in composite flours for bread, cookies, noo-
Starch yields from pearl millets were significantly lower dles, etc. In Nigeria, millets are dry-milled into flour for
than those obtained from corn or sorghum [57]. A lower production of Tuwo and Barabusco or mixed with wheat
protein content and higher starch content in the pearl millet flour for production of biscuits and bread [140]. Pearl mil-
byproducts indicated poorer starch-protein separation. let was used to prepare ndaleyi, traditionally prepared with
However, the cooking properties of pearl millet starch sorghum, and substituted for sorghum in kunun gyada, a
were in general similar to those of starch from corn or weaning food, in Nigeria [134,135]. Pearl millet was
sorghum. Figure 4 shows native starch granules isolated blended with baobab flour to produce a gruel called bulum
from pearl millet. Semi-wet milling of pearl millet at a mardam [168]. Tef is commonly used to prepare injera in
75% extraction rate reduced the goitrogenic factors [100]. Ethiopia [149].
192
(a)
FIGURE 5 (a) Preparation of to, a thick porridge, in a village near Bamako, Mali. To is consumed with a spicy sauce. (b) A traditional
brewery in Burkina Faso. Green malt is drying in the foreground, and wort is being sterilized in the background prior to fermentation.
Pearl millet is used to produce malt and alcoholic bev-
erages (Fig. 5b). Opaque sour beers are commonly pre-
pared in Africa from sorghum and/or millets (see Chapter
5). For production of malt the grain is generally steeped in
water for 24 hours, germinated for 72 hours at 23-27°C,
and dried in the sun or with hot air (45°C). Sprouts are re-
moved from the dry malt before grinding [39]. Pearl millet
malt can replace 25% of barley malt and produce lager
beer with analytical and organoleptic characteristics com-
parable to the control beer. Higher concentrations of pearl
millet malt slightly decrease wort extract [52]. The diastat-
ic activity of pearl millet reaches a maximum value after
32-hour germination. The activity then rapidly declines to
practically nil after 72 hours [83]. The germination of fo-
nio produced pronounced decreases in viscosity due to
high levels of a-amylase production [106]. Fonio has also
been successfully used in brewing operations [138].
Yeast-leavened pan bread cannot be made from 100%
millet flour because millets do not have gluten [36], how-
ever, fermented pearl millet flour has been successfully in-
corporated into cutlets, pakoras, weaning mixtures, and
biscuits in India [96]. Proso millet flour has been success-
fully used to replace 20-35% of wheat flour to produce
breads considered to be quite acceptable [110]. The quality
of breads containing proso millet flour has been consider-
ably improved with the use of dough conditioners [12,13].
Pearl millet produced cookies with spread characteristics
equal to soft wheat flour cookies when the flour was previ-
ously hydrated with water, dried, and supplemented with
0.6% unrefined soy lecithin [15]. Finger millet or ragi is
puffed for production of snack foods. The optimum condi-
tions for puffing are conditioning the grain to 19% mois-
McDonough et al.
(b)
ture, equilibrating for 4 hours, and puffing in hot sand at
270°C. Large differences in puffing ability of different cul-
tivars were reported [119].
VI. FOOD, FEED, AND NUTRITIONAL
VALUES OF MILLETS
A. Nutrition of Millets
Gupta and Sehgal [68] produced a home-based weaning
food with pearl millet combined with green gram, ama-
ranth, and jaggery in India that was comparable to the nu-
tritional value of Cerelac, a commercial weaning food. The
PER ranged from 2.04 to 2.13, biological value (BV) from
79.6 to 80.7, net protein utilization (NPU) from 66.8 to
67.9, net protein retention from 2.13 to 2.76, and protein
utilization efficiency from 34.1 to 44.2. Malleshi et al.
[122] blended sorghum, pearl, and finger millet flours with
bean flour and nonfat dry milk to produce an extruded
product used for ready-to-eat weaning foods. Chemical
scores for the sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet prod-
ucts were 78, 80, and 96, respectively. The net protein ratio
(NPR), PER and biological values were higher for the fin-
ger millet product, probably because it had a higher level
of lysine than the pearl millet or sorghum foods. Germinat-
ed finger millet used in togwa, a sweet gruel used for chil-
dren, was deemed more acceptable than that from
sorghum, maize, or bulrush millet [131]. Foxtail millet,
barnyard millet, sorghum, green gram, and jaggery were
roasted and mixed at 70:30:25 ratios of cereal:pulse:jag-
gery; they resulted in good-quality weaning foods in India
with nutrient compositions that fell within the standards
The Millets
prescribed by the Indian Standard Institute for processed
weaning foods [60,61].
The PERs for foxtail, proso, pearl, and finger millets
were 0.8, 1.1, 1.6, and 2.0, respectively [63]. Addition of
40% chickpea flour (Cicer arietinum) to millet-based diets
considerably improved rat performance. Chickpea protein
is rich in lysine and threonine and complements millet pro-
teins exceptionally well [63]. Rats fed pearl and finger mil-
lets had PERs of 1.84 and 1.74, respectively, whereas rats
on sorghum and maize diets had PERs of 1.36 and 1.46, re-
spectively [154]. Other authors [99] also reported that
pearl millet was a more efficient and digestible food and
produced higher weight gains in rats than sorghum grain.
In a rat bioassay, the PER, NPR, NPU, and BV obtained
for a traditional Nigerian weaning food produced from
millet were 1.22, 2.51, 49.2, and 53.7, respectively. Fortifi-
cation of the traditional food with 22.5% heat-treated soy-
beans considerably improved the nutritive value. The PER,
NPR, NPU, and BV of the fortified porridge increased to
2.2, 2.76, 67.6, and 79, respectively [80]. Goswami et al.
[66] added lysine to a pearl millet—based diet, which sig-
nificantly improved both protein score and PER. Rats con-
suming diets containing a blend of 75.5% pearl millet and
5% chickpea (Cicer arietinum) had a PER of 2.4. Addition
of lysine to the control diet raised the PER to 3.38. A simi-
lar study was conducted by Jansen et al. [85] in which a
teff-based diet was supplemented with lysine. Addition of
0.25 and 0.50% lysine improved PERs from 1.95 to 2.78
and 3.27, respectively. Rats fed the teff diet supplemented
with 0.5% lysine had comparable PERs to rats fed the con-
trol casein diet (PER = 3.47).
B. Effect of Germination and Fermentation
on Nutritional Value
The processes of germination and fermentation are com-
monly used for production of traditional foods. Germina-
tion improves the vitamin content of the grain and lowers
lipid, phytate, and oxalate levels [141]. Concentrations of
free sugars, amino nitrogen, B vitamins, and ascorbic acid
are increased as well [8,70] due to the partial loss of solu-
ble carbohydrates. The partial protein digestion via intrin-
sic grain enzymes or extrinsic (microorganisms) proteolyt-
ic enzymes improves protein quality and digestibility. The
availability of lysine, relative nutritive value, and T'PER
(PER estimated with a growing protozoa) of fermented
millet was higher than that of the control grain. The aver-
age weight gains of rats fed an unsupplemented diet of
sprouted finger millet flour were considerably higher than
weight gains of rats fed whole flour. The same study car-
ried out with vitamin and mineral supplements showed
that the sprouted and whole grain supported equal rat
193
growth [73]. Fermented pearl or finger millet had slightly
higher protein digestibilities, BV, NPU, and PER values
than raw grains. The higher protein digestibility (+3.0%)
was reflected by a better utilization of the protein and in-
creased rat weight gains.
Fermented and malted millet are used in the preparation
of weaning foods and porridges. Malted millet flour, espe-
cially that of finger millet, is traditionally preferred and
used for the production of weaning foods in India. The
grain is generally malted, mixed with legume flours, and
offered as a porridge to infants [25,120]. The malt enzyme
decreases the viscosity of foods, improving the palatability
of the products for children. Pearl millet was combined
with cowpea to produce acceptable weaning foods by
Almeida-Dominguez et al. [9]. Bulrush and finger millet
were fermented in lactic acid and combined with sorghum
malt flour to produce a weaning food for children [113].
Klopfenstein et al. [99] reported on a nutritious pearl mil-
let—based weaning food used in Senegal. The dehulled
grain is made into couscous and supplemented with skim
milk powder, vegetable oil, and sugar. The supplemented
weaning food was found to be equivalent to casein in feed
efficiency, digestibility, weight gains, and PER estimated
with growing rats.
C. Effect of Decortication on
Nutritional Value
Decortication reduces the amount of important nutrients
but also increases nutrient digestibilities. For instance,
Awadalla and Slump [12] reported losses of fat
(4.6-2.6%), fiber (5.1-0.65%), ash (2.5-0.9%), calcium
(0.04-0.01%), iron (28-13 mg/gm), lysine (182-143 mg/g
N), and methionine (129-110 mg/g N) when proso millet
was decorticated. When whole and decorticated proso mil-
let flours replaced 20% of refined wheat flour, the protein
quality of breads containing the proso flour was slightly
lower than that of the whole wheat flour control bread. The
protein digestibility of breads containing decorticated
proso millet flour was 3% higher than that of the control
bread or the bread containing proso millet whole flour.
However, the chemical score and BV and NPU values of
the bread with 20% decorticated proso millet flour was
slightly lower due to the loss of lysine during decortica-
tion.
Decortication of finger millet for production of Vadragi
(an Indian weaning food produced from dried-roasted mil-
let flour) produced a product with lower fiber, calcium, and
protein levels than the original grain source. Rats fed
Vadragi had reduced weight gains when compared with
counterparts fed whole or sprouted grain. However, rats
fed Vadragi absorbed and retained more calcium than rats
194
fed original grains, even though the Vadragi had lower cal-
cium content. The higher calcium retention value was at-
tributed to the lower fiber and phytic acid content [55].
Decorticated parboiled pearl millet had slight differ-
ences in chemical composition but had essentially the
same nutritional value as nonparboiled decorticated pearl
millet [173]. The outer layers of the millets were decorti-
cated more efficiently because of the structural changes in-
duced in the kernel during cooking.
D. Human Studies
Pearl millet is a nutritious and well-digested source of
calories and proteins for humans. Kurien et al. [103] stud-
ied the effect of partial or complete replacement of rice by
pearl millet in the diet of malnourished children. Pearl mil-
let contained more protein, calcium, fiber, and phytate than
milled rice. Rice had a higher protein digestibility than
pearl millet but children fed pearl millet performed as well
as children fed the control rice diet.
A nitrogen balance study found that children fed refined
finger millet flour digested protein better and retained
more nitrogen than children fed a whole finger millet flour.
Addition of lysine and threonine to a finger millet—based
diet offered to young girls significantly improved nitrogen
retention and biological and net protein utilization values
[46]. Another study with eight young females in which the
typical rice-based diet was replaced with different levels of
finger millet indicated that both protein digestibilities and
nitrogen balance slightly decreased as the level of finger
millet increased in the diet. Nevertheless, even when finger
millet was the only source of nitrogen, the young girls
maintained a positive nitrogen balance [46].
Fonio is considered a healthy grain since it is low in fat
and needs no salt when cooked. In anecdotal reports, peo-
ple suffering from hypertension, jaundice (yellow fever),
and liver problems are encouraged to eat it [54]. Fonio had
a slow in vitro rate of hydrolysis, possibly related to either
the high amylose content naturally present in fonio or the
parboiling process, which favors the hardening of the
structure and possibly the formation of resistant starch
(RS). Fonio was more slowly digested than sorghum and
oats and has been suggested as a good food for diabetics
[54]. Ayuo and Ettyang [14] reported in the East African
Medical Journal that millet had a higher glycemic index
than bread, white rice, potatoes, maize, and cassava; the
type of millet was not specified. A glycemic index for an-
other unspecified millet was in the range of 72-95, regard-
ed as "high" in an Indian study [18]. Two studies of an un-
specified Russian millet indicated that the millets were
promising for use by diabetics because of their moderating
influence on blood glucose content [95,102]. Finally, mil-
McDonough et al.
let oil was found to have an anti-inflammatory effect on
diabetic soft tissue diseases and was recommended for use
to help regenerate tissue [136].
Millet consumption has been associated with a lower
incidence of pellagra, a niacin-deficiency disease. An early
report [123] indicated that the incidence of pellagra was
lower in groups consuming millets than in similar groups
consuming maize. Possible explanations for the observed
differences are that (1) millet has a higher tryptophan con-
tent, which can be transformed into niacin in the human
system, and (2) niacin in raw corn is unavailable because it
is bound to a polypeptide called niacinogen [101].
E. Feed Use
Feeding trials with different domestic animals have shown
that millets have comparable or even better nutritional val-
ue than other major cereals [169,176,178]. Animals fed
pearl millets usually performed better than animals fed
sorghum. Millets produce better growth because they have
more calories and better protein quality. Nutrient di-
gestibilities of millets are comparable to other cereals.
Sharma et al. [176] reported better weight gains in poul-
try fed pearl millet than birds fed sorghum or wheat. The ef-
ficiency of feed conversion was better for chicks fed pearl
millet than counterparts fed wheat, maize, or sorghum. An-
other study by Simhaee et al. [93] compared maize, wheat,
pearl millet, and their combinations as the main source of
energy in broiler diets. No differences among grains was
found in body weight gain. However, millet supported
slightly poorer feed efficiency than either maize or wheat.
Sanford et al. [169] found that the performance of chicks
fed millet or sorghum was similar when isonitrogenous di-
ets were formulated. However, pearl millet usually has a
higher protein content than sorghum grain. Abate and
Gomez [1] found that chicks fed pearl millet outperformed
chicks on maize or finger millet. Chicks consuming finger
millet had weight gains and feed conversion similar to
those of chicks fed maize. Luis et al. [114-116] have re-
viewed the feeding value of proso millet in broiler and
turkey diets. Proso millets supported equivalent egg pro-
duction, egg weight, and feed consumption compared to
sorghum or maize Pullets fed proso millet had body weight
gains similar to pullets fed maize but greater than birds fed
sorghum. Turkeys fed proso millet had performance com-
parable to or better than those fed maize or sorghum [115].
Early swine-feeding studies conducted by Calder
[31-33] in Zimbabwe demonstrated that the replacement
of corn by finger millet in growing and finishing pig diets
had minimum effects on pig performance. Swine fed finger
millet performed better than or equally as well as animals
fed corn. Carcass weight and length and fat color were not
The Millets
affected by addition of finger millet in the diet. Danielson
and Grabouski [47] compared the performance of swine
fed corn or proso millet. Feed efficiency was slightly low-
er for animals fed proso millet (2.88 vs. 3.14 lb feed/lb
gain). Addition of lysine (0.0005-0.0015%) to the proso
millet based diet significantly improved feed conversion to
equal that of swine fed corn.
Brethour [26] conducted a trial in which rolled pearl
millet completely replaced sorghum grain in a steer finish-
ing ration. Steers gained equally when fed pearl millet or
sorghum grain. The estimated net energy of pearl millet
was 3-4% higher than finely rolled sorghum grain [26,28].
In another experiment, a ration containing sorghum and 6
lb of pearl millet was compared with a control ration com-
prised of sorghum, soybean meal, and urea. Steer perfor-
mance was slightly better when the ration containing pearl
millet was fed. The author concluded that millet provided
excellent protein for beef cattle rations [27].
Tef, fonio, and finger millet straw is fed to animals and
is considered to be a premium forage. Prasad et al. [152]
reported feeding finger millet straw to ruminants, and
Ebong [53] fed acacia-supplemented tef straw to sheep and
goats. Numerous studies on the value of these plants as
forages abound.
VII. QUALITY IMPROVEMENT OF MILLETS
Breeding programs to improve millets have successfully
developed varieties with improved quality. Pearl millets
with white and yellow grains can be used for light-colored
products, especially for decorticated products like rice, por-
ridges, and breads. The usual purple or slate grey pearl mil-
lets produce products with a dark color and strong flavor.
New improved white pearl millet cultivars are popular in
Namibia and India. Yellow endosperm pearl millets are pre-
ferred in Nigeria and Burkina Faso. Yellow and/or waxy en-
dosperm proso and foxtail millets are often preferred in
China. A bright yellow endosperm proso millet is sold in
health food and specialty shops in the United States. The
color of finger millet varies from reddish-brown to white,
which is preferred for certain food uses; red finger millet is
preferred for malting and beer production in Africa.
VIII. CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE
The millets are a diverse group of cereals that are general-
ly grown in harsh environments or as early-maturing
crops. They are critically important food cereals for many
people in Asia and Africa. Millets are used in numerous
thick and thin porridges, fermented and unfermented
breads, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, steamed
products, and snacks. Millet food products generally have
195
strong flavor and aroma. Millets vary in composition and
nutritional value among species.
Pearl millet products have a nice flavor with good nutri-
tional quality. The grain is a major source of food in India
and Sahelian Africa. Pearl millet can be used efficiently in
livestock feeds, but very little is processed industrially. Re-
cently, production in India has produced surplus grain,
which has stimulated research on industrial and feed uti-
lization.
The yield potential of millets is lower than other cere-
als, so they will continue to be used mainly in harsh envi-
ronments or as a short season catch crop. Pearl millet has
excellent feeding value for swine and poultry because of
its higher oil, protein, and lysine contents. Pearl millet im-
provement programs at the Kansas Fort Hays Experimen-
tal Station have already made significant progress in devel-
oping hybrids with adaptation to western Kansas. Pearl
millet hybrids may be grown in selected dry, sandy soil ar-
eas of Kansas as an alternative crop that could be a useful
ingredient in millet grain breads and other products.
More work on millets for livestock feed and for indus-
trial utilization will secure markets for millets, especially
pearl millet. Pearl millets with improved dry-milling prop-
erties are needed to provide shelf-stable food products.
Pearl millets especially have potential for new food prod-
ucts with unique flavor.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful for the long-term support of scien-
tists in the Texas Sorghum Improvement Program at Texas
A&M University. This work was part of the INTSORMIL
Title XII Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Research Sup-
port Program supported in part by Grant AID/DSAN/1254
G-TS-50-65 from the Agency for International Develop-
ment, Washington, DC.
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7
RICE: PRODUCTION, PROCESSING, AND UTILIZATION
Navam S. Hettiarachchy, Zhi Yong Ju, Terry Siebenmorgen, and Roy N. Sharp
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
I. HISTORY
The geographical site of original rice (Oryza sativa) do-
mestication is yet obscure. The general consensus is that
rice domestication occurred independently in three ar-
eas—India, Indonesia, and China—thereby giving rise to
three races of rice—Indica, Javonica, and Sinica (also
known as Japonica), respectively. There are indications
that rice was cultivated in India between 1500 and 2000
B.C. and in Indonesia around 1084 B.C. [1]. In various areas
of the world, rice can be found growing under extremely
diverse conditions, from dry land to as deep as 6 meters of
water [2]. The most productive areas are those where rice
is grown standing in water the depth of which is con-
trolled.
The growth of the shipping industry no doubt played a
part in the dissemination of rice grain as we know it today.
Rice reportedly was first introduced into the United States
in 1686, when a ship from Madagascar was forced to shore
in Charleston, South Carolina. Upon departure the captain
presented a bag of rice to the townspeople in appreciation
for the hospitality shown him [3]. The slave trade was re-
sponsible for greater movement of rice into the United
States via the Caribbean Sea area and the Louisiana gulf
area. Although rice was grown in the United States as ear-
ly as 1609 in Virginia and was an established crop in South
Carolina in 1690, it did not become an established crop in
Louisiana and Texas until approximately 1888, in
Arkansas in 1904, and in California in 1912 [4]. Since
1942, rice production has been of considerable importance
in the Mississippi Delta area.
203
II. RICE PRODUCTION
Rice production is widely scattered throughout the world,
with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) [5] re-
porting significant rice production in countries on six con-
tinents in 1996. Total rice production for 1996 was placed
at 562,259,000 metric tons (MT) (Table 1) after having in-
creased steadily during the previous 30 years. The total
production increase was partly due to an average annual
increase of 2.1% in production area and to an average an-
nual yield increase of 1.7% (Table 1). The production by
rice-producing countries showed little variation during the
period 1983-1996 (Table 2). The countries producing the
most rice are China and India.
The distribution of rice production has no relation to the
country of origin of the rice entering the international mar-
ket. Thailand ranks first in exporting rice [6]. In 1995 and
1998 Thailand exported 5931 and 5800 x 103 MT of rice,
respectively (Table 3). The United States exported 3073
and 2800 x 103 MT, respectively. Recently, China, Viet-
nam, and Pakistan have increased their exports from 32,
2308, and 1592 x 103 MT in 1995 to 1750, 3600, and 2000
x 103 MT in 1998, respectively. The major world rice-im-
porting countries in 1997 were Brazil (1200 x 103 MT), In-
donesia (1000 x 103 MT), and Iran (1000 x 103 MT) [7]
(Table 4). The international rice market ranged from
14,919 to 20,999 x 103 MT in 1993-1997 [7].
Within the United States, measurable rice production
occurs in six states [8]—Arkansas, California, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Missouri, and Texas (Table 5)—with the ma-
jority of the area seeded with varieties of long grain rice. In
204 Hettiarachchy et al.

TABLE 1 World Rice Area, Yield, and Production, TABLE 3 Top Rice Export Countries, 1995-1998'
1955-1996
Country 1995 1996 1997 1998
Area Yield Production
Year (1000 ha) (kg/ha) (1000 MT) United States 3,073 2,624 2,292 2,800
China 32 265 938 1,750
1955 108,783 1,798 195,640 Thailand 5,931 5,281 5,272 5,800
1960 120,172 1,950 234,749 India 4,201 3,556 1,959 2,000
1965 123,902 2,070 256,480 Vietnam 2,308 3,040 3,268 3,600
1970 131,174 2,380 311,830 Pakistan 1,592 1,677 1,982 2,000
1975 143,056 2,520 360,575
1980 143,746 2,755 396,062 aValues expressed are 1,000 tons.
1985 144,674 3,221 465,970 Source: Adapted from Ref. 6.
1990 147,483 3,509 517,441
1995 149,565 3,683 550,869
1996 150,758 3,730 562,259 TABLE 4 Selected World Rice Importers, 1993-1997a
Source: Adapted from Ref. 5. Country 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States 199 244 221 268 285
China 112 700 1,964 850 800
TABLE 2 World Rice Production: Percentage of World Total Brazil 831 1,098 987 800 1,200
by Continent and Selected Countries, 1983-1996 Indonesia 22 1,120 3,000 1,250 1,000
Continent/ 1989- Iran 1,161 645 1,633 1,400 1,000
Country 1983 1985 1991 1994 1995 1996 Japan 107 2,473 29 450 600
World total 12,919 16,465 20,999 19,325 17,665
Africa 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.6 2.8 2.9
North aValues expressed are 1,000 tons.
America 1.2 1.9 1.8 2.0 1.8 1.8 Source: Adapted from Ref. 7.
South
America 2.8 3.1 3.0 3.4 3.5 3.3
Asia 92.7 91.8 91.7 91.3 91.3 91.4 velopments in rice production. Seeds of newly released va-
Europe 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 rieties are always in great demand by producers. There-
Oceania 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 fore, popularity of a variety may be short lived due to the
Russian 0.6 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 release of new varieties more suitable to the needs of the
Australia 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 producer as well as the end user (Table 8) [10]. Interdisci-
Bangladesh 4.8 4.7 5.2 4.7 4.8 5.0
plinary cooperation between scientists involved in rice
Brazil 1.7 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.0 1.8
China 38.2 36.8 36.1 33.1 34.0 33.8 production resulted in the development of an interactive
India 19.9 19.6 21.5 22.6 21.7 21.3 computerized production system for Arkansas based on
Indonesia 7.8 8.3 8.7 8.7 9.0 9.1 variety, weather conditions, and emergence data. As the
Italy 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 season progresses, other parameters provide interactive
Japan 2.9 3.1 2.5 2.8 2.4 2.3 data as predictive factors [11]. One half of the rice pro-
Thailand 4.1 4.2 3.7 3.9 3.8 3.9 duced in the state of Arkansas is monitored by this system.
Unites States 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.7 1.4 1.4 It is possible that by the end of the century, the changing
Vietnam 3.3 3.3 3.7 4.4 4.5 4.7 environment (CO2 concentration range of 510-760 pl/L,
Source: Adapted from Ref. 5. and mean global temperature 1.5-4.5°C) in which cereals
including rice will be growing could have a profound in-
fluence on grain production. The vulnerability to climatic
1997 Arkansas ranked first in rice production (1300 x 103 change will be marginal (in terms of temperature and water
acres and 77,370 x 103 cwt). A trend in producing approx- availability) in cereal-producing countries including Aus-
imately 70% long grain rice has been reported from tralia and the United States. High CO2 concentrations may
1989-1996 (Table 6). Medium and short grain rices ac- increase grain yield, increase amylose content (a major
counted for 23.1-33.2% and 0.3-3.2%, respectively. factor in cooking quality), and decrease protein content.
Table 7 [9] shows the main variety grown in each of the Higher temperatures and drought could reduce grain yield
rice-producing states. Research scientists at the state agri- and quality. The combined effects of long-term CO2 en-
cultural experiment stations inform producers of new de- hancement and high temperatures on grain quality and
Rice 205

TABLE 5 Distribution of Rice Production in the United States, 1996-1997

Yield (lb) Acres (x 1,000) Production (1,000 cwt)

State 1996 1997 1996 1997 1996 1997

Arkansas 6,150 5,650 1,170 1,370 71,945 77,370

California 7,490 8,300 500 510 37,459 42,341
Louisiana 4,870 4,630 533 548 25,977 25,364
Mississippi 6,000 5,800 208 238 12,480 13,804
Missouri 5,500 5,300 90 109 4,995 5,770
Texas 6,200 5,500 298 259 18,465 14,240
U.S. total 6,121 5,896 2,799 3,034 171,321 178,896

Source: Adapted from Ref. 8.

TABLE 6 U.S. Rice Production by Type, 1989-1996 TABLE 7 Predominant Rice Varieties for the Major Rice-
Producing States in the United States 1988
Short grain Medium grain Long grain
Year (%) (%) (%) % of state
State Variety Grain type hectarage
1989 2.5 26.8 70.7
1990 0.6 30.3 69.1 Arkansas Newbonnet Long 32.6
1991 0.5 30.2 69.3 California M202 Medium 42.9
1992 0.5 28.2 71.3 Florida Lebonnet Long 44.8
1993 0.8 33.2 66.0 Louisiana Lemont Long 46.8
1994 0.3 27.8 71.9 Mississippi Lemont Long 70.8
1995 0.4 24.8 74.9 Missouri Lemont Long 70.8
1996 0.5 28.4 71.1 Texas Lemont Long 63.6

Source: Calculated from Ref. 8. Source: Adapted from Ref. 9.

yield need to be studied. Genotypes that are likely to be
more productive under new environmental conditions, in-
cluding responsiveness to increasing atmospheric CO2
concentrations, ability to maintain yield potential due to
higher temperature, and tolerance to heat shock and
drought stress during vegetative, reproductive, and grain
filling stages, are needed. Also, the physiological and mo-
lecular bases for environmental change must be identified
[12].
III. ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE
Rice is harvested as a covered grain in which the kernel
(caryopsis) is encased in a protective hull or husk. The hull
is a two-piece structure (lemma and palea), which tightly
encompasses the kernel, providing security against many
insects and a barrier to rapid change in moisture content of
the kernel as changes in humidity occur. Rice grain in the
harvest state commonly known as rough or paddy rice is
18-20% hull (Fig. 1). After the hull is removed, the cary-
opsis is known as brown rice regardless of its visual hue
(color).
The mature brown rice kernel is approximately 93% en-
dosperm (Fig. 2). The endosperm, the starchy inner portion
of the kernel, is composed of tightly packed compound
starch granules with protein interspersed as spherical bod-
ies and crystalline structures. The major constituent of the
endosperm is starch (approx. 90%). The outermost layer of
the endosperm is the aleurone. This structure is botanically
part of the endosperm; however, rice millers consider it
part of the bran because it is mostly removed in the milling
process [13]. The area between the hull and endosperm is
composed of three distinct layers: pericarp, tegmen (seed
coat), and nucellus (Fig. 3). These three layers plus the
aleurone account for approximately 3% of the brown rice
weight (Fig. 2) and together are known as the bran. The re-
maining 4% of the brown rice kernel is comprised of the
germ (embryo).
IV. RICE TYPES AND
THEIR DETERMINATION
Throughout the world, rice varieties are divided into dif-
ferent types according to custom and usage. Rice varieties
commonly used in commercial rice production in the Unit-
ed States are of three grain types according to the physical
206 Hettiarachchy et al.

TABLE 8 Characteristics of Popular U.S. Rice Varieties

Grain yield Milled kernels' % Head % Total Parboiling
Variety Grain type indexa weight (g) rice yield milling yield suitability'
Gulfmont Long 105 19.3 57 71 0
Lebonnet Long 102 19.3 56 70
Lemont Long 106 20.0 58 71
L202 Long 115 21.1 55 70 0
Mars Medium 117 18.9 63 72
Mercury Medium 94 18.5 NA NA
Newbonnet Long 100 17.5 59 70
Nortai Short 110 18.3 59 71
Rexmont Long 97 17.2 51 68
Skybonnet Long 102 18.8 57 70 0
Tebonnet Long 103 18.7 58 71 0
'Based on Arkansas production only.
'Weight of 1000 kernels
`0 = Average; + = above average; — = below average.
NA = Data not available.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 10.

FIGURE 1 Anatomical composition of rough rice.
measurements of length and width of the grain (Fig. 4;
Table 9) [14]. By agreement between plant breeders of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and state experi-
ment stations, a new variety will not be released for com-
mercial production unless it conforms to specific quality
attributes typical of its physical measurements (Table 10)
[15]. Kernel measurements are normally taken as the aver-
age length and width of 15 kernels (Fig. 5) [14]. Occasion-
ally, varieties for special uses, such as Della and Toro 2,
are released, recognizing that these varieties are not typical
of long, medium, or short grain types. Care must be exer-
cised to prevent the comingling of seeds, or else the relia-
bility of the system will not be maintained.
V. RICE MILLING
The primary objective in rice milling (Fig. 6) is to remove
the hull and bran with minimum breakage of the en-
dosperm. Processes used to accomplish this task differ
throughout the world. The methods have many variations,
ranging from small batch milling to the continuous milling
of large lots. Regardless of the method used, the process
follows the same path of hull removal and subsequent bran
removal. The bulk of marketable rice is commercially
milled in a continuous process (Fig. 7), starting with rice
that has been harvested and movement of rice from pro-
duction to consumption [16] to approximately 11-12%
moisture. Variations in the process will occur due to differ-
ent equipment uses and capabilities of the mill. The miller
must endeavor to maximize economic return. Rice millers
in the United States are responsive to changes in produc-
tion, consumption, and technology [17].
Processing steps influence the milling quality of rice.
After harvest, the rough rice is dried to about 12-13%
moisture content (wet basis). The dried product is dehulled
and milled. Rice quality involves the head rice yield
(HRY) and milled rice yield (MRY). HRY is the percent-
age of rough rice that is left after complete milling. Head
rice is defined as "unbroken kernels of rice and broken ker-
nels of rice that are at least three fourths of an unbroken
kernel" [18]. Head rice is generally worth twice as much as
broken kernels. MRY is the percentage of rough rice re-
maining as milled rice that contains both head rice and bro-
ken kernels. The degree of milling (DOM) is the extent to
Rice 207

Brown Rice Endosperm

Ash 0.6%
Fiber 0.4%
Fat 0.5%
Germ 4% Protein 7.8%
Bran 3%
Other 0.4%

Starch 90.2%

Germ Bran

Fat 21.6%
Fiber 3.52
Protein 20.2%

Ash 7.9%

Starch 2.4%
Other 44.4%

FIGURE 2 Anatomical composition of brown rice.

which the bran layers are removed by milling Milling in-

fluences MRY, HRY, and DOM.
A significant economic loss occurs with breakage of
milled rice. It has been shown that several factors, includ-
ing relative humidity of the exposed air and the moisture
Hul { Lema content of milled rice, affect kernel breakage greatly. Also,
Pale
thicker kernels incurred a higher level of brokens than
thinner kernels [19]. Hence, the performance of commer-
cial systems in terms of milling quality and product unifor-
mity is of great economic importance to the rice industry.
Fissures in rice can increase the amount of broken rice.
Endosperm A rapid and precise method of assessing the amount of
Peri carp breakage to rice has been developed utilizing a roller
Sed oatC mechanism that applies compressive pressure to each indi-
Nucels
Aleuron layer vidual kernel, resulting in the breakage of fissured kernels
[20].
Rice milling does remove a significant amount of nutri-
ents (see Table 11), therefore, the restoration of some of
the lost nutrients is practiced in some countries. The Unit-
Embryo ed States does not require that milled rice be enriched, but
if the label declares enrichment, there are specified re-
quirements for niacin, thiamine, riboflavin, and iron [21].
Prevention of appreciable nutrient loss can be accom-
plished by parboiling the rice prior to milling; however, in
FIGURE 3 Structure of the rice kernel. (From Ref. 13.) the United States other reasons are considered more im-
208 Hettiarachchy et al.

Rough rice

Length

Miled rice

ID)] Length
Width

FIGURE 4 Physical measurement of the rice kernel. (From Ref. 14.)

portant for parboiling rice, and parboiling does not accom-
plish the objective of enrichment. Parboiling can be ac-
complished in a variety of ways, the details of which are
normally not divulged by the processors. The general
scheme is to hydrate rough rice to 32-38% moisture and
gelatinize or partially gelatinize the starch by heating. The
gelatinization in some instances is accomplished at atmos-
pheric pressure but more commonly is carried out in a
steam-pressurized vessel (Fig. 8). Parboiling causes physi-
cal and chemical alterations in the grain leading to changes
such as improved milling yields, increased resistance to in-
sects, and firmer cooked rice texture accompanied by a
darker and more yellow endosperm. Forty-one active rice
mills were identified in the United States in 1994 [22],
however, 21 mills (Table 12) [23] process the majority of
the rice. Since the establishment of the International Rice
Research Institute at Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines, in
1960, knowledge about rice has rapidly expanded. With
additional information, worldwide advances have been at-
tained in production, processing, and utilization. These
have not occurred solely as the result of new findings but
because findings were shared internationally for the benefit
of all people.
VI. RICE QUALITY AND
GRADING STANDARDS
There are four broad categories of rice quality: (1) milling
quality, (2) cooking, eating, and processing quality, (3) nu-
tritional quality, and (4) specific quality designations re-
TABLE 9 Physical Measurement Criteria for Rice Types
Grain type Rough Brown Milled
Long 3.4 or more 3.1 or more 3.0 or more
Medium 2.3-3.3 2.1-3.0 2.0-2.9
Short 2.2 or less 2.0 or less 1.9 or less
Source: Adapted from Ref. 14.
garding cleanliness, soundness, and purity. Market criteria
are combinations of milling quality and standards for
cleanliness, soundness, and purity. These have little rela-
tion to cooking, eating, and processing qualities and no re-
lation to nutritional quality.
Milling quality is the degree to which the endosperm re-
mains intact at the end of bran removal and how much of
the bran is removed. Milling quality, indicated by total
milling yield or head rice yield, is expressed as a percent-
age of rough rice. Head rice is the milled kernels that are
three quarters or more of the endosperm length. Therefore,
the difference between total milling yield and head rice
yield is the amount of broken kernels. It is important to as-
sess the degree of milling, because the stress placed on the
kernels to remove the bran causes a large amount of break-
age. Oil in bran is more susceptible to oxidation, therefore,
excessive bran remaining on the kernel decreases the shelf
life of the rice.
Varietal differences and differences in methods of fur-
ther processing are two of the most important factors that
Rice 209

TABLE 10 Cooking and Processing Characteristics of Typical U.S. Long, Medium, and Short Grain
Types of Milled Rice

Characteristics Long Medium Short

Alkali spreading value 3-5 6-7 6-7

Amylographic viscosity (BU)
Peak viscosity 765-840 890-980 820-870
Hot paste viscosity 400-500 370-420 370-400
Cool paste viscosity 770-880 680-760 680-690
Amylose content (%) 23-26 15-20 16-20
Gelatinization temperature 71-74 65-68 65-67
Gelatinization temperature class Intermediate Low Low
Parboiling-canning stability (% solids loss) 18-21 31-36 30-33
Water uptake at 77°C (mL/100 g) 121-136 300-340 310-360
Source: Adapted from Ref. 15.

Length of thes 15 kernls is aproximtely 12.7 cm (5 in

6001.1/1►/J04.
4

Width of thes 15 kernls is aproximtely 3.81 cm (1.5 in)

12.7 : 3.81 = 3.

The length/wid ratio of this sample is 3. to 1.

FIGURE 5 Measurement method to determine rice grain type. (From Ref. 14.)

— Direct Food
-Regular milled
-Parboiled
- Precooked
-Brown
-Other

On Farm Storage Domestic Markets Byproducts

-Bran
-Mill feed
-Hulls

Processors
-Cereal
I Farm -Soup
-Baby food
-Package mixes
-Beer
-Other

Commerci al
Conmerc a I I------ —I Export Markets
PL-480

FIGURE 6 Flow diagram of movement of rice from production to consumption. (From Ref. 16.)
210 Hettiarachchy et al.

Harvest

V
Dryer

Cleaner

Whole Kernels Disk Separator Broken Kernels

V V bran
hulls Sheller Pearler --► and
(shells) germ

V
Paddy Machine Milled Brokens

Disk Separator

bran
and
germ

Milled Rice Storage

Disk Separator Packaging

Head Rice

FIGURE 7 Process flow for typical rice milling.

influence quality of rice and rice products. Some of the
tests used in the United States to determine rice quality in-
clude the alkali spreading value, amylography, amylose
content, protein content, size, appearance, and hardness of
grain. Most of the tests are adapted from methods for eval-
uation of other cereals. Textural properties using texture
analyzer, pasting characteristics by Brabender Visco/amy-
lography, and in vitro starch digestibility using human sali-
vary a-amylase can be used to differentiate rice varieties
and quality [24].
Rice quality relates to the suitability of the rice for the
intended use. In the United States, rice types are generally
selected for their uses in cooking, eating, and processing.
Objectively, the quality is assessed in terms of amylose
percentage, the most important index of suitability of end
use [25]. The United States was the first country to estab-
lish a quality-evaluation program for cooking and process-
ing quality (Table 13) [15,26-34]. Since 1955 many coun-
tries have initiated programs to evaluate the cooking,
eating, and/or processing qualities of rice.
Upon cooking, long grain rice is dry and fluffy with
separate grains, whereas medium and short grain types are
moist and chewy with grains that tend to stick or clump to-
gether. In addition to those characteristics, the grains must
meet the criteria of the physical dimensions of long, medi-
um, and short grains (see Table 9).
Rice 211

TABLE 11 Content of Selected Nutrients of Brown

and Milled Rice at 12% Moisture
Nutrient Brown Milled
Crude ash (%) 1.0 0.5
Crude fat (%) 1.9 0.3
Crude fiber (%) 0.7 0.3 'IP-steep water
Crude protein (N x 5.95) (%) 7.2 5.8
Neutral detergent fiber (%) 2.7 0.8
Starch (%) 57.0 67.0
Iron (µg/g) 0.3 0.2
Calcium (mg/g) 24.0 13.0 Pressu e Vessel
Total phosphorus (mg/g) 2.5 1.2
Phytin phosphorus (mg/g) 2.0 0.5
Potassium (mg/g) 1.7 1.0
Sodium (Kg/g) 315.0 45.0
Niacin (4/g) 43.0 18.0
Riboflavin (i.tg/g) 0.9 0.4
Thiamine (1.tg/g) 4.4 0.7
Tocopherol (.1g/g) 17.0 Trace
Source: Adapted from Ref. 10.

hulls
(shells)

Brown rice contains more nutrients (minerals and vita-

mins) than does milled rice (Table 11), but the nutrient
Paddy Machine
content alone is insufficient to assess the nutritional value
of food. Although brown rice is higher than milled rice in
nutrient content, it does not necessarily have greater food
bran
value. Data relating to the nutrient value of rice are exten- Whitener 110 and
germ
sive, have conflicting implications, and are beyond the in-
tent and scope of this review. One of the most impressive
points in the nutrient content of rice is the vast pool of ge-
netic variability in the world rice collection. For example, Milled Parboiled Rice

the protein content of rice is commonly reported to be

6.9-7.3% [13], while low and high values within the world
collection are reported to be 4.3 and 18.2, respectively
[35]. Whether these characteristics can be exploited to pro-
vide more essential nutrients without a loss of the various
cooking and eating qualities remains a monumental chal-
lenge.
Rice and its products could be suitable vehicles to forti-
fy many foods with nutrients especially minerals. Nutrient
enrichment of rice is done in two ways: powder form en-
richment and through-coated kernels. Studies have report-
ed enrichment of rice with vitamins by acidic and alkaline
cross-linking [36] or by enrichment by polymer coating
[37]. A simple process for fortifying rice with calcium that
does not involve chemicals as used in acidic and alkaline
cross-linking techniques was developed by Hettiarachchy
et al. [38]. Milled rice (Karen variety) was soaked in 3.0%
calcium lactate solution for 3 hours at ambient temperature
followed by steaming for 10 minutes at 0.68 atm. and dry-
Packaging
FIGURE 8 Flow chart of a steam-pressurized vessel.
ing to 10-11% moisture (Fig. 9). Washing fortified rice re-
sulted in calcium losses of only approximately 5%. About
24 million Americans suffer from osteoporosis, and calci-
um-fortified rice in a variety of rice-based products could
increase the intake of calcium in such individuals. Further-
more, calcium-fortified rice has a harder texture that could
be used in canned rice products [39].
In evaluating rice quality, an integrated approach in-
volving various disciplines (cereal science, crop physiolo-
gy, food science, engineering, and nutrition) is needed.
As with other grains in the United States, a system of
212 Hettiarachchy et al.

TABLE 12 Principal U.S. Rice Millers

Mill name and location Products

ADM Milling Company BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, LG, MG

Rice Milling Division
P.O. Box 368, Weiner, AR 72479
Mill locations: Otwell, AR; Weiner, AR; Crowley, LA
Cormier Rice Milling Co., Inc. BR, MR, BK, OB, B, H, LG, MG, SG
P.O. Box 152
Deweitt, AR 72042
Producers Rice Mill, Inc. BR, MR, PR, BK, MF, B, H, LG, MG, RM
P.O. Box 461
Stuttgart, AR 72160
Riceland Foods, Inc. BR, MR, PR, BK, MF, B, H, RF, RC, LG, MG, SG
P.O. Box 927
Stuttgart, AR 72160
Mill location: Jonesboro, AR; Stuttgart, AR.
California Pacific Rice BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, LG, MG, SG
Milling, LTD
P.O. Box 725, Arbuckle, CA 95912
Farmers' Rice Cooperative BR, MR, BK, B, H, LG, MG, SG
P.O. Box 15223
Sacramento, CA 95851
Mill locations: Dos Palos, CA; West Sacramento, CA
Koda Farms MR, BK, MF, B, RF, SG
P.O. Box 88, South Dos Palos. CA 93665
The Rice Grower Assn. of California BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, LG, MG, SG
1550 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 200
West Sacramento, CA 95691
Mill Locations: Biggs; CA; Woodland, CA
Sem-Chi Rice Product Corp. BR, MR, SR, BK, OR, MF, B, H, MG
P.O. Box 1097
Loxahatchee, FL 33470
Broussard Rice Mill, Inc. BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H
P.O. Box Drawer 160
Mermentan, LA 70556
Conrad Rice Mill, Inc. BR, MR, BK, B, H, RC, RM, LG, MG
P.O. Box 10640
New Iberia, LA 70562
Falcon Rice Mill, Inc. BR, MR, BK, SR, B, H, LG, MG
P.O. Box Drawer 771
Crowley, LA 70527
Liberty Rice Mill, Inc. BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, LG, MG
P.O. Box 218, Kaplan, LA 70548
Supreme Rice Mill, Inc. BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, LG, MG, QW, QB
P.O. Box 490
Crowley, LA 70527
Busch Agricultural Sources Inc. BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, LG, MG, SG
12855 Flushing Meadow Drive
Suite 200-B, St. Louis, MO 63131
Mill Locations, Jonesbora, AR; Woodland, CA
Affiliated Rice Milling, Inc. BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, SG
P.O. Box 1446
Alvin, TX 77512
Rice 213

TABLE 12 Continued

Mill name and location Products

American Rice Mills, Inc. BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, PR, QW, RM, LG, MG
P.O. Box 2587
Houston, TX 77252
Beaumont Rice Mills, Inc. BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, LG, MG
P.O. Box 3111
Beaumont, TX 77704
EL Campo Rice Milling Co. BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, PR, LG
P.O. Box 110
El Campo, TX 77437
Mill Location: Louise, TX
Riviana Foods, Inc. BR, MR, BK, MF, B, H, LG, PR, QW, RF, RM, SB,
P.O. Box 2636 LG, MG, MG
Houston, TX 77252
Mill location: Carlisle, AR; Abbeville, LA; Memphis, TN,
Houston, TX
Uncle Ben's Inc. BR, B, H, PR, LG, RM
P. 0. Box 1752, Houston, TX 77251
Mill locations: Greenville, MS; Houston, TX

BR = Brown rice; MR = milled rice; BK = broken rice; MF = mill feed; B = bran; H = hulls; LG = long grain type; MG =
medium grain type; SG = short grain type; OB = organic brown rice; PR = parboiled rice; RM = rice mixes; RF = rice flour;
SR = scented rice; QW = quick cook white rice; QB = quick cook brown rice; SB = stabilized bran; RC = rice cakes.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 23.

TABLE 13 Initiation of Rice Cooking tion of rough rice, brown rice for processing, and milled
and Processing Quality Program in rice are given in the Rice Inspection Handbook [14].
Selected Countries The U.S. Standards recognize three types of rice—long,
Country Year Ref. medium, and short—based on the length/width ratio of un-
broken rice (see Table 9). Requirements for numerical
Australia 1971 26 grades of rough, brown, and milled rices are shown in Ta-
Bangladesh 1960 27 bles 14, 15, and 16, respectively.
France Mid-1970s 28 Special grades are provided for the specific qualities or
India 1968 29
conditions of rice that affect marketability. These special
Japan Mid-1960s 30
Philippines 1961 31 grades are:
Spain 1968 32 Rough rice: parboiled rough rice
Sri Lanka 1978 33 Smutty rough rice
Thailand 1968 34 Weevily rough rice
United States 1955 15 Brown rice: parboiled brown rice for processing
Smutty brown rice for processing
Milled rice: coated milled rice
grades and standards to facilitate marketing has been de- Granulated brewers' rice
veloped for rice. This system is governed by regulations Parboiled milled rice
(Agricultural Marketing Act of 1946, as amended; the Undermilled milled rice
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7, Part 68, Subpart A) Grade designation follows this order: (1) the letters
and has specified standards for rice (Code of Federal Reg- "U.S."; (2) the number of the grade; (3) the class; (4) each
ulations, Title 7, Part 68, Subparts C, D, and E). The Fed- applicable special grade; and (5) a statement of the milling
eral Grain Inspection Service, an agency of the USDA, ad- yield. For example, grade designation for a specific lot of
ministers the system of U.S. Standards for Rice. rice may read "U.S. No. 3, long grain rough rice, par-
Guidelines for sampling, inspection, grading, and certifica- boiled, milling yield 50%-70%." The 50% and 70% indi-
214 Hettiarachchy et al.

120
long - Starbon et
mediu - Nato
co 1000 short - Nortai
4./
_
• long

L 800 medium
at
13
C
a) short
600
L
co
3 . 3 400 i•

0
0 200
to

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (Minutes)
50°C 92.5° C 92.5° C 50° C
Temperature

FIGURE 9 Visco-amylograph curves for one variety of each rice grain type.

TABLE 14 Grades and Grade Requirements for the Classes of Rough Rice

Seeds and heat-damaged kernels

Heat damaged Red rice and Chalky kernels (%)

kernels and damaged kernels
Total (singly objectionable seeds (singly or In medium
or combined) (singly or combined) combined) In long or short Other
Grade in 500 g in 500 g in 500 g grain rice grain rice types (%) Color requirement

U.S. No. 1 4 3 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 Shell be white or cream

U.S. No. 2 7 5 1.5 2.0 4.0 2.0 May be slightly gray
U.S. No. 3 10 8 2.5 4.0 6.0 3.0 May be light gray
U.S. No. 4 27 22 4.0 6.0 8.0 5.0 May be gray or slightly ro
U.S. No. 5 37 32 6.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 May be dark gray or ros
U.S. No. 6 75 75 15.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 May be dark gray or ros

Source: Adapted from Ref. 14.

cate head rice and total milling yields, respectively. Item rapid screening. The possibility of using the Satake Neuro
number 5 in the grade designation is required for rough Fuzzy rice taster for evaluating U.S. medium grain rice
rice and is permissible for brown rice [14]. was investigated by Champagne et al. [40]. The Stake
Taste analyzers have been developed and used to grade Neuro Fuzzy Rice Taster allows direct measurement of
rice in Japan. These analyzers convert various physico- protein and moisture contents and an estimation of yield.
chemical parameters of rice into taste scores. Taste scores This rice taster is calibrated using sensory scores and gives
are based on correlations between near-infrared (NIR) re- valuable information on the quality characteristics desir-
flectance measurements of amylose, protein, moisture, fat able by the sensory panelists. However, they are not uni-
acidity, and sensory scores. These taste analyzers provide versal or objective. Research is in progress to develop a
Rice 215

TABLE 15 Grades and Grade Requirements for the Classes of Brown Rice for Processing
Red rice
and Broken
Seeds and heat-damaged kernels
damaged kernels
Totally Heat- kernels removed by
Paddy kernels (single or damaged Objection (single or Chalky a 6 plate or Other Well-milled
combined) kernels able seeds combined ) kernels 61/2 sieve types kernels
Grade (%) (in 500 g) (in 500 g) (in 500 g) (in 500 g) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
U.S. No. 1 20 10 1 2 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
U.S. No. 2 2.0 40 2 10 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 3.0
U.S. No. 3 2.0 70 4 20 4.0 6.0 3.0 5.0 10.0
U.S. No. 4 2.0 100 8 35 8.0 8.0 4.0 10.0 10.0
U.S. No. 5 2.0 150 15 50 15.0 15.0 6.0 10.0 10.0
U.S. sample grade does not meet the requirements for any of the grades from U.S. No. 1 to U.S. No. 5
All values are maximum limits.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 14.

universal taste analyzer that will be calibrated with de-
scriptive analytical sensory scores to provide an objective
measure of sensory descriptors with physicochemical mea-
surement [41].
VII. DIRECT UTILIZATION OF RICE
AS FOOD
In 1996, world rice production was 562,259 x 103 MT
(see Table 1), and the total world exports in 1996 were
19,325 MT (see Table 4) or approximately 3.4%. Thus,
most of the world's rice production is consumed in the
country of origin. In 1992, the world per capita annual
consumption of rice was 66.7 kg (147 lb), with South
Vietnam and Thailand having the greatest per capita con-
sumptions of 147 and 130 kg (324 and 286 lb), respec-
tively, compared to 7 kg (15 lb) rough rice basis for the
United States [42].
In the past, due to the low per capita consumption rate,
the United States has exported a relatively large percentage
of its annual rice production. However, domestic rice con-
sumption in the United States has steadily increased in re-
cent years (Table 17).
Utilization of rice as food is categorized four ways [14]:
direct food use, brewing, seeds, and others (feed, etc.)
(Table 18). Rice for direct consumption includes regular
milled rice, parboiled rice, precooked rice, brown rice, and
specialty products such as flour and flavored rice. Rice
used for processed foods includes that for cereals, soup,
baby food, packaged mixes, and minor unclassified uses.
Precooked rice is used in rice-based convenience foods
where nonrice ingredients are separately packaged and
mixed only during heating. Precooked and quick-cooking
rice requires much less preparation time than raw milled
rice. Roberts has described a process for the quick cooking
of rice [43]. Canned, expanded, and snack food products
are also produced from rice. Rice is used for brewing, pri-
marily for the production of beer [16]. Due to the unavail-
ability of information for areas other than the United
States, food-distribution patterns will, by necessity, reflect
only those of the United States.
The use of rice for direct food is by far the greatest of
the three uses. All three uses have increased steadily for
several years (Table 18). Although direct food uses ac-
count for the largest domestic consumption, a significant
quantity of rice is used in processed foods. The functions
performed by rice in processed foods are very important.
The strength of the paste and the resulting gel (Fig. 10)
play important roles in processed foods.
Extruders have been used for producing rice noodles
and puffed products. Rice flour and starch have been used
in a variety of food products. Rice starch aggregates with
protein, and these aggregates have greater dispensability
and freeze-thaw stability than pure rice starch [44,45].
Starch aggregates have been successfully used as sub-
strates for flavors, colors, and pharmaceuticals [45].
The use of rice co-products as human food should not
be overlooked. Utilization of co-products requires a spe-
cialized technology. Heat generated during milling triggers
enzymatic activity, resulting in the hydrolysis of lipids,
and oxidative changes lead to rancidity. Immediate stabi-
lization of the bran prevents oil breakdown and helps con-
trol the growth of insects and microorganisms [46].
Attempts to stabilize rice bran include dielectric heating
[47], treatments with hydrochloric acid [48], and treatment
with sodium metabisulfite [49]. The process that provides
TABLE 16 Grades and Grade Requirements for the Classes of Brown Rice for Processing

Seeds, heat-damaged
kernels, and
Paddy Kernels
(single or combined) Chalky kernels (%)
Broken kernels Other types (%)
Heat-damaged Red rice and In medium
kernels and Removed Removed damaged In long or short Whole
objectionable by a 5 by a 6 Through a kernels (single grain grain Whole and broken Milling
Total seeds Totally plate plate 6 sieve or combined) rice rice kernels kernels Color requirements
Grade (in 500 g) (in 500 g) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) requirement (minimum)

U.S. No. 1 2 1 4.0 0.04 0.1 0.1 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 Shall be white Well milled
or creamy
U.S. No. 2 4 2 7.0 0.06 0.2 0.2 1.5 2.0 4.0 2.0 May be Well milled
slightly gray
U.S. No. 3 7 5 15.0 0.1 0.8 0.5 2.5 4.0 6.0 0.5 May be light Reasonably
gray well milled
U.S. No. 4 20 15 25.0 0.4 2.0 0.7 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.7 May be gray Reasonably
or slightly well milled
rosy
U.S. No. 5 30 25 35.0 0.7 3.0 1.0 6.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 May be dark Lightly milled
gray or rosy
U.S. No. 6 75 75 50.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 May be dark Lightly milled
gray or rosy

All values are maximum limits.

Source: Adapted from Ref. 14.
.in la Xqatpuiumall
Rice 217

TABLE 17 U.S. Per Capita Rough rice

Consumption of Rice for
Selected Years Dehulled
Year kg lb Debranned
1975 4.14 9.10 i.
1980 6.20 13.65 Graded
1985 7.90 17.40
1990 8.31 18.3 Milled head rice
1995 9.49 20.9
1998 9.58 21.1 Soaked (rice and calcium lactate
0.5-3.0% in the ratio 0.5-2.5 w/v,
Source: Adapted from Ref. 8. and soaking time 0.5-5.0 hr)

Steamed (10 min, 0.68 atm)

TABLE 18 Distribution of U.S. Rice by Principal Dried 35°C to 16% moisture
Uses 1989-1996'
Directly Dried at ambient temperature
Year for food Brewing Seed Others Total to 11% moisture

1989 60.1 15.4 3.3 3.0 81.8 FIGURE 10 Flow chart of calcium fortification process. (From
1990 63.8 15.3 3.6 9.0 91.7 Ref. 38.)
1991 67.1 15.4 3.9 9.0 95.4
1992 69.0 15.1 3.8 8.8 96.7
1993 71.2 14.3 4.3 11.6 101.4 Health beneficial effects of rice bran are capturing the
1994 74.0 14.5 4.1 8.2 100.7 attention of food industry. Quaker Oats, Ralston Purina,
1995 77.0 15.6 3.7 8.3 104.6 and Kellog in the United States all market brands of cereal
1996 80.0 15.4 4.0 3.4 102.8 and baked goods formulated with rice bran [59]. The
'Values expressed as million CWT. hypocholesterolemic effect of rice bran in animal species
Source: Adapted from Ref. 8. and human subjects has been shown by Kahlon and Chow
[44]. Recently, conclusive clinical data from Australia,
California, and Louisiana have independently shown the
effect of rice bran in lowering human cholesterol levels.
the most promising solution is extrusion cooking. Com- More studies are needed to evaluate the synergistic effects
mercial use of this method has been initiated. of other cereal fibers with rice fiber in lowering blood cho-
lesterol.
Biodegradable films have been prepared from rice bran
VIII. VALUE-ADDED USES OF RICE BRAN
that will add value to an inexpensive co-product. These
Rice bran is a low-cost, underutilized co-product of rice films can be used as (1) carriers of antioxidants, antimicro-
milling. Studies have been conducted on rice bran as a bials, or as flavorings, (2) as coating material for nuts,
source of oil [50], protein concentrates [51,52], protein beans, shelled eggs, fruits, or vegetables to extend shelf-
isolates [53,54], and food or feed ingredients [55]. Al- life, (3) to prevent moisture migration in multicomponent
though the nutritional and pharmaceutical potential of rice in foods such as pizzas, sandwiches, pies, fruit rolls, and
bran has been recognized, at present rice bran protein con- candies, and (4) as a wrap for semi-perishable foods [60].
centrates and isolates are not commercially available. This
lack of availability could be due to the complex nature of
IX. RICE AS LIVESTOCK FEED
proteins, the poor solubility, and high phytate content mak-
ing the protein bodies very hard to separate from other Rice is utilized throughout the world as a food commodity
components. The major challenge is in producing rice bran and, with the exception of rice bran and germ, is rarely
protein isolate from heat-treated defatted rice bran, which used in animal feeding. In countries where a greater pro-
is the commercial product available for protein production. portion of the world rice is grown and where human food
The potential for incorporating rice bran as a fiber in- uses essentially require the entire cereal grain production,
gredient into baked goods has been demonstrated [56-58]. ruminants are fed rice straw. However, due to the high
218
feeding performance required in Canada and the United
States, only a small portion of the animal diet can be re-
placed with forages of such poor quality. For overwinter-
ing steer calves, replacement of more than 25% of the
prairie hay in the diet resulted in a reduced growth rate
[61]. Overwintering beef cattle fed a rice hull and soybean
meal feed formulated to 12% protein exhibited erratic eat-
ing patterns [62].
Rice can be used to replace up to 50% of the corn in
growing and finishing diets for swine if the diet is pelleted,
but if fed in meal form, more than 35% replacement results
in depressed weight gain. When pigs are young, only 20%
rice bran can be used and then only when pelleted [63].
Processing of rice bran by cooking, ensiling, extrusion,
pelleting, and cellulase and amylase treatments did not im-
prove utilization beyond the 40% corn-replacement level
[64,65]. Feeding studies with poultry have yielded similar
findings. It is not economical to feed rice to livestock un-
less the rice has been severely damaged, such as when
stack-burned.
X. OTHER USES FOR RICE HULLS
Rough rice contains approximately 20% hull, therefore,
the total mass of hulls from 500 billion NIT of rice pres-
ents a sizable waste-disposal problem. Rice hulls have
been used for a number of purposes. Particularly in the
southern United States, rice hulls have been used exten-
sively as littering materials for poultry houses. Rice hulls
are used as a soil amendment for potting plants and as bed-
ding material for plants. Because rice hulls resist enzymat-
ic decomposition, it is not a good material for composting
or biomass conversion.
Although the burning of rice hulls to heat water for par-
boiling purposes has been practical for many years, con-
trolled burning of massive amounts of the hull is a relative-
ly new technology, with the greatest sophistication being
extensive pyrolysis that yields ultrapure silica suitable for
manufacture of computer microchips and solar cells. The
resultant heat from the process is currently used for steam
generation and rice drying in Arkansas and for cogenera-
tion of electricity in Louisiana.
Rice hull is mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellu-
lose, lignin, and silica [66]. Due to the hull's higher con-
centration of silica, ceramic engineers evaluated this prod-
uct as a resource for raw material [67,68]. However,
recently rice hull ash has been investigated as an adsorbent
of vegetable oil components [69]. Partially burned rice
hulls are heated at 500°C to produce the ash. This ash has
been shown to be an inexpensive source of amorphous sil-
ica. Silica gel has been produced from rice hull ash, and it
could find wide-ranging applications in a variety of prod-
Hettiarachchy et al.
ucts including vegetable oil refining, cosmetics, and paints.
Rice hull has also been used as a source of microbial nutri-
ents for single-cell protein production [70], for reducing
sugar production [71], and as a raw material for manufac-
turing ethanol and furfural. Recently it has been shown
that rice hull ash can be utilized as an adsorbent for the
concentration and purification of bacteriocins [72].
XI. SPECIALTY RICES
Specialty rices are those rice types that fall outside the
realm of traditional rice. In some geographical locales,
some of these rices may be very common, with production
utilizing a sizable land mass. These rice types meet specif-
ic needs that traditional rices cannot fulfill.
One specialty rice that is an exception to the typical
type of rice is aromatic (scented) rice. There are many cul-
tivars of aromatic rice in each geographical area to which
aromatic is native, yet differences in agronomic character-
istics have only recently begun to be identified. Physico-
chemical properties of seven cultivars of aromatic rice
(collected from different districts of Bangladesh) showed
wide variations in color, length, breadth, 1000-kernel
weight, protein, starch, and aroma [41]. Characteristics re-
lating to cooking and eating variability are yet to be ascer-
tained, but some progress has been made in evaluation
methodology (Table 19). Plant breeders at the Louisiana
Agricultural Experiment Station registered an aromatic
cultivar of rice, Della, in 1973 [73]. Della is a cross be-
tween a typical U.S. long grain type and a Basmati (India)
cultivar. Comparisons of cooking quality between Della,
Basmati (India), and Jasmine (aromatic type from Thai-
land) showed Della elongated to a lesser extent than either
Basmati or Jasmine but more nearly resembled the cook-
TABLE 19 A Simplified Method to Evaluate Elongation
in Rice
1. Place 20-100 kernels of whole grain milled rice in a wire
basket
2. Presoak rice in water for 30 min.
3. Place in boiling water for 10 min, remove, and cool by
immersing in a water bath at ambient temperature
4. Express elongation as a ratio of length of cooked kernels to
raw kernels. Measure the length of 10 cooked kernels and 10
raw kernels (before soaking), and divide mean length of
cooked kernels by mean length of raw kernels.
5. Because kernels tend to curl and disintegrate when
overcooked, undercooked rice is preferred to overcooking in
elongation tests.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 13.
Rice
ing quality of typical U.S. long grain rice with flavor like
the other aromatics [74].
When cooked, aromatic rice emits an aroma similar to
roasted popcorn or nuts. This unique flavor compound has
been identified as 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline and is found in
small amounts during cooking of more traditional rices
[75]. This flavor compound is stable during normal cook-
ing temperatures but is destroyed when subjected to high
heat experienced in parboiling.
Waxy rice is characterized by its low amylose content
(<2.0%) [16] and is known as glutinous or sweet rice. Very
little waxy rice is produced in the United States, but in
some parts of the world it is common enough to be con-
sumed daily. In the United States this rice performs specif-
ic functions in several commercial products such as
desserts, gravies, certain bakery products, and salad dress-
ings.
When marketing designations are agreed upon that
combine physical measurement with specific cooking and
processing criteria, little time elapses before there is a de-
mand for exception. Toro rice is an example of this. It is a
long grain rice (physical measurements) that has a low
amylose content, low gelatinization temperature, and the
cooking characteristics of a medium grain rice [76]. This
type of rice is popular in southern Louisiana.
The need for rice with superior processing quality that
will withstand the rigors of thermal processing required for
canned products prompted the development of the variety
Newrex. This variety was developed specifically to fill an
industry need and displays a very low hot paste break-
down, a very high setback viscosity, and a high (28%)
amylose value [77]. As has been the case with many tradi-
tional rice varieties, this variety has already been replaced
by an improved variety, Rexmont.
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8

RYE

Klaus Lorenz
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado

I. HISTORY OF RYE been developed. It is grown only in Europe to a very limit-

ed extent. Evans and Scoles [12] provide a detailed discus-
Rye seems to be of a more recent origin than most other ce-
sion of the cytogenetics and breeding of rye. The facts that
real grains. It was not found in any of the Egyptian ruins or
rye is a cross-pollinated species and that inbred lines usu-
Swiss lake dwellings. The Greeks and Romans knew rye,
ally lack vigor have restricted genetic analyses. However,
however [34]. The grain is mentioned in early northern Eu-
the recent production of rye chromosome additions to or
ropean writings, suggesting that it was cultivated in this
substitutions into wheat has permitted specific characteris-
area. Rye samples found in the Neolithic sites of Austria
tics to be attributed to specific rye chromosomes.
and Poland are considered to be of "wild" origin [6].
The inheritance of perennial versus annual growth habit
Cultivated rye (Secale cereale) was probably domesti-
has been studied using interspecific hybrids due to the lack
cated from the wild rye Secale montanum of the Mediter-
of perennial forms of S. cereale. In such crosses, perennial
ranean region, although some agronomists and plant
habit is at least partially dominant. In both diploid and
breeders regard Secale anatolicum of southwestern Asia as
tetraploid cultivars, spring habit was found to be dominant
the more likely ancestor. A possible migration route of S.
and controlled by three dominant genes in the diploids;
montanum during the first millenium B.C. would be from
two dominant genes were indicated in the tetraploids.
Turkey across the Balkan Peninsula into Europe, and for S.
Rachis fragility is a characteristic of wild rye that is detri-
anatolicum northward into Russia and then westward into
mental to a domesticated crop and has been eliminated
Poland and Germany. Rye gradually spread throughout
from S. cereale. It is a dominant characteristic controlled
Europe and was brought to North and South America by
by a single gene. Earlier work indicated that brittle rachis
European settlers in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
and perennial habit were closely linked.
turies. During the nineteenth century it was introduced into
Ear branching is controlled by a single recessive gene.
South Africa and Australia [6].
It is very sensitive to environmental conditions with maxi-
Today, rye has the widest distribution of all cereal
mum expression requiring ideal conditions.
crops.
Anthocyanin pigments may occur in the aleurone layer
of the grain, the coleoptile, first leaf, stem base, and nodes,
II. CLASSIFICATIONS OF RYE
the upper internode, and in the anthers. Grain color is con-
AND GENETICS
trolled by two complementary genes, A and B, and antho-
Rye belongs to the grass family of the genus Secale. Today cyanin pigmentation in other organs is controlled by the
only Secale cereale L. is extensively cultivated. The cereal action of gene A and an additional gene R. Numerous
is a diploid (2n = 14) with seven pairs of somatic chromo- chlorophyll deficiencies following inbreeding have been
somes. A tetraploid type with 14 pairs of chromosomes has reported, which are caused by recessive factors [12].

223
224
As in other cereal crops, dwarfing genes have been
sought as a tool in producing improved varieties. Inbreed-
ing of rye usually results in reduced height as a result of in-
breeding depression. The addition to or substitution of rye
chromosomes into wheat has permitted analysis of the ef-
fects of different rye chromosomes and the location of
genes responsible for various characteristics. Chromosome
1R was found to be involved in the genetic control of
endosperm protein. Chromosomes 3R, 4R, 6R, and 7R in-
creased total protein by 3-4.5%. Chromosome 5R in-
creased lysine by 8.7% and cystine by 10.7%. Chromo-
some 6R increased proline content by 9.1% and decreased
aspartic acid content by 8.6%. The other chromosomes had
some influence on other amino acids. The gene for hairy
neck of rye is located on chromosome 5R. All chromo-
somes, with the possible exception of 2R, are involved in
shriveling [12].
III. RYE BREEDING
Because of the relatively small acreage involved, little ef-
fort has gone into rye breeding. Improvements have been
made in seed size, yield, winter hardiness, and plant height
by selection within heterogeneous populations.
Disease is not a major problem in rye, with the possible
exception of ergot, which is caused by the organism Clavi-
ceps purpurea. No source of resistance has yet been identi-
fied within the genus, so breeding for ergot resistance is
not possible.
Intraspecific breeding, which refers to hybridization of
lines or cultivars within the species, is the most commonly
used breeding procedure for rye. A germplasm source pop-
ulation has been established by Qualset and Hoskinson
[31] utilizing 43 different North American sources of the
Balboa cultivar and 10 other North American cultivars.
The 10 cultivars were used as a pollen source only, and the
open-pollinated seed of the Balboa strains was composit-
ed. This source population hopefully will permit selection
for such characteristics as winter hardiness, disease resis-
tance, and agronomic suitability.
Several investigators have crossed S. cereale with other
rye species, particularly S. montanum, in an attempt to im-
prove winter hardiness, drought resistance, and disease re-
sistance. Intergeneric hybrids have been of no significance
to rye breeding but may be of value in producing cytoplas-
mic male sterile lines for use in hybrid rye breeding. Inter-
specific breeding has been used to produce rye with high
protein content. Several other tetraploid cultivars have
been produced. Some have been released in Europe for
commercial production, but they have not been of econom-
ic significance [12].
Lorenz
IV. MORPHOLOGY AND KERNEL
CHARACTERISTICS
The rye plant is an annual, although it can maintain itself by
sprouting anew from the stubble [34]. Its abundant adventi-
tious root system is one of the most profuse among cereal
grains. The stems are slender and tough. Both stems and
leaves have a waxy epidermal coating. The inflorescence is
an elongated spike with approximately 30 three-flowered
spikelets. The uppermost of the three florets is usually
abortive. Lemmas are awned. The grain is "bearded." Gen-
erally the flowers are self-sterile. Simmonds and Campbell
[37] provide more detail on the morphology of rye.
The mature rye grain is more slender than that of wheat.
It is grayish-yellow in color. Kernels of rye vary in length
from 4.5 to 10 mm and in width from 1.5 to 3.5 mm. Aver-
age grain weight is 21 g per 1000 kernels. A diagrammatic
view of rye grain is shown in Figure 1. The proportions of
different parts of the rye kernel are given in Table 1.
V. GROWING CONDITIONS
Rye is typically a plant of cool, nonhumid climates. It can
stand cold winter temperatures better than most other cere-
als. No other winter cereal can be grown as far north. It is a
reliable crop on almost any soil. Rye has been termed
"poverty grain" because of its ability to grow on soils too
poor for other crops [24].
Rye is primarily a winter-type grain, that is, it is sown in
the fall, becomes dormant in the winter, and is one of the
first crops harvested during the next harvest season. Occa-
sionally rye is sown in the spring in areas of the world
where winters are too severe for winter rye production.
Spring varieties are considered inferior to winter varieties
[6].
VI. PRODUCTION OF RYE
Areas of rye harvested in different parts of the world are
given in Tables 2 and 3. Most rye is harvested in Europe.
Russia leads the world in area under cultivation, followed
by adjacent northern countries. Amounts of grain produced
in various areas of the world are given in Tables 4 and 5.
Europe is the largest producer of rye in the world. Rus-
sia is the largest producer of rye grain in Europe and in the
world, followed by Poland and Germany. There are no ob-
vious rye-production trends in Europe. Production in most
European countries fluctuates as the result of climate and
demand. Argentina is the largest rye producer in South
America. In Asia, China and Turkey are major producers.
Rye grain production in the United States and Canada
show no consistent trends.
Rye 225

CREASE ingly low, considering that rye is a very important cereal in

that country. Rye yields, production, and value in the Unit-
ed States are given in Tables 8 and 9.
VASCULAR
BUNDLE

CENTRAL VII. RYE EXPORTS AND IMPORTS

ENDOSPER

PRISMATIC Rye exporters are shown in Table 10. Germany is the

ENDOSPERM
PERIPHERAL
largest exporter of the grain in Europe and in the world.
ENDOSPERM Rye imports in metric tons are given Table 11. Japan is
ALEURONE CELLS
by far the major importer of rye in the world today. Many
0.5 mm European countries are importers as well as exporters of
SCUTELLUM rye. Poland and Germany, which are European exporters
COLEOPTILE
PLUMULE
CUTICLE of rye, are also importers. The major rye-importing coun-
-EPIDERMIS
HYPODERMIS tries of Europe in 1994 included Norway, the Netherlands,
ROOT
-THIN WALLED
CELLS England, and Hungary.
SHEATH & CAP -CROSS CELLS
TESTA
Unit weights for rye in different countries are given in
CELL NUCLEUS
NUCELLAR Table 12.
I-
0.5 mm
STARCH EPIDERMICS
GRANULES ALEURONE CELLS
TUBE CELLS
STORAGE
PROTEIN PERIPHERAL VIII. RYE STORAGE AND RYE GRAIN
ENDOSPERM
- PRISMATIC RESERVES AND DISAPPEARANCE
CELL WALL ENDOSPERM

PERICARP
Rye grain storage, as for storage of other cereal grains, re-
100 pm
quires that the grain be dried to a low moisture level (ap-
prox. 12%) and stored under cool conditions to prevent
FIGURE 1 Diagrammatic view of rye grain in (a) longitudinal
section and (b) transverse mid-section. (From Ref. 37.) spoilage. Rye flours deteriorate faster than wheat flours un-
der normal storage conditions. Whole rye flour cannot be
stored safely as long as patent or straight-grade flours.
High temperatures and/or high humidities accelerate dete-
rioration during storage [11].
TABLE 1 Proportions of Morphological
Parts of Rye Grain Yearly stocks of rye in the United States on and off the
farm have decreased significantly since 1985, as shown in
Morphological part % of Grain Table 13. Domestic use of rye as seed and food remained
Pericarp 11.14-13.00 steady, while feed use decreased steadily. More than half
Aleurone 10.86-12.20 of the rye grain harvested in the United States goes into
Embryo 1.45-1.80 stock feed [40].
Scutellum 1.73-2.11 Market values of rye by state for the years 1993-1995
Endosperm 71.16-74.56 are shown in Table 14.
Source: Ref. 21.
IX. RYE STANDARDS AND GRADES
Grading systems or special classifications for rye have
been established in only a few countries Rye grades for the
United States and Canada are given in Tables 15, 16, and
Rye yields (kg/ha) (Tables 6 and 7) vary considerably 17. The grades are based on external characteristics of the
from one country to another. They are highest in Europe, grain, but a-amylase activity is sometimes included [11].
followed by North America and Asia. Rye yields are low- Standard grades of rye for the United States are defined
est in Africa. Yields between European countries differ sig- in the Official Grain Standards established by the U.S. De-
nificantly depending upon the importance of rye in a coun- partment of Agriculture (USDA).
try. The highest yields in Europe in 1994 were reported Definition of the terms used in these standards are given
from Denmark, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands in Table 18. Only Grades No. 1 and 2 are milled into flour
due to very intensive agricultural practices. Yields of the for baking. Lower grades are used for animal feed. Of the
largest producer of rye in the world, Russia, were surpris- four standard grades of rye in Canada, only Grades 1 and 2
226 Lorenz

TABLE 2 Area of Rye (1000 ha) Harvested—Regional Totals

Year
Region 1969-1971 1979-81 1992 1993 1994
Africa 24 38 50 56 58
North America 959 657 296 452 351
South America 479 227 60 82 92
Asia 697 1175 651 647 630
Europe 6648 5363 3436 3675 3994
Oceania 39 28 42 33 42
World 18,846 15,045 14,604 13,450 11,012
Source: Ref. 14.

are milled into flour for baking. Separate "export grade de-
terminants" have been established in Canada (Table 17).
Rye classifications and grading factors for rye in Russia
and Germany are shown in Table 19. Only Sweden, Ger-
many, and Russia have started to include some baking
quality tests into their rye-grading systems [11,32].
X. RYE MILLING
In North America, rye is cleaned prior to milling using
magnets, milling separators, disk machines, entoleters,
scourers, aspirators, and stoners. A diagram of a rye-clean-
ing operation is shown in Figure 2. The cleaned rye is
steeped for 6-15 hours to 14.5-15.5% moisture, depending
on grain softness and vitreousness, and milled into a flour
without strict quality requirements [32]. A typical mill will
have five breaks, one bran duster, one sizing roll, seven re-
duction rolls, and one tailing roll (Fig. 3). All rolls are cor-
rugated.
Rye cleaning in western Europe is similar to that de-
scribed briefly for a North American rye-milling operation.
Typical western European rye milling starts with smooth
crushing rolls, followed by five to seven breaks, two or
more bran finishers, four to six reduction rolls, and one or
two tailing rolls. All rolls, except the crushing rolls, are
corrugated [32]. There has been a gradual introduction of
bran and shorts finishers in rye milling in western Europe.
European rye milling has been improved by the successful
introduction of mills built to process both wheat and rye.
Rye-milling technology in eastern Europe and in Russia
is highly developed. Rye cleaning is similar to that used in
North America. Standards for the construction and opera-
tion of rye mills and product yields for those mills have
been described by Rozsa [32].
XI. RYE FLOURS
The basic grades of rye flours produced in various coun-
tries are shown in Table 20. There are no standards of iden-
tity for rye flours in the United States or Canada. An aver-
age flour extraction is about 83% in the United States and
67% in Canada. In the United States, only white rye flour
receives a slight flour treatment (addition of 0.19-0.31 g of
chlorine per kg of flour) for color improvement [32]. Basic
specifications include ash contents and, in some countries,
protein content and flour color.
XII. NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF RYE
The composition of rye grain as reported from different
countries is given in Table 21. Grain protein, pentosan con-
tent, and 1000-kernel weight can vary considerably de-
pending on the cultivar and the agronomic and climatic
conditions under which it was grown.
The various flour-milling streams as produced by a
commercial rye mill differ significantly in composition as
shown in Table 22. The miller will blend various streams
into flour with compositions as required by the baker. The
pentosan content of white flour from wheat amounts to
about 2-3%, with 25% being soluble. In rye with an ash
content of about <1%, the pentosan content is about 5%, of
which 40% is soluble [11]. The pentosans are of impor-
tance in baking because of their ability to bind water. Solu-
ble pentosans, under the influence of oxidative substances,
form gels. These compounds have also been shown to re-
tain gas in a dough [26a]. Since pentosans neither coagu-
late during heating nor retrograde during cooling and stor-
age—as is the case with starch—they affect the ability of
bread to stay fresh longer [19a]. Thus the functional effects
Rye 227

TABLE 3 Area of Rye Harvested (1000 ha) in Different Countries

Year
Country 1948-52 1969-71 1979-81 1992 1993 1994
North America
United States 686 603 295 158 291 164
Canada 571 356 362 138 161 186
South America
Argentina 717 440 199 48 73 85
Brazil 23 23 16 7 6 4
Chile 7 9 8 3 1 n.a.
Africa
South Africa 29 20 33 40 45 47
Morocco 6 4 5 2 2 2
Asia
China n.a. n.a. 733 500 500 500
Turkey 493 663 439 150 147 130
Oceania
Australia 28 39 27 42 33 42
Europe
Albania 12 9 10 1 2 2
Austria 230 143 105 69 74 77
Belgium-Luxembourg 91 23 12 3 3 3
Bulgaria 226 22 21 21 19 14
Denmark 155 42 59 88 79 97
Finland 133 67 44 11 23 9
France 496 139 121 55 45 45
Germany 1293 679 1203 615 662 743
Greece 57 7 4 18 19 18
Hungary 592 155 72 71 68 90
Italy 97 34 15 8 8 9
Netherlands 176 60 10 6 8 6
Poland 5063 3766 2970 2034 2213 2436
Portugal 270 227 166 75 73 65
Romania 184 45 33 15 26 29
Russia 7574 5976 3904
Spain 622 320 219 180 175 156
Sweden 128 78 58 33 45 39
Switzerland 14 12 8 5 7 7
United Kingdom 25 5 6 8 6 8
n.a. = Not available.
Source: Ref. 14.

of pentosans can be observed in loaf volume, crumb char-
acteristics, and aging of a loaf [26a].
Component fractions of rye proteins and their amino
acid compositions are given in Tables 23 and 24. The
amino acid compositions of rye cultivars grown in differ-
ent countries are given in Table 25. Since protein is not
uniformly distributed throughout the rye kernel, the
milling fractions of rye will vary in amino acid composi-
tion, as shown in Table 26.
Lysine is the first limiting amino acid in rye. There are,
however, several varieties and/or species with relatively
high lysine and protein contents, as seen in Table 27.
Comparing the average essential amino acid composi-
tion of rye with that of wheat and the WHO reference stan-
dard (Table 28) indicates that rye is a better source of ly-
sine than wheat, but does not meet the reference standard.
Among the essential amino acids in rye, only methionine,
cystine, valine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine meet the WHO
228 Lorenz

TABLE 4 Rye Grain Production (1000 metric tons)—Regional Totals

Year
Region 1969-1971 1979-81 1992 1993 1994
Africa 10 11 19 21 23
North America 1458 1111 568 582 677
South America 305 195 50 74 86
Asia 832 1729 832 935 765
Europe 26,924 12,583 8384 10,239 11,044
Oceania 19 12 28 23 26
World 29,548 23,930 29,325 26,869 22,588
Source: Ref. 14.

standard. The protein efficiency ratio (PER) of whole rye
is 1.6.
Rye starch characteristics compared with those of hard
red spring wheat are given in Table 29. The differences in
characteristics between the starches from these two cereals
are minor.
A comparison of the saccharide contents of rye and hard
red spring wheat is shown in Table 30. The major sugars in
both cereals are sucrose and raffinose. There are no mono-
saccharides in mature grains of either rye or wheat.
Total lipids and their distribution in parts of the rye ker-
nel are shown in Table 31. Lipid composition in compari-
son with wheat is given in Table 32. The fatty acid compo-
sition of rye shows linoleic acid to be the major fatty acid,
followed by oleic and palmitic acids (Table 33).
The nutrient compositions of whole grain rye, rye
milling fractions, and the three types of rye flour marketed
in the United States are given in Tables 34, 35, and 36. Vi-
tamin and mineral compositions will vary depending on
the rye variety, the degree of maturity of the grain, and the
agronomic conditions under which the rye was grown.
A comparison of vitamin contents of whole grains of
spring cultivars of wheat, rye, and triticale is shown in Fig-
ure 4. Generally, the vitamin content of rye falls within the
same range as found in other cereal grains, with the excep-
tion of niacin, which is found in only very small amounts
in rye. The mineral composition of rye is comparable to
that found in other cereal grains.
As in other cereal grains, the nutrients in rye are not
uniformly distributed within the kernel Milling the grain
to different flour extractions will, therefore, cause signifi-
cant differences in nutrient composition as seen in Table
37. As flour extraction decreases, the amounts of nutrients
in the flour decreases, with the exception of total carbohy-
drates, which increase.
XIII. ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS IN RYE
The poisonous substances and the nutritional inhibitors
in rye that may interfere with the digestibility and avail-
ability of certain nutrients to humans and/or animals
include ergot, resorcinols, phytates, and enzyme inhib-
itors.
Ergot results from an infection of cereal grains by the
fungus Claviceps purpurea, which produces alkaloid-con-
taining sclerotia (Fig. 5). Rye is notorious for harboring er-
got. Epidemics supposedly caused by the consumption of
ergot-containing breads ravaged Europe from the tenth
century to modern times and resulted in many deaths.
Lorenz [23] discussed in detail the problem of ergot on ce-
real grains. Tolerance levels for ergot have been estab-
lished in most countries.
Resorcinols seem to be responsible for reduced food
intake and rate of weight increase of cattle, sheep, pigs,
poultry, and horses. Rye contains higher amounts of
resorcinols than other cereal grains. Milling of rye
will channel most of these resorcinols into the feed
fractions as shown in Table 38. Alkylresorcinols are
destroyed during fermentation and baking, as shown in
Table 39.
Phytic acid represents 35-97% total phosphorus and is
regarded as a poor source of phosphorus. Phytic acid also
forms insoluble compounds with mineral elements, mak-
ing these elements unavailable [17]. The phosphorus and
phytic phosphorus content of rye and rye flours are shown
in Table 37. During fermentation of the bread-baking
process, some of the phytic acid content in rye flour is de-
stroyed due by the enzyme phytase. Trypsin and chy-
motrypsin inhibitors have been extracted from rye. Heat-
ing of rye flour will destroy part of the activity of the
inhibitors.
Rye 229

TABLE 5 Rye Grain Production (1000 metric tons) in Different Countries

Year
Country 1948-1952 1969-1971 1979-81 1992 1993 1994
North America
United States 524 984 474 290 263 283
Canada 469 474 636 278 319 394
South America
Argentina 526 271 169 34 64 79
Brazil 17 19 15 7 5 5
Chile 5 11 10 8 3 1
Africa
South Africa 10 7 6 2 2 3
Morocco 4 3 5 2 2 2
Asia
China n.a. n.a. 1167 600 700 570
Turkey 500 781 558 230 235 195
Oceania
Australia 12 18 11 28 23 26
Europe
Albania 9 8 9 1 3 3
Austria 343 417 327 278 292 292
Belgium-Luxembourg 232 82 43 11 12 15
Bulgaria 240 27 29 35 26 25
Denmark 365 137 221 308 356 460
Finland 201 130 88 27 63 22
France 573 297 368 206 177 176
Germany 5582 4456 3828 2422 2984 3469
Greece 47 9 7 42 42 42
Hungary 732 193 117 136 113 193
Italy 123 65 35 23 21 25
Netherlands 455 196 39 34 41 27
Poland 6374 7142 6166 3981 4992 5300
Romania 177 52 65 21 40 43
Russia 13887 9166 5994
Spain 482 292 239 207 333 221
Sweden 258 239 197 136 230 173
Switzerland 34 48 35 28 34 32
United Kingdom 52 14 25 37 30 35
n.a. = Not available.
Source: Ref. 14.

XIV. FOOD USES OF RYE
Many types of rye breads and rolls are produced in differ-
ent areas of the world. Germany alone produces more than
200 different varieties of rye breads [36]. Formulations
and processing conditions and steps for many of these va-
rieties have been compiled by Drews and Seibel [11],
Seibel et al. [36], Pomeranz and Shellenberger [29], and
Lorenz [25].
In the United States a large number of varieties of rye
breads are produced to meet the demands of consumer
preferences. Rye breads vary in crumb color from practi-
cally white to a very dark color, in shape from round to
elongated loaves, and in taste from a mildly sour flavor to
a strong, distinctive acid taste. Rye breads may contain
only the basic ingredients—wheat and rye flours, water,
yeast, and salt—or they may incorporate a number of addi-
tional ingredients, such as molasses, potato flour, sugar,
shortening, buttermilk, and dry mild solids, all designed to
enhance either the flavor, color, or keeping quality of the
product. It is possible for the baker to modify a rye bread
formula to produce the type of product that will find great-
230 Lorenz

TABLE 6 Rye Yields—Regional Totals (kg/ha) whiskey is produced from maize, wheat, rye, or barley
[19].
Year
1969— 1979-
XV. INDUSTRIAL USES OF RYE
Region 1971 81 1992 1993 1994
Rye is used in the manufacture of paper. The soluble and
Africa 418 297 388 373 401
North America 1521 1676 1918 1287 1933 insoluble gums of rye are good substitutes for other gums
South America 637 as wet-end additives [32]. Rye starch is the main ingredient
Asia 1194 864 840 901 937 of adhesives because of its high water-binding capacity
Europe 2028 2346 2440 2786 2765 [11,19]. Small amounts of rye are used in the glue, match,
Oceania 489 426 676 697 619 and plastic industries or as foundry core binders and ore
World 1568 1591 2007 1998 2051 pellet binders [32].
Source: Ref. 14.
XVI. RYE AS ANIMAL FEED
In some areas of the world, the major portion of the rye
est appeal among his or her customers. Uses of the basic crop goes into stock feed. The rye plant is also often used
rye flour types available in the United States are given in for hay and pasturage, as cover crop and green manure, be-
Table 40. ing plowed under as fertilizer for a crop of higher econom-
The popularity of rye breads and rye rolls is due largely ic value. The long, fine, highly resistant straw is used for
to their distinctive flavor, taste, and eating quality. They animal bedding [34].
satisfy the consumer's demand for variety in bakery prod- Rye straw is not used extensively in livestock feed be-
ucts. The nutrient composition of rye bread is given in cause it is tough and fibrous. When the production of rye
Table 41. exceeds the demand and the price of rye falls below the
Rye flours are used occasionally in snack-type crackers. price of barley, rye becomes attractive as a feed grain al-
A very light rye has been recommended for use in soda though it is of relatively low quality as a feed grain. When
crackers and some cookies as partial replacement for fed in large amounts to cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, chicks,
wheat flour. Rye flours also are used in different pancake and poultry, rye leads to slower growth in comparison with
and waffle mixes to produce a special flavor. The nutrient feeding of other cereal grains. The diminished growth rate
composition of rye wafers is given in Table 42. is caused primarily by a decrease in feed intake. These
Rye flours are used as fillers for sauces and soups. Rye palatability problems and various growth-inhibiting fac-
is also flaked in the United States to make a hot breakfast tors of rye have restricted its use. The compounds causing
cereal. Rye flour can be fractionated by air classification to the feeding problems have not yet been positively identi-
produce high- and low-protein fractions [19]. The low-pro- fied, but ergot, trypsin inhibitors, and alkylresorcinols in
tein fractions might be useful in chocolate and darker pre- rye have been mentioned as possibilities [22,45]. Rye,
pared flour mixes. Meat packers and processors use some therefore, is used as part of a feed mixture with other
rye flours as fillers and binders in sausages [32]. grains. The technology of feed manufacture has been de-
Rye grain may be fermented to produce alcoholic bev- scribed by Smith [38].
erages or industrial alcohol. U.S. whiskey is generally Rye flour has been suggested for use in pet foods [32].
made from maize or rye. Straight rye whiskey is made Rye proteins are of good quality, the starch is readily di-
from a fermented mash containing a minimum of 51% rye. gestible, and the pentosans of rye have a high water-ab-
Irish whiskey is made from malted barley alone or with ad- sorbing capacity. The color of the flour is not a factor, since
mixtures of unmalted barley, wheat, rye, or oats. Canadian most pet foods are dark [32].
Rye 231

TABLE 7 Rye Yields (kg/ha) in Different Countries

Year

1969— 1979-
Country 1971 81 1992 1993 1994

North America
United States 1633 1608 1833 904 1722
Canada 1332 1713 2014 1978 2118
South America
Argentina 616 851 707 877 929
Bolivia 435 571 652 689 700
Chile 1300 1175 2957 2401 1460
Peru 872 816 824 824 824
Africa
South Africa 338 179 50 44 64
Morocco 800 1071 1000 1000 1000
Asia
China n.a. 1583 1200 1400 1140
Korea 1681 1745 1333 1500 1500
Turkey 1177 1270 1536 1593 1500
Oceania
Australia 476 414 676 697 619
Europe
Albania 875 867 1247 1159 1500
Austria 2917 3102 4020 3957 3757
Belgium-
Luxembourg 3551 3710 3682 4000 4353
Bulgaria 1227 1398 1663 1368 1692
Denmark 3289 3803 3497 4506 4742
Finland 1929 1994 2509 2771 2581
France 2132 3047 3773 3954 3911
Germany 2822 3182 3941 4508 4669
Greece 1201 1835 2400 2218 2333
Hungary 1242 1613 1920 1671 2155
Ireland 3086 3778 2000 2000 2000
Italy 1889 2326 2741 2695 2944
Netherlands 3292 3938 5550 5395 4732
Norway 3312 3376 2605 3664 3618
Poland 1897 2072 1958 2256 2176
Portugal 725 801 926 920 915
Romania 1153 1965 1455 1565 1500
Russia — 1834 1534 1535
Spain 912 1093 1155 1905 1417
Sweden 3058 3392 4077 5112 4440
Switzerland 4013 4519 5586 4934 4604
United Kingdom 2929 3916 4566 5118 4375

n.a. = Not available.

Source: Ref. 14.
232 Lorenz

TABLE 8 Rye: Area, Yield, Production, Disposition, and Value-United States, 1986-1995
Area
Marketing year
Yield per average price per Value of
Planted' Harvested harvested acre Production bushel received by production
Year (1000 acres) (1000 acres) (bushels) (1000 bushels) farmers (dollars) (1000 dollars)
1986 2334 661 28.8 19,067 1.48 28,302
1987 2428 671 29.1 19,526 1.62 31,641
1988 2374 595 24.7 14,689 2.52 37,006
1989 2014 484 28.2 13,647 2.06 28,099
1990 1625 375 27.1 10,176 2.09 21,298
1991 1671 395 24.6 9,734 2.20 21,364
1992 1542 391 29.3 11,440 2.38 27,303
1993 1493 381 27.1 10,340 2.55 27,149
19946 1613 407 27.9 11,341 2.70 30,520
1995b 1612 378 26.3 9,928 2.80 27,778

aArea planted in preceding fall.

bPreliminary.
Source: Ref. 40.

TABLE 9 Rye: Area, Yield, and Production, by States, 1993-1995

Area planted' Area harvested Production
Yield per harvested acre
1993 1994 1995 1993 1994 1995 1993 1994 1995
(1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 1993 1994 1995 (1000 (1000 (1000
State acres) acres) acres) acres) acres) acres) (bushels) (bushels) (bushels) bushels) bushels) bushels)

Colorado 11 25 15 1 2 2 25.0 27.0 30.0 25 54 60

Georgia 300 340 300 60 70 55 23.0 27.0 21.0 1,380 1,890 1,155
Illinois 40 40 55 7 6 8 32.0 24.0 30.0 224 144 240
Indiana 25 20 20 5 4 4 30.0 30.0 29.0 150 120 116
Kansas 70 90 100 21 13 20 33.0 25.0 20.0 693 325 400
Maryland 30 35 30 5 4 5 33.0 35.0 34.0 165 140 170
Michigan 80 90 90 15 17 16 28.0 26.0 34.0 420 442 544
Minnesota 30 40 30 23 30 21 29.0 27.0 29.0 667 810 609
Nebraska 100 80 60 25 26 20 20.0 21.0 24.0 500 546 480
New Jersey 32 33 40 7 5 8 26.0 38.0 38.0 182 190 304
New York 40 30 42 8 8 9 27.0 31.0 35.0 216 248 315
North Carolina 110 100 100 30 25 25 25.0 26.0 20.0 750 650 500
North Dakota 35 25 25 30 20 20 35.0 35.0 34.0 1050 700 680
Ohio 45 45 45 5 5 5 30.0 34.0 36.0 150 170 180
Oklahoma 110 160 190 30 45 40 22.0 21.0 18.0 660 945 720
Pennsylvania 40 45 50 10 10 10 34.0 32.0 33.0 340 320 330
South Carolina 50 75 50 20 25 20 19.0 24.0 22.0 380 600 440
South Dakota 55 50 55 50 45 50 32.0 33.0 33.0 1600 1485 1650
Texas 130 120 150 11 15 20 33.0 29.0 19.0 363 435 380
Virginia 80 90 90 5 7 5 33.0 36.0 35.0 165 252 175
Wisconsin 80 80 75 13 25 15 20.0 35.0 32.0 260 875 480
United States 1493 1613 1612 381 407 378 27.1 27.9 26.3 10,340 11,341 9,928

'Relates to the total area of rye sown for all purposes; area planted in preceding fall.
Source: Ref. 40.
Rye 233

TABLE 10 Major Exporters of Rye (1000 metric tons) TABLE 12 Unit Weights for Rye

Year Net weight

Country 1975 1977 1984 1992 1993 1994 Country Unit Lb Kg

North America Europe

United States 25.3 0.9 12.9 18.1 0.3 0.6 Finland hectoliter 158.73 72.0
Canada 268.3 217.3 542.6 186.6 211.1 149.8 Netherlands hectoliter 154.32 70.0
Europe Norway hectoliter 154.32 70.0
Austria 30.0 107.1 58.0 66.1 Sweden hectoliter 160.94 73.0
Belgium- Spain fanega 95.33 43.2
Luxembourg 3.1 0.8 1.8 1.8 1.0 1.0 Turkey Kile 62.00 28.0
Denmark 20.8 62.6 169.3 578.5 112.1 42.3 EEC hectoliter 156.53 71.0
France 29.7 36.7 10.5 51.1 12.5 11.7 North America
Germany - - 981.1 1073.1 573.8 United States bushel 56.00 25.4
Hungary - 4.8 4.2 6.2 Canada bushel 56.00 25.4
Netherlands 16.6 7.0 6.0 4.0 9.4 14.3 Asia
Poland 70.4 20.9 11.0 641.3 n.a. n.a. Japan Koku 311.29 141.2
Sweden 116.0 123.7 41.3 148.7 10.2 43.4 Korea, South Africa Suk 273.37 124.0
World 581.4 541.9 882.3 2772.9 1563.3 933.3 South Africa bag 200.00 90.7
Zimbabwe bag 200.00 90.7
n.a. = Not available. Oceania
Source: Ref. 15. Australia bushel 60.00 27.2
New Zealand bushel 56.00 25.4
EEC = European Economic Community.
Source: Ref. 29.

TABLE 11 Major Importers of Rye (1000 metric tons)

Year
Country 1975 1976 1977 1984 1992 1993 1994
America
United States 18.1 18.2 3.5 10.4 93.5 65.6 151.6
Asia
Japan 53.7 39.4 141.1 342.0 429.3 338.9 467.8
Korea 263.9 25.7 1.7 2.4
Israel - 37.0 6.7 2.4
Turkey - 31.1 12.9 10.1
Europe
Belgium-Luxembourg 11.3 16.6 13.4 7.1 12.0 11.5 8.4
Denmark - 3.8 3.2 0.2 2.8 1.7 6.6
Finland 29.7 - - 0.8 - 9.5 10.6
France 2.4 3.1 2.5 2.7 2.7 1.2 1.3
Germany 34.1 137.2 66.9 44.5 12.8 76.6 43.6
Hungary 16.5 3.3 - 0.1 - 2.9 27.8
Italy 18.1 0.2 2.5 7.1 7.1 8.1 11.5
Netherlands 45.3 55.7 46.7 44.2 41.7 37.5 91.3
Norway 40.5 81.3 42.3 33.0 31.3 30.2 40.8
Poland 69.4 225.3 170.0 190.5 454.2 1.6
Russia - 1773.0 317.0 5.0
Switzerland 20.0 23.2 4.9 42.1 2.4 1.9 1.8
United Kingdom 33.2 25.0 33.0 11.0 10.5 8.3 9.3
World 576.0 661.1 542.1 866.3 2731.9 1476.3 1016.5
Source: Ref. 15.
TABLE 13 Rye: Supply and disappearance-United States, 1985-1994
Disappearance

Supply Domestic use

Ending
Beginning stocks
Year stocks Production Imports Total Food Seed Industry Feeda Total Exports Total May 31
beginning (1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 (1000 disappearance (1000
June bushels) bushels) bushels) bushels) bushels) bushels) bushels) bushels) bushels) bushels) (1000 bushels) bushels)
1985 19,906 20,373 2200 42,479 3500 3800 2100 11,010 20,410 200 20,610 21,869
1986 21,869 19,067 1000 41,936 3500 3700 2000 13,653 22,853 500 23,353 18,583
1987 18,583 19,526 1204 39,313 3500 3800 2000 10,601 19,901 500 20,401 18,912
1988 18,912 14,689 200 33,801 3500 3200 2000 11,401 20,101 3400 23,501 10,300
1989 10,300 13,647 30 23,977 3500 3000 2000 9035 17,535 800 18,335 5642
1990 5631 10,176 3895 19,702 3500 3000 2000 7670 16,173 213 16,383 3319
1991 3319 9734 4542 17,595 3500 3000 2000 7528 16,028 53 16,081 1514
1992 1514 11,440 3099 16,053 3500 3000 2000 5984 14,484 14 14,498 1555
1993 1555 10,340 4607 16,502 3600 3000 2000 6915 15,515 16 15,531 971
1994b 971 11,341 4386 16,698 3600 3000 2000 6612 15,212 35 15,247 1451

'Residual, approximates total feed use.

bPreliminary. Totals may not add due to Independent rounding.
Source: Refs. 40, 42, and 43.
Rye 235

TABLE 14 Rye: Marketing Year Average Price and Value, by States, Crop of 1993, 1994, and 1995

Marketing year average price per bushel Value of production

1993 1994 1995a 1993 1994 1995a

State (dollars) (dollars) (dollars) (1000 dollars) (1000 dollars) (1000 dollars)

Colorado 2.61 2.50 2.50 65 135 150

Georgia 3.50 2.80 3.40 4830 5292 3920
Illinois 2.36 2.98 2.90 529 429 690
Indiana 2.83 3.00 2.90 425 360 330
Kansas 2.81 2.75 2.95 1947 894 1180
Maryland 2.55 2.50 2.10 421 350 350
Michigan 2.21 2.30 2.40 928 1017 1300
Minnesota 2.22 2.15 2.10 1481 1742 1270
Nebraska 2.11 2.50 2.50 1055 1365 1200
New Jersey 3.94 3.97 4.00 717 754 1210
New York 2.25 2.25 2.25 486 558 700
North Carolina 2.20 2.20 2.50 1650 1430 1250
North Dakota 2.23 1.93 2.15 2342 1351 1460
Ohio 3.50 3.70 4.00 525 629 720
Oklahoma 3.00 3.60 3.90 1980 3402 2800
Pennsylvania 2.80 2.90 3.10 952 928 1020
South Carolina 2.35 2.65 2.55 893 1590 1120
South Dakota 2.25 2.50 2.45 3600 3713 4040
Texas 2.78 3.25 3.10 1009 1414 1170
Virginia 2.45 2.15 2.15 404 542 370
Wisconsin 3.50 3.00 3.00 910 2625 1440
United States 2.55 2.70 2.80 27,149 30,520 27,770

'Preliminary.
Source: Ref. 40.

TABLE 15 Grades and Grade Requirements for Rye

Maximum limits of
Foreign material Damaged kernels
Minimum
test weight Foreign matter Heat
per bushel other than wheat Total damaged Total Thin rye
Grade (lb) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
U.S. No. 1 56.0 1.0 3.0 0.2 2.0 10.0
U.S. No. 2 54.0 2.0 6.0 0.2 4.0 15.0
U.S. No. 3 52.0 4.0 10.0 0.5 7.0 25.0
U.S. No. 4 49.0 6.0 10.0 3.0 15.0
U.S. Sample grade
U.S. Sample grade is rye that:
(a) Does not meet the requirements for the grades U.S. Nos. 1, 2, 3, or 4; or
(b) Contains 8 or more stones or any number of stones which have an aggregate weight in excess of 0.2 percent of
the sample weight, 2 or more pieces of glass, 3 or more, crotalaria seeds (Crotalaria spp.), 2 or more castor
beans (Ricinus communis L.), 4 or more particles of an unknown foreign substance(s) or a commonly
recognized harmful or toxic substance(s), 2 or more rodent pellets, bird droppings, or equivalent quantity of
other animal filth per 1-1/8 to 1-1/4 quarts of rye; or
(c) Has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except smut or garlic odor); or
(d) Is heating or otherwise of distinctly low quality.
Source: Ref. 42.
236 Lorenz

TABLE 16 Rye (Canada Western/Canada Eastern)—Primary Grade Determinants

Standard of quality Maximum limits

Minimum Matter other Cereal grains

test weight Degree of than cereal other than
Grade name (kg/hL) Variety soundness Ergot grains wheat Total
No. 1 72.0 Any variety of rye Well matured, About 0.05% About 0.5% 1.5% 2.0%
C.W./C.E. equal to practically free
acceptable from weather-
reference damaged
varieties kernels
No. 2 69.0 Any variety of rye Reasonably well About 0.2% 1.0% 3.0% 5.0%
C.W./C.E. equal to matured,
acceptable reasonably free
reference from weather-
varieties damaged
kernels
No. 3 63.0 Any variety of Excluded from About 0.33% 2.0% 10.0% 10.0%
C.W./C.E. rye higher grades
on account of
damage
If specs for Rye, sample Rye, sample Rye, sample Mixed grain, Mixed
No. 3 C.W./C.E., C.W./C.E., C.W./C.E., C.W./C.E. grain,
C.W./C.E. account account account rye C.W./C.E.
are not met, lightweight ergot admixture rye
grade:

Grade name Sprouted Heated Fireburnt Stones Sclerotia Broken

No. 1 C.W./C.E. 0.5% 0.1% Nil 3K 0.05% 4.0%

No. 2 C.W./C.E. 2.0% 0.75% Nil 3K 0.10% 5.0%
No. 3 C.W./C.E. 10.0% 5.0% Nil 5K 0.25% 8.0%
If specs for No. 3 Rye, sample Rye, sample Rye, sample Over grade tolerance Rye, sample Up to 50.0%: rye,
C.W./C.E. are C.W./C.E., C.W./C.E., C.W./C.E., up to 2.5%: rye, C.W./C.E., sample C.W./C.E.,
not met, grade: account sprouted account account fireburnt rejected (grade), account account broken
heated account stones. admixture grain. Over 50.0%:
Over 2.5%: rye, sample broken grain
sample salvage

Note: The letter "K" in these tables refers to kernels or kernel-size pieces in 500 grams.
Source: Ref. 8.
Rye 237

TABLE 17 Rye (Canada Western)—Export Grade Determinants

Total removable material

Cereal grains Total
Through #5 Large Wild other than (including
Grade name buckwheat sieve Through # 4.5 R.H. sieve seeds oats Total wheat wheat)

0.1% (includes 0.05% small

No. 1 C.W. 0.3% broken grain seeds) 0.1% 0.1% 0.15% 1.5% 2.0%
0.1% (includes 0.05% small
No. 2 C.W. 0.3% broken grain seeds) 0.15% 0.1% 0.20% 3.0% 5.0%
0.1% (includes 0.05% small
No. 3 C.W. 0.3% broken grain seeds) 0.25% 0.15% 0.25% 10.0% 10.0%

Grade name Sprouted Heated Stones Total mineral matter Ergot Sclerotia

No. 1 C.W. 0.5% 0.05% 0.033% 0.066% 0.05% 0.05%

No. 2 C.W. 2.0% 0.35% 0.033% 0.10% 0.20% 0.10%
No. 3 C.W. 10.0% 2.0% 0.066% 0.15% 0.33% 0.25%

Source: Ref. 8.
238 Lorenz

TABLE 18 U.S. Standards for Rye

Definition of rye: Special grades and special grade requirements:

Grain that, before the removal of dockage, consists of 50 percent (a) Ergoty rye. Rye that contains more than 0.30 percent of ergot.
or more of common rye (Secale cereale L.) and not more than (b) Garlicky rye. Rye that contains in a 1,000-gram portion more
10 percent of other grains for which standards have been than six green garlic bulblets or an equivalent quantity of dry
established under the United States Grain Standards Act and or partly dry bulblets.
that, after the removal of dockage, contains 50 percent or more (c) Light garlicky rye. Rye that contains in a 1,000-gram portion
of whole rye. two or more, but not more than six, green garlic bulblets or an
Definition of other terms: equivalent quantity of dry or partly dry bulblets.
(a) Damaged kernels. Kernels, pieces of rye kernels, and other (d) Light smutty rye. Rye that has an unmistakable odor of smut,
grains that are badly ground-damaged, badly weather- or that contains in a 250-gram portion smut balls, portions of
damaged, diseased, frost-damaged, germ-damaged, heat- smut balls, or spores of smut in excess of a quantity equal to
damaged, insect-bored, mold-damaged, sprout-damaged, or 14 smut balls but not in excess of a quantity equal to 30 smut
otherwise materially damaged. balls of average size.
(b) Dockage. All matter other than rye that can be removed from (e) Plump rye. Rye that contains not more than 5.0 percent of rye
the original sample by use of an approved device in accordance and other matter that passes through a 0.064 by 3/8 oblong-
with procedures prescribed in FGIS instructions. Also, hole sieve.
underdeveloped, shriveled, and small pieces of rye kernels (f) Smutty rye. Rye that contains in a 250-gram portion smut balls,
removed in properly separating the material other, than rye and portions of smut balls, or spores of smut in excess of a quantity
that cannot be recovered by properly rescreening and equal to 30 smut balls of average size.
recleaning.
(c) Foreign material. All matter other than rye that remains in the
sample after the removal of dockage.
(d) Heat-damaged kernels. Kernels, pieces of rye kernels, and
other grains that are materially discolored and damaged by
heat.
(e) Other grains. Barley, corn, cultivated buckwheat, einkorn,
emmer, flaxseed, guar, hull-less barley, nongrain sorghum,
oats, Polish wheat, popcorn, poulard wheat, rice, safflower,
sorghum, soybeans, spelt, sunflower seed, sweet corn, triticale,
wheat, and wild oats.
(f) Sieve. 0.064 x3/8 oblong-hole sieve. A metal sieve 0.032 inch
thick with oblong perforations 0.064 by 0.375 (3/8) inch.
(g) Thin rye. Rye and other matter that passes through a 0.064 by
3/8 oblong-hole sieve after sieving according to procedures
prescribed in FGIS instructions.

Source: Ref. 42.

Rye 239

TABLE 19 Rye Classifications and Grading Factors of European Countries

A. Russia
Classes:
Class I rye—winter rye, class divided into five subclasses
Class II rye—hard spring rye, class divided into two subclasses
Class III rye—other spring rye, no subclasses
Grading factors: Condition Milling value Baking value

Color Vitreousness Sprouting

Odor Kernel size uniformity Rheological properties
Taste Ash content Baking test
Moisture Test weight
Foreign matter 1000-kernel weight
Damaged kernels Laboratory milling test
B. Germany
Grain characteristic Maximum (%)

Moisture content 14.5

Broken kernels 5.0
Grain overheated during drying 3.0
Sprouted kernels 6.0
Black Besatz (wheat seed, ergot, unsound grain, chaff, impurities) 3.0
Hectoliter weight 68.0

Source: Refs. 1, 5, and 32.

—1 r---1 r1
STORAGE BINS ENT. SCOURER ASP
1750 rpm
10-3/4", 12-12

TEMPERING CONVEYOR

SCALE TEMPERING BINS

FEEDER

FEEDERS
MAGNET
MILLERATOR

STONER

DISC SEP.
2325
STONES
RECLEANER
DISC SEP.
1918 ENT. SCOURER ASP
3450 rpm
10-3/4", 12-12
DISC SEP.
TO MILL
1815
1 SCREENINGS
FIGURE 2 Rye cleaning process diagram for a typical North American rye mill (1200 cwt/24 h). (From Ref. 32.)
240 Lorenz

FROM TEMPER

IB 146 2B I8G 38 24G 48 28G 5B 32G

2.5/I 2.5/1 2.5/1 2.5/I 2.5/I
28K 3BK 48K 58K BD
SIZ. SIZ. TAIL 6M 8M
IM IM
FL FL FL
FL FL

IM 305p.G 2M 36Tcc TAIL 36Tcc B.D.

2.5/I 2.5/I 2.5/I

FEED
FEED

FL FL FL

3M 36Tcc 4M 36Tcc SM 36Tcc 6M 36Tcc

2.5/1 2.5/I 2.5/I 2.5/I
4M I3XX SM 6M FEED
FEED
FL FL
FL FL FL

FIGURE 3 Rye milling process diagram of a typical North American rye mill (1200 cwt/24 h). (From Ref. 32.)
Rye 241

TABLE 20 Basic Grades of Rye Flour Produced and Product Specifications

Country Flour Moisture % Ash (%) Protein (%) Color
United States White rye flour 14.5 max. 0.58-0.78 7.0-9.1 White
Medium rye flour 14.5 max. 1.11-1.39 10.1-12.8 Medium white
Dark rye flour 14.5 max. 2.05-2.83 13.7-6.2 Dark
Rye meal — — —
Size Classifications for Coarse and Fine Rye Meal
USBS sieves Pumpernickel rye meal Fine rye meal
On 8 30 10
On 20 46 40
On 40 14 20
On 60 5 5
Thru 60 5 25
Grade Ash Sieve (% over) Sieve (% Thrus) Color
Russia Grade I 0.65% No. 5/2 No. IX/90 White
Grade II 1.25% 45011/2 No. IX/60 Gray
Straight Grade 1.70% 670 µ/2 No. IX/30 Specky
Ash content (dry basis)
Rye flour type MM. (%) Max. (%)
Germany 815 — 0.90
997 0.91 1.10
1150 1.11 1.30
1370 1.31 1.60
1740 1.61 1.80
1800 (meal) — 2.20
Rye flour type Ash (% dry basis)
EEC 1 max. 0.90
2 0.91-1.15
3 1.16-1.35
4 1.36-2.30
Source: Refs. 5, 32, and 36.

TABLE 21 Composition of Rye Grown in Different Countries (dry basis)

1000-kernel
Country weight (g) Ash (%) Protein (%) Pentosans (%) Starch (%)
United States 15.7-24.1 1.62-2.10 12.6-14.5 7.0-9.6 59.3-61.4
Canada 18.2-22.1 1.61-18.6 12.4-14.0 7.6-8.8 59.0-61.3
Argentina 12.0 2.16 15.0 10.0 56.0
Russia 15.6-20.1 1.67-1.87 12.3-15.4 7.8-8.5 58.6-61.8
Germany 18.8-33.7 1.67-2.24 9.0-13.5 6.6-9.2 57.5-64.1
Source: Refs. 11, 28, and 35.
242 Lorenz

TABLE 22 Composition of Rye Mill Streams (dry basis)

Break streams Reduction streams

I II III IV V VI 1 2 3 4 5

Yield (%) 18 10 14 7 6 4 12 3 5 3 3
Ash (%) 0.51 0.55 0.80 1.04 1.40 2.19 0.60 0.83 1.03 3.10 3.75
Starch (%) 82.9 81.5 75.4 68.5 66.5 55.4 80.7 73.6 69.3 43.3 32.5
Protein' (%) 5.3 6.5 8.5 10.2 11.8 14.7 6.6 8.7 9.7 17.1 17.6
Pentosans (%) 3.0 3.4 4.2 5.7 5.3 8.1 3.3 4.7 5.6 10.3 14.0
Soluble
pentosans (%) 1.3 1.4 1.8 2.4 2.0 2.3 1.4 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.6

'1\1 x 6.25.
Source: Ref. 11.

TABLE 23 Component Fractions of Rye Proteins (%) TABLE 24 Amino Acid Composition of Rye (cv. Prolific)
Endosperm Proteins (mol%)a
Fraction Lasztitya Chen and Bushukb
Amino acid Albumins Globulins Gliadins Glutenins
Albumin 15.2 34.7
Globulin 18.5 10.7 Lysine 2.1 4.3 0.7 2.0
Prolamin 40.2 19.0 Histidine 1.5 2.1 1.3 1.3
Acetic acid soluble n.d. 9.4 Arginine 2.6 4.8 1.5 1.7
Residue n.d. 20.6 Aspartic acid 4.1 7.5 2.1 2.7
Threonine 3.2 4.0 2.0 2.5
n.d. --- Not determined.
Serine 5.1 5.5 4.9 5.3
'From Ref. 21.
Glutamic acid 27.7 16.4 36.7 33.7
bFrom Ref. 9.
Proline 16.6 6.5 20.3 16.6
Glycine 4.3 8.1 2.3 7.2
Alanine 4.5 7.4 2.5 3.4
Valine 10.5 14.0 9.6 9.4
Methionine 1.3 1.7 1.1 1.0
Isoleucine 3.5 3.9 3.2 2.3
Leucine 6.6 7.6 5.9 5.2
Tyrosine 1.6 2.2 1.0 2.3
Phenylalanine 4.6 3.5 4.6 3.4

aCystine and tryptophan not determined.

Source: Ref. 30.
Rye 243

TABLE 25 Amino Acid Composition of Rye from Different Countries (g amino acid/100 g protein)

Amino acid Canada Russia United States England Poland

Lysine 3.49 3.18 4.23 3.8 3.72 4.54

Histidine 2.14 2.30 2.09 2.3 2.38 2.66
Ammonia 3.40 3.19 n.d. 2.7 2.72 n.d.
Arginine 4.55 4.60 5.62 4.9 4.93 6.12
Aspartic acid 6.82 7.09 7.16 7.2 6.46 7.84
Threonine 3.26 3.67 3.11 3.7 3.97 3.54
Serine 4.11 4.70 4.54 4.2 6.12 4.45
Glutamic acid 30.51 30.18 29.91 23.7 33.46 23.81
Proline 15.29 11.40 5.20 8.9 14.23 9.45
Glycine 3.82 3.98 4.79 4.5 3.99 4.90
Alanine 4.06 4.07 5.13 4.4 4.54 4.91
Cystine 2.65 2.51 1.19 1.7 3.45 n.d.
Valine 5.22 5.37 5.56 3.3 5.15 4.92
Methionine 2.15 1.28 0.65 2.9 1.93 1.93
Isoleucine 4.21 4.00 3.88 3.3 4.21 3.72
Leucine 6.65 6.56 7.00 5.9 7.79 6.72
Tyrosine 2.16 2.07 2.86 1.5 2.38 1.56
Phenylalanine 5.16 4.91 5.25 4.0 5.53 3.56
Tryptophan n.d. 1.33 n.d. 2.2 1.94 1.07

n.d. = Not determined.

Source: Refs. 4, 7, 12, 18, 33, and 39.

TABLE 27 Lysine Content of Rye Cultivars

TABLE 26 Amino Acid Composition of Rye Grain, Flour
and Bran (% of total protein) Protein Lysine in protein
Variety and/or species (%) (g/16 g N)
Rye
Amino acid Antelope 11.4 3.33
grain' Floura Bran' Flour'
Carsten 9.2 3.65
Alanine 5.13 4.50 5.36 4.06 Secale dalmaticum CPI22755 16.5 3.23
Arginine 5.62 4.76 6.31 4.55 Explorer 14.1 3.30
Aspartic acid 7.16 6.64 7.47 6.82 USDA PI 168178 14.6 3.22
Cystine 1.19 1.06 1.90 2.65 USDA PI 227870 10.5 3.71
Glycine 4.79 4.29 5.44 3.82 Rye Gator 17.3 3.21
Glutamic acid 29.91 34.70 27.93 30.51 Prolific spring 14.9 3.25
Histidine 2.09 1.86 2.19 2.14 Balbo 11.2 3.63
Isoleucine 3.88 3.60 3.69 4.21 Detenicke 16.0 3.37
Leucine 7.00 6.59 6.76 6.65 Secale cereals 5-SC-18 12.8 3.22
Lysine 4.23 3.38 4.06 3.49 Rye Korean I 15.3 3.05
Methionine 0.65 0.65 0.44 2.15 Dominant 11.0 3.80
Phenylalanine 5.25 5.28 4.56 5.16 Volyanko 11.9 2.91
Proline 5.20 5.93 4.93 15.29 Afghanistan winter rye 10.4 3.35
Serine 4.54 4.81 4.53 4.11 Canadian spring rye 9.2 3.71
Threonine 3.11 2.92 3.34 3.26 Secale montanum 23-282 16.9 3.10
Tyrosine 2.86 2.79 2.66 2.16 Secale segetale 23709 17.2 3.02
Valine 5.56 5.19 5.32 5.22 Abruzzi A 9.9 2.55
Maia barroso 5053 10.6 4.26
aFrom Ref. 33.
bFrom Ref. 7. Source: Ref. 46.
244 Lorenz

TABLE 28 Chemical Scores for Rye and Wheat and WHO Standard Reference Pattern
Rye Wheat
WHO Standard
Reference Amino acid content Chemical Amino acid content Chemical
Amino acid (mg/g protein) (mg/g protein) score (mg/g protein) score
Lysine 55 37 67 31 56
Threonine 40 37 92 31 77
Methionine + cystine 35 37 105 43 123
Leucine 70 67 96 72 103
Isoleucine 40 39 97 35 88
Valine 50 52 104 47 94
Phenylalanine + tyrosine 60 69 115 81 135
Tryptophan 10 8 80 -
Source: Refs. 17, 37, and 48.

TABLE 29 Rye Starch Compared with Starch from Hard Red TABLE 30 Saccharides in Rye-Comparison with
Spring Wheat (HRS) Hard Red Spring Wheat (HRS) (%, dry basis)
Rye HRS Rye HRS
Starch (% of flour) 72.3 72.0 Monosaccharides 0 0
Nitrogen in starch (%) 0.04 0.04 Sucrose 1.31 0.63
Ash in starch (%) 0.37 0.38 Maltose 0.03 0.04
Fat in starch (%) 0.98 0.75 Maltotriose 0.01 0
Mean starch diameter (It) 28.2 18.7 Trisaccharidesa 0.82 0.64
Amylose (%) 24.5-30.1 24.0-28.9 Tetrasaccharidesb 0.31 0.01
Water-binding capacity 86.5 85.0
Intrinsic viscosity 1.96 1.88 °Raffinose and kestose.
Birefringence endpoint temp. (°C) 59.6 62.9 bNystose and frustosylraffinose.
Source: Ref. 2.
Gelatinization temp. range (°C) 9.6 8.6
Absolute density (30°C) 1.4209 1.4832
Source: Refs. 3 and 20.

TABLE 31 Lipid Content of the Cereals and Distribution of Mass and Lipids Among the Anatomical Parts'
Distribution of mass (%) Distribution of lipids (%)
Total lipids
Cereal (%) Bran Endosperm Germ Bran Endosperm Germ
Wheat 3.31 4.01 92.0 4.02 3.39 62.7 33.8
Rye 2.99 4.48 91.1 4.36 3.20 62.3 34.5
'Calculated on dry weight basis.
Source: Ref. 49.
Rye 245

TABLE 32 Lipid Composition of Rye and Wheat

Lipid composition of anatomical parts of cereals (wt %)a

Composition (wt %) Wheat Rye
Lipid Wheat Rye Bran Endosperm Germ Bran Endosperm Germ
Monoglycerides 5.70 3.71 6.60 6.60 - 10.0 2.66 -
Diglycerides 2.85 1.14 3.90 3.50 2.50 10.6 1.60 3.20
Triglycerides 20.1 23.1 14.3 11.7 19.0 6.8 11.2 21.3
Free fatty acids 3.50 5.10 14.5 3.53 8.33 9.87 3.67 9.20
Steryl esters 2.90 1.85 23.5 0.67 7.67 14.3 2.52 4.06
Monogalactosyl
diglycerides 2.93 3.73 7.06 5.2
Digalactosyl diglycerides 12.00 11.10 15.3 13.3
Lysolecithin 4.80 4.00 1.28 - 6.44 -
Phosphatidylcholine 1.20 0.75 2.50 4.10 0.60 6.62
Phosphatidylethanolamine 0.48 0.12 20.1 1.8 16.0 1.00
Phosphatidylinositol 1.90 2.75 2.44 7.92 9.92
'Lipids analyzed only for components listed.
Source: Ref. 49.

TABLE 33 Fatty Acid Composition of Lipids

from Whole-Grain Wheat and Rye
Composition (wt %)a
Fatty acid Wheat Rye
C14 0.25 0.12
C15 0.26 0.22
C16 17.8 14.8
C16:1 0.26 1.18
CI8 1.23 0.78
C18,1 16.5 17.1
C18:2 56.5 57.7
C18:3 6.56 7.36
C20:I 0.70 0.71
'Calculated as methyl esters.
Source: Ref. 49.
246 Lorenz

TABLE 34 Nutrient Composition of Rye

Amount in edible portion
Amount in 100 g of common measures
Nutrients Unit edible portion of food (1 cup = 169 g)

Proximate:
Water 10.95 18.51
Food energy kcal 335 567
kJ 1403 2372
Protein (N x 5.83) g 14.75 24.95
Total lipid (fat) g 2.50 4.22
Carbohydrate total g 69.76 117.90
Crude fiber g 1.50 2.53
Ash g 2.02 3.42
Minerals:
Calcium mg 33 56
Iron mg 2.67 4.51
Magnesium mg 121 204
Phosphorus mg 374 632
Potassium mg 264 446
Sodium mg 6 10
Zinc mg 3.73 6.30
Copper mg 0.450 0.760
Manganese mg 2.680 4.529
Lipids:
Fatty acids:
Saturated total 0.287 0.486
4:0 g
6:0 g
8:0 g
10:0 g
12:0 g
14:0 g 0.003 0.005
16:0 g 0.271 0.458
18:0 g 0.009 0.016
Monounsaturated 0.303 0.511
16:1 g 0.010 0.017
18:1 g 0.280 0.473
20:1 g 0.013 0.022
22:1 g
Polyunsaturated 1.115 1.885
18:2 g 0.958 1.619
18:3 g 0.157 0.266
Amino acids:
Tryptophan g 0.154 0.261
Threonine g 0.532 0.899
Isoleucine g 0.549 0.929
Leucine g 0.980 1.656
Lysine g 0.605 1.023
Methionine g 0.248 0.419
Cystine g 0.329 0.556
Phenylalanine g 0.674 1.138
Tyrosine g 0.339 0.573
Valine g 0.747 1.262
Arginine g 0.813 1.374
Histidine g 0.367 0.620
Rye 247

TABLE 34 Continued

Amount in edible portion

Amount in 100 g of common measures
Nutrients Unit edible portion of food (1 cup = 169 g)

Amino acids: g 0.367 0.620

Alanine g 0.711 1.202
Aspartic acid g 1.177 1.990
Glutamic acid g 3.661 6.188
Glycine g 0.701 1.185
Proline g 1.491 2.520
Serine g 0.681 1.151

Source: Ref. 41.

TABLE 35 Vitamins and Minerals in Rye and Its

Milling Fractions

Rye Low-grade
Nutrient grain Bran Middlings flour

Potassium
(mg/100 g) 520 n.d. 590 510
Phosphorus
(mg/100 g) 380 1220 590 320
Calcium (mg/100 g) 70 140 60 20
Manganese
(mg/100 g) 7.5 112 415 n.d.
Thiamine (mg/kg) 4.6 2.9 3.1 2.3
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 1.8 0.2 2.3 0.8
Niacin (mg/kg) 15.0 26.3 15.9 8.0
Pantothenic acid
(mg/kg) 10.4 15.9 21.8 9.8

n.d. = Not determined.

Source: Refs. 10 and 24.
248 Lorenz

TABLE 36 Nutrient Composition of Rye Flours

Rye Flour' Rye Flourb
Nutrients Units Dark Medium Light Dark Medium Light

Proximate:
Water g 11.07 9.85 8.78 14.17 10.04 8.96
Food energy kcal 324 354 367 415 361 374
kJ 1356 1483 1534 1735 1513 1565
Protein (N x 5.33) g 14.03 9.39 8.39 17.95 9.58 8.55
Total lipid (fat) g 2.59 1.77 1.36 3.44 1.80 1.39
Carbohydrate, total g 68.74 77.49 80.23 87.99 79.04 81.84
Crude fiber g
Ash g 3.47 1.50 1.24 4.44 1.53 1.25
Minerals:
Calcium mg 56 24 21 72 24 21
Iron mg 6.45 2.12 1.80 8.25 2.16 1.84
Magnesium mg 248 75 70 318 77 72
Phosphorus mg 632 207 194 809 211 198
Potassium mg 730 340 233 934 347 238
Sodium mg 1 3 2 2 3 2
Zinc mg 5.62 1.99 1.75 7.19 2.03 1.78
Copper mg 0.750 0.287 0.250 0.960 0.292 0.255
Manganese mg 6.730 5.460 1.970 8.614 5.569 2.009
Vitamins:
Ascorbic acid mg 0 0 0 0 0 0
Thiamine mg 0.316 0.287 0.331 0.404 0.293 0.338
Riboflavin mg 0.251 0.114 0.090 0.321 0.116 0.092
Niacin mg 4.270 1.727 0.800 5.466 1.751 0.816
Pantothenic acid mg 1.456 0.492 0.665 1.864 0.502 0.578
Vitamin B6 mg 0.443 0.268 0.234 0.567 0.274 0.239
Folacin mcg 60 19 22 77 20 23
Lipids:
Fatty acids:
Saturated total g 0.309 0.198 0.145 0.396 0.202 0.148
14:0 g 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.004 0.002 0.002
16:0 g 0.292 0.187 0.137 0.374 0.190 0.140
18:0 g 0.010 0.006 0.005 0.013 0.007 0.005
Monounsaturated g 0.325 0.208 0.153 0.417 0.212 0.156
16:1 g 0.011 0.007 0.005 0.014 0.007 0.005
18:1 g 0.301 0.192 0.142 0.385 0.196 0.144
20:1 g 0.014 0.009 0.006 0.018 0.009 0.007
22:1 g
Polyunsaturated g 1.200 0.767 0.565 1.536 0.781 0.576
18:2 g 1.031 0.659 0.485 1.319 0.672 0.495
18:3 g 0.169 0.108 0.080 0.217 0.110 0.081
Amino acids:
Tryptophan g 0.159 0.106 0.095 0.203 0.108 0.097
Threanine g 0.486 0.325 0.291 0.622 0.332 0.295
Isoleucine g 0.541 0.362 0.324 0.693 0.370 0.330
Leucine g 0.970 0.619 0.580 1.241 0.662 0.591
Lysine g 0.486 0.325 0.291 0.622 0.332 0.296
Methionine g 0.209 0.140 0.125 0.258 0.143 0.128
Cystine g 0.277 0.185 0.165 0.354 0.189 0.159
Phenylalanine g 0.710 0.475 0.424 0.909 0.465 0.433
Tyrosine g 0.277 0.185 0.165 0.354 0.189 0.169
Rye 249

TABLE 36 Continued

Rye Flour' Rye Flours'

Nutrients Units Dark Medium Light Dark Medium Light

Amino acids:
Valine g 0.703 0.470 0.420 0.899 0.480 0.428
Arginine g 0.635 0.425 0.380 0.813 0.434 0.387
Histidine g 0.313 0.209 0.187 0.400 0.214 0.191
Alanine g 0.580 0.388 0.347 0.742 0.396 0.354
Aspartic acid g 0.965 0.646 0.577 1.235 0.659 0.588
Glutamic acid g 3.915 2.521 2.340 5.011 2.673 2.387
Glycine g 0.534 0.358 0.319 0.684 0.365 0.326
Proline g 1.501 1.005 0.898 1.922 1.025 0.916
Serine g 0.753 0.511 0.456 0.976 0.521 0.465

'Amount in 100 g, edible portion.

'Amount in edible portion of common measures of food: 1 cup dark = 128 g; 1 cup medium = 102 g; 1 cup light = 102 g.
Source: Ref. 41.

50 NIACIN

IliSPRING WHEAT
40
SPRING TRITICALE

30
SPRING RYE
N9 /g
20

PANTOTHENIC
THIAMINE ACID
10

5 B6 COMPLEX 1.0

0.8

RIBOFLAVIN
0.6

0.4

0.2

FIGURE 4 Vitamin contents of whole grains of spring culti-

vars of wheat, rye, and triticale. (From Ref. 27.)
250 Lorenz

TABLE 37 Composition of Whole Rye and Wheat and Their Milled Products (percent extraction on a 15%
moisture basis)

English rye Manitoba wheat

Component 100 85 75 100 85 75

Total N (g/100 g) 1.40 1.28 1.17 2.39 2.38 2.29

Protein (N x 5.7) (g/100 g) 7.98 7.30 6.67 13.64 13.57 13.05
Fat (g/100 g) 1.98 1.64 1.33 2.49 1.70 1.32
Starch (g/100 g) 69.0 73.0 75.0 63.0 67.2 6
Fiber (g/100 g) 1.56 0.84 0.48 2.15 0.33 0.10
Thiamine (Iu/g) 1.45 0.98 0.80 1.18 0.92 0.29
Riboflavin (nig) 2.90 2.00 1.40 1.70 1.00 0.70
Ash (g/100 g) 1.72 1.04 0.72 1.53 0.75 0.44
Potassium (mg/100 g) 412 203 172 312 146 87
Calcium (mg/100 g) 31.5 26.1 19.5 27.6 18.5 13.1
Magnesium (mg/100 g) 92 45 26 141.0 61.8 30.4
Iron (mg/100 g) 2.70 1.97 1.72 3.81
Total phosphorus (mg/100 g) 359 193 129 350 188 109
Phytate phosphorus (mg/100 g) 258 104 57 242 96 37

Source: Refs. 26 and 37.

TABLE 38 Alkylresorcinols in Grains and Milling Fractions

Bran Shorts Flour

Milling Milling Milling

Grain fraction Alkylresorcinols fraction Alkylresorcinols fraction Alkylresorcinols Mill type
Sample (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Triticale 6-TA-204 0.085 27.7 0.213 6.0 0.087 64.8 0.026 Quadrumat Sr.
Rye - Prolific 0.124 33.6 0.186 10.5 0.115 52.0 0.031
Wheat - Chris 0.062 21.7 0.211 78.3 0.038
Triticale 6-TA-204 0.085 30.0 0.271 70.0 0.039 Quadrumat Jr.
Rye - Prolific 0.124 43.8 0.187 56.2 0.029

Source: Ref. 45.

TABLE 39 Alkylresorcinol Concentration ± Standard Deviation (µg/g dry basis) of Whole Rye Flour Dough During
Fermentation and After Baking

1-Hour 2-Hour 3-Hour 4-Hour

Treatment Initial fermentation fermentation fermentation fermentation Bread

Control 513 150 ± 4aA 120 ± 0 bA 80 ±3cA 40 ± 6dA 29 ± 2eA

0.050% ARs 1013 182 ±3aB 170 ± 10b B 160 ± 3bB 76±3cB 40 ± ldB
0.075% ARs 1263 230 ±6aC 176 ± lb B 162 ±6cB 80 ±9dB 50 ±3eB
0.100% ARs 1513 264 ±3aD 200 ± 14b C 185 ± 2c C 140 ± 17d C 53 ± Oe B

aThe initial concentration of the whole rye flour was = 550 µgig dry basis and was 512.8 lig/g dry basis in the dough (calculated).
Means with common letters represent no statistical differences (p < 0.05).
Small letters are used for statistical comparison between each hour of fermentation and bread within each treatment using least signifi-
cant difference.
Large letters are used for statistical comparison of different treatments within each fermentation hours and bread.
Source: Ref. 47.
Rye 251

FIGURE 5 Ergot sclerotium on rye.

TABLE 40 Uses of Basic Rye Flour Types

Rye flour type Suggested uses
White rye Jewish and other white rye breads
Dusting flour
Light Swedish rye bread
Medium rye Bohemian, Polish, and Russian rye breads
For blending with other rye flours
In American-type rye breads
Medium Swedish rye breads
Base for rye sours
Dark rye American rye breads (smaller percentage than medium rye flour)
Dark, heavy German rye breads
Pumpernickel breads
Swedish rye bread
Base for stronger rye sours
Rye meal (various granulations) In various types of pumpernickel bread
For dusting (hearth rye breads)
Cracked rye Used in either white bread dough or rye to make a specialty cracked rye bread (should be
soaked before adding to dough)
Rye flakes (flat, rolled whole rye) For blending with meal and rye flour in pumpernickel bread
In crisp, flat Swedish rye bread
In rye crisp wafers
Source: Ref. 16.
252 Lorenz

TABLE 41 Nutrient Composition of Rye Bread'

Amount in 100 g, Amount in edible portion of
edible portion common measures of food

Nutrients Unit Mean Standard error 1 oz = 28.35 g 1 s1= 32 gb

Proximate:
Water g 37.3 0.212 10.6 11.9
Food energy kcal 259 73 83
kJ 1082 307 346
Protein (N x 5.70) g 8.5 0.079 2.4 2.7
Total lipid (fat) g 3.3 0.084 0.9 1.1
Carbohydrate, total g 48.3 13.7 15.5
Crude fiber g 0.6 0.109 0.2 0.2
Ash g 2.5 0.064 0.7 0.8
Minerals:
Calcium mg 73 2.254 21 23
Iron mg 2.83 0.047 0.80 0.90
Magnesium mg 40 1.217 11 13
Phosphorus mg 125 3.819 35 40
Potassium mg 166 3.417 47 53
Sodium mg 660 10.730 187 211
Zinc mg 1.14 0.032 0.32 0.36
Copper mg 0.186 0.005 0.053 0.059
Manganese mg 0.824 0.031 0.234 0.264
Vitamins:
Ascorbic acid mg
Thiamine mg 0.434 0.038 0.123 0.139
Riboflavin mg 0.335 0.013 0.095 0.107
Niacin mg 3.805 0.070 1.079 1.218
Pantothenic acid mg 0.440 0.052 0.125 0.141
Vitamin B6 mg 0.075 0.003 0.021 0.042
Folate mcg 51 14.848 14 16
Lipids:`
Fatty acids:
Saturated, total g 0.626 0.177 0.200
4:0 g
6:0 g
8:0 g.
10:0 g
12:0 g
14:0 g 0.011 0.003 0.003
16:0 g 0.385 0.109 0.123
18:0 g 0.230 0.065 0.074
Monounsaturated g 1.311 0.372 0.419
16:1 g 0.012 0.003 0.004
18:1 g 1.296 0.368 0.415
20:1 g 0.003 0.001 0.001
22:1 g
Polyunsaturated g 0.799 0.227 0.256
18:2 g 0.739 0.210 0.237
18:3 g 0.060 0.017 0.019
Rye 253

TABLE 41 Continued

Amount in 100 g, Amount in edible portion of

edible portion common measures of food

Nutrients Unit Mean Standard error 1 oz = 28.35 g 1 s1= 32 gb

Lipids:
Amino acids:
Tryptophan g 0.096 0.027 0.031
Threonine g 0.255 0.072 0.082
Isoleucine g 0.319 0.091 0.102
Leucine g 0.579 0.164 0.185
Lysine g 0.233 0.066 0.075
Methionine g 0.139 0.039 0.044
Cystine g 0.173 0.049 0.055
Phenylalanine g 0.411 0.116 0.131
Tyrosine g 0.213 0.061 0.068
Valine g 0.379 0.107 0.121
Arginine g 0.325 0.092 0.104
Histidine g 0.182 0.052 0.058
Alanine g 0.299 0.085 0.096
Aspartic acid g 0.442 0.125 0.141
Glutamic acid g 2.603 0.738 0.833
Glycine g 0.302 0.085 0.096
Proline g 0.909 0.258 0.291
Serine g 0.417 0.118 0.133

'Includes products made with and without caraway seeds.

b5 in. x 4 in. x 1/2 in.
`Values based on product containing vegetable shortening composed of partially hydrogenated soybean and cottonseed
oils.
Source: Ref. 41.
254 Lorenz

TABLE 42 Nutrient Composition of Rye, Wafers, Seasoned'

Amount in 100 g, Amount in edible portion of
edible portion common measures of food
Nutrients Unit Mean Standard Error 1/2 oz-14.175 g 1 triple cracker-22 gb
Proximate:
Water g 4.0 1.0 0.6 0.9
Food energy kcal 381 54 84
kJ 1595 226 351
Protein (N x 5.90) g 9.0 0.147 1.3 2.0
Total lipid (fat) g 9.2 1.005 1.3 2.0
Carbohydrate, total g 73.8 10.5 16.2
Crude fiber g 1.1 0.418 0.2 0.2
Ash g 4.0 0.359 0.6 0.9
Minerals:
Calcium mg 44 4.717 6 10
Iron mg 3.04 0.199 0.43 0.67
Magnesium mg 106 5.237 15 23
Phosphorus mg 307 11.601 44 68
Potassium mg 454 9.327 64 100
Sodium mg 887 51.905 126 195
Zinc mg 2.55 0.093 0.36 0.56
Copper mg 0.495 0.026 0.070 0.109
Manganese mg
Vitamins:
Ascorbic acid mg
Thiamine mg 0.316 0.035 0.045 0.069
Riboflavin mg 0.223 0.031 0.032 0.049
Niacin mg 2.474 0.528 0.351 0.544
Pantothenic acid mg 0.558 0.108 0.079 0.123
Vitamin B6 mg 0.190 0.005 0.027 0.042
Folate mcg 52 7.500 7 12
Vitamin B12 mcg 0 0 0
Vitamin A RE
IU
Lipids:`
Fatty acids:
Saturated, total g 1.568 0.222 0.345
4:0 g
6:0 g
8:0 g
10:0 g
12:0 g
14:0 g 0.002 0.000 0.000
16:0 g 0.923 0.131 0.203
18:0 g 0.598 0.085 0.132
Monounsaturated g 4.789 0.679 1.054
16:1 g 0.013 0.002 0.003
18:1 g 4.770 0.676 1.049
20:1 g 0.006 0.001 0.001
22:1 g
Rye
TABLE 42 Continued
Amount in 100 g,
edible portion
Nutrients Unit Mean Standard Error
Polyunsaturated 1.686
18:2 1.588
18:3 0.098
Product contains whole-grain rye and corn bran.
bEach section = 7.3 g.
`Values based on product containing partially hydrogenated soybean oil.
dThe amino acid profile was not calculated because amino acid values were unavailable for ingredients comprising over 5% of total pro-
tein in this product.
Source: Ref. 41.
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32. Rozsa, T. A., Rye milling, in Rye: Production, Chemistry
and Technology (W. Bushuk, ed.), American Association of
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1976, p. 111-125.
33. Rukosuev, A. N., and Silant' eva, A. G., Amino acid compo-
sition of rye grain, sieved rye flour, bread flour and bran,
hop. Pitan., 31:142 (1972).
34. Schery, R. W., Plants for Man, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1963, p. 389.
35. Schopmeyer, H. H., Rye and rye milling, Cereal Sci. Today,
7:138 (1962).
36. Seibel, W., Bruemmer, J. M., and Stephan, H., West Ger-
man bread, in Advances in Cereal Science and Technology,
Vol. II, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul,
MN, 1978, p. 415-456.
Lorenz
37. Simmonds, D. H., and Campbell, W. P., Morphology and
chemistry of the rye grain, in Rye: Production, Chemistry,
and Technology (W. Bushuk, ed.), American Association of
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1976, p. 63-110.
38. Smith, B. W., Feed manufacture, in Cereal Technology
S. A. Matz, ed.), AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT., 1970,
p. 91-128.
39. Tkachuk, R., and Irvine, G. N., Amino acid compositions of
cereals and oilseed meals, Cereal Chem., 46:206 (1969).
40. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Sta-
tistics Service, Agricultural Statistics, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1945-1996.
41. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Human Nutrition Informa-
tion Service, Agriculture Handbook Number 8-20 (revised
Oct. 1989), Washington, DC, 1989.
42. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing
Service, Official Grain Standards of the United States, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1993.
43. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Ser-
vice, Agricultural Statistics Grain and Feed, 1984.
44. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Ser-
vice, Crop Reporting Board, Agricultural Statistics Grain
and Feed, 1984, Washington, D.C.
45. Verdeal, K., and Lorenz, K., Alkylresorcinols in wheat, rye
and triticale, Cereal Chem., 54:475 (1977).
46. Villegas, E., McDonald, C. E., and Gilles, K. A., Variability
in the lysine content of wheat, rye and triticale proteins, Ce-
real Chem., 47:746 (1970).
47. Winata, A., and Lorenz, K., Effect of fermentation and bak-
ing of whole wheat and whole rye sourdough breads on ce-
real alkylresorcinols, Cereal Chem., 74:284-287 (1997).
48. World Health Organization, Energy and Protein Require-
ment, WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. 522, FAO Nutr. Meetings Ser.
52, Rep. Joint FAO/WHO Ad Hoc Expert. Comm., 1973.
49. Zeringue, H. J., Jr., and Feuge, R. 0., A comparison of the
lipids of triticale, wheat and rye grown under similar eco-
logical conditions, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 57:373-376
(1980).
9
TRITICALE: PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION
N. L. Darvey and H. Naeem
Plant Breeding Institute, Cobbitty, New South Wales, Australia
J. Perry Gustafson
Plant Genetics Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and
University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
I. INTRODUCTION
Many reviews have been written about triticale (X Triti-
cosecale Wittmack), and so there is little point in regurgi-
tating this information, other than briefly summarizing the
key points. This review, therefore, does not focus on the
past, but rather on the future, in terms of both remedying
problems from the past and predicting product utilization
in the future. The latter does not come with guarantees, but
rather with a level of prediction that can be logically rea-
soned on the basis of product utilization and/or economic
rationalization.
Triticale is a global crop, and if one accepts the predic-
tions about world food needs and takes into account the
continuing problems of desertification, salinization, and
acidification on a global scale, there is no point in debating
the future of triticale; its future is guaranteed, because as a
crop it is environmentally more flexible than the other ce-
reals, it shows better tolerance to many diseases and pests
than its parental species or distant relatives, it is capable of
meeting human food needs, and it is capable of realizing
much higher yields and biomass than other cereals. The
significant increase in the area of triticale production, espe-
cially in the developed world, over recent years, is a testi-
mony to its future; and therefore the most critical needs are
to focus on product enhancement and utilization, especial-
ly with reference to human food needs.
This chapter looks at the present, past, and future. The
257
present takes a different viewpoint from past approaches, in
that it critically compares triticale to the other major cere-
als, since it must compete with those cereals if it is going to
add links to the human food chain. It looks at the signs from
current research endeavors to point to the likelihood of fu-
ture improvements for the products under consideration.
Triticale, the first man-made cereal, is the product of a
cross between wheat (Triticum spp.) and rye (Secale ce-
reale L.). Wilson [96] reported on the first cross between
wheat and rye, resulting in the production of sterile plants.
Rimpau [68] reported on the first fertile triticale from a
cross between hexaploid wheat (T. aestivum L. em Thell.)
and diploid rye. From the 1930s to the 1950s, research on
triticale never really progressed past the botanical curiosi-
ty stage despite considerable effort [57]. Early plant breed-
ers looked on triticale as a potential bridge combining the
best from wheat (i.e., high yield and breadmaking quality)
with the best from rye (i.e., winter hardiness, high lysine
and protein, drought tolerance, disease resistance, and tol-
erance to heavy metals), but until recently the realization
of many of these goals eluded breeders. Research efforts
have resulted in triticale being grown commercially in sev-
eral areas around the world. Triticale is mainly used as a
feed grain, but the amount of triticale utilized for human
consumption is increasing. The most successful form of
triticale grown globally is the hexaploid of genome formu-
la AABBRR, which taxonomically, according to MacKey
[51], should be named T. turgidocereale Kiss.
258 Darvey et al.

II. PLANT BREEDING conducive to high wheat yields (e.g., the sandy soils of
Poland). Second, many recent cultivars are dual-purpose
A. World Production
and thus provide green feed for farm animals before being
World production is difficult to assess because most coun- allowed to develop into a grain crop. Third, in many coun-
tries do not have a reporting service for triticale acreage. tries triticale offers farmers an alternative cash crop that is
The estimates given are based solely on communications neither controlled by any marketing board nor required to
with breeders working on triticale within the stated country meet the rigid quality standards of other grain crops.
and are subject to some degree of error (Table 1). Much of A few countries established grain standards in the early
the triticale currently grown is utilized on the farm where it 1970s to be used in marketing triticale. However, with the
was produced without being reported. A majority of the recent improvements in grain characteristics (i.e., test
present cultivation occurs in developed countries. There are weight and kernel plumpness), these standards urgently
three reasons for the increased acreage in developed coun- need to be upgraded, as in Australia, where the 1997 meet-
tries. First, most of the acreage resides on land that is not ing of the triticale growers and marketers incorporated in-
creased the acceptable test weight for Australian standard
triticale from 60 to 62 kg/hl while maintaining the mini-
TABLE 1 Estimate of Triticale Area in mum test weight of Australian premium triticale at 65
Countries Growing 1,000 Hectares or More kg/hl. Current varieties would fail to meet these standards
in 1996 only if they were produced under harsh environmental
conditions (e.g., drought). Since most of the world grain
Country Hectares
production is used for animal feed, it is perhaps surprising
Algeria 10,000 that greater emphasis has not been placed on grain protein
Argentina 16,000 content, since triticale's unique ability to grow in marginal
Australia 300,000 soils has led to very low protein contents in regions of low
Austria 2,000 soil nitrogen or where inputs of fertilizer have been inade-
Belgium 10,000 quate. Improvements in grain characteristics have also led
Brazil 90,000 to significant improvements in grain hardness; however,
Bulgaria 100,000
this may prove to have a negative impact on production, in
Canada 2,000
that the softer grain characteristics may be more relevant to
Chile 10,000
China (Northeast/Heilongjiang) 1,500 the successful utilization of triticale for animal feed pur-
Fed. Rep. Czechoslovakia 25,000 poses. Thus, the end use of the grain appears to be a key
France 162,000 determinant of grain standards. On the other hand, the
Germany 300,000 choice of grains in a feed mix depends on many factors in-
Hungary 5,000 cluding the cost of the grain, local production of triticale
Italy 30,000 adjacent to feed lots or poultry production centers, the use
Kenya 8,000 of whole grain in feed mixes, the addition of enzymes to
Luxembourg 2,000 feed mixes [16,20,22], carcass composition, taste and
Mexico 3,000 quality characteristics of meat or meat products [15],
Morocco 10,000 sources of pigments [16], cultivar differences with respect
Netherlands 4,000
to essential amino acids, whole grain protein, and metabo-
New Zealand 2,000
Poland 659,300 lizable energy. Large differences in the amounts of soluble
Portugal 90,000 pentosans in triticale were reported by Cyran and Rakows-
Romania 20,000 ka [25], whose preliminary data suggested that increasing
South Africa 95,000 pentosan levels were negatively correlated with loaf vol-
Russia 500,000 ume for bread making in triticale. However, the antinutri-
Spain 80,000 tional properties of soluble pentosans in rye were not evi-
Sweden 45,000 dent in triticale in so far as the pentosan content and
Switzerland 11,000 viscosity of flour extracts were essentially the same in
Tunisia 16,000 wheat and triticale [30].
United Kingdom 16,000
Many current varieties are more environmentally flexi-
United States 180,000
ble but subject to different biotic stresses; thus they can be
Total 2,804,800
grown over a wide range of environments and produce
Source: Ref. 91. high yields. However, the choice to grow or not to grow
Triticale
triticale comes down to a competition between triticale
and alternative grains required to meet on-farm or indus-
try needs. In addition, regional considerations exist, such
as abiotic factors (e.g., acid soils) and vested interests,
which avoid change for fear of its potential impact on
profitability.
The following points should be noted in the comparison
of triticale with the cereals listed. Further documentation
of several of the key characteristics of triticale as com-
pared to several other cereals will be presented in subse-
quent sections.
1. Wheat
Broader adaptation, especially acid soils (room for se-
lection among triticale, and wheat and rye parents)
Disease tolerance from wheat and rye (not all genes
from rye are expressed in triticale)
Grain + dual purpose (e.g., forage and grain) (big advan-
tage over wheat)
Poorer product for human food needs, especially bread,
but recent improvements include grain color, flour
color, bread color, loaf volume and porosity, sticki-
ness, mixing properties, blends
Higher yield in most environments
More yield = more starch (e.g., high or low amylose/
amylopectin, waxy); can also select for these charac-
ters in both the wheat and rye parents
Can select for more or less soluble pentosans, especially
in rye parent—high pentosans for gums and human
nutrition in developed countries; low pentosans for
high digestibility in monogastrics; preferred feed for
dairy and beef cattle in Australia
Generally poorer sprouting resistance, but room for se-
lection in triticale, rye, and wheat
Long grain-filling period—room for improvement
Higher levels of intraspecific hybrid vigor anticipated
due to outcrossing nature of rye parent; breeding strat-
egies may need to select cross-breeding lines with po-
tentially higher levels of heterosis
Some seed shriveling, especially in harsh environments
2. Oats (Avena sativa L.)
Equivalent biomass production for grazing, especially
dual-purpose triticales
No economic value in oils
No porridge, but flakes are used for breakfast food and
health bars
Suitable in dog food
3. Rye
Much higher yield
Can produce rye-type breads, but not as dark as German
breads
Not as tolerant to acid soils
259
Better for animal feed, especially monogastrics
Potential use in crispbreads
Can substitute for rye in whisky (select appropriate
genotypes)
Tall-straw cultivars could be selected for thatching
(building material)
4. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)
Potential to select genotypes producing unique beer fla-
vor, but unlikely to compete with barley
Alternative feed grain
Could select rye parents for high levels of (3-glucans and
transfer to triticale
B. Breeding
1. Germplasm Base
The production of hexaploid triticale usually begins with
the crossing of tetraploid wheat (T. turgidium L.: genome
formula AABB) with diploid rye S. cereale L.: genome for-
mula RR) followed by doubling the chromosome number
of the resulting haploid hybrid by treating it with
colchicine, thus creating a fertile amphidiploid. The first
step in this procedure does not occur in nature, since the
amphihaploid embryo invariably needs to be removed from
the seed (which does not produce normal endosperm) and
placed on an embryo rescue medium, so as to regenerate a
viable plantlet. This procedure has never been particularly
successful, and the low levels of crossability and the high
mortality of embryos and plantlets after colchicine treat-
ment have been the major reasons why the germplasm base
of triticale is marginally representative of the enormous di-
versity present in its wheat and rye parents. Added to this is
the problem that new primary triticales are unadapted in
comparison to the highly intercrossed and selected second-
ary triticales. It is understandable that few breeding pro-
grams expend resources on the development of new pri-
mary triticales. One common option has been to cross
adapted secondary triticales with adapted bread wheats (T.
aestivum) and to backcross the resulting hybrids to hexa-
ploid triticale. The net effect, however, has been a very nar-
row germplasm base for triticale, as evidenced by the dev-
astating effects of disease resistance breakdown in
Australia since 1982 and more recently in Mexico at the In-
ternational Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIM-
MYT) germplasm. Much of the spring germplasm through-
out the world emanates from the CIMMYT program in
Mexico. While no one would deny the outstanding progress
made at CIMMYT, and elsewhere, with respect to agro-
nomic and quality characteristics in triticale, it is equally
obvious that many programs have become fixed on "ideo-
type" and associated linkage blocks to such an extent that
new genetic diversity is frequently lost through subsequent
260
breeding procedures. Close association of durum and rye
breeding programs with triticale breeding programs is al-
most nonexistent, especially in the selection of parents that
are tolerant to most existing pathotypes of diseases associ-
ated with all three species. Expansion of the germplasm
base of triticale and the establishment of new linkage
blocks will occur as durum, rye, and triticale programs
throughout the world move in the direction of diverse gene
pools to realize optimal levels of heterosis. The history of
hybrid rye in Europe points to the importance of the estab-
lishment of diverse gene pools to optimize heterosis [34].
2. Methodology
In the late 1960s, the spring triticale program at CIMMYT
began making triticale/wheat crosses that provided a major
breakthrough in helping to establish triticale as a crop. An
uncontrolled triticale/wheat cross resulted in the selection
of a triticale Armadillo containing wheat chromosome 2D
that had replaced rye chromosome 2R [37]. This "substi-
tuted" triticale contained 15 pairs of wheat and 6 pairs of
rye chromosomes. Much of the importance of this substitu-
tion came from the presence of a gene for day-length in-
sensitivity on wheat chromosome 2D, which allowed the
CIMMYT breeding program to grow two generations of
triticale per year as well as to expand into day neutral pro-
duction areas around the world. In the 1970s, triticale
reached a level where it began to be competitive with
wheat in many locations around the world [77]. The rapid
spread of the Armadillo 2D(2R) substituted types through-
out breeding programs around the world narrowed the di-
versity of triticale instead of widening it and removed rye
chromosome 2R from the gene pool.
In the years that followed, there was a gradual shift
back to the complete rye genome triticales in view of their
adaptive values. In addition, invaluable D genome chro-
mosomes or chromosome segments begin to appear in
breeding programs having substituted for their counter-
parts in the A genome instead of replacing rye [93]. This
substitution process was originally formulated by Krolow
[47], who recommended the crossing of octoploid triticales
with hexaploid triticales, thus allowing the substitution of
D-genome chromosomes and chromosome segments from
wheat for those of the A and B genomes, leaving the rye
genome intact.
While the partial or complete substitution of chromo-
somes in triticale may have both positive and negative ef-
fects, the negative effects, in particular, may be masked
through the production of hybrid cultivars. Trethowan and
Darvey [86] reported higher levels of heterosis in hill plots
for interkaryotypic hybrid F s (carrying both chromo-
somes 2D and 2R) for dry matter (17%) and yield (27%)
than for intrakaryotypic hybrids (9% and 17%, respective-
Darvey et al.
ly). Darvey and Naeem [28] suggested that the positive ef-
fects on bread-making quality from translocations or sub-
stitutions involving the high molecular weight glutenins
present on chromosome 1D could be retained in a hybrid
cultivar, while the effects of such interkaryotypic variation
on yield could be masked. The positive effect on yield in
wheat hybrids carrying the Rht3 dwarfing gene and an al-
ternative allele at the same locus has been suggested [32]
and could also be applicable to triticale. Production of trit-
icale hybrids, according to the methods already applicable
to rye [34], are feasible with cytoplasmic systems. The T.
timopheevi system, which has continued to be successful
for spring hybrid wheat production in Australia [97] has
received the most attention in triticale, and both A and B
lines have been successfully isolated among both spring
and winter triticales (R. J. Metzger, personal communica-
tion); however, the isolation of good restorers in the het-
erozygous condition in hybrids has proven more difficult
[58]. Data from Trethowan [84], reported by Darvey and
Naeem [28], revealed huge levels of heterosis using hill
plots in comparison to the parent cultivars. The same was
observed in hill plots by Naeem and Darvey in 1996 and
1997 [59]. However, it is recognized that the only true test
of a hybrid would be in large and isolated yield plots.
Among the lines tested as parents over 2 years
(1996-97) by Naeem and Darvey [59], several were iden-
tified in the following categories:
1. Substituted 2D(2R) triticale (Pika3//Shpd/Pvn76)
from the CIMMYT quality nursery with exceptional
high-parent heterosis in hill plots (111.4%) and rows
(50.8%)
2. Complete triticale (Anoas3/Tatu4) from the CIMMYT
quality nursery, which produces male-sterile plants in
T. timopheevi cytoplasm and consistently produces
significant high-parent heterosis in all combinations in
hill plots (45.5%) and rows (16.0%)
3. Complete triticale Vicuna from the CIMMYT quality
nursery with exceptional baking volume, likely male-
sterility in T. timopheevi cytoplasm, but negative to
zero heterosis in hill plots (-9.3%) and rows (1.7%)
4. Complete triticale (2119) from the CIMMYT early
generation nursery with high to very high heterosis in
hill plots (27.9%) and rows (49.4%), respectively
5. Complete triticale from A. J. Lukaszewski containing
a 1D(1A) substitution (high molecular weight
glutenin subunits 2 + 12 on the long arm of chromo-
some 1D) in cv. Rhino with varying high-parent het-
erosis in hill plots (39.9%) and rows (6.0%)
In all of the above cases, high parent heterosis for harvest
index ranged from 8% in Rhino 1D(1A) to 17% in LC410
and was suggestive of more efficient conversion of vegeta-
triticale
tive biomass into grain biomass in hybrids superior for
grain yield. Crosses with Vicuna that showed zero to nega-
tive heterosis for grain yield likewise behaved similarly for
harvest index [-2.2% high-parent heterosis in 1996 (19
combinations) and 3.1% high parent heterosis in 1997 (11
combinations)].
Some unique combinations were obtained among cross-
es between the above-listed key parents with high parent
heterosis for grain yield exceeding 40% in crosses of Rhino
1D(1A) with either LC427 or 2119 and exceeding 15% in
crosses of Vicuna with either LC427 or LC410. In one of
these combinations, LC427/Vicuna, the high parent hetero-
sis also applied to quality parameters, including flour ex-
traction and polymeric proteins (F1 progeny seed from
1996). Among entries tested only in the first year, one of the
outstanding crosses was LC427//D12/Tatu, which showed
high parent heterosis for all variables (grain yield, harvest
index, flour extraction, protein content, and polymeric pro-
tein as measured by size exclusion high-performance liquid
chromatography). Another outstanding combination carry-
ing the 1D(1A) substitution, namely Rhino 1D(1A)/E7-61,
showed high parent heterosis for grain yield, harvest index,
and protein content and was the highest ranked hybrid for
polymeric protein (peak 1 = 55.7) compared to its top-
ranked parent Rhino 1D(1A) (peak 1 = 57.3), and the top-
ranked hybrid (LC410//2095) showing high positive het-
erosis for polymeric protein (peak 1 = 52.5).
These results, in general, suggest a high likelihood of
being able to combine high parent heterosis for yield with
quality performance equivalent to or better than the high-
quality parent. The key observation was that the negative
effects on yield of the 1D(1A) substitution were not only
masked in hybrid combinations, but that over all combina-
tions in all trials there was high positive heterosis for yield.
The one surprising observation at the Plant Breeding In-
stitute, Cobbitty, Australia, was the improved stem rust
(Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici) resistance of several hy-
brids in comparison to their susceptible parents (H. A.
Naeem and S. J. Singh, personal communication), pointing
to either complementary gene interaction or quantitative
gene expression. In several cases the parent plants were
scored as highly susceptible (100S), whereas the hybrid
was given a moderately susceptible disease rating (30MS).
The stem rust, however, did not appear to enhance the per-
formance of susceptible parents, such as Vicuna, in hybrids
with other susceptible triticales, and this points to the min-
imal impact of high-parent heterosis on rust resistance.
In summary, triticale hybrids are likely to become im-
portant on the world stage for several reasons. First, the
outcrossing nature of cereal rye appears to give enhanced
levels of heterosis when comparing triticale with bread
wheat. Second, the rye method of producing hybrids (i.e.,
261
5% restorer parent in the hybrid production block) is likely
to be cost effective when compared to other methods that
require separate male and female blocks. Third, the high
yield potential of the maintainer parent (same genotype as
the female parent in the single-cross hybrid) removes the
need to produce topeross hybrids as in cereal rye where the
female parent is already a hybrid, because a pure-breeding
female parent shows too much inbreeding depression for
adequate hybrid seed production. All of these cost-reduc-
ing measures are especially important for the production of
triticale in the developing countries of the world.
Perhaps the most important aspect of triticale breeding
for the future, especially for hybrid production, is the use
of doubled haploid technology. Stanislawa et al. [79] re-
ported less than satisfactory production of haploid triticale
plants from crosses between hexaploid triticale and maize
(Zea mays L.) (16 plants regenerated from 3484 florets).
Arzani and Darvey [6-8] reported a two- to threefold in-
crease in green plants regenerated from hexaploid triticales
in a T. timopheevi cytoplasm as compared to a T. turgidum
cytoplasm among three pairs of reciprocal crosses. Sayed-
Tabatabaie [71] identified a triticale line showing high lev-
els of anther culture response and meiotic restitution
among haploid progenies derived from crosses involving
this line with other triticale germplasm. The green-to-albi-
no ratio was high, and the line itself, (Dol x H)/Juanillo*2,
produced in excess of 100 green plants per spike (over
99% green) when evaluated by an isolated microspore cul-
ture procedure [71,71a]. This unique line appears to com-
bine a number of independent loci for high induction re-
sponse, high regeneration response, and high green/albino
ratio. Many triticales have a high induction response, but
only a few of the resulting embryoids can be converted
into plantlets, let alone green plants. Patel and Darvey
(patent pending—no. P01642) developed a microspore
culture system in wheat that has proven effective on geno-
types previously categorized as recalcitrant to culture.
While a CHB medium [21] has been effective for both
wheat and triticale microspore culture, the pretreatments
and additive(s) to the induction medium have been critical
to the enhanced response, which is capable of yielding 20
or more green regenerants from all cultivars of wheat test-
ed [26,27].
Doubled haploids will play an important role in both
plant breeding and germplasm enhancement. The system-
atic production of primary triticales for their potential con-
tribution to plant breeding is very difficult to evaluate, and
few breeding programs will want to expend their resources
on primary triticale evaluation unless this method is rapid,
cost effective, and reliable, especially in its predictive val-
ue. Germplasm evaluation schemes, which speed up evalu-
ation via doubled haploids, should be of immense value,
262
especially where such schemes allow the establishment of
new linkage groups, which in turn will be of importance in
achieving optimal levels of heterosis.
3. Genetics and Cytogenetics
There have been several reviews of triticale genetics and
cytogenetics in recent years, and the reader is referred to
them for a detailed discussion [35,36,49]. The genetics and
cytogenetics of triticale are very closely associated with
the interactions that occur between the genomes of wheat
and rye. In many cases, genes from rye, when present in a
triticale background, do not appear to express themselves
in a manner observed in diploid rye. This factor is particu-
larly relevant to germplasm deployment, since breeders are
looking for optimal gene expression from the rye parent
for specific characteristics (e.g., salt or acid soil tolerance),
and minimal expression of rye genes for other characteris-
tics, especially those related to quality parameters (e.g.,
sticky dough). Rye chromosomes can even alter chromo-
some morphology when in a triticale background
[66,73,83]. In addition, rye chromosome pairing frequen-
cies and heterochromatin content can also change when
present in a wheat background (N. Jouve, personal com-
munication). All of this demonstrates that the genetics and
cytogenetics of triticale are very complex and continue to
present challenges to the researcher.
C. Pathology
At the present time, any disease that attacks either wheat
and/or rye also attacks triticale [98]. It was originally
thought that triticale could combine the best from both
parental species. In many cases, triticale does just that by
showing improved resistance to many wheat diseases, in-
cluding Puccinia spp., Ustilago and Urocystis spp., Tillitia
and Neovossia spp., and Erysiphe spp. [77]. On the other
hand, there are cases where desirable genes for resistance
present in either parental species are never fully expressed
in triticale [70]. In some instances, triticale is susceptible
to diseases for which wheat or rye parents show resistance
[56]. The reasons for the erratic gene expression are not
clear. The existing disease resistance available in triticale
is barely adequate for present world needs. As world
acreage increases, so will the natural selection pressure for
pathogens that show new biotypes of virulence in high-
production locations. Because of the rather narrow gene
base presently available in commercial triticale varieties,
any disease epidemic would be disastrous to production.
Such a situation occurred in Australia where a large major-
ity of the varieties became susceptible to new races of stem
rust race 34-2,12 and 34-2,12,13 [53,54,75,76] Adhikari
[1] identified several genes for stem rust resistance in triti-
cale, including SrBj and SrJ on chromosome 2R and
Sr27/SrSatu/SrLal# on chromosome 3R. The only identi-
Darvey et al.
fied genes that provide effective resistance in Australia are
Sr-Nin and SrBj, which are present in the cultivar Bejon
[55]. In addition, a survey of host-plant resistance in CIM-
MYT-distributed triticales indicated the presence of genes
such as SrNin, SrVen, and Sr! in addition to SrSatu and
Sr27 [1]. Substituted 2D(2R) triticales disappeared from
Australian and other breeding programs several years ago
because the only effective genes for stem rust resistance
reside on chromosome 2R. A similar shift in breeding ob-
jectives is occurring in view of the anticipated breakdown
of the resistance to the stripe rust (P. striifonnis) gene YR9.
Because problems of this type will continue to occur as
acreage increases, breeders worldwide will need to contin-
ually expand their genetic base for resistance to the
pathogens occurring in major areas of production. Arse-
niuk [5] best summarizes the potential advantage of triti-
cale relative to its parents in the following statement: "Re-
sistance to diseases in triticale has been considered as one
of its most important and durable advantages. Although
this advantage disappears with the expanding hectareage
and the cultivation time, in comparison to wheat and rye
triticale still looks a healthy crop."
D. Agronomy
Triticale is similar in many respects to wheat and other ce-
reals in its cultivation. The same machinery and chemicals
utilized in the cultivation of wheat can also be used for trit-
icale. This makes it easier to encourage farmers to grow trit-
icale because they do not need additional equipment to
maximize production under most agronomic conditions.
On the other hand, triticale does exhibit some differences
from other cereals in its response to certain mineral condi-
tions, and in some situations triticale seedling emergence is
different from that of wheat. Triticale responds better than
any other cereal, except rye, to acid soils, whether or not the
soils are high in free aluminum. However, until recently,
triticale had not been specifically adapted for cultivation on
acid soils. Even though many triticales do well on acid
soils, the problems involved with producing a highly acid-
tolerant triticale are many and can be associated with genes
in wheat that inhibit rye gene expression [38]. When a high-
ly tolerant rye is crossed to a poorly tolerant wheat, the re-
sulting triticale shows a tolerance level more characteristic
of wheat than rye [2,3]. Aniol [4] compared approximately
200 strains and cultivars in 1983 and 1993 and concluded
that advanced triticales show considerable variability with
respect to aluminum tolerance, ranging from the sensitivity
of wheat to similar tolerance to rye. He noted that the pro-
portion of sensitive materials in breeding programs has in-
creased in recent years, especially among winter forms.
Koebner and Martin [46] reported high levels of salt
tolerance in triticale lines grown in a hydroponic system;
Triticale
however, field data on resistant lines are lacking. Triticale
also appears to have advantages compared to other cereals
under waterlogged conditions [43], but depending on the
stage of damage due to waterlogging, this may simply re-
flect other factors such as rapid germination or superior
cold tolerance. Jessop [43] has reviewed some of the other
agronomic factors in triticale, which are associated with
tolerance to other minerals and environmental factors.
Preharvest sprouting associated with late maturity has
been a major problem inhibiting the commercialization of
triticale in several countries [72]. Originally this problem
was reduced by utilizing sources of earlier maturity, which
led to the production of varieties capable of escaping the
high-moisture periods occurring during harvest, thus de-
creasing the chances of preharvest sprouting. However,
new sources of genetic resistance to preharvest sprouting
present in several wheat parents are now being utilized in
triticale breeding programs [9]. Salmon et al. [99] deter-
mined that sprouting resistance can be extended in spring
triticales by germination inhibitors found in chaff extracts
as observed in wheat and barley. Selection for high levels
of these inhibitors could become an efficient method of se-
lecting for preharvest sprouting resistance in triticale.
Trethowan [85] developed a number of methods for deter-
mining the various components of preharvest sprouting re-
sistance, including mechanical barriers, chemical inhibi-
tion (seed dormancy), and levels of a-amylase. Trethowan
and Pfeiffer [87] developed an index that related the com-
bined resistance to preharvest sprouting calculated from
intact spikes to changes to physiological maturity/falling
number (PM/FN) and demonstrated that these changes
were related. A significant correlation of 0.71 was recorded
between these parameters, however, independent indices
based on dormancy and bract effects did not correlate with
post-PM changes in FN.
III. KERNEL MORPHOLOGY
AND DEVELOPMENT
Bushuk and Larter [18] stated that "the physiology and
biochemistry of kernel shriveling has received consider-
able attention: however, the cause of the phenomenon re-
mains to be discovered." Nearly two decades later, after
having received considerably more attention, the causes
for seed shriveling in triticale still needs to be elucidated.
Possible factors include a high production of aberrant en-
dosperm nuclei during the early stages of grain develop-
ment [13], acid phosphatase activity, and ADP-glucose py-
rophosphorylase activity [92]. Kaltsikes et al. [45] were
the first to correlate the presence of rye heterochromatin in
triticale with seed shriveling. Varghese and Lelley [90]
found evidence suggesting that wheat, as well as rye chro-
mosomes, may be responsible for aberrant nuclei created
263
by chromosome bridging. They concluded that disruption
of spindle fibers was a more likely explanation for the pro-
duction of aberrant nuclei. Seed shriveling is no longer
perceived as a serious problem in triticale, because breed-
ing programs have intensively selected for plump grains
with high test weight and flour yield. While test weight is
the key consideration for animal feed purposes, the entry
of triticale into the human food arena demands a plump
grain with high flour yield. In drought stress situations, a
much greater impact on triticale grain than on wheat has
been observed. This may in part be due to the long grain
filling period between anthesis and maturity and, thus, a
greater impact of drought stress during the latter part of the
season. The need to select cultivars with a shorter grain
filling period may prove to be a high priority for the mar-
ketability of the grain for human food utilization.
IV. COMPOSITION AND QUALITY
A major attribute of triticale is its unique nutritional quali-
ty. Many of the early triticale cultivars had high protein
levels and an amino acid composition preferable to that of
wheat. However, the protein levels are now more or less
equivalent to those of wheat, while the amino acid compo-
sition (especially increased levels of lysine) still favors the
triticales over the wheats. A review of the chemical com-
position of triticale has been presented by Varughese et al.
[92]. In general, the proportions of the key amino acids
varied with the protein content, so that at lower levels of
grain nitrogen (N = 2.3), the proportions of lysine, threo-
nine, tyrosine, tryptophan, methionine, and cysteine were
higher in triticale than in wheat and either remained con-
stant or declined at higher grain N levels. Such benefits
clearly label triticale an excellent food grain.
Any antinutritive factors found in triticale are likely to
be from its rye parent, which is known to reduce animal
feed intake and diminish growth rates [31,42]. Some com-
pounds from rye that could impede triticale's nutritional
performance include alkyl resorcinols, protease inhibitors,
and nonstarchy polysaccharides; however, there is little
evidence that such factors, even though they are present in
higher levels in modern-day triticales than in wheat, have
an adverse effect on monogastric or ruminant nutrition.
V. UTILIZATION
A. Food Grain
If present triticale cultivars met human food needs in terms
of product utilization and palatability, then their use in the
human food industry should be widespread. This is clearly
not the case, and so the dream of a triticale-based food
product has not and will not be realized unless its present
264
form is altered or it is blended with other grains so that its
food value and palatability are equivalent to or better than
existing food products. For human food needs, triticale has
two directions for improvement, namely to become more
like wheat or more like rye. However, the rye industry is
relatively small on the global stage. Therefore, there is ef-
fectively only one direction, and hence it is inevitable that
the future success of triticale will depend on its ability to
substitute to a greater or lesser extent for traditional wheat
products (bread, noodles, chapatis, etc.) or byproducts
(starch, gluten, etc.). Thus, breeders need to combine the
agronomic attributes of triticale (and, to a lesser extent, ce-
real rye) with the product utilization of wheat. Anyone
who has ever worked with triticale knows that it is rela-
tively easy to select triticales that are more wheat-like or
more rye-like for a specific characteristic and that the bat-
tle of geneticists working on triticale has been to realize
the maximum expression of particular genes from either
parent species [39]. This is the challenge ahead, and it is
our opinion that for many human food products the ideals
of both parents can be realized.
Three simple color characteristics are required for
grain, flour, and loaf color. Among bread wheats, higher
levels of flour extraction are obtained from white wheats
than the more traditional red wheats. White plump grain is
attractive in the marketplace for both bread and noodle
production. It is also essential that the flour is white or
creamy for many end products, including white salted, yel-
low alkaline, or instant noodles and breads in general
(steamed buns, flat and pan breads, chapatis, etc.). White
grain color is not naturally observed in triticale, since it is
rare that all the recessive genes for white grain color would
be present from both the wheat and rye parents of triticale.
While white grain color is common among bread wheats
(three recessive genes in homoeologous group 3), most du-
rums are not particularly white, although rare white acces-
sions have been identified (e.g., 26th Intl. Durum Screen-
ing Nursery entry 101: Lapdy-29). White rye is very rare,
and Blanco rye from Brazil is the best known example.
Whitish-colored rye has also been observed among parents
in the Hohenheim (Germany) hybrid rye breeding pro-
gram, and a particularly white rye (without a bluish tinge)
has been isolated from Hohenheim materials derived from
crosses involving S. cereale and S. vavilovii L. The genetic
control of this characteristic is uncertain because crosses
between the Brazilian and German cereale/vavilovii
sources suggest complementary gene interaction. A white
spring triticale cultivar has been bred in India, and R. J.
Metzger (personal communication) produced a white win-
ter triticale using Blanco rye. Blanco has been extensively
used to create white spring triticale grain types that are al-
most indistinguishable from prime, hard Australian wheats
Darvey et al.
(Fig. 1). The spring parents in these crosses included CIM-
MYT-produced lines with reputed good bread-making
characteristics and one Australian-bred triticale, a sister
line of D12/Tatu, which, though not white-grained, pro-
duces flour that is whiter than that produced from the con-
trol wheat cultivar, Sunco (Table 2). The resulting bread
produced from D12/Tatu was likewise white, with excel-
lent crumb texture and low stickiness. The commercial re-
ality of plump white-grain triticales, which are indistin-
guishable from wheat, is remarkable, especially as the
bread-making properties increase to such a point that triti-
cale-wheat blends can be produced that contain at least
50% triticale flour without any adverse effect on loaf pro-
duction (stickiness), texture, or volume. We believe that
part of the success of future blends will be the identifica-
tion and breeding of strong wheat cultivars that blend well
with increasing proportions of triticale flour. Past attempts
at promoting triticale for human food products failed, ei-
ther because the supply of grain was limited (in Australia
most grain is sold for feed or used on farm) or because the
grain was not uniform with respect to size or quality. The
marketing success of such triticale/wheat blends will de-
pend on (1) developing a popular trade name, (2) promot-
ing its nutritional advantages, and (3) the promotion of the
product or partial product. Triticale's adaptation to poor
environments with minimal inputs of fertilizer can lead to
a very low grain protein that is unmarketable, and thus
needs to be tested. A specialty grain-milling facility in
1!-79-76-2,2B
/LC427
11-7946-2.:12 1179-76-2-3
/012/174 TU /CAL838
FIGURE 1 Spring triticale cultivars—H-79-76-2-2B/LC427,
H-79-76-2-12/D12/TATU, H-79-76-2-3/CAL838—that are al-
most indistinguishable from prime, the hard Australian wheat
(Sunco) in seed type.
Triticale
TABLE 2 Percentage of Milling Fractions and Ash Content Obtained Using a Brabender
Quadrumat Laboratory Mill
Variety or line % flour
Sunco (wheat) 49.0ba
Abacus 51.7a
Tahara 45.7cd
Anoas/3/Tatu4//ERIZO1 1*2/Milan 42.0f
LC427 Anoas3/Tatu4 44.7de
D 12/Tatu 43.6e
LC314 Anoas3/Tatu4 46.9c
"Numbers followed by the same letters do not differ significantly at p < 0.05.
Lameroo (South Australia), Triticorp Food Products Pty.
Ltd., was formed in 1996 for the specific purpose of pro-
ducing and marketing triticale, rye, and oat flours, meals,
and premixes for the domestic market and later for export
food markets. Three triticale products are currently mar-
keted: (1) a 100% triticale whole meal for blending with
flour and/or gluten in specialty and continental breads, bis-
cuits, cookies, shortbreads, flour-based confectionery
items, and specialty crumbs; (2) a light triticale flour (70%
milling extraction) for light rye-type breads, pancake, and
pizza bases after blending with wheat flour, Arabic flat
breads, Turkish pies, focaccias, or blended with wheat
flour for whole meal—type products, batters, and coatings
(addition of soy flour); and (3) dark triticale flour (80%
milling extraction) for many of the same products as light
flour, except that the flour has a "specky" appearance.
There are a number of different options for assessing
the quality characteristics of triticale for food products and
industry utilization. Quality is a general term and it refers
to the optimum characteristics for a given product. Since
quality depends on the functional properties of flour, the
compositional requirements would vary with a change in
the product. It is assessed using more than one parameter
and may encompass many criteria (e.g., milling perfor-
mance, chemical composition of grain, dough rheology,
baking quality, etc.). Moreover, nutritional value as food
and feed is important. In the following section, some of
these options for assessing the quality characteristics of
triticale are presented.
1. Milling
Triticale grain can be milled into flour utilizing the same
milling processes that have been perfected for milling
wheat and rye. Because of the wide variation in kernel
hardness and the degree of kernel shriveling, there is no
standard milling procedure for triticale. Accordingly, a
constant milling procedure applied to different triticale va-
rieties will give an wide range of milling yields, with the
265
% shorts % bran % ash
16.1d 32.6b 0.47de
16.1d 28.5cd 0.49c
21.4bc 29.9c 0.45e
27.1a 28.6cd 0.58a
22.4b 29.3c 0.485cd
16.9d 34.9a 0.53b
20.6c 27.4d 0.55b
flours varying in ash content. However, for any one grain
sample, the milling procedure can be optimized to produce
a straight grade flour of acceptable ash content (e.g.,
<0.55%). Such optimization generally produces yields in
the range of 60-70% of flour with ash contents between
0.45 and 0.55%.
a. Flour Extraction. Triticale grain is larger than both
its parental species and has a much higher kernel weight. It
resembles wheat more than rye in its morphology. Howev-
er, triticale grain has some morphological defects, among
which grain shriveling and a deep crease along the length
of seed are most prominent. These two factors increase
surface-to-endosperm area, resulting in low flour extrac-
tion. Generally, triticale flour extraction is lower than that
of wheat, but some triticales are the same as wheat due to a
significant proportion of endosperm being lost as coarse
flour particles (shorts or middling) (Table 2). If this can be
reduced or avoided, flour extraction can be significantly in-
creased. Further breeding efforts for the improvement of
grain plumpness would certainly result in triticales with
better milling
One possible approach to improve the milling efficien-
cy of triticale is by using wheat-triticale grain blends.
Flour yields of 71-74.9% have been obtained (at ash con-
tent >0.60%) in experimental milling using a Buhler pneu-
matic mill from a 3:1 wheat-triticale blend [64]. Ash con-
tent should not be a limiting factor where the use of
triticale is directed to the production of whole-meal and
high-ash flour baking products.
b. Flour Color. Flour color is another factor important
for the production of attractive white bread. One white-
seeded wheat (Sunco) and six triticale lines or varieties
having dark seed coats were milled into flour on a Braben-
der Quadrumat laboratory mill. Flour color was assessed
by Minolta Chroma meter model CR10 (Table 3). Flour
whiteness did not differ significantly. However, Abacus
had higher amounts of yellow pigments. White spring trit-
266 Darvey et al.

TABLE 3 Triticale and Wheat Flour Color so-called insoluble glutenin or residue fraction, is more
closely related to breadmaking quality in wheat than any
Flour color
other feature. This is also true for triticale, where it is gen-
Red/Green Yellow/ erally low in glutenin and of inferior quality. Table 5 pres-
Variety or line Whiteness pigment Blue ents the results of protein fractionation of a set of triticale
Sunco (wheat) and wheat lines using size-exclusion high-performance
92.02 0.08 9.84
Abacus 92.66 -0.78 10.48 liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC). The proteins that elute
Tahara 92.92 0.10 6.12 in the beginning (peak 1) are glutelins and are significantly
Anoas/3/Tatu4// correlated to loaf volume in wheat [52], but this does not
ERIZ011*2/Milan 92.30 0.05 7.62 appear to be the case for triticale (Fig. 2). Tahara and
LC427 Anoas3/Tatu4 92.54 0.15 5.65 LC427 have significantly higher glutenin content than
D 12/Tatu 92.65 0.27 5.49 wheat, but produce very small loaves. Therefore, when
LC314 Anoas3/Tatu4 92.82 0.17 6.83 studying size distribution of protein, it was observed that
percentage of unextractable protein (% UPP) is much
higher in wheat than in triticale. This indicates why poly-
icales (see above) have been produced at the Plant Breed- meric protein of wheat is significantly correlated with loaf
ing Institute, Cobbitty, however, the milling properties and volume. It is, however, observed that some complete triti-
flour quality have yet to be evaluated. cales have insoluble gluten content higher than feed wheat
and comparable to bread wheat. It has also been shown
2. Protein that SDS-sedimentation volume (a gluten quality-related
Grain protein context is a varietal characteristic that is pro- parameter) has a highly significant correlation with insolu-
foundly affected by environmental conditions. Variations ble gluten (percentage unextractable polymeric protein)
in protein content of up to 5% are observed in different en- [60]. It is thus possible to identify triticale lines with good
vironments [62]. A wide variation in triticale grain protein breadmaking quality by screening large numbers through
was observed (Table 4). Protein constitutes only a small SE-HPLC or SDS-sedimentation.
portion (8-14%) of the seed. In processing the grain or its Most commercially grown triticale cultivars are hexa-
milled products, this protein plays a major role in deter- ploid. It is deficient in the vital D-genome gene complexes
mining the dough properties for breadmaking. A consider- of bread wheat that gives wheat dough its unique viscoelas-
able loss of protein is noted in milling fractions, i.e., in the tic properties. However, the possibilities of further im-
shorts and bran. This suggests that whole-meal triticale provement have been opened through cytogenetic manipu-
products would be more nutritious. lation first outlined by Krolow [47]. This work includes
Breadmaking quality of wheat is determined by seed substitution of chromosome 1D for chromosomes lA and
storage proteins, especially gluten, a nonenzymic fraction 1B using different sources of bread wheat. In addition, var-
of endosperm storage proteins. Gluten quantity and quality ious translocations have been produced. Some of the
are both responsible for the viscoelastic properties of translocations include: 1A.1D (2 + 12 high molecular
wheat dough that enable the production of a large variety weight D genome subunits on the long arm of chromosome
of leavened and nonleavened breads. It is well established
that a very high molecular weight fraction of gluten, the
TABLE 5 Polymeric as Measured by SE-HPLC and SDS-
Sedimentation Volume
TABLE 4 Protein Content of Milling Fractions of Wheat
and Triticale Variety/line Peak 1 % UPP SDSS
Protein Flour Sunco (Wheat) 51.62c 49.37a 12.13a
Variety/line content' middlings Bran Abacus 48.11f 24.02d 1.50g
Tahara 56.83a 34.29b 1.93f
Abacus 4.96 6.21 11.36 Anoas/3/Tatu4//ERIZ011*2/
Tahara 5.51 6.76 13.18 Milan 49.44e 29.27c 2.68d
Anoas/3/Tatu4// LC427 Anoas3/Tatu4 54.42b 28.14c 2.33e
ERIZ011*2/Milan 7.76 8.64 12.95 D12/Tatu 50.45d 34.99b 3.43c
LC427 (Anoas3/Tatu4) 5.53 6.12 10.89 LC314 Anoas3/Tatu4 50.36d 33.24b 4.10b
D12/Tatu 9.24 10.86 13.79
LC314 Anoas3/Tatu4 10.47 12.15 16.76 %UPP = Percent unextractable protein; SDSS = sodium dodecyle sulfate
sedimentation (ml). Numbers followed by the same letters do not differ
aProte n content at 13.5% moisture. significantly p < 0.05.
Triticale 267

SE-HPLC of total protein from SUNCO SE-HPLC of total protein from TAMARA

0.24 0.08
0.07
0.19 0.06
0.05
0.14 0.04
3 0.03
0.09 0.02
0.01
0.04 0.00
-0.01
-0.01 -0.02
-0.01 9.99 19 99 2929 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00
lime TIME (MINUTES)

SE-HPLC of soluble protein from SE.HPLC of soluble protein

SUNCO fromTAHARA

0.21 0.08
0.07
0.19 0.06
0.05
0.14 0.04
0.03
0.09 0.02
0.01
0.04 0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-0.01
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00
-001 9.99 19.99 29.99
TIME (MINUTES)
TIME (MNUTES)

SE-HPLC of insoluble protein from SE-HPLC of Insoluble protein from

SUNCO TAMARA

0.08 0.03
0.06 0.02
0.04 0.01

04I 0.02 0.00

0.00 -0.01
-0.02 -0.02
-0.03
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00
TIME (MINUTES) TIME (MINUTES)

FIGURE 2 SE-HPLC chromatograms of total, soluble, and insoluble proteins comparing the wheat cultivars Sunco with the triticale
cultivar Tahara.

1D), 1A.1D (5 + 10 alternative alleles to 2 + 12 subunits on 3. Dough and Baking Properties

long arm of chromosome 1D), 1R.1D (5 + 10), and 1A.1D +
1R.1D (2 + 12 and 5 + 10). Quality evaluation using the
SDS-sedimentation test indicates that both the quantity and
quality of gluten has been improved compared to Wheaton
wheat (subunits 2 + 12 and 13 + 16) in both the substitution
and translocation lines [48]. For example, the triticale culti-
vars Rhino and Presto had 32% and 52%, respectively, of
the SDS-sedimentation of Wheaton, whereas the substitu-
tion/translocation lines with the 2 + 12 subunits were in the
order of 73% and 97%, respectively.
Early interest in triticale flour for the production of baked
products, catalyzed mainly by its demonstrated higher nu-
tritional quality (higher protein and lysine contents), has
not resulted in a continued growth of its use in the baking
industry. Use of triticale flour for the production of wheat-
type bread has been limited because of its higher amylase
activity and tendency to produce weaker doughs. In spite
of these deficiencies, satisfactory bread can be produced
from triticale by the straight dough-baking method with
the appropriate adjustments in water absorption, dough
268
Sunco
1000
800
600
400
200
0 0
Currawong
600
mow
500
400
emir milimum
200 or'
300
'00 I ..wtilkillIll11111111111111111il
FIGURE 3 Mixing times of two triticales (Anoas3/Tatu4//Erizo/Milan, LC314) as compared to two wheats (Sunco, Currawong) using
a 2-g national mixogram.
mixing speed and time, and fermentation time [11,88,89].
With appropriate adjustments in processing, most of the
baked products commonly made from wheat flour can be
produced from triticale [18,23,77].
H. Naeem et al. (personal communication) evaluated a
set of 22 lines or varieties including 18 triticales, along
with two rye and two wheat varieties (one bread wheat and
one feed wheat). Six triticales had similar values for %
UPP as the feed wheat Currawong, and 12 triticales
showed mixing time equal or greater than Currawong (Fig.
3). Some of the triticales did have a longer mixing time
than bread wheat Sunco (Fig. 3), but none of the triticales
had higher value for % UPP than Sunco.
Mini loaves were baked for the previously mentioned
set of 22 lines using standard wheat technology for 100 g
of wheat flour (2% salt, 0.5% improver, and 2.5% yeast
relative to the weight of flour). Only three triticales pro-
duced bread of the same height (high correlation with loaf
volume). Loaf height is measured in thimble-baked loaves.
The remaining triticale lines produced only small loaves.
There was a wide spectrum of crust color and crumb grain
among triticale and wheat and rye loaves, ranging from
white to dark brown (Fig. 4).
Mixing behavior of six triticales was studied by Naeem
et al. [60] in blends with wheat using 30, 40, 50, 60, and
70% wheat flour. Mixing behavior varied with the triticale
variety or line used. A curvilinear relationship was ob-
served for mixing time and a linear relationship for peak
resistance.
Triticale-wheat flour blends were baked into mini
loaves using various percentages of wheat flour. The re-
Darvey et al.
Anoas3/Tatu4//Enzoirilllan
500
400
300
200
100
LC314 (Anoas3/Tatu4)
500
400
300 111111111111!"""Milll
200 111111111Prr
La..L
100 I
0
sults suggested that depending on the triticale variety,
50-60% of triticale flour could be successfully used. It is
noteworthy that 30% blending of Tahara, an Australian
triticale cultivar, with wheat resulted in a significant (p <
0.05) increase in loaf height.
The initial acceptance of triticale by the food industry
will to a large extent depend on its ability to substitute for
wheat, but in the longer term it will have to be treated as a
unique "stand-alone" product. At the present time it will
require alterations to the standard wheat-baking proce-
dures. In order to create a wheat-like dough with the de-
sired viscoelastic properties, the mixing speeds, fermenta-
tion time and temperature, proofing time, and time
between mixing and first punch must all be decreased to
compensate for triticale's weak dough strength [77]. To
obtain optimal conditions for triticale dough development,
bulk fermentation should be eliminated and the levels of
oxidizing agents and yeast will need to be increased [63].
B. Feed Grain
At present, most triticale production is geared toward the
feed industry; however, the nutritive value of the grain can
be markedly affected by fertilizer inputs and environmen-
tal stresses (soil, climate, and diseases). A lower hectoliter
weight is normally associated with increased crude fiber
content [24] and reduced animal performance [95]. No sig-
nificant differences occurred in digestible energy values or
nonstructural carbohydrate contents when comparing
wheat with three triticale cultivars grown in South Africa
[14]. The crude protein contents of both grains were more
Triticale 269

FIGURE 4 A wide spectrum of crust color and crumb grain among triticale loaves, ranging from white to dark brown, with all entries
being triticale unless noted. Currawong (wheat, PBI), CP Mix-37 (rye, PBI), Eer/Eer (rye, R. J. Mtezger), Vicuna (CIMMYT), 2180-1
(CIMMYT), 2285-1 (CIMMYT), 2120-7 (CIMMYT), Tarara Derivative (919A, PBI), LT-300-84 (Poland), D12-Tatu (CIMMYT), Aba-
cus (K. Cooper), Buf-4/JL0957//Civet/3/Lamb1 (CIMMYT), Giraff/Yougil//Erizo/3/Lamb3 (CIMMYT), LCAL314//Anoas3/Tatu4
(CIMMYT), 2119 (CIMMYT), Tatu2*2/Rhino 1R.1D#2 (CIMMYT), LCAL422//Anos3/Tatu4 (CIMMYT), D12/Tatu (1247) (CIM-
MYT), Tahara Derivative (1247, PBI), Juanillo//Juanillo//Dol (doubled haploid, PBI), and Sunland (wheat, PBI).

or less identical but were higher than that of oats or maize
Triticale grain is purported to be the favored grain by the
dairy industry in Australia. Hill and Utley [41] recom-
mended triticale as a useful ingredient in ruminant diets
based on maize, barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), or sorghum
(Sorghum vulgare L.). In monogastrics, on the other hand,
the balance of available dietary amino acids is regarded as
more important than protein content, and, hence, triticale is
well suited [40].
Tao and Jones [82] indicated that the use of triticale in
poultry diets could have detrimental effects on the growth
of broiler chickens. However, this was later shown to be va-
rietial specific when in one experiment the first Australian
cultivar Groquick led to a dramatic reduction in growth
(body weight gain) and performance (food conversion effi-
ciency) as the percentage of triticale increased from 5 to
20% in a sorghum-based diet. But in a second experiment
with the cultivar Tahara (still widely grown), 20-60% triti-
cale in the diet had no such effects on body weight or per-
formance up to 24 days of age. Although the growing envi-
ronments were different for the two cultivars and the
genotypes were in different maturity groups, the essential
message is that the performance of newer varieties should
not be taken for granted, especially where new germplasm
(e.g., primary triticales) is utilized in breeding programs.
Briedenhann [16] has likewise reported large differ-
ences in apparent metabolizable energy (AME) in wheat
for broiler diets, and it is now a common practice to add
enzymes to feed mixes to reduce the viscosity of the gut
contents, thereby releasing extra energy from poorly used
ingredients such as nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP). The
addition of a commercial glycanase product (Avizyme) de-
scribed in the second experiment with the triticale Tahara
had no effect, although there was a tendency towards im-
proved body weight and food conversion ratio. Supple-
mentation with Avizyme significantly increased the AME
in 4-week-old broiler chickens which were fed on a wheat
diet with and without the enzyme supplement [19]. Al-
though the cost of enzymes adds approximately $5
(AUST) per ton to the feed mix, NSP-degrading enzymes
are routinely used for the improvement of oats, barley, rye,
triticale, and wheat [22].
C. Forage
Triticale has been used as a forage from the Palouse silt
barns of the Pacific Northwest to the barns of Guelph,
Ontario, Canada, to the fine sandy loams of Texas, and al-
though not originally intended for this use it has gained ac-
ceptance in most areas as an alternative forage. Both win-
270
ter and spring varieties may be utilized as a nutritious food
supply for livestock.
Trials in southern Kansas showed equivalent forage
yields for triticale, wheat, rye, and barley [69]. Trials gave
similar yields in Georgia for triticale, wheat, and oats [17].
However, Bishnoi and Hughes [100] obtained more prom-
ising results in yield trials of winter triticales grown in
Florida, which showed yields greater than wheat forages
and similar to rye. In eastern Texas, triticale forage yield
trials averaged about 6 t/ha dry matter over a season,
which was higher than wheat forage yields of 4.8-5.6 t/ha.
However, one noted disadvantage of triticale was the vari-
ability of yield from harvest to harvest as compared to that
of wheat and rye [61]. Another area in Texas gave encour-
aging results with winter forage triticales, which were sim-
ilar to rye and oats, but were slightly higher than wheat un-
der both dry land and irrigated conditions [44].
Shukla et al. [74] evaluated triticale as a potential re-
placement for oats as the winter forage in northern India
and showed that triticale forage yields under irrigated con-
ditions were relatively poor compared to oats and barely
but did much better under dry land conditions. Without ir-
rigation, triticale could produce higher forage yields than
oats but still finished behind barley. Ciha [101] determined
that for eastern Washington, triticale could produce yields
equivalent to other spring cereals if harvested at the soft-
dough stage (113-116 days) but in general averaged lower
yield if harvested earlier.
In southern New South Wales, Australia, dual-purpose
triticales have almost completely replaced oats as a forage
crop partly because triticale is more tolerant to cold condi-
tions, partly because of triticale's better adaptation to acid
soils, and particularly because of effective genes for resis-
tance to all rusts in triticale. Wild oats (Avena ssp.) can also
be controlled in a triticale crop with herbicides; however,
triticale as a dual-purpose crop in Australia tends to smoth-
er almost all weeds without the need for herbicides. The
dual-purpose triticales in Australia generally have rapid
and broad establishment of leaves and provide valuable
feed in the winter when other winter-type cereals have less
biomass and are frequently prostrate. The loss in grain
yield with successive grazings is significant, and some of
the Australian breeding effort focuses on the isolation of
new cultivars with improved recovery after grazing; how-
ever, at present lines with high initial biomass generally do
not recover as well from grazing as lines with slower initial
growth. New tillers arise either within existing tillers as
long as the meristems are undamaged or by formation of
completely new shoots. The meristems are usually quite
advanced in the rapidly growing forms and are thus easily
damaged by heavy grazing, therefore focus has been on the
development of new shoots. [6] identified triticale lines in
segregating populations that produced either (1) high ini-
Darvey et al.
tial biomass, (2) high biomass recovery after one, two, or
three cuttings, or (3) high grain production after cutting.
The original purpose of the experiment was to identify
populations for either conventional breeding in the field or
for doubled-haploid production from greenhouse selec-
tions, which recovered well in the greenhouse after clip-
ping [7]. One such doubled-haploid line (DH19) is being
considered for commercial release in view of its outstand-
ing recovery from grazing at various locations in New
South Wales, Australia.
In South Africa, the excellent cold tolerance of the cul-
tivar Arend explained, in part, its performance in simulated
grazing conditions during 1994 [94]. In China, triticale has
been identified as a promising silage crop compared to bar-
ley [80]. In many parts of the world triticale is being used
successfully as a forage or in mixtures with legumes for
grazing, cut forage, hay, or as whole crop silage [65].
D. Other Uses
1. Brewing
The utilization of triticale in brewing has been explored
since the first cultivar was licensed. Pomeranz et al.
[67,102] indicated that the amount of nitrogenous material
contained in the worts of the triticales analyzed was higher
than from existing barleys. They were also higher in di-
astatic power and a- and 13-amalyase activities. However,
the triticale beer tested by Pomeranz et al. [67] was natu-
rally darker and had a higher pH than beers made from bar-
ley and also contained less alcohol. Sorbral [78] found that
using 30% unmalted triticale did not seem to affect the
organoleptic characteristics of beer, but when malted triti-
cale was used an optimization of the malting process was
required. It appeared that if the triticales tested were to be
utilized in making beer, then the brewing fermentation
process must be adjusted.
Despite satisfactory flavor characteristics, the triticales
tested in the early 1970s appeared to present two problems
for malting and brewing. These were high malt losses and
excessive proteolytic activity. Some of the triticale lines
had satisfactory clarity stability and gas stability, and these
lines could have been used as parents in breeding programs
aimed at producing new high-yielding cultivars specifically
for beer production. However, the authors are not aware of
any such selection procedures being currently underway.
2. Starch, Pentosans, etc.
High grain yield means high carbohydrate yield, and this in
turn is relevant to bioethanol production, especially where
triticale or any cereal might be grown on sewage sludge.
There is some interest in looking for alternative sources to
maize for high amylose, and triticale as well as its wheat
and rye parents would be good candidates. At the other end
of the spectrum are low amylose or waxy triticales, which
Triticale
should be relatively easy to identify now that waxy bread
wheats have been isolated in Japan and Australia. Low
amylose ryes (<10% amylose) have already been identified
at the Plant Breeding Institute, Cobbitty, Australia, and in-
dustry has been interested in these products for enhanced
flavor characteristics and thickening properties. Pentosans
may likewise be of interest to industry as a thickener and
binder. Ryes very high and very low in pentosan have like-
wise been identified at the PBI and will be used for triticale
production. It is anticipated that the low-pentosan ryes and
triticales would have improved feeding value. In developed
countries, a high-amylose, high-pentosan product could
also be of dietary significance.
VI. VULNERABILITIES, PROBLEMS,
AND POTENTIALS
It has long been recognized that the vulnerability of triti-
cale as a commercial cereal crop stems from its limited ge-
netic base and would occur with any agricultural crop of
limited genetic base. The pathology section discussed the
problems that arise when large acreages of genetically
closely related triticales are grown. A large production area
of any agricultural crop, let alone a cereal, would leave it
open to attack from pathogens, and the narrower the genet-
ic base, the easier it will be for the pathogens to break
down the resistance present. This is an ongoing problem
that can only be remedied by continuous diversification the
germplasm base. The International Triticale Association
recognized the importance of germplasm at the 3rd Inter-
national Triticale Symposium in 1994 and established a
Coordinated International Network for Germplasm Re-
sources and Management, but sadly little has resulted from
this initiative, in part because the production of "primary"
triticales does not lead to "publications," and partly be-
cause of the problems of gene expression and the apparent-
ly slow conversion process from "primaries" into "second-
aries" of commercial significance.
Finally, the acceptance of triticale grain by millers and
bakers has, in many cases, been poor around the world.
Generally, triticale cultivars do not mill and bake like
wheat, and bakers are extremely reluctant to change proce-
dures unless they can be guaranteed a constant supply of
grain and a marketable product. On the other hand, farmers
will not venture into a new crop unless they can be assured
that there is a market for their grain. The current triticales
are agronomically sound and are able to compete with oth-
er cereals in many areas of the world (Table 1). Acreage
has been increasing annually for several years. This in-
crease has been due to increased production on marginal
soils that occurs in many countries. Triticale yields will
continue to increase because of the plant's potential for
higher biomass production than other cereals.
271
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10
WILD RICE: PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION
Ervin A. OeIke
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
James J. Boedicker
University of Minnesota, Grand Rapids, Minnesota
I. INTRODUCTION
Wild rice (Zizania) is a native North American genus. The
species, Z palustris L., is found predominantly in the Great
Lakes region of the United States and Canada. It grows in
natural stands in the shallows of lakes and rivers and pro-
duces a grain that has been harvested for food for some
10,000 years [1-3].
The wild rice plant is 5-6 feet tall with five or six leaves
on the main tiller and can develop 20-30 tillers [2-4]. It is
a cross-pollinated species and matures in about 120 days,
requiring about 2600 growing degree days (40° F base
temperature). Kernels of mature grain with lemma and
palea (hulls) removed (caryopsis) vary from 0.3 to 0.6
inches in length and from 0.06 to 0.18 inches in diameter.
The caryopsis consist of an impermeable pericarp, large
endosperm, and small embryo. The immature caryopsis is
green but turns purplish-black as it reaches maturity. Seeds
on any given tiller mature at different times, and seed on
secondary tillers matures later than that on the main tiller.
Wild rice in natural stands has little shattering resistance
and kernels shatter easily upon reaching maturity. When
wild rice shatters or is harvested, the hulls and caryopsis
remain intact as a unit. A more complete description of the
wild rice plant, as well as its cultivation, is contained in a
production guide from Minnesota [2] and in Cereal Foods
World [4].
Since about 1950, wild rice has been in the process of
becoming a domesticated crop in the United States and is
275
now being grown commercially in both the United States
and Canada [2-4]. Prior to that time, natural stands were
the only source of the grain, and supplies were limited and
varied greatly from year to year. With the advent and
growth of commercial production, supplies of wild rice
have increased tremendously over the last 25 years. Natur-
al stands continue to be harvested, but the proportion of to-
tal supplies derived from natural stands has steadily de-
clined. In some areas, including the entire state of
Minnesota, natural stands of wild rice, by law, must be har-
vested only by traditional canoe-and-flail method (Fig. 1),
whereas in many areas of Canada mechanized harvest is
permitted. Included in Table 1 are annual harvest estimates
from natural stands in Minnesota since 1963. Of all the
wild rice harvested by hand, Minnesota is likely to account
for more than half in any given year.
In Canada, commercial production of wild rice takes
place predominantly in lakes leased from the various
provincial governments [6-8]. Lease provisions vary by
province, but generally lease holders are permitted to seed
the lakes and, in some cases, to control water levels and are
granted exclusive harvesting rights. Much of the wild rice
acreage in these leased lakes is harvested with the use of
airboats [5,7]. Shown in Table 1 are annual harvest esti-
mates from lakes and rivers in four Canadian provinces
since 1963.
In the United States, wild rice is being produced com-
mercially as a "domesticated" field crop in diked, flooded
fields [3]. Minnesota and California account for most of
276
FIGURE 1 Canoe and flail method of harvesting lake and river
wild rice. One person propels the canoe with a pole through wild
rice beds, while the other person bends the stalk over the side of
the canoe with one flail and taps off the ripe grain from the pani-
cle with the other flail.
the acreage (20,000 and 10,000 acres, respectively, in
1997) with additional amounts in Idaho, Oregon, and Wis-
consin. Table 2 shows production totals from cultivated
fields in Minnesota and California since 1968.
Growing wild rice as a field crop was first attempted
near Merrifield, Minnesota, in 1950-1952 [3,4]. James and
Gerald Godward diked a one-acre area, planted it with
seed collected from a nearby lake, and flooded the field.
The field was drained before harvest and the crop was har-
vested by hand. An additional 40 acres were planted by
them in 1953 and harvested with a small pull-type com-
bine. They had good crops the first few years, but leaf
blight (Bipolaris oryzae Luttrell) caused serious losses
thereafter. However, they continued their pioneering ef-
forts, and today one of their sons has more than 2000 acres
in wild rice production.
Initially, the only seed available for planting in fields
Oelke and Boedicker
was of shattering types found in natural stands. These ear-
ly fields were harvested several times over a 2- to 3-week
grain-ripening period with specially designed, multiple-
pass harvesters. In 1963, Paul Yagyu and Erwin Brooks
with the University of Minnesota, Department of Agrono-
my and Plant Genetics, discovered plants in a grower's
field that retained their seed longer than the rest of the
plants [3,4]. From these few plants, they and other breed-
ers developed varieties with more resistance to shattering
than types growing in lakes and rivers. Today, most of the
wild rice being grown in fields is of the most shattering-re-
sistant varieties. Yields of unprocessed grain from shatter-
ing types grown in fields typically ranged from 150 to 200
lb/acre, whereas with shattering-resistant varieties yields
have been reported as high as 1800 lb/acre in Minnesota
and twice that amount in California.
The development of more shattering-resistant varieties
of wild rice was largely responsible for a tremendous ex-
pansion in field production that occurred in the late 1960s
and early 1970s. Practically all the expansion at that time
was taking place in Minnesota where acreage increased
from 900 acres in 1968 to 18,000 acres in 1973 [3].
Acreage has remained relatively constant in Minnesota
since 1973 but has increased in California to about 10,000
acres in 1997. The finding of improved shattering resis-
tance was the development that eventually made possible
the shift to more efficient harvest with grain combines
(Fig. 2). The improved harvest efficiency from the use of
combines, together with greater harvested yields from
shattering-resistant varieties, were major contributing fac-
tors to expanded field production at that time.
Unlike most other cereal grains, which are already rela-
tively dry at harvest, the moisture content of wild rice
grain when harvested typically ranges from 35 to 45%
[3,4]. Because of its high moisture content, freshly har-
vested wild rice requires proper handling prior to being
dried for long-term storage to prevent deterioration and
loss from heating and mold development in the interim.
Wild rice must be harvested at this high moisture content
to avoid excessive grain loss from shattering that increases
as the grain matures and dries. Generally, freshly harvested
grain is transported directly to a processing plant. If it can-
not be transported immediately, it must be kept cool by
stirring and adding water.
II. PROCESSING OF WILD RICE
The basic steps in processing of wild rice are drying,
hulling, and separation of hulls from the hulled grain. Na-
tive Americans traditionally dried the grain on mats placed
either in the sun or on racks over a fire. In more recent
times, drying in a metal container over an open fire came
Wild Rice 277

TABLE 1 Wild Rice Harvested from Lakes and Rivers in Canada and Minnesota, 1963-1997a

Year Minnesota Manitoba Saskatchewan Ontario Alberta Total

1963 1286 22 1308

1964 514 23 537
1965 435 12 447
1966 429 18 447
1967 1051 226 1277
1968 524 126 650
1969 392 63 455
1970 489 60 1 26 576
1971 487 200 9 121 817
1972 414 273 22 436 1145
1973 406 250 5 519 1180
1974 400 55 9 4 468
1975 200 57 17 37 311
1976 800 140 39 450 1429
1977 437 462 34 344 1277
1978 220 190 25 62 497
1979 304 240 64 120 728
1980 1000 560 128 388 2076
1981 400 182 200 272 1054
1982 440 166 208 75 889
1983 480 134 243 76 933
1984 540 249 450 160 1399
1985 161 258 117 14 4 554
1986 179 342 304 40 7 872
1987 500 661 515 576 8 2260
1988 160 640 734 360 1894
1989 40 480 710 160 40 1430
1990 80 480 964 123 60 1707
1991 120 520 968 146 24 1778
1992 128 120 830 60 8 1146
1993 80 40 781 20 40 961
1994 80 880 960 320 60 2300
1995 64 560 1040 200 20 1884
1996 80 464 771 80 20 1415
1997 100 520 440 160 1220
1000 processed pounds, estimated using 40% yield of processed from unprocessed wild rice.
Source: 1963-1981 from Ref. 6; 1982-1987 from Ref. 8; 1987-1997 from Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food.

to be the preferred method (Fig. 3). Hulling was accom-
plished by walking in place (jigging) on the dried grain in
a container (Fig. 4) or skin-lined hole in the ground. Final-
ly, hulls were separated from the grain by tossing the grain
and hull mixture into the air (Fig. 5) or by dropping it over
a mat or blanket, the wind blowing the lighter hulls away
in the process.
Caucasians, upon arriving in the region, acquired a lik-
ing for wild rice and began buying and harvesting it them-
selves [1]. They processed their grain in small processing
plants located throughout much of northern Minnesota and
Wisconsin and in adjacent areas in southern Canada.
Equipment in these plants generally consisted of a parcher,
a huller, and a fanning mill. The parcher was a drum-like
container, heated externally with a wood fire and rotated
by hand. The huller was also a drum-like container with
hand-rotated paddles or beaters inside. The fanning mill
used to separate out the hulls was also turned manually.
The expanded commercial production of wild rice has
led to dramatic changes in the processing sector of the in-
dustry [6]. Although basic processing procedures remain
essentially unchanged from those used in the early plants,
many of today's processing plants are modern, high-capac-
ity facilities with modern equipment and are capable of
278 Oelke and Boedicker

TABLE 2 Wild Rice Harvested from Cultivated Fields

in Minnesota and California, 1968-1998

Minnesota California'
Year (1000 processed lb) (1000 processed lb)

1968 36 0
1969 160 0
1970 364 0
1971 608 0
1972 1496 0
1973 1200 0
1974 1036 0
1975 1233 0
1976 1809 0
1977 1031 0
1978 1761 100 FIGURE 2 Harvesting cultivated wild rice with a modified
1979 2155 200 grain combine. Modifications include oversized reel and a large
1980 2320 400 track support system.
1981 2274 500
1982 2697 880
1983 3200 2500
1984 3600 3800
1985 4200 7900
1986 5100 9000
1987 4200 4200
1988 4200 3500
1989 3978 4242
1990 4800 4200
1991 5500 5500
1992 6100 7500
1993 5300 7500
1994 5300 5000
1995 4500 6440
1996 6000 7600
1997 6002 9000
1998 5840 8800

aData from Marcum, Cooperative Extension Service, University
of California.
Source: 1968-1982 values from Ref. 6; 1983-98 from Minnesota
Agriculture Statistics, Minnesota Department of Agriculture and
USDA-NAS S.
producing a cleaner more uniform product. A few newer
plants in California now also use the parboiling system as
part of the total processing procedure in their processing
operation. The parboiling system used is a modified ver-
sion of that used in rice (Oryza) processing. Some older,
smaller plants that handle basic processing still exist, but
most larger plants now offer additional services including
grading and packaging, warehousing, and, in some cases,
even an instantizing process. Some of the newer plants are
capable of processing over 6 million pounds of freshly har-
vested wild rice over a several-week harvest season.
FIGURE 3 Hand-parching wild rice in an open kettle. The
grain is constantly stirred for about 45 minutes until dried to
about 10% moisture content.
A. Distribution of Processing Plants
Minnesota, California, and Canada had a combined total of
31 commercial processing plants in 1983 (Table 3), most
of these being in Minnesota [6]. Three additional plants
have been built in California since 1983 to process that
state's increased production. Some of the wild rice harvest-
ed in Canada is processed in Minnesota. Prior to 1985, a
considerable portion of California's production was
processed in Minnesota as well, but only a limited amount
in 1997. The 22 commercial processing plants in Minneso-
ta ranged in size from very large operations to small plants
in 1983. Today the number in Minnesota has decreased
with the few larger ones doing most of the processing.
Wild Rice
FIGURE 4 Hulling the grain by "jigging." The warm grain is
placed into a wooden container and hulled by an individual walk-
ing in place in the container.
B. Custom Processing and Fees
Most wild rice is processed on a custom basis, especially
that from growers [6]. The methods of charging for pro-
cessing and processing fees vary, some charging on a
green (freshly harvested) basis and others on a finished
(processed) basis. Charging on a green basis is potentially
disadvantageous to the owner of the grain in that it pro-
vides processors little immediate incentive to maximize
processed grain yield. On the other hand, charging on a fin-
ished basis can penalize processors if grain yield is lower
than expected. Actual charges in 1987 ranged from 18.5 to
85 cents per pound of finished grain. Such a wide range is
largely the result of variations in processing efficiency
FIGURE 5 Separating the chaff (hulls) from the parched grain
by "winnowing." The mixture of hulls and kernels is tossed up,
allowing the wind to blow the chaff away.
279
TABLE 3 Location of Commercial Wild
Rice—Processing Plants
Number of plants
Area 1983' 1997b
Minnesota 22 10
California 2 3
Ontario 1 1
Manitoba 5 4
Saskatchewan 1 3
Total 31 21
'Data for Canadian provinces do not include small-
er processing plants.
bData estimated from Ref. 6.
with large operations geared to handle large batches,
whereas small plants will still process lots as small as 100
pounds. For most of the grain processed, however, charges
range from 35 to 50 cents per finished pound under both
charging systems. Some processors that are also marketers
contract with growers to buy their green (combined) grain
on a price-per-pound basis, with the price adjusted depend-
ing upon recovery (percent of processed grain from a
pound of green grain).
C. Major Processing Operations
The major processing operations of a typical modern wild
rice plant are shown in a flow chart in Figure 6. These op-
erations are discussed in detail in the following sections.
1. Separation of Immature Kernels
An optional first step in processing wild rice performed at
some Minnesota plants is separation of immature kernels.
Much of the wild rice harvested by grain combine in Min-
nesota has a relatively high concentration of very imma-
ture kernels. Processors find it advantageous to remove
this fraction before proceeding with subsequent processing
steps. High concentrations of immature kernels in wild rice
harvested by combine in Minnesota are due to several in-
terrelated factors: (1) uneven grain ripening, (2) the higher
risk of substantial loss of harvestable yield through wind,
disease, and frost when harvest is delayed, (3) the desire of
growers to minimize that risk, and (4) the inability to ad-
just combines to eliminate very immature grain without
causing excessive loss of more mature grains as well. Most
large processing plants in Minnesota that process cultivat-
ed wild rice have an air-steam separator (Figs. 7 and 8) for
this separation process [9,10]. Wild rice harvested from
fields planted to shattering types, natural stands harvested
280 Oelke and Boedicker

Combine
1
Truck to Plant

Air-Stream Separator

Li ht Medium Heavy
•
Fermentation Field
Dump
Parcher

Screen —* Stalks

Magnets —+1 Ferrous Metal

• Huller

Aspirator
•
Scarifier Hulls

Aspirator Chaff

20/64" Indent Grader Dump

Passed-Whole Retained-Broken
1
3.75/64" Slotted Grader 10/64" Indent Grader Retained

Retained Passed Passed

Gravity Separator Gravity Separator

4
Unhulled Kernels A Grade Di Grade Rocks + Grain

Rocks + Grain Rock Separator

1
Rock Separator Di Rock Rice Rocks 1"--* Dump
4 4
A Rock Rice Rocks Gravity Separator 8/64' Indent
1
Dump Rocks + Grain Passed Retained
4
Rock Separator D2 Grade 6/64" Indent
I
B Rock Rice Rocks Retained

Dump Dump

Unhulled Kernels Flour

FIGURE 6 Operations flow chart for a typical processing plant.

Wild Rice
Oscillating Feeder
Feeder Air Supply
0 0
v _1
Fan
Air Straightener Deflectors
Air Chamber
FIGURE 7 Schematic diagram of air stream separator, side view.
FIGURE 8 Air-stream separator installed at a processing plant.
by multiple-pass (hand or machine) methods, or wild rice
harvested by combine in California typically have low
concentrations of very immature kernels; hence, this sepa-
ration step is unnecessary for grain from these sources.
The air-stream separator shown in Figures 7 and 8 was
built by the Agricultural Engineering Department of the
University of Minnesota [10]. It is designed to separate
freshly harvested wild rice into three fractions designated
as heavy, medium, and light. The heavy fraction consists
mostly of plump, mature kernels; the medium fraction,
kernels of intermediate stages of maturity; and the light
fraction, predominantly small immature kernels and empty
281
Wire Air Straightener Collector
Screen Screen
0 0
0 0
0 o
Adjustable
°0 0 Dividers c,
° o ° 0
0
Light
Conveyors Collector
Compartments
hulls and chaff. This separator is designed to permit the re-
cycling of grain borderline in size between the medium
and light fractions back through the air stream for more
precise separation. Table 4 shows the characteristics of one
lot of wild rice as delivered to a processing plant and also
its component maturity fractions, obtained both with and
without the recycling (rerun) mode in operation. Light
fractions, which usually yield only about 5%, generally
cannot be processed profitably and are discarded by most
processors. Processing plant capacity is essentially vol-
ume-limited. Separating and discarding the light fraction
effectively increases plant capacity by a percentage at least
equal to the percent reduction in volume that results from
this separation. Some processors parch the heavy, mature
fraction directly, thus bypassing fermentation, which typi-
cally is the next step in processing.
2. Fermentation or Curing
Fermentation or curing of wild rice is a complex process
involving respiration and numerous microorganisms
[11,12]. In the typical fermentation process, grain is
formed into windrows on an impervious surface outdoors
and periodically stirred and watered for several days (Figs.
9-11). Windrows range from 3 to 6 feet wide and 8 to 12
inches deep. Watering keeps moisture content high (which
is desired for the next processing step) and, along with stir-
ring, helps maintain aerobic conditions while limiting heat
build-up to minimize dry matter loss and the development
of undesirable molds. During normal weather conditions,
windrows are stirred and watered once or twice daily. Fer-
282 Oelke and Boedicker

TABLE 4 Characteristics of One Lot of Wild Rice as Received at a Processing Plant and of Component Fractions Produced by the
Air-Stream Separator

Processed
grain
Rerun Moisture obtained- Distribution of processed kernels by diameter (%)
feature content fresh weight
Seed lot (%) (%) basis (%) >4' /2 4 1/2 X 4a 4 x 3 1/2 3 1/2 x 3 3 1/2 x 2 1 /2 2 1/2 x 2 <2

As received N.A. 43.3 40.8 2.1 13.1 37.0 25.9 12.8 5.4 3.6
Heavy W 37.0 51.4 2.5 18.5 45.8 23.0 7.2 2.2 0.7
W/O 37.8 49.8 1.1 12.7 47.0 26.9 9.0 2.7 0.8
Medium W 45.2 39.0 1.0 3.4 19.8 31.6 26.3 12.3 6.2
W/O 45.5 36.9 0.1 1.6 16.8 32.1 29.1 13.5 7.0
Light W 60.2 5.8 0.1 0.2 0.9 1.9 8.2 25.6 63.3
W/O 61.7 5.0 0.0 0.2 0.9 1.9 9.2 27.2 60.3

N.A. = Not applicable;

W = separator operated in rerun mode; W/O = rerun mode not in operation. With rerun mode, medium and light fractions can be recycled for more precise
separation.
'4 1/2 x 4 means kernels passed a 4.5/64 in slotted sieve and were retained on a 4/64 in slotted sieve.
Source: Ref. 10.

FIGURE 9 Cleaned, unprocessed grain being formed into FIGURE 10 Windrows of wild rice curing ("fermenting") be-
windrows on a hard-surfaced area adjacent to a processing plant. fore parching.

mentation periods normally range from 4 to 7 days. Over
20% of usable wild rice can be lost in 10 days through res-
piration and microbial action (Table 5) 1111. During the
last few years some processors have left the grain in large
piles for a day or two before parching. Care must be taken
not to allow too much heating. In California some proces-
sors ferment wild rice in 4 x 4 x 4 foot metal containers
(Fig. 12) or in bottom dump trailers, but the grain still re-
quires watering and aeration to maintain its condition.
Although fermentation of wild rice is not completely
understood, at least three important changes occur: (1) less
mature kernels change color from green to brown, (2) hulls
partially degrade, permitting easier hulling, and (3) some
of the characteristic flavor is imparted to the grain. Wis-
consin researchers [11] measured changes in color over 5
weeks of fermentation and found a significant color
change after one week (Table 6). They (12) also identified
microorganisms present on fermenting and parched wild
rice (Table 7). They concluded that hull removal and final
cooking virtually eliminate all viable microorganisms.
3. Drying or Parching
After fermentation, the grain is removed from the fermen-
tation field (Fig. 13) to driers. The most commonly used
drying procedure is referred to as parching. Parching at
most plants is performed in batch-type, rotary drum
parchers (Fig. 14), which typically are loaded by hand
(Fig. 15). During parching, the 40-45% moisture content
Wild Rice 283

FIGURE 11 Machine used for periodically stirring and wetting FIGURE 12 In California, grain is cured in metal containers.
windrows of curing wild rice. The grain is aerated and watered periodically.

TABLE 5 Processed Grain Recovered from

Grain as Influenced by Storage Time at TABLE 6 Hunter Color-Color Difference L-Values
Ambient Temperature (Lightness-Darkness) for Wild Rice as Influenced by
Fermentation Time
Length of storage Processed grain
and turninga (days) recovered" (%) Nonshattering,
Fermentation Shattering Nonshattering, Johnson
0 100 time (weeks) lake types MI variety" variety"
1 100 0 21.7' 21.0 19.8
2 97 1 20.0 17.8 19.0
3 98 2 20.3 18.8 19.2
4 93 3 19.1 19.4 19.1
5 92 4 20.5 18.1 19.1
6 93 5 19.5 18.0 19.6
7 89
8 89 'Fermented at 40°F.
10 79 "Fermented at 70°F.
`Higher numbers indicated lighter color, standard deviation = 0.5.
°Wet wild rice (ca. 50% moisture) stored in 18- to 24- Source: Ref. 11.
inch-deep bins with daily watering and turning.
b0 days storage used as base (100%).
Source: Ref. 11.
coming in contact with the hot surface. Some parchers have
small bars extending longitudinally through the parcher
drum to provide better mixing as the grain tumbles. Some
of the fermented grain is reduced to approximately 7% and processors prefer to cover the front opening of the parcher
a slightly toasted flavor is imparted to the grain. In the during parching to help retain steam for quicker or more ef-
process starch in the kernels is gelatinized, giving a glassy, ficient drying with less temperature fluctuation within the
translucent appearance to the inside of the kernel. drum. As parching of each batch nears completion, the
Parching drums are typically about 4 feet in diameter grain is periodically sampled to monitor progress of the
and 6-8 feet in length and are supported by rollers at the gelatinization process. Parching is complete when kernels
front and rear to permit rotation. The forward (open) end reach a hard, flinty condition and the starch in the kernels is
has vanes set at an angle to aid in retaining the grain during completely gelatinized. When parching is completed, the
parching and in removing the grain (Fig. 14). Most rear of the drum is raised slightly and the direction of rota-
parchers are fired with propane burners located below the tion reversed, causing the grain to be discharged. Batches
drum. Typical parchers can dry from 250 to 400 lb/hr. typically range from 500 to 800 lb. Parching time per batch
During parching the drum is rotated continuously, caus- is about 2 hours.
ing the grain to tumble, individual kernels intermittently During parching, temperature in the drum is controlled
284 Oelke and Boedicker

TABLE 7 Kinds of Microorganisms and Frequency of

Isolation from Fermenting and Parched Wild Rice

Fermenting Parched
Source and kind of microorganism wild ricea wild ricea

From plate count agar (86°F)

Gram-positive rods 5/27 17/25
Gram-negative rods 14/27 6/25
Gram-positive cocci 8/27 2/25
Bacillus species 0/27 15/25
Corynebacterium species 0/27 2/25
Lactobacillus species 2/27 0/27
Leuconostoc species 3/27 0/27
From plate count agar (45°F)
Pseudomonas species 23b 3b
Pigmented Pseudomonas species 8/23 0/3 FIGURE 14 Typical rotary parcher.
From violet red bile agar
Escherichia coli 2/44 1/6
Enterorbacter aerogenes 5/44 1/6
Intermediates 37/44 4/6
From KF agar
Streptococcus faecium 14/35 7/11
Streptococcus faecalis 6/35 1/11
Other streptococci 15/35 3/11
From acidified potato dextrose agar
Aspergillus species 5/16 2/10
Penicillium species 2/16 3/10
Mucor species 8/16 5/10
Rhizopus species 1/16 0/16

°No. of specific kind/total isolates.

bA total of 70 colonies was isolated from fermenting and parched wild
rice.
Source: Ref. 12.

FIGURE 15 Filling a parcher with cured wild rice.

so as not to exceed 275°F. Laser thermometers are used by

some processors to monitor the temperature of the grain.
When the grain temperature reaches 275°F, the grain is re-
moved since gelatinization generally is completed at this
temperature.
Some continuous-flow parchers are in use and consist
of four long drums, each about 30 ft long, placed side by
side. As the drums rotate, the grain is moved successively
from one drum to the next, the process being controlled
such that parching is complete upon discharge of the grain
from the fourth drum. In Canada one processing plant has
continuous flow parchers that are 3 feet in diameter and 35
feet long [8].
As an alternative to the rotary drum parcher, the Uni-
versity of Minnesota Biosystems and Agricultural Engi-
neering Department built and tested a large prototype con-
tinuous-flow dryer utilizing superheated steam as the
FIGURE 13 Loading the cured grain for transport to parchers. drying medium (Fig. 16) [13,14]. Components of the dryer
Wild Rice 285

Top View FURNACE

STEAM RETURN DUCT

PARCHING CHAMBER

N. I V FAN
HEAT EXCHANGER

Side View INFEED LEVELING DEVICE

AIR LOCK FEEDING CONVEYORS
STIRRERS

FIGURE 17 Magnet that removes ferrous metal from grain be-

fore hulling.
WOVEN WIRE CONVEYORS
OUTFEED AIR LOCK
process that the drum parchers accomplish. Sealed parts al-
FIGURE 16 Schematic diagram of experimental continuous- low continuous flow of wild rice in and out of the pressur-
flow wild rice dryer. ized parboiling chamber. Large rotary drums are used to
dry the wild rice immediately after processing.
included a feeding mechanism to meter fermented grain A minor step following parching or drying is separation
into the top of the dryer, a three-tiered woven wire convey- of any large pieces of stalk and fragments of ferrous metal
er system to move it through the dryer, several stirrers to from the grain. Stalk pieces are separated out by screening.
mix the grain on its travel on the conveyers, a fan and duct- Ferrous metal fragments are captured by permanent mag-
work to recalculate steam up through the tiers of grain, and nets positioned closely over conveyors transferring the
a propane-fired furnace and heat exchanger to add heat to dried, screened grain to hullers (Fig. 17).
the recirculated steam. The source of steam in the dryer 4. Hulling
was moisture given off by the grain itself, excess steam be- Hulls remain intact during drying or parching and must be
ing allowed to continuously escape to the atmosphere detached from the edible portion of the kernel. Although
through a duct from the top of the dryer. Best overall dryer some barrel-type hullers are still used, the most common
performance was achieved with a steam supply tempera- type of huller is the roller huller consisting of two closely
ture of 295°F (230°F return temperature). Capacity of the spaced, counterrotating rollers with rubberlike outer sur-
dryer was about 1000 lb/hr of fermented grain. Grain resi- faces (Fig. 18) [9]. The grain is fed to pass between the
dence time in the dryer was approximately 40 minutes. Ad-
vantages of the system included more mechanized grain
handling and less than half the fuel requirement or rotary
drum parchers per quantity of water removed. One possi-
ble disadvantage was that grain dried in the unit lacked the
toasted, nutlike flavor characteristic of parched wild rice
that many consumers prefer.
A commercial continuous-flow dryer modeled after the
prototype and rated at 3000 lb/hr was built and operated
for several seasons in Minnesota but was moved to a Cali-
fornia processing facility. It performed satisfactorily, al-
though kernel breakage tended to exceed that from a well-
operated rotary drum parcher.
Another parching process used in California is parboil-
ing. The parboiling system is that used to process rice
(Oryza) but modified for large volumes of wild rice. Par- FIGURE 18 Huller with two sets of rubber rollers, which de-
boiling allows continuous parching and drying using steam tach the hulls (lemmas and paleas) from the kernels. This huller
under pressure to accomplish the same gelatinization handles two separate streams of parched grain.
 286 Oelke and Boedicker

TABLE 8 Influence of Hardness of Huller Roller Covering Material and Roller Clearance Upon the Percentage of
Broken and Unhulled Kernels

Run number of
variety Material and K-2' (%) Netum (%)
hardness Roller
K-2 Netum durometer clearance (in.) Brokenb Unhulled Broken Unhulled
H2-16 H3-16 Neoprene, 50 0.002 4.02 5.67 1.81 4.65
H2-15 H3-15 Neoprene, 56 0.002 4.84 1.01 2.05 0.84
H2-4 H3-4 Neoprene, 50 0.005 2.80 20.74 1.47 15.68
H2-3 H3-3 Neoprene, 56 0.005 3.40 11.13 1.71 7.11
H2-2 H3-2 Neoprene, 66 0.005 7.69 0.31 3.52 0.80
H2-1 H3-1 Neoprene, 73 0.005 10.55 0.29 4.83 0.44
H2-10 H3-10 Neoprene, 50 0.010 3.76 26.96 2.39 20.30
H2-9 H3-9 Neoprene, 56 0.010 3.80 23.37 1.51 18.46
H2-8 H3-8 Neoprene, 66 0.010 6.56 1.48 3.59 1.32
H2-6 H3-6 Red Rubber, 66 0.010 4.46 27.17 2.27 25.02
H2-7 H3-7 Neoprene, 73 0.010 7.30 0.98 4.31 1.23
H2-5 H3-5 Neoprene, 86 0.010 19.22 0.38 9.96 0.41
H2-13 H3-13 Neoprene, 66 0.015 6.27 3.00 2.89 3.09
H2-12 H3-12 Neoprene, 73 0.015 8.62 1.39 4.29 1.35
H2-11 H3-11 Neoprene, 86 0.015 20.00 0.97 9.99 1.05
H2-14 H3-14 Neoprene, 86 0.020 17.10 2.54 9.30 1.94

aWild rice harvested in 1981, frozen, then parched in the laboratory on June 22, 1982, immediately prior to hulling.
b Kemel pieces 1/4 in. or less in length.
Source: Refs. 13 and 14.

rollers, and as it does a rubbing action created by the

% BROKEN KERNELS BYWEIGHT

rollers operating at different peripheral speeds causes the

hulls to become detached. The roller surface material
20
found to give the best compromise between levels of ker-
nel breakage and unhulled kernels is neoprene of 66
durometer hardness (Table 8; Figs. 19 and 20) [14]. To
15
maintain good huller performance, processors must pay
close attention to roller clearance and condition. Effective
feeder and roller conditioning systems along with sensitive
10
means for adjusting roller clearance are important features
of any roller huller system.

0 impermeable layer of the kernel. Wild rice used in mixes
0 0.005 0.010 0.015
ROLLER CLEARANCE -IN.
FIGURE 19 Percent broken kernels from heavy fraction from
air-stream separator as influenced by roller clearance and surface
hardness for 11 3/8 in. diameter hypalon and neoprene-covered
rollers. The two numerical values at the end of each line indicate
the hardness (durometer) of the covering on each of the paired
rollers.
5. Scarification
Scarification is the process of removing part of the outer
with rice (Oryza sativa L.) must be scarified sufficiently to
0.020
reduce its cooking time to that of rice. The typical scarifier
consists of a long, inclined tube with rubber paddles inside
mounted to a rotating shaft. The degree of scarification that
occurs is dependent upon inclination of the scarifier, speed
of the shaft, and clearance of the rubber paddles. In some
operations, grain is scarified after being size-graded for
even better control of cooking time. Figure 21 shows two
scarifying tubes.
 Wild Rice 287

50-50H
30
HYPALON
%UNHULLEDKERNELSBYWEIGHT

-- NEOPRENE

25

60-60H
20

15

10
FIGURE 22 A vacuum aspirator to remove hulls from parched,
69-69H hulled kernels.

5
66-66N
7 6-76H

0 ---if I

0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020

ROLLER CLEARANCE -IN.

FIGURE 20 Percent unhulled kernels from heavy fraction

from air-stream separator as influenced by roller clearance and
surface hardness for 11 3/8 in. diameter hypalon and neoprene-
covered rollers. The two numerical values at the end of each line
indicate the hardness (durometer) of the covering on each roller
of the paired set.

FIGURE 23 Hulls and chaff are conveyed to the outside of the

plant for disposal.

6. Cleaning, Grading, and Packaging

FIGURE 21 Scarifying tubes are used to remove some of the
outer layer from the parched kernels.
In addition to screening and separation of ferrous particles
as described above, grain is subjected to several other
cleaning operations as it progresses through the plant. As-
pirating devices are employed after hulling and scarifying
operations to separate out hulls and chaff (Fig. 22). Aspi-
rated material is conveyed outside the plant (Fig. 23).
Gravity tables are used to remove unhulled grain as well as
small pebbles and other debris (Fig. 24). Unhulled grain is
either recycled directly to hullers or stored and rerun later.
Wild rice is graded principally on the basis of kernel
size. Graders of various lengths and widths are used for the
grading process (Fig. 25). No uniform grading standards
for wild rice are yet in place across the industry, and plants
sort processed wild rice differently, often depending on
specifications of particular buyers. Figure 26 illustrates
288
FIGURE 24 Gravity tables are utilized for debris removal and
for size sorting of kernels.
FIGURE 25 Width graders for final grading of rice.
grading steps used by some processors. In this grading sys-
tem, kernels are defined as being either whole or broken
solely on the basis of length, regardless of whether the ker-
nels are actually broken or not. Whole grain (>20/64 inch-
es in length) is divided into A and B grades according to di-
ameter. Grain classified as broken is further graded on the
basis of length only. In 1984, the International Wild Rice
Association proposed a somewhat different grading stan-
dard (Tables 9-11) that some plants are now following to a
limited extent [15]. Some processing plants have devel-
oped their own grain specifications as shown in Table 12.
These specifications differ from those depicted in Figure
26 and Table 9, and buyers need to be aware of actual grain
specifications for the various grading systems in use. The
industry, in cooperation with USDA, is presently develop-
Oelke and Boedicker
ing a standard grading system for wild rice that should fa-
cilitate wild rice marketing.
The Canadian Wild Rice Council adopted some Cana-
dian Lake Wild Rice Grain Standards in 1990 [8]. The
grading standards are optional and not mandatory. For the
purpose of their grading standards, "wild rice" is defined
as processed products resulting from curing, parching, and
hulling of Zizania aquatica or Zizania palustris and in
which moisture does not exceed 11% by weight. Also,
"Canadian Lake Wild Rice" for their grading standards
means wild rice that was harvested from natural bodies of
water in Canada. The Canadian wild rice is classed into
grades A, B, and C and designated as follows:
Canada A (good-quality size graded) is the grade of wild
rice that is practically uniform in size; that possesses a
practically uniform color; that possesses a good aroma
typical of wild rice; that is practically free from defects;
and that is practically free from foreign material.
Canada B (good-quality mill run) is the grade of wild rice
that possesses a good aroma typical of wild rice; that
has not more than 10% by weight of broken kernels;
and that is practically free from foreign material.
Canada C (good-quality broken) is the grade of wild rice
that possesses a good aroma typical of wild rice; that
contains whole and broken kernels; and that is practi-
cally free from foreign material. It may have in excess
of 10% by weight of broken kernels.
Size designation for Canada Grade A is given in Table 13.
Most plants bag processed wild rice into 100 lb sacks
(Fig. 27), which are stored in clean, dry warehouses (Fig.
28). Many plants are equipped to package wild rice in
small packages, some will blend and package wild rice
in small packages, and some will blend and package
wild rice and rice according to customers' specifications
(Fig. 29).
The state of Minnesota passed a wild rice—labeling law
effective January 1, 1990, which states in subdivision 1
that "all cultivated wild rice sold at wholesale or retail in
Minnesota must be labeled as either paddy grown or culti-
vated" [16]. This labeling applies to natural lake or river
wild rice containing any amount of cultivated wild rice.
The law also designates lettering size to be used for the
words "paddy grown" or "cultivated" words in relation to
the word wild rice.
Cultivated or paddy-grown wild rice sold in internation-
al commerce is exempt. Subdivision 2 of the law states that
"wild rice which is 100 percent natural or river grown sold
at wholesale or retail in Minnesota may be labeled as 100
percent naturally grown, lake or river harvested." It also
Wild Rice 289

B GRADE (WHOLE)

A GRADE (WHOLE)
Dl GRADE (BROKEN)
(<,C)

D2 GRADE (BROKEN)
(<2

FLOUR
O

SCRAP

FIGURE 26 Size specifications utilized by some Minnesota processing plants for processed wild rice. (Numbers indicate fractions of
an inch).

TABLE 9 Wild Rice Grades"—Length and Diameter

Diameter Letter
Screens measureb grade

N-25 T T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
425 400 0 01 02 03 04 05
400 375 P P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
375 350 I 12 13 14 15
350 325 N N1 N2 N3 N4 N5
325 300 G G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
300 <300 S S2 S3 S4 S5

Number grade: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(long gr) (med) (short gr) (small broken)
Length measure:` 30 26 20 12 10 8 6
Riddled #I 000

'Although there is a potential of 49 grades, the smaller lengths cannot be used.

'Measurements expressed in 64th of an inch (ex. 425 = 41/4/64).
`Measurements expressed in 64th of an inch (ex. 32 = 32/64).
d Measurement of Riddle: #1-20/64; #000-12/64.

Equation: Fraction of inch to 64ths of an inch: 1 = 64, 1 /2 = 32, '/3 = 21, 1/3, 1 /4 = 16, 1/5 = 12 4/5.
Source: Ref. 15.

states that, if so labeled, the wild rice must also be labeled
with the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) license
number of the last dealer handling the wild rice. Lettering
size in relation to the words wild rice is also designated.
Other subdivisions of the law also deal with fair pack-
aging and labeling, misbranding relating to Indian harvest-
ed or processed wild rice, and packaged blended rice and
ready-to-eat rice. Wild rice grown in Minnesota can also
be labeled "Minnesota grown." It can also be labeled "cer-
tified organic" if grown based on organic standards.
290 Oelke and Boedicker

TABLE 10 Wild Rice Grades—Quality

Foreign material
Dust and Chalky Damaged Percent
Description Solids chaff Others kernels kernelsb moisture Other
Premium <0.0001 <0.002 <0.01 <0.1 <0.1 3-10 All FDA standards
Choice <0.0002 <0.005 <0.025 <0.5 <0.2 3-11 All FDA standards
Good <0.0005 <0.01 <0.05 <2.0 <1.0 3-12 All FDA standards
Standard <0.001 <0.02 <0.10 <5.0 <3.0 3-13 All FDA standards
aUnhulled, weed seed, other grain, etc.
b Heat, frost, etc.
Source: Ref. 15.

TABLE 11 Wild Rice Grades—Definitions TABLE 12 Standard Specifications for Wild Rice for a Wild
Rice—Processing Plant in Minnesota
Percent Percent Percent
long medium short Percent Variable Specifications
Description grains grains grains brokens
Physical Form
Long grain 85 min. 10 max. 7 max. 3 max. Form Kernels
Medium grain 10 max. 80 min. 10 max. 7 max. Color Greenish-brown to dark brown
Short grain 5 max. 10 max. 80 max. 10 max. to charcoal black
Broken 1 max. 5 max. 20 max. 80 min. Flavor/Odor Nutty flavor—faintly roasted
Mill run 70 min. 20 max. 10 max. 5 min. odor
Analytical specifications:
Source: Ref. 15. Moisture <10% by A.O.A.C.
Length >20/64 in. = medium grain
<20/64 in.—greater than 10/64
III. QUALITY in. = medium grain
Even though industry-wide quality standards have not <10/64 in.—greater than 8/64a
in. = short grain
been developed, several factors relating to quality are rec-
Width 2.5/64-4.4/64 in.
ognized by most marketers. Broken grain is undesirable Water absorption Upon rehydration (cooking),
because it detracts from appearance of the final product. product will typically
Also undesirable is the presence of stress cracks, which increase in weight 250-375%
can develop curing parching due to excessive temperature Microbiological standards Provided by an outside,
and moisture gradients produced by drying the grain too reputable analytical
rapidly. Stress cracks make kernels more susceptible to laboratory and consulting
breaking in subsequent handling and processing opera- service, 55 years in service
tions. White centers in the kernel are another undesirable Total aerobic plate count: 3,000,000/g maximum
appearance-related characteristic that is quite evident in E. coli <3/10 g
Staphylococcus Negative/25 g
grain containing broken kernels. White centers are thought
Salmonella Negative/100 g
to result from gases becoming trapped in the center of the
Aflatoxin <2 ppb
kernel during parching. Percentages of cracked, broken,
and white-centered kernels vary considerably from plant 'Product less than 8/64 in. (Chits and fines) discarded.
to plant and even among batches processed at the same Source: Deer River Wild Rice, Inc., Deer River, Minnesota.
plant.
Two additional quality factors of importance are color
and taste. Any green coloration, characteristic of inade- be scarified to reduce cooking time, some of the color is re-
quately fermented immature kernels, is generally undesir- moved during scarification. As for taste, many consumers
able. The preferred color is blackish-brown. Scarification, prefer a slightly toasted flavor, as mentioned above. Any
which results in removal of some of the seed coat, detracts off-flavor, which can result from improper handling and
from the desired dark color. However, for grain that must fermentation, is highly undesirable [11].
Wild Rice 291

TABLE 13 Size Designations for Canada A Wild Rice

Length of Width of Maximum %
unbroken unbroken Word/letter broken
kernels kernels designations kernels
At least Less than Canada AM 5
16/64 in. 4/64 in. (medium)
(6.4 mm) (1.6 mm)
At least At least Canada AL
16/64 in. 4/64 in. (large)
(6.4 mm) (1.6 mm)
At least At least Canada AXL
30/64 in. 4/64 in. (extra large)
(12 nun) (1.6 mm)
Source: Ref. 8.
FIGURE 29 Blending rice and wild rice and packaging the
blend in plastic bags. A typical packaging room in a processing
plant.

TABLE 14 Composition of Wild Rice, Cultivated Brown

Rice, and Wheat
Cultivated
Nutrient Wild rice' brown rice Wheat
Protein (%) 13.8 (12.8-14.8) 8.1 14.3
Ash (%) 1.7 (1.4-1.9) 1.4 2.0
Fat (%) 0.6 (0.5-0.8) 1.9 1.8
Fiber (%) 1.2 (1.0-1.7) 1.0 2.9
Ether extract (%) 0.5 (0.3-1.0) 2.1 1.9
Phosphorus (%) 0.28 0.22 0.41
Potassium (%) 0.30 0.22 0.58
Magnesium (%) 0.11 0.12 0.18
Calcium (ppm) 20 32 46
FIGURE 27 Processed wild rice is placed into poly-lined bags
Iron (ppm) 17 10-17
that can contain 100 pounds.
Manganese (ppm) 14 30-39 55
Zinc (ppm) 5 24
Copper (ppm) 13 4-7 8
Nitrogen (free %
extract) 82.4 87.4 78.9
'Numbers in parentheses indicate ranges in values.
Source: Refs. 9, 18, and 19.

IV. NUTRITION
The wild rice kernel is similar in structure to other cereals,
consisting of a pericarp, aleurone layer, endosperm, and
embryo. The pericarp and embryo each represent about 5%
of the caryopsis weight, with the endosperm and the aleu-
rone layer making up the remaining 90% [17].
The nutritional quality of wild rice appears to be equal
FIGURE 28 Processed wild rice is stored in clean, dry to or better than that of other cereals [18,19]. Protein con-
houses. tent is relatively high, and iysine and mcthionine comprise
292 Oelke and Boedicker

TABLE 15 Amino Acid Composition of Processed and Unprocessed Wild Rice, Two Varieties of
Unprocessed Cultivated Rice, and Wheat'
Unprocessed Processed Cultivated riceb Cultivated riceb
Amino acid wild riceb wild riceb (cv. Bray) (cv. Lebonnet) Wheat
Lysine 10.40 10.26 19.35 18.34 35.39
Histidine 2.75 2.66 2.53 2.64 2.38
Ammonia 2.37 2.41 2.39 2.29 3.98
Arginine 8.18 7.31 8.85 8.77 4.67
Aspartic 10.40 10.26 9.61 9.81 5.40
Threonine 3.64 3.60 3.68 3.79 2.90
Serine 5.46 5.23 5.16 5.01 4.76
Glutamic 18.70 18.24 19.35 18.34 35.39
Proline 4.11 4.12 4.96 5.16 4.33
Alanine 5.83 5.82 5.80 5.94 3.57
Cystine 2.78 3.92 3.60 3.28
Valine 5.76 5.70 5.82 5.85 4.44
Methionine 2.79 3.01 2.19 2.06 1.42
Isoleucine 4.36 4.26 4.01 4.06 3.63
Leucine 7.39 7.33 8.32 8.30 7.19
Tyrosine 3.75 3.50 4.47 4.34 2.86
Phenylalanine 5.11 5.01 5.01 4.88 5.28
Tryptophan 1.80 1.64 1.78 1.72 1.57
aAllvalues are g amino acid/100 g protein.
bWild rice = Zizania palustris; cultivated rice = Oryza sativa.
Source: Refs. 9, 18, and 19.

TABLE 16 Amino Acid Distribution in Kernel Fractions of Parched Wild Rice

Whole Endosperm Endosperm Embryo
Amino acid kernel plus embryo plus pericarp alone
Alanine 5.7 5.9 6.0 7.8
(Ammonia) 2.3 2.1 2.3 1.7
Arginine 8.1 7.3 6.7 6.1
Aspartic acid 10.0 10.3 10.6 10.6
Cysteine 1.4 1.3 - -
Glutamic acid 19.9 20.5 20.8 13.6
Glycine 4.9 4.9 5.1 6.6
Histidine 3.5 2.7 - -
Isoleucine 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.9
Leucine 7.3 7.5 7.7 8.8
Lysine 4.7 4.2 4.5 7.7
Methionine 2.2 2.4 2.8 1.9
Phenylalanine 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.2
Proline 3.6 4.5 3.5b 2.4a
Serine 5.5 5.7 5.8 5.4
Threonine 3.4 3.4 3.4 5.8
Tyrosine 2.7 2.5 3.7 3.8
Valine 5.6 5.5 6.1 6.7
SLTM 10.3 10.0 10.7 15.4
% Protein 13.3 13.6 - -
All values are g/100 g recovered amino acids.
aEstimated from the 570 nm curve.
Source: Ref. 11.
Wild Rice 293

TABLE 17 Fatty Acid Composition (% of total) of Hexane The mineral composition of wild rice compares favor-
Extracts of Wild Rice, Rice, Oat, and Wheat ably with oat, wheat, and corn [19]. Wild rice, with the ex-
Wild Brown Polished Oat ception of calcium, has a higher mineral content than
Fatty acid' rice rice rice groats Wheat brown rice (Table 12). With rice, removing the pericarp
(polishing) reduces mineral content considerably [19].
Palmitic (16.0) 14.5 20.4 33.8 16.2 24.5 With wild rice, however, scarifying causes no such reduc-
Stearic (18.0) 1.1 1.6 2.7 1.8 1.0 tion, according to Wisconsin researchers [11]. Processed
Oleic (18.1) 15.9 41.3 43.3 41.2 11.5
wild rice grain contains no vitamin A, but is an excellent
Linoleic (18.2) 37.7 34.5 18.0 38.8 56.3
source of the B vitamins-thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin
Linolenic (18.3) 30.0 1.0 0.6 1.9 3.7
(Table 18) [19].
aNumber in parentheses indicates number of carbon atoms in molecule, Antioxidants are becoming increasingly important as
with number of unsaturated carbons after decimal. possible preventive agents in preventing human heart dis-
Source: Refs. 11 and 19.
ease [21]. Wu et al. [22] found that phytate was present in
wild rice. Minerich et al. [23] demonstrated that hydrated
wild rice, if mixed with ground beef, had significant an-
a higher percentage of the protein than in most other cere- tioxidant activity. Ground beef mixed with hydrated wild
als (Tables 14, 15). The SLTM value (the sum of lysine, rice displayed lower values of thiobarbituric acid-reactive
threonine, and methionine contents) is often used as a mea- substances, and thus lower rancidity than control ground
sure of the nutritional quality of cereals for humans beef.
[11,20]. The similarity in amino acid composition of
processed and unprocessed wild rice indicates little reduc-
V. MARKETS
tion in nutritional quality through processing [11,18].
Researchers at the University of Wisconsin at Madison Since 1968 the per-pound wholesale price of processed
analyzed the different parts of the wild rice kernel for wild rice has ranged from a low of $1.50 in 1995 to a high
amino acids (Table 16) [11]. They found that removal of of $5.15 in 1978 (Table 19) [24,25]. Price variations be-
the pericarp produced a slight reduction in the levels of tween 1968 and 1977 reflected limited and erratic supplies
histidine and arginine. However, total removal of the peri- due to variations in lake and early paddy harvests. The
carp had little influence on either amino acid distribution high prices of 1978 through 1980 reflected attempts by
or protein content of the kernel. Lysine concentration is marketers to withhold supply; these attempts were short-
highest in the embryo, and lysine content is reduced if the lived because the high prices simply encouraged increased
embryo is lost during processing or cooking. production. Expansion in Minnesota was modest during
The fatty acid composition of wild rice and several oth- 1978-1980, but California doubled production annually
er cereal grains is given in Table 17 [11]. Although wild through 1981. By 1981, high inventory storage costs were
rice contains less than 1% fat, linolenic acid comprises a forcing the sale of stocks and prices returned to market de-
much higher proportion of the fat than in rice, wheat, or termined levels. Production increased 26% per year be-
oats. Linoleic and linolenic acids, which make up about tween 1982 and 1984, but markets were able to absorb this
68% of the total fatty acids, are easily oxidized and make increase with only a slight drop in price. In 1985, Califor-
wild rice quite susceptible to the development of rancid nia production more than doubled over 1984, and prices
odors. However, the high level of linoleic acid in the fat of have declined sharply since then but prices have been
wild rice makes the fat highly nutritious. somewhat stable since 1988. The prices in the late 1980s

TABLE 18 Vitamin Content of Wild Rice and Other Cereals

Wild Brown Polished Hard red
Vitamin rice rice rice Oats winter wheat Corn
Thiamine (mg/100 g) 0.45 0.34 0.07 0.60 0.52 0.37
Riboflavin (mg/100 g) 0.63 0.05 0.03 0.14 0.12 0.12
Niacin (mg/100g) 6.2 4.7 1.6 1.0 4.3 2.2
Vitamin C (mg/100 g) 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vitamin A (IU) 0 0 0 0 0 490
Source: Refs. 11 and 19.
294 Oelke and Boedicker

TABLE 19 Wild Rice Wholesale

Prices, 1968-1998

Wholesale prices
Year ($/processed pound)

1968 3.27
1969 2.66
1970 2.88
1971 2.71
1972 2.34
1973 2.11
1974 2.37
1975 2.51
1976 2.68
1977 4.25
1978 5.15
1979 5.01
1980 4.47
1981 3.79
1982 3.40
1983 3.35 FIGURE 30 Percentage breakdown for wild rice sales by type
1984 3.30 of market outlet for the 1982 crop year.
1985 3.25
1986 2.75
1987 2.10 market outlet for the 1982 crop year [24]. About one third
1988 1.65 of the wild rice sold that year was in the pure form. How-
1989 1.65 ever, a large portion of even these sales eventually reaches
1990 1.70 the consumer in the form of blends prepared by restaurants
1991 1.70 and other users. Long grain wild rice is preferred for the
1992 1.70 pure market; however, a considerable amount of short or
1993 1.65 broken grain is also sold in pure form for use in soups and
1994 1.65 stuffings. Wild rice sales by market outlet would be similar
1995 1.50
for the 1997 crop year.
1996 1.50
An emerging market is the mixing of cooked wild rice
1997 1.50
with various meats such as ground beef, pork, and break-
Prices since 1988 are prices paid to cultivated fast sausage patties and links to utilize wild rice antioxi-
wild rice producers and include the processing dant characteristics [22]. Markets for this use are expected
costs that producers pay. The prices do not re- to expand. The demand for wild rice should continue to in-
flect wholesalers' cost.
Source: Refs. 4, 6, 24, and 25. crease particularly because of the more stable prices dur-
ing the last several years. Wild rice is now also marketed in
Europe, Australia, and Japan as well as in Canada and the
United States.
and 1990s do not include costs that marketers need for
their inputs. REFERENCES
Wild rice markets have expanded at a vigorous rate over
the last 12 years, especially during the 1982-1984 period, 1. Steeves, T. A., Wild rice-Indian food and a modern delica-
cy, Econ. Bot., 6:107-142 (1952).
when demand increased an average of 15% per year [24].
2. Aiken, S. G., Lee, P. F., Punter, D., and Stewart, J. M., Wild
Presently, other types of blends containing wild rice are
Rice in Canada, Publ. 1830, Agriculture Canada, Win-
also available, such as soups, vegetable-based side dishes, nipeg, 1988.
and convenience foods such as dehydrated mixes and 3. Oelke, E., Grava, J., Noetzel, D., Barron, D., Percich, J.,
frozen entrees. Wild rice blends have helped to increase Schertz, C., Strait, J., and Stucker, R. Wild Rice Production
consumer awareness of wild rice in the United States from in Minnesota, Agr. Ext. Serv., Univ. of Minnesota, AG-BU-
8 to 30% in recent years [24]. 0546, 1982.
Figure 30 shows the percentage of wild rice sales by 4. Oelke, E. A., Porter, R. A., Grombacher, A. W., and Addis,
Wild Rice
P. B. Wild rice-new interest in an old crop, Cereal Foods
World, 42:234-247 (1997).
5. Stevenson, S., Wild Rice Report 1987-Northwestern Re-
gion of Ontario, Ont. Min. Nat. Res., Kenora, Ontario,
1988.
6. Winchell, E. H., and Dahl, R. P., Wild Rice Production,
Prices and Marketing, Agr. Exp. Sta., University of Min-
nesota, Misc. Pub. 29, 1984.
7. Homer, D., and Orcajada, P., Wild Rice Production in
Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan Agr., La Ronge, Saskatch-
ewan, 1985.
8. Archibold, 0. W., Wild Rice in Saskatchewan-Agricultur-
al Development in Harmony with Nature-A Reference
Manual, Saskatchewan Agr. and Food, La Ronge, Sas-
katchewan, 1994.
9. Oelke, E. A., and Strait, J., Wild rice production and
processing, in Handbook of Processing and Utilization
in Agriculture, Vol. II, Part 1-Plant Products, (I. A.
Wolff, ed.), CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL, 1982, pp.
329-357.
10. Strait, J., Nordquist, D. W., and Boedicker, J. J., Separation
of immature kernels from combined wild rice, in Progress
Report of 1976 Wild Rice Research Report Sta., University
of Minnesota, 1977, pp. 97-110.
11. Lund D., Lindsay, R., Marth, E., and Stuiber, D., Methods
to Extend the Storage Life of Green, Wet Wild Rice, Depart-
ment of Food Science Publication, University of Wiscon-
sin, Madison, 1977.
12. Goel, M. C., Marth, E. H., Stuiber, D. A. Lund, D. B., and
Lindsey, R. C., Changes in the microfilm of wild rice dur-
ing curing by fermentation, Milk Food Technol, 35:385-
391 (1972).
13. Strait, J., Donaldson, E., and Boedicker, J., Wild rice pro-
cessing research, in Minnesota Wild Rice Research, 1981,
Agr. Exp. Sta., University of Minnesota, St. Paul, 1982, pp.
85-91.
14. Strait, J., Donaldson, E. J., Sigurdson, A., Voehl, M., and
Boedicker, J. J., Wild rice parching and hulling research, in
295
Minnesota Wild Rice Research, 1983, Agr. Exp. Sta. Uni-
versity of Minnesota, St. Paul, 1984, pp. 91-106.
15. Processors Committee, Minutes of processors meeting,
May 22, 1984, International Wild Rice Association, Grand
Rapids, MN, 1984.
16. Anderson, H. J. Minnesota Statistics, section 30.40, Memo
to all Processors/Wholesalers and Retailers of Wild Rice,
Department of Agriculture, State of Minnesota, St. Paul,
1989.
17. Albrecht, K. A., Oelke, E. A., and Brenner, M. L., Abscissic
acid levels in the grain of wild rice, Crop Sci., 19:671-676
(1979).
18. Candlish, B., Kneale, J., Peterson, R., Punter, D., and
Stone, G., A Guide to Wild Rice Production, Agric. Canada,
Manitoba Agric. Bull. Agdex 116, 1984.
19. Anderson, R. A., Wild rice: Nutritional review, Cereal
Chem., 53:949-955 (1976).
20. Oelke, E. A., Amino acid content in wild rice (Zizania
aquatica L.) grain, Agron. J., 68:146-148 (1976).
21. Addis, P. B., and Hassel, C. A., Safety issues with antioxi-
dants in foods, in Food Safety Assessment (J. Finley, S.
Robinson, and D. Armstrom, eds.), American Chem. Soc.
Series 484, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC,
1992, pp. 346-376.
22. Wu, K. Zhang, W., Addis, P. B., Epley, R. J., Salih, A., and
Lehrfeld, J., Antioxidant properties of wild rice, J. Agric.
Food Chem., 42: 34 (1994).
23. Minerich, P. L., Addis, P. B., Epley, R. J., and Bingham, C.,
Properties of wild rice/ground beef mixtures, J. Food Sci.,
56: 1154 (1991).
24. Nelson, R. N., and Dahl, R. P., The Wild Rice Industry:
Economic Analysis of Rapid Growth and Implications for
Minnesota, Department of Agric. and App. Econ., Univer-
sity of Minnesota, St. Paul, Staff Paper Series P86-25,
1986.
25. Nelson, R. N., and Dahl, R. P., Wild Rice Market Shows
Vigorous Growth, Agr. Ext. Serv., University of Minnesota,
St. Paul, Minnesota Agr. Econ. No. 649, 1985.
11
OILSEEDS AND OIL-BEARING MATERIALS
Edmund W. Lusas
Ed Lusas, Problem Solvers, Inc., Bryan, Texas
I. VARIETIES, PRODUCTION AND TRADE
A. Introduction
1. Major Oilseeds
The world's five major annual edible oilseeds are soybean,
Glycine max (L.) Merr. [1,2]; cottonseed from primarily
American Upland Cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L. [3,4];
rapeseed/canola, Brassica napus L. B. rapa L. (previously
called B. campestris L.), and B. juncea L. [5,6]; sunflower
seed, Helianthus annuus L. var. marcocarpus DC. [7,8];
and peanut (groundnut), Arachis hypogaea L. [9-11].
In oilseeds, energy for the sprouting embryo is stored
primarily in the form of oil, rather than starch, as in wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.), corn (Zea mays L.), rice (Oryza
sativa L.), or dry field beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Un-
like seeds of the grass family (Gramineae), where oil is
concentrated in a germ that lies along the side of the
endosperm, the entire hull content ("meats") of oilseeds
is the "germ." It typically consists of a rootlet (hypo-
cotyl) and two cotyledons (leaves) that are pushed above
the soil and unfold at germination. Unlike animals, which
have dedicated fat storage cells, oil in oilseeds is distrib-
uted in spheresomes throughout the germ cells. Recovery
of oil (primarily triglycerides and phospholipids) from
oilseeds is facilitated by rupturing the cell walls by heat
and pressure during flaking, and by optional extrusion
with an "expander," followed by pressing or solvent ex-
traction. Waxes from the pericarp (hull), which protect the
seed against drying, are often also solubilized by the sol-
vent or oil.
297
2. Oil-Bearing Materials
Oil-bearing materials typically are by-products from pro-
cessing cereal grains and animals that are extracted for
their fats/oils. Examples include corn germ [12,13] and
rice bran [14,15] oils extracted for food use, and wheat
germ oil [16,17] extracted for its highly valued vitamin E
and natural antioxidant properties. More protein meals and
hulls than fat/oil, by weight, are always produced in pro-
cessing oilseeds and oil-bearing materials.
In the United States, edible tallow (beef fat), lard (pork
fat), and chicken fat are rendered under supervision of U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Safety Inspec-
tion Service inspectors [18-20].
Considerably larger quantities of inedible tallows,
greases, and poultry fat are rendered for use in animal feeds
or sale to the oleochemicals industry [21-23]. Spent frying
oils from restaurants and manufacturers of fried foods are
collected and reprocessed for the same market. Re-
processed skimmings from grease traps are sold for oleo-
chemical use. In the United States' inedible trade, fats are
called "tallows" if, after saponification by the American Oil
Chemists' Society titer test (AOCS Cc 12-59), solidifica-
tion occurs above 40°C (104°F) and "greases" if solidifica-
tion occurs below this temperature. The demarcation tem-
perature varies among countries and 38°C (100.4°F) is used
by some. At the low-price end of fats/oils, prices for feed-
grade tallows and greases and oleochemical feedstocks are
first capped by imported palm oil fractions, then by crude
soybean oil. The current emphasis on adding value to by-
products, reducing polluting discharges, and rising costs of
298
waste disposal, foretell increased scavenging of fats and
oils from oil-bearing materials in the future.
Fish oils are produced from many species as co-prod-
ucts of fish meal manufacture [24-26]. The meals and
much of the oil are used for animal feeds, but some oil is
refined for food uses including the production of margarine
in Europe.
3. Other Fats and Oil Sources
This chapter focuses on processing and utilization of soy-
bean, cottonseed, rapeseed/canola, sunflower seed, peanut,
and corn germ. Information about growing and/or process-
ing other oilseeds and oil-bearing materials is available
through the references. Other oils obtained from annual
(field crop) seeds include safflower seed from Carthamus
tinctorius L., a thistle-like plant [27,28]; sesame, Sesamum
indicum L. [29]; pumpkin seed, Cucurbita pepo [17]; and
tomato seed, Lycopersicum esculentum [17].
Perennial oilseeds include Theobroma cacao, the
source of cocoa butter and the major component of choco-
late [30]; coconut, from the palm Cocos nucifera L. [31];
grapeseed, Vitis vinifera [17] from wine making; and vari-
ous tree nuts [17]. Oils are extracted from the mesocarps
(flesh, pulp) of olive, Olea europae L. [32,33], and oil
palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq. [34]. Palm oil is the world's
second major oil after soybean. A secondary product, palm
kernel oil, is derived from the inner hard-shelled core of
palm fruits [34]. The two oils differ markedly in composi-
tion and application, with palm oil (high in C16 palmitic
fatty acid and C18 fatty acids) used for cooking and palm
kernel oil (high in C12 lauric fatty acid) used in soaps, de-
tergents, and cocoa butter substitutes. The high price of co-
coa butter attracts alternative fats with similar properties
for use in confections and coatings. CBEs (cocoa butter
equivalents or extenders) are used to replace some or all
cocoa butter); CBRs (cocoa butter replacements) replace
most or all cocoa butter; and CBSs (cocoa butter substi-
tutes) are not compatible with cocoa butter and replace it
entirely. CBEs and CBRs can be made from annual (low
lauric fatty acid) oilseeds.
Annual industrial oilseeds include flaxseed, Linium usi-
tatissium, the source of linseed oil, long used as a drying
oil in paints and coatings and currently intensively studied
for nutritional properties of its omega polyunsaturated fat-
ty acids [17,35], and castor seed, Ricinus communis,
whose relatively unique hydroxy oil is beneficially used in
paints, coatings, and as a plasticizer in plastics [36]. Erucic
acid was bred out of rapeseed by Canadian scientists be-
cause of human health concerns to produce a new crop
called "canola." Industrial needs for erucic acid now are
supplied by continued cultivation of traditional rapeseed
varieties and by crambe (Crambe abyssinica) [37]. Tung
Lusas
trees, Aleurites fordii Montana, introduced from China, are
again grown in the southeastern United States. They pro-
duce a nut containing a drying oil used for wood stains and
coatings [17]. Tall oil, a mixture of rosins, fatty acids, and
unsaponifiables, is scavenged from the Kraft pulping
process of pine wood and used in coatings and other oleo-
chemical applications [23].
4. Definitions of Fats and Oils
The terms "fat" and "oil" have been applied by tradition
rather than on a technical basis. At times, "oils" have
meant triglycerides of plant origin and "fats" indicated an-
imal origin. In this chapter, "oils" are triglycerides that are
liquid at the temperature observed, and "fats" are semisol-
id mixtures of triglyceride crystals and oils.
5. Analytical Methods
The Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the
AOCS [38] is the analytical authority for the oilseeds,
meals and protein products, fats and oils, industrial oils,
and the soaps and detergents industries. The methods are
developed in cooperation with the AOAC (Association Of-
ficial Analytical Chemists) and recognized by the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA). AOCS methods are
revised as needed, and updates to the loose-leaf manual are
issued annually. New methods or changes go through an
established review process, including evaluations in col-
laborating laboratories, and are issued in "tentative" status
for comment for at least one year before acceptance as
"Official." Outdated methods are declared "surplus" and
are no longer published but retain official status.
The AOCS conducts a voluntary Smalley Check Sample
Program and distributes various samples for analytical lab-
oratories to evaluate the relative performance of their
chemists. Feedback from this program provides informa-
tion on sensitivity and precision (coefficients of variation)
of methods. Surplus samples from annual programs can be
purchased for use as reference standards. AOCS also con-
ducts a program for certifying chemists for specific analy-
ses. Certified chemists often are used as referees when sam-
ple analyses are disputed by buyers or sellers.
Rapid and on-line methods may be used by manufactur-
ers for quality control of daily production. But the Official
AOCS/AOAC Methods are the final authority when dis-
putes arise between processors and regulatory agencies
and between buyers and sellers unless other methods are
specified in the trading contract. Users of nonofficial meth-
ods bear responsibility for correlation of their methods
with Official Methods.
6. Primary and Secondary Products
The major reason for growing any crop is its primary prod-
uct, even though it may account for a relatively small frac-
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
tion of total product weight. Primary products typically
have well-defined markets and few if any substitutes. But
secondary products generally are functionally interchange-
able with alternatives and require competitive marketing to
move them in the trade.
Markets for primary products affect the secondary
product industries in various ways. Costs of producing cot-
ton in the United States are competitive globally, and near-
ly 40% of domestically produced fiber is exported. As a re-
sult, production of cotton in the United States is driven by
world demand. Cottonseed, the secondary product, ac-
counts for about 64% of dried boll weight, but only for
12-15% of total return from the crop to the grower. Thus,
the supply of cottonseed is mainly affected by land area
planted and yearly growing conditions, and is hardly influ-
enced by the price of cottonseed oil. The relatively small
return from cottonseed to the farmer discourages research
expenditures to improve seed quality, especially if fiber
yields might be reduced.
The domestic market for cottonseed as a dairy cattle
feed has grown rapidly over the past 15 years. Dairy cattle
feeders are able to pay more for cottonseed than oil extrac-
tion plants and currently capture slightly more than one
half of the seed produced in typical years. In years of
smaller cotton crops, dairy cattle feeders take a far greater
portion of the seed produced and disrupt orderly cotton-
seed oil milling. During the past decade, domestic cotton
production increased by about 67%, resulting in a surplus
of cottonseed in some areas despite the growing feed mar-
ket. Three new oil mills (extraction plants) were construct-
ed in the southeastern United States, and selected existing
facilities modernized and expanded, to handle the in-
creased supply. Finding additional domestic and export
markets for the increased supplies of cottonseed meal and
oil are high industry priorities now.
Although corn contains only about 4.5% oil, it is con-
centrated mainly in the germ, which is separated during
wet or dry milling processes for later extraction. Domestic
production of starch, corn sweeteners, and alcohol has
grown to the extent that corn currently is the second major
oil produced in the United States after soybean. Usually,
corn oil sells at a premium over soybean oil, but periods of
oversupply have occurred when it has been discounted to
clear inventories.
In most of the world, peanuts are grown primarily for
their oil, and press cakes and meals frequently are contam-
inated with aflatoxin. In contrast, the United States has de-
veloped techniques for minimizing aflatoxin development
and for sorting out contaminated kernels. It enjoys a glob-
al peanut export market [10]. Peanuts crushed domestical-
ly are mainly culls from sorting food-grade peanuts, afla-
toxin-contaminated stock, and lots released from federal
299
price-support storage programs. A price premium has ex-
isted for peanut oil domestically because of preferences in
cooking and the small quantity produced.
Soybeans are grown primarily for their meal to fill the
feed protein gap left by meat and fish meals, and meals of
other oilseeds, in meeting needs of the world's broiler,
pork, and aquaculture (fish and shrimp) producers. Al-
though soybean oil sells for more per metric ton than the
meal, it accounts for slightly less than 19% of total product
weight. About two thirds of total crop return to soybean
producers has long come from soybean meal [39]. Meal is
the primary product and oil is secondary. Soybean pro-
vides about 62% of the world's oilseed meal supply and si-
multaneously is the major source of oil, accounting for
about 28% of total production. Even though cottonseed,
corn, canola, and peanut oils are preferred for specific ap-
plications, as shown by higher market prices, the immense
supply of readily available soybean oil has a price-capping
effect on all oil species.
Palm, rapeseed/canola, sunflower seed, olive, and saf-
flower oils are primary products; soybean, cottonseed, and
corn oils and tallow and lard are secondary products. How-
ever, inventories of both primary and secondary products
may be cleared to ensure continued profitability and opera-
tion of extraction plants. In this regard, establishment of
markets for new oil and protein crops is difficult unless
they offer advantages readily recognized by the buyer.
7. Prospects for the Future
The increasing world population assures growing markets
for oil-source crops. Currently, approximately 102 million
metric tons of various oils and fats are used globally each
year. Fat and oil usage has increased by about 3 million
metric tons per year for the last 5 years and is approaching
the 4 million metric ton per year growth rate. Per capita
consumption of fats and oils increases as societies become
more prosperous. Once a society experiences fats in its
diet, demand seldom decreases even during economic re-
cessions. The domestic emphasis on reduced dietary fat in-
take in recent years has mainly shifted consumers from an-
imal fats to vegetable oils, but per capita consumption has
continued to increase.
Many benefits are reaped from variety improvements.
Using traditional selective breeding practices, domestic re-
searchers developed sunflower seed with oils containing
80-90% oleic acid two decades ago. In the last decade and
a half, linolenic acid (a highly oxidizable component) was
reduced in soybean oil by about one half. With the assis-
tance of newer genetic engineering techniques, soybeans
without lipoxygenase (the enzyme that causes "beany fla-
vor") have been developed and are being readied for re-
lease to growers.
300
The scientific community had been perplexed by data
showing that saturated fats in the diet increase serum cho-
lesterol levels but polyunsaturated fatty acids promote (al-
though they do not necessarily initiate) growth of tumors.
Attention has turned to the Mediterranean-type diet in
which olive oil, containing 70% monounsaturated oleic
fatty acid, plays a major role. Oils from newer varieties of
sunflower seed and canola, containing oleic acid levels
similar to olive oil, are just entering the market at signifi-
cantly lower prices. In addition to the potential health ben-
efits, replacement of polyunsaturated fatty acids by oleic
acid lengthens the frying life of oils and the shelf lives of
fried and snack foods.
Some crop breeders believe that essentially any oilseed
can be genetically modified to produce almost any major
fatty acid desired for food or industrial uses. Research has
been announced on soybean varieties with oils containing
high or low palmitic acid, high or low oleic acid, high
linolenic acid, high stearic acid contents, and on linseed oil
with high stearic acid content [40].
Cholesterol-free lards and tallows (made by steam dis-
tillation) have become available recently, but it is too early
to predict whether past negative health images of choles-
terol will be overcome and their former popularity for
cooking and frying partially regained. Concerns about the
healthfulness of the higher saturated fatty acid content of
animal and tropical oils fats in the diet continue to be
voiced.
The significance of noncaloric fat substitutes to the
oilseed industry has not been adequately explained. Pro-
tein-, carbohydrate-, and gum-based substitutes are out-
right replacers for fats and oils. However, many noncaloric
substitutes consist of fatty acids reesterified onto polyhy-
droxyl compounds by linkages not accessible to lipase hy-
drolysis. For example, OleanTM, Proctor & Gamble's com-
mercial version of OlestraTM, is an octa-fatty ester of
sucrose, whereas triglycerides are tri-fatty esters of glyc-
erol [41]. The fatty acid components are derived from tra-
ditional oilseeds, and production of one kilo of OleanTM
has been reported to use more than a kilo of cottonseed oil.
Consumption of animal products, especially poultry,
swine and aquaculture-produced species, is increasing and
ensures expanding markets for animal feed proteins into
the foreseeable future. Soybean meal contains about
10-12% oligosaccharides, which are not digestible by
poultry, swine or humans. The recently introduced "high-
sucrose soybeans," in which formation of stachyose and
raffinose have been genetically blocked, is expected to re-
duce flatulence problems in humans and to increase metab-
olizable energy content of soybean meals fed to monogas-
tric animals. Soybeans with low trypsin inhibitors
(arresters of protein digestion) have been released.
Lusas
The price-sensitive "corn-soybean index" has dictated
the ratios of these crops fed to swine for many years. Re-
search has long been underway to develop lysine-rich ce-
reals and methionine-rich oilseeds that may no longer re-
quire complementation by the other's essential amino
acids. In recent years, large fermentation facilities have
been constructed to produce essential amino acids for sup-
plementing animal feeds. The future of feeds is likely to
include:
Efforts to develop balanced-nutrition in corn and soybean
varieties
Changes in cereal:oilseed ratios fed to animals
Increased availability of essential amino acid concentrates
for use as feed supplements
Increased use of probiotics (microbial cultures to benefi-
cially dominate digestive tracts)
Inclusion of active enzymes in feeds to improve utilization
efficiency by animals
B. Selection of Crops and Production and
Processing Sites
1. General Climatic Effects
Species and variety requirements, local soils and climatic
conditions, seasons of water availability, periods of high
insect activity and plant diseases, markets, and production
costs are among the many factors considered when select-
ing crops to be grown in specific locations. Most modern
oilseed crops are grown far from the sites where they were
discovered or initially cultivated.
Plant tolerance to seasonal temperatures is a major fac-
tor. The general polar-to-equator order of oilseeds cultiva-
tion is rapeseed/canola, sunflower seed, soybean, safflower
seed, peanut, cottonseed, sesame, olive, coconut, and oil
palm. Strict latitude bands cannot be drawn because of mi-
croclimate differences resulting from oceanic currents and
prevailing wind patterns. Cooler temperatures at higher al-
titudes sometimes enable growing temperate zone crops
near the equator.
2. Photoperiod Effects
Photoperiod (hours of sunlight required for blossoming) is
critical in growing some varieties. Determinant varieties
flower at a specific time of the year, basically when the
days begin to shorten at the latitude to which they are ac-
climated; indeterminant varieties continue to flower and
set seed/fruit until the weather curtails plant growth [42].
Plants raised outside of their optimum photoperiod lati-
tudes may grow very well and produce large quantities of
biomass, but often will not flower or produce seed. Soy-
beans are especially photosensitive, with 12 maturity
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
FIGURE 1 Hypothetical regions of 10 maturity groups of soy-
bean varieties adapted for use in southern Canada and the United
States. Group 000 varieties have been developed for locations
further north and Group IX for the Carribean. (From Ref. 43.)
groups (000 through IX) recognized. A hypothetical map
of the 10 maturity groups recognized in the United States
is shown in Figure 1 [43].
Agronomists have taken advantage of photoperiod re-
quirements of soybeans for special situations. For exam-
ple, Group IV maturity soybeans (normally grown in
southern Missouri and Kansas) are planted in the southern
states early to produce short-season crops before the spring
water supply is exhausted. In irrigated areas, indeterminant
varieties are planted as second crops and their growth ter-
minated at will by discontinuing irrigation.
In contrast, photoperiod is less important in growing
sunflower seed. Seed has been produced in Texas for plant-
ing the succeeding year's crop in North Dakota.
3. Effects of Temperature at Seed Maturation
on Fatty Acid Profiles
Unsaturation of fatty acids increases in plants raised in
cooler climates, presumably to reduce oil viscosity. This
effect is easily demonstrated in plants with low sensitivity
to photoperiod. In trials in the 1970s involving the same
seed lots of 10 sunflower hybrids and 2 varieties grown in
26 locations from Canada to Mexico, the average oil con-
tent ranged from 33.2 to 54.3%; monounsaturated oleic
acid content ranged from 15.1 to 59.3% of total oil; and
linoleic (diunsaturated) acid content ranged from 74.0 to
301
31.8% [44]. In other trials, oils from sunflower seeds
grown in the northern United States and Canada contained
about 70% linoleic acid and had iodine values of 130-138.
They were suitable for semi-drying oil applications and
were promoted at that time for home cooking uses because
of high polyunsaturated fatty acid content. In contrast,
southern-grown sunflower seed oil had higher oleic acid
content, iodine values of 105-121, and performed better in
applications requiring high-stability oils like commercial
continuous food frying [45].
Production of linoleic acid is inversely related to the
temperature of seed maturation. Studies have shown that
oils of sunflower seeds grown in south Texas in the winter-
time have linoleic acid contents similar to those grown in
Canada during the summer. Higher polyunsaturation also
has been shown in oils of soybeans grown at the northern
limits of their respective maturity groups compared to
southern limits, but the differences have not been as large
as in oils from sunflower seed produced across the much
wider belt of northern North Dakota to southern Texas. Al-
though protein contents vary inversely with oil content, the
literature does not link differences in essential amino acid
compositions of seed proteins to maturation temperature.
4. Oilseed Production, Collection, and
Processing Sites
Oilseed and cereal crops are grown where land and water
availability, as well as transportation costs, provide the
best return to farmers. Formerly, animals, the users of pro-
tein concentrates, were raised as close to population cen-
ters as possible to reduce costs of refrigerated shipment.
However, development of large-scale feeding operations,
aquaculture grow-out ponds, and integrated poultry grow-
ing-packing operations have resulted in problems of ma-
nure disposal, feed lot run-off, and treatment of fish pond
waters before discharge into public waterways.
Increased urban complaints about characteristic agri-
cultural odors have been even more difficult to handle.
Modern domestic interstate highways and rail lines allow
considerable flexibility in relocating animal feeding cen-
ters to sparsely populated areas. For example, some agri-
cultural economists are forecasting that the Oklahoma
Panhandle and adjoining areas in Texas, southeastern Col-
orado, and southwestern Kansas will become a major soy-
bean- and swine-producing area.
Massive oilseed collecting, storage, and shipping facili-
ties are required to participate in the export trade. Dedicat-
ed unit trains, and barges on rivers and waterways, are
used for moving large quantities of oilseeds and cereal
grains to ship loading ports. Large (3000-4000 tons/day)
oilseed processing plants also have been located along the
same rail lines and waterways.
302 Lusas

5. Whole Oilseed and Product Trade
Environmental impact and other government policies may
affect the selection of processing sites. A dichotomy exists
regarding shipping whole oilseeds or oils and meals. Brazil
and Argentina have long encouraged maximum domestic
processing of oilseeds by imposing higher export tariffs on
soybeans compared to soybean meal and oil, while the
United States has favored open trade. Currently, the United
States exports about 39% of its domestic crop as whole
soybeans, compared to 14.6% for Brazil and 16.8% for Ar-
gentina. United States soybean meal exports are 18.5% of
domestic production, compared with 70.1% for Brazil and
98.0% for Argentina; oil exports are 6.5%, 25.1%, and
38.7% of production, respectively.
"Who gets the processing jobs-the exporting or the
importing nation?" This has long been a major issue. In re-
ality, with modern automated and computer-controlled ter-
minals, extraction plants and oil refineries, the number of
processing jobs at stake has decreased significantly. The
exporting nations still want to maximize returns from val-
ue-adding activities. The importing nations see different
issues, including:
Local processing facilities provide more flexibility in glob-
al trading when crop production is reduced in tradition-
al supplier countries by weather or other reasons.
Even though the crops to be processed are imported, local
processing facilities are politically more acceptable and
provide a feeling of food independence.
Oilseeds ship and store best intact-losses in yield occur
when crude-degummed, or once-refined, oils are re-
processed before use.
Keeping seed whole provides more flexibility in assign-
ment to buyers and uses.
participants) own processing facilities in the EU and in
South America, especially Brazil.
The oilseed and feedstuff trading industries are global.
A wide array of arrangements exists: U.S. companies own
overseas oilseed and feed processing facilities; overseas
firms own domestic oilseed and feed operations; and some
food/feed-importing countries have invested in crop-pro-
ducing countries-e.g., major Japanese holdings in Brazil.
Oilseeds sometimes are processed in transit:
Imported soybeans are extracted in Portugal, and much of
the oil and meal are sent to European Union countries.
Singapore has no animal production industry, but soybeans
are imported, extracted, and the products shipped to
Southeast Asia markets.
Soybeans are imported and processed in Malaysia, the
world's leading palm oil producer and exporter. The
meal is kept for the rapidly expanding broiler and aqua-
culture industries, and the degummed crude soybean oil
is reexported to Australia and other countries.
C. World Production of Oilseeds, Oils/Fats,
and Protein Meal Products
World production data for oilseeds, oils/fats, and protein
meals are shown in Tables 1 through 7 [46]. Production
figures for oil-bearing materials are not readily available
because the U.S. Bureau of the Census does not publish re-
ports on industries with four or fewer companies. Only two
domestic locations are known to extract rice bran oil.
The world's five major oilseeds, in diminishing order,
are soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed/canola, peanut, and sun-
flower seed (Table 1). Palm is the second major oil and has

Although the global wheat market is able to keep six or

more types segregated, a general purpose soybean has TABLE 1 World Production and Disposition of Major
been mainly traded in the past. Experiences in producing Oilseeds, 1996/1997 Estimates' (million metric tons)
and exporting identity-preserved (IP) soybeans, as used in Ending
making tofu, are relatively new. Problems of (1) preserv- Oilseed Production Exports Crush stocks
ing identity of multivarieties postharvest, (2) anticipating
Soybean 131.71 35.54 114.84 13.06
needs of specific overseas markets as much as 18 months
Cottonseed 33.99 0.79 26.23 0.61
in advance to contract production, and (3) assuming the
Peanut 26.56 1.47 14.56 0.50
supply and price risks, will have to be resolved by traders Sunflowerseed 23.66 2.74 21.68 1.20
and processors of soybeans before full advantage can be Rapeseed/Canola 30.62 5.41 28.56 0.94
taken of varieties with special properties being readied by Copra 5.40 0.22 5.40 0.10
breeders. Palm kernel 5.29 0.06 5.22 0.17
Once imported seeds are processed within a trading Total 257.23 46.23 216.49 16.58
bloc (like the former European Common Market, now the
'Split year includes Northern Hemisphere crops harvested in first year
European Union, or EU), their oil and feed products pass combined with Southern Hemisphere crops harvested in the succeeding
readily across national borders. For trading advantages, year.
major U.S. oilseed processors (alone or jointly with local Source: Ref. 46.
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 303

TABLE 2 World Production and Disposition of Major TABLE 3 World Production and Disposition of Major Protein
Vegetable and Marine Oils, 1996/1997 Estimatesa Meals, 1996/1997 Estimatesa (million metric tons)
(million metric tons)
Ending
Ending Source Production Exports Consumption Stocks
Oilseed Production Exports Consumption Stocks
Soybean 91.17 33.30 91.96 3.95
Vegetable oils Rapeseed/Canola 17.39 4.16 17.21 0.60
Soybean 20.41 5.74 20.42 2.40 Cottonseed 12.28 0.82 12.31 0.16
Palm 16.78 10.54 16.39 1.66 Sunflowerseed 9.79 2.94 9.84 0.41
Rapeseed/ Fish 6.36 4.00 6.39 0.89
Canola 10.57 2.25 10.73 0.34 Peanut 5.94 0.55 5.94 0.02
Sunflower seed 8.56 3.20 8.75 0.86 Palm kernel 2.75 2.35 2.55 0.27
Peanut 4.07 0.20 4.10 0.05 Copra 1.83 1.09 1.79 0.07
Cottonseed 3.84 0.49 3.87 0.11 Total 147.51 49.21 147.18 6.37
Coconut 3.35 1.70 3.17 0.28
aSplit year includes Northern Hemisphere crops harvested in first year
Palm kernel 2.28 1.04 2.16 0.23
combined with Southern Hemisphere crops harvested in the succeeding
Olive 2.24 0.82 1.90 0.80 year.
Total Source: Ref. 46.
vegetable oils 72.10 25.27 71.48 6.72
Marine oils
Fish 1.36 0.86 1.32 0.32
Animal fats
ited than for other oilseeds. In contrast, soybean meal is a
Butter fat 4.30
very versatile protein concentrate feedstuff and is sought
Tallow and
grease 8.00 for broiler, swine, dairy, and aquaculture production. Al-
Total fats though substantial amounts of peanut meal are produced, it
and oils 85.76 often is contaminated with aflatoxins and diverted to fertil-
izer or fed in carefully monitored operations. Copra is
aSplit year includes Northern Hemisphere crops harvested in first year dried coconut tissue that yields an extremely high-fiber
combined with Southern Hemisphere crops harvested in the succeeding
year. meal, often contaminated with aflatoxins, after extraction.
Source: Ref. 46. The top five nations producing soybean, cottonseed,
peanut, sunflower seed, and rapeseed/canola are listed in
Table 4. China, with a large population to feed, is the
world's third largest producer of soybeans and the major
been gaining rapidly on soybean. The oils in diminishing producer of cottonseed, peanuts, and rapeseed/canola-
order are soybean, palm, rapeseed/canola, sunflower seed, much of the latter reported to be traditional rapeseed.
and peanut (Table 2). The protein meals are soybean, rape- Large demands for fiber for textiles and clothing for their
seed/canola, cottonseed, sunflower seed, and fish-only populations, and exports of baled cotton and finished
slightly ahead of peanut (Table 3). Non-USDA sources es- goods, explain the production of cottonseed in China, the
timate world production of corn oil at approximately 1.85 United States, India, Pakistan, and the former Soviet
million metric tons and edible lard at 5.90 million metric Union. Relatively short growing seasons explain the high
tons. It should be noted that year-to-year world carryover production of rapeseed/canola in China, the European
(ending stocks) is 6.4% for oilseeds, 9.3% for oil, and Union, Canada and eastern Europe, and of sunflower seed
4.3% for meals-less than one month's supply as buffers in the former Soviet Union, the European Union, and east-
against major crop failures. ern Europe.
The tables provide insight into the relationships be- The major producers, exporters, importers, and crushers
tween crop growing, seed-handling characteristics, and (extractors) of whole soybean are ranked in Table 5. The
their trade. Cottonseed does not flow in seed-handling United States produces 49% of the world's soybeans. Its
equipment, and relatively little is exported. It contains open trade policy explains its 73% share of the whole soy-
gossypol, a green-brown pigment toxic to monogastric an- bean export market. The world's whole soybean importers
imals but tolerated to a limited extent by mature ruminants. are Japan, Taiwan, and Mexico, with large populations to
Techniques have been developed to decolorize cottonseed feed, and the Netherlands and Germany, with deep sea-
oil and to greatly reduce active gossypol in meals. But the ports and processing facilities who also supply meals for
feed use options for cottonseed and its meal are more lim- animal industries in neighboring countries. Many former
304 Lusas

TABLE 4 World's Major Producers of Oilseeds, 1996/1997 Estimatesa (million metric tons)

Producer rank Soybean Cottonseed Peanut Sunflower seed Rapeseed/Canola

1 United States (49%b) China (22%) China (38%) FSU-12' (22%) China (30%)
2 Brazil (20%) United States (19%) India (31%) Argentina (22%) Eur. Union' (23%)
3 China (10%) India (16%) United States (6%) Eur. Union (17%) India (21%)
4 Argentina (9%) Pakistan (9%) Senegal (2%) E. Europe' (13%) Canada (17%)
5 Paraguay (2%) FSU-12 (8%) Sudan (2%) United States (7%) E. Europe (4%)
6 Other (10%) Other (26%) Other (21%) Other (19%) Other (5%)

aSplit year includes Northern Hemisphere crops harvested in first year combined with Southern Hemisphere crops harvested in the succeeding
year.
bPercent of world's total activity.
`FSU-12 = Former Soviet Union countries.
dEur. Union = European Union countries.
E. Europe = eastern Europe.
Source: Calculated from data in Ref. 46.

TABLE 5 World's Major Producers, Importers, and Processors of Whole Soybean, 1996/1997 Estimatesa (million
metric tons)

Rank Producers Exporters Importers Crushers

1 United States (49%b) United States (73%) Japan (15%) United States (33%)
2 Brazil (20%) Brazil (11%) Netherlands (13%) Brazil (19%)
3 China (10%) Argentina (7%) Germany (10%) Asia (18%)
4 Argentina (9%) Paraguay (5%) Taiwan (8%) Eur. Union' (12%)
5 Paraguay (2%) China (1%) Mexico (8%) Argentina (9%)
6 Other (10%) Other (3%) Other (48%) Other (9%)

aSplit year includes Northern Hemisphere crops harvested in first year combined with Southern Hemisphere crops harvested in the suc-
ceeding year.
bPercent of world's total activity.
Tut Union = European Union countries.
Source: Ref. 46.

Third World countries are enjoying unprecedented pros-
perity from industrialization and international trade, and
local demands are increasing for vegetable oils and animal
products. Some forecasters predict that production of edi-
ble oils and feed proteins will grow at a faster rate than the
world's population for the foreseeable future.
Table 6 shows the effects of (1) soybean-processing fa-
cilities in Asia and Oceania (Japan, Taiwan, China, and
Southeast Asia) and the European Union, (2) local tariffs
in Argentina and Brazil to promote shipments of soybean
oil and meal, and (3) processing and reshipment among na-
tions of the EU. Oil importers generally are nations with
limited soybean-processing capacities, or that are acting to
fill short-term shortages of edible oils. The same pattern is
essentially repeated in processing, exporting, importing,
and consumption of soybean meal (Table 7).
II. OIL EXTRACTION
A. Principles in Common
Extraction practices vary from crop to crop and between
oils mills processing the same species. Space restrictions
do not allow describing the processing of each oilseed in
detail, but many principles apply across all oil sources.
1. Crushing Margin
Crushing margin is the difference between the total value
of all products made and oilseed price [47]. Three markets
are involved—seed, meal, and oil—each responding to
different stimuli. An accumulation of meal or oil affects an
extraction plant's ability to continue operations due to
pressures to reduce prices, the costs of financing unsold in-
ventory, and storage space limitations. Extraction plants
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 305

TABLE 6 World's Major Producers, Importers, and Processors of Soybean Oil, 1996/1997 Estimates' (million metric tons)

Rank Producers Exporters Importers Consumption

1 United States (34%b) Argentina (31%) China (27%) United States (31%)
2 Brazil (18%) Brazil (23%) Mid-East/N. Africa (20%) Asia (27%)
3 Asia (17%) Eur. Union' (21%) Latin America (18%) Eur. Union (21%)
4 Eur. Union (13%) United States (14%) Eur. Union (9%) Latin America (10%)
5 Argentina (9%) Pakistan (3%) Mid-East/N. Africa (7%)
6 Other (9%) Other (11%) Other (23%) Other (4%)

'Split year includes Northern Hemisphere crops harvested in first year combined with Southern Hemisphere crops harvested in the succeed-
ing year.
'Percent of total world activity.
cEur. Union = European Union countries.
Source: Ref. 46.

TABLE 7 World's Major Producers, Importers, and Processors of Soybean Meal, 1996/1997 Estimates'
(million metric tons)

Rank Producers Exporters Importers Consumption

1 United States (34%b) Brazil (32%) Eur. Union' (48%) United States (27%)
2 Asia (19%) Argentina (26%) Asia & Oceania (26%) Eur. Union (25%)
3 Brazil (17%) United States (18%) Mid-East/N. Africa (10%) Asia and Oceania (25%)
4 Eur. Union (13%) Eur. Union (13%) Latin America (9%) Latin America (13%)
5 Argentina (10%) India (8%) E. Europe" (5%) Mid-East/N. Africa (5%)
6 Other (7%) Other (3%) Other (2%) Other (5%)

'Split year includes Northern Hemisphere crops harvested in first year combined with Southern Hemisphere crops harvested in the succeed-
ing year.
'Percent of world's total activity.
`Eur. Union = European Union countries.
dE. Europe = eastern Europe.
Source: Ref. 46.

cannot operate long if the crushing margin becomes less
than internal costs of converting oilseeds into meal and
oil.
2. Solvents
Currently, "solvent" universally means "hexane," a vari-
able mixture of straight-chain, branched and cyclic com-
pounds from petroleum refineries, with a specific boiling
point range (approximately 64-68°C, 148-155°F), from
which recognized toxic components like benzene have
been removed. n-Hexane may comprise 40-95% of the
mixture. The solvent-oil mixture recovered from the ex-
tractor is called "miscella," and the extracted, drained, un-
desolventized solids are "marc."
Hexane has many disadvantages besides flammability,
including:
1. Under the 1990 Amendment to the Clean Air Act (PL
101-549, CAA; U.S. Code 7401), one of its major
components, n-hexane, is classified as a "volatile or-
ganic compound" (VOC), a "hazardous air pollutant"
that can undergo photochemical oxidation in the at-
mosphere to form ozone. Various legislation limits its
release/escape into the atmosphere.
2. In addition to possible toxic effects per se, inhaled or-
ganic volatile compounds are known to dissolve in
neural lipids and interfere with synapse (the passing
of impulses between neurons).
However, attempts to identify readily acceptable re-
placement solvents have not succeeded to date. Thus, reg-
ulatory activities focus on minimizing hexane losses at sol-
vent plants. Currently, the goal is to reduce the average
industry loss of hexane to less than 0.16 gallons per ton of
oilseed extracted (about 1 lb/ton), and many oil mills are
achieving 0.25 gallons/ton.
306 Lusas

Other organic solvents and extractors have been tried SEED

[48-51], as well as water [49] and supercritical dioxide
1(A) Prestorage Cleaning TRASH
[49,52]. Over the years, the nonflammable solvents have
been delisted, primarily because of toxic or teratogenic ef- 1(B) Drying 1
fects. Traditional extractors operate under a slight vacuum 1(C) Storage I
to prevent escape of solvent vapors. The few still permitted
1(D) Tempering - Cleaning 1
organic solvents would extract more effectively at higher
temperatures and pressures, but they are flammable. Their HULLS 4-1(E) Dehulling - Separating 1
use in pressurized extractors is unlikely to be implemented
mctil
commercially because of safety concerns.
„HULLS (F) Preheating - Cooking I
Oils with excellent quality have been extracted by su- SALES
percritical carbon dioxide, a nonflammable material. But (G) Flaking
the extractors are operated at pressures as high as 816 at-
mospheres (12,000 psi), and an effective means for contin- 1 (J) Prepress 14— 1(H) Cooking
uously loading and unloading flaked or expanded oilseeds (K) Expander —
at this pressure at rates required by modern oil mills has 1 (L) Expander + Cage 4- (I) Full
not been developed. (M) Solvent
Press
Extraction AmagnRECYCLE
SOLVENT
3. Extraction Processes
J(0) Desolventize 1 * CRUDE OIL
MARC MISCELLA
"Extraction" ("crushing") means separation of oil, which
(Cottonseed
is typically done by: Only)
N) Miscella Refining

1. Direct solvent extraction: oil in "low-oil" (less than
30%) seeds is solubilized by solvent; residual oil con-
tent of the meal is 0.5-1.0%.
2. "Full" ("hard") pressing: oil in "high-oil" (greater
than 30%) seeds is removed by continuous screw
presses (or ExpellersTM) alone—although a few hy-
draulic piston presses are built for special uses; resid-
ual oil in the cake is 4.5-7.5%
3. Prepress-solvent extraction: oil content of high-oil
seeds is first reduced to 16-20% by screw press, then
the cake is crumbled and extracted to about
0.75-1.25% oil content by solvent [53].
4. Flow Sheet
A general oil extraction flow sheet, based on soybean pro-
cessing as the default, is shown in Figure 2. Each operation
is described first, after which variations for respective
species are explained. The prestorage cleaning, drying, and
storage (A, B, C) steps must be completed whether the
seed is later processed by the receiving firm or offered for
sale.
The most important factors affecting the amount of oil
recovered and its quality are seed storage [54,55] and pre-
extraction preparation. Corrections can be made in the re-
finery for improper earlier handling of oilseeds and oils but
with reduction in yields of "neutral" (salable) oil.
Improvements in oil extraction are continuously evolv-
ing. Major changes during the last two decades have in-
cluded:
Reduced energy purchases by introduction of the ex-
pander, installation of heat recovery systems, and co-
P) Desolventlze, 14— SOAPSTOCK. GUMS (R) Refinery
Toast, Dry
(Q) Standardize
Protein
MEAL REFINED OILS
FIGURE 2 Composite flow sheet of oilseed extraction
processes. Pathways vary with species.
generation (making steam and electricity on site by
burning waste by-products like hulls)
Improved working conditions for employees, including
dust and sound control
Reduced contamination of the environment by discharged
dust and waters, including rain run-off from paved sur-
faces
Automation of equipment, introduction of computer con-
trol of processes, and reduction of manual labor
B. Harvesting, Cleaning, Drying, and
Storage of Seed
1. Importance of Crop Maturity
Growing and harvesting conditions, and cleaning, drying,
consolidating, transporting and storage, affect oilseed
quality and yield of salable oil. Seeds normally complete
production of protein first and store oil later, resulting in
variations in ratios if growth is curtailed by drought or ear-
ly frost. In soybean seed, 84.3% of total lipids are triglyc-
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
erides at 30 days after flowering, and 94.7% at 75 days: to-
tal glycerolipid per seed is 8.1 µmoles and 40.9 µmoles,
respectively [56]. Chlorophyll, a green prooxidant pig-
ment, shortens oil shelf life, hastens its degradation in fry-
ing applications, and requires use of increased "bleaching"
absorbents for its removal in the refinery. Chlorophyll con-
tent typically decreases during storage of seed but is appre-
ciably higher in soybeans that are immature, frosted, or
harvested in wet falls. Chlorophyll problems also are expe-
rienced with other oilseeds, especially rapeseed/canola.
The moisture content of cottonseed decreases from 50
to 10% approximately 10-15 days after opening of the
boll. But bolls open over a period of a month or more, re-
sulting in a mixture of mature and immature seed on the
plant. It is common practice to apply desiccants to kill cot-
ton plants and wait for them to dry before stripper picking.
Immature peanuts have an astringent "green" flavor,
which is objectionable in nut uses and peanut butter. But
they are small and can be removed by size sorting and ex-
tracted for oil and meal, although at a value below the mar-
ket price of mature edible peanuts.
Free fatty acid contents of oilseeds generally rise in wet
harvest seasons. Growers with large acreages and limited
harvesting equipment and time may have to compromise
between harvesting part of their crops too early and wait-
ing for full maturity with risks of rain damage and early
onset of winter. The development of module builders, to
hold tarpaulin-covered cotton in the field, has extended the
operating season for gins but has reduced the quality of
cottonseed if the cotton bolls are not sufficiently dry.
2. Aflatoxin Contamination and Growth
Cottonseed, peanuts, and corn are especially subject to
contamination in the field by the aflatoxin-producing mold
Aspergillus flavus [57]. Insects often are vectors for infect-
ing cottonseed and corn in the field. Drought stress and
cracking of pods in the ground are major causes of infec-
tion of peanuts. A. flavus and other mycotoxin-producing
storage fungi can grow in many oilseeds and meals stored
at high moisture levels. Oil extracted from aflatoxin-con-
taining oilseeds is purified for food use by traditional refin-
ing procedures.
FDA has set an upper limit of 20 ppb aflatoxin in feed-
stuffs shipped interstate. However, some states allow feed-
ing of whole cottonseed containing up to 300 ppb aflatoxin
to nonlactating dairy cattle. Processes exist for reducing
aflatoxin content of whole seeds or meals by ammoniation
and for detoxifying other constituents before feeding [58].
In the United States, state laws differ regarding treatment
and uses of aflatoxin-containing seeds. Meals exceeding
maximum permitted aflatoxin levels, which cannot be sal-
vaged for feed, are composted and/or used as fertilizers.
307
3. Prestorage Cleaning
Seed cleaning usually is done in two stages: prestorage
(Fig. 2A) and preprocessing (Fig. 2D). Cleaning and dry-
ing typically starts at the farm. Drying may be repeated as
crops move into commercial channels and are brought to
near-dormancy in the final storage/shipping facilities. Var-
ious foreign materials, including field trash, seeds of other
volunteer species, and tramp plastic, must be removed. In
addition to being susceptible to ignition during drying,
plant stems and especially leaves may contain 3-5% more
moisture than the seed and induce heating in the seed pile
or silo. Sticks, stones, and sand can damage processing
machinery. Magnets typically are installed in multiple lo-
cations to remove scrap metal and bolts and other pieces
shed during oil mill operation. Metal detectors recognize
nonferrous metals. Removal of high-density fines is essen-
tial. They are heavier than the seed and, when falling into a
pile, form a dense central cone which harbors moisture.
4. Drying, Moisture, and Relative
Humidity Control
The objective of drying and storage is to slow seed metab-
olism to a dormant rate and to retain this condition during
shipping and until extraction. Mature seeds interpret heat
and moist conditions as signals to initiate sprouting—even
in the field or during storage. Enzymatic hydrolysis in-
creases the free fatty acid content, resulting in reduced sal-
able oil yields. Oilseeds are stabilized by removing mois-
ture to slow seed enzymatic activity, and prevent mold
growth, and to cool the seed. Of these, reducing the mois-
ture content is the most important because metabolism and
hydrolysis produce heat.
The first priority in handling free-flowing seeds in wet
harvest seasons, when drying capacity is limited, is to ex-
tend their storage life at least temporarily. This may be
done by preliminary drying at the farm and completed as
dryer time becomes available at the farm or at buyer facil-
ities. Direct flame grain dryers, heated with natural gas or
oil, are typically used. At some extraction plants, drying is
accomplished using coils heated by steam from trash-burn-
ing cogeneration boilers. A single pass may be used if dry-
er capacity is adequate. Multipass drying recognizes that
drying occurs most rapidly at the seed surface and allows
the internal moisture to reequilibrate throughout the seed
between successive passes. If used, seed is transferred be-
tween storage tanks through the dryer several times. Seed
that has been dried by heated air must be cooled, either im-
mediately or after only slight delay, when moved into aer-
ated storage bins. Drying should be gentle to prevent hulls
from cracking. Much of the heat going into a dryer is used
for latent heat of evaporation, thus the seed itself usually
doesn't reach the exhaust air temperature, which can be as
308
high as 100°C (212°F). The temperature of soybeans must
not exceed 76°C, since discoloration and protein denatura-
tion will occur [47]. Seed going into storage should not be
heat damaged so it will not respire or germinate.
Drying is energy-intensive. Reasonably efficient com-
mercial dryers require 830-890 cal/kg (1500-1600 Btu/lb
of moisture removed) [59].
The prime factor to be controlled in stabilizing seeds is
relative humidity (%RH), which is the weight of moisture
per unit weight of air in the atmosphere surrounding the
seed compared to the maximum weight possible (satura-
tion) at that temperature expressed as a percentage. The
term equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) simply means
RH in the adjacent air after allowing sufficient time for
moisture in the seed to equilibrate with the air, and can be
determined by analyzing the head space in a sealed equili-
brated container. Another allied term is water activity, Av„,
which is ERH expressed as a decimal rather than a per-
centage. Direct-reading instruments are available for
measuring RH, ERH, and A. Manual methods for deter-
mining RH include the use of a sling psychrometer to ob-
tain "wet bulb" and "dry bulb" temperatures and reference
to relative humidity charts. Unfortunately, many people
still prefer to relate seed stability to percent moisture con-
tent—a far less meaningful measurement.
Bacteria and yeasts have much higher ERH require-
ments for growth than molds (fungi). Table 8 shows that
some fungi will grow at any of the relative humidity ranges
shown, although few toxin-producing fungi grow at below
75% RH [60].
During equilibration, available water from the seed and
atmosphere is attracted to the water-absorbing seed com-
ponents but not to the oil. Thus, high-oil-content seeds
(peanut, sunflower seed, and rapeseed/canola) must be
dried to lower moisture levels for safe storage than lower-
oil-content seeds like soybeans. For example, oil-type sun-
flower seeds contain about 42% oil, compared to about
TABLE 8 Equilibrium Moisture Contents of Common Grains, Oilseeds, and Feed Ingredients at 65-90% Relative Humidity
(25°C) and Fungi Likely to Be Encountered
Equilibrium moisture contents (%)
Relative Starchy cereal seeds,
humidity debated oilseed
(%) meals, alfalfa pellets Soybean
65-70 12-14 11-12
70-75 13-15 12-14
75-80 14-16 14-16
80-85 15-18 16-19
85-90 17-20 19-23
Source: Ref. 60.
Lusas
25% in the confectionery type. At an ERH of 70% and
25°C, the former contains 9.6% moisture and the latter
13.6% moisture; at 60°C moisture the contents are 8.1 and
10.9%, respectively [61].
The general practice is to dry seeds to about 75% RH
for interim storage, but some oil mill supervisors prefer
65% RH for long-term (12 months) storage, especially in
colder climates. Table 9 shows the maximum moisture lev-
els considered safe for selected oilseeds [62]. Antimicro-
bial preservatives are commonly used in prepared feeds,
especially during high-humidity summer months, and
some farmers preserve high—moisture-content cereals and
oilseeds with propionic acid for feed use. The oilseed
crushing trade does not accept treated seed.
Relationships between RH and equilibrated moisture
content are shown for soybeans in Table 10 [63]. Levels to
which soybeans will equilibrate, in various temperatures
and RHs of the surrounding air, are shown in Figure 3 [64].
Relationships between temperature, moisture content, and
allowable storage time of soybeans are shown in Figure 4
[64].
5. Storage
Designs of storage (Fig. 2C) facilities are dictated by needs
for aeration of seed and its angle of repose—the minimum
angle in degrees at which a pile maintains its slope [65].
This sometimes is reflected in the pitch of conical roofs on
storage bins. Similarly, downspouts and the conical bot-
toms of bins must have pitches steeper than the angle of
repose for the respective seed or meal to flow smoothly.
Higher moisture and oil contents increase the angles of re-
pose. Angles of repose and bulk densities of some major
oilseeds and products are presented in Table 11.
Readily flowing seeds typically are stored in vertical-
walled silos. In contrast, undelinted cottonseed from the gin
is stored on cement floors in piles whose shape is dictated
by its angle of repose. In areas with wet falls, winters, and
Peanut, sunflower
seed, Rapeseed/Canola Fungi
6-8 Aspergillus halophilicus
7-10 A. restrictus, A. glaucus, Wallemia sebi
8-11 A. candidus, A. ochraceus, plus the above
9-13 A. flavus, Penicillium spp., plus the above
10-16 Any of the above
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 309

TABLE 9 Recommended Maximum low rainfall, cottonseed may be piled outdoors, uncovered
Moisture Content Levels for Safe or tarped, but is aerated. Seed typically is taken from piles
Storage of Oilseeds by tractors with front-end loaders, and special caution is ex-
Seed % as is ercised that the face of the pile not rise higher than 42° to
avoid cave-ins on workers and equipment.
Copra 7.0 Freefall is a major cause of damage to soybeans during
Cottonseed 10.0 handling and shipping. The hull is cracked, resulting in
Flax 10.5 splits with increased susceptibility to moisture absorption
Palm kernel 8.0
and enzymatic and mold damage. Data from soybean
Peanuts 11.0
breakage trials are shown in Table 12 [66]. Unless lower-
Rapeseed 7.0
Safflower 11.0 ing devices are used, freefalls of 100 feet or more are pos-
Soybean 13.0 sible when filling silos and ship holds. Damage is reduced
Sunflower 8.5 by 75% when freefall is reduced from 100 to 40 feet. Ship-
pers have estimated an average cumulative breakage of
Source: Ref. 62. about 3% each time soybeans are moved.
The objective in storing seed is to keep it alive until
processed. Drying free-flowing seeds at low moisture lev-
TABLE 10 Moisture-Relative Humidity els can be continued in silos by aeration from the bottom.
Equilibrium Values for Soybeans at 25°C Live seed transpires and converts carbohydrates into car-
Relative humidity Moisture in bon dioxide and water. Drying at ambient temperatures
(%) soybeans cools the seed, greatly reduces its metabolic rate, and puts
it into dormancy.
35 6.5
In the cottonseed industry, the terms "drying" and
50 8.0
60 9.6 "cooling" are used interchangeably. Cottonseed received
70 12.4 from gins is dried without supplementary heat, using ambi-
85 18.4 ent air pulled down through the pile into perforated lateral
pipes leading to a central tunnel running the length of the
Source: Ref. 63. pile or seed house. Temperature and relative humidity of
air exiting the pile at the suction fan are easily measured.
Thermocouples, with wires for tracking temperature
springs, Muskogee-type steel structures, with 45° roofs on changes during storage, are placed throughout the seed
all sides and galvanized iron siding, are used. ("Muskogee" mass when building piles or placed in a pipe and pushed
is derived from Muskogee, Oklahoma, where this type of into the pile later by tractors. Freshly harvested seed is
building was first manufactured.) Seed is dropped from a monitored frequently to watch for heat build-up. If caught
central conveyor under the roofline. The vertical sides are in time, hot spots are dug out to avoid spontaneous com-
low to minimize pressure from the stored seed. In areas of bustion. Temperatures of free-flowing seeds in silos also

100
20%
90 1.._---
8`k 16%
15% -rAcy
go 13%
:0 12%
2 70 11%
10%
2 60
C
C

2 2
0
cc 50
40 LIIIIIIII O
40 50 60 70 80 90 7c#1
0 0
Temperature (F)

FIGURE 3 Equilibrium moisture contents of soybeans related to temperature and relative humidity of the surrounding air. (From Ref.
64.)
310
10 20 30 40
Allowable storage time (days)
FIGURE 4 Relationships between soybean moisture content, temperature, and allowable storage time. (From Ref. 64.)
are monitored. Aeration at 0.1 m3/min/MT (0.1 ft3/min/bu)
is typical for soybeans [47].
Moisture in high-humidity warm air can condense on
cold seed. Thus, piles and silos should be aerated only
when the relative humidity of the air after reduction to the
temperature of the seed is lower than that of the exhaust
air. Reductions in RH as air is heated are shown in Table
13 [54]. Increases in relative humidity as air is cooled can
also be interpreted from this table.
Good-quality seed, regardless of variety, typically has
less than 1.0% free fatty acids, which have not yet been es-
terified to glycerol. Higher levels usually mean initial hy-
drolysis during storage. The reader should check the Trad-
ing Rules for the specific commodity. For example, 1.8%
free fatty acid is accepted in prime quality seed in the cot-
tonseed industry [67].
C. Trading Rules and Grades
Oilseeds and their products are bought and sold under trad-
ing rules specified in the contract. Trading rules typically
identify:
The buyer and seller
Identity, grade, and amount of product in the contract
Requirements for performance to contract and arbitration
recourses if needed
Lusas
50 60 70 80
Procedures for sampling and analysis, and a referee
chemist and official method in case differences between
buyer's and seller's assays require resolution
Shipping conditions
Discounts to be applied for deviations below the claimed
grade standard (The discounts are intended to compen-
sate for the additional processing and/or reduced yields
of salable products resulting from deviations below
grade standard.)
In the United States, the Trading Rules of the National
Cottonseed Products Association (NCPA) define the grad-
ing of cottonseed for processing and feeding, cottonseed
oil and meal, and have provisions for cottonseed, peanut,
and sunflower seed products and for cottonseed oil for ex-
port [67]. The National Oilseed Processors Association
Trading Rules [68] define soybean meals and oils
processed to varying degrees but defer grading to the
USDA Federal Grain Inspection Service. U.S. Grading
Standards also exist for canola, sunflower seed, and
flaxseed. The National Institute of Oilseed Products issues
product composition guidelines for the major oils and
meals traded in the world, whether or not produced in the
United States (e.g., copra and nuts) [69]. NIOP Trading
Rules include considerable detail on sampling, gauging,
bulk shipping, storage, and vessel loading and prior car-
gos. Regardless of which trading rules are selected, provi-
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 311

TABLE 11 Approximate Angles of Repose and Bulk Densities of Selected

Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials and Their Processing Intermediates
Bulk densities
Seed or product Angle of repose (°) kg/m3 lb/ft3
Castor seed 577 26
Copra 400 25
Corn germ, dry 335 21
Cottonseed,
With lint 42-45 320 20
Delinted 42-45 561 35
Pima" 34 460-480 29-30
Meats 40 640 40
Hulls 43 190 12
Flakes 320-400 20-25
Expanded collets — 585 36.5
Solv. ext. meal, 41% 32 675 42
Fish meal 45 480-640 30 10
Flaxseed 25 690-720 43-45
Meat meal 45 590 37
Palm kernels 368 23
Peanut
Unshelled 40 270-385 17-24
Shelled 30 560-720 35-45
Rapeseed/Canola — 741 45
Rice bran, dry 45 320-335 20-21
Safflowerseed 721 45
Sesame 593 37
Soybean
Whole 35 720-800 45-50
Hulls, unground 45 96-112 6-7
Solv. ext. meal, 44% 35 560-610 35-38
Solv. ext. meal, 50% 32-37 657-673 41-42
Expeller oil meal 35 575-640 36-40
Sunflower seed, whole 401 25
One bushel = 1.244 ft3.
a A naked-seed cotton grown in the southwest United States.
Source: Refs. 62 and 65.

sions are made for samplers and weighers (sometimes re-

ferred to as "surveyors") to draw samples for the buyer
and/or seller at dockside and for approved chemists to set-
tle any analysis disputes.
Currently, U.S. Standards (810.1601) [70] define soy-
beans as grain that "consists of 50% or more of whole or
TABLE 12 Breakage of Soybeans by Free Fall broken soybeans (Glycine max L. Merr.) that will not pass
through an 8/64 round-hole sieve, and not more than 10%
Drop height % Breakage from drop onto: of other grains for which standards have been established
Meters Feet Concrete Soybeans under the United States Grain Standards Act." Two classes
exist:
30.48 100 4.5 3.2
1. Yellow soybeans have yellow or green seed coats,
21.34 70 2.1 1.4
which in cross section are yellow or have a yellow
12.19 40 1.1 0.7
tinge and may include not more than 10.0% of soy-
Source: Ref. 66. beans of other colors.
312 Lusas

TABLE 13 Reduction in Relative Humidty Resulting from an Increase in Temperature

Air
Temperature increase (°C)
temperature
(°C) 0 6 11 17 22 28 33 39 45 50 55 61
43 95 72 55 42 33 26 21
38 95 71 53 40 31 24 19 15
32 95 70 52 40 30 23 18 14 12
27 95 70 50 38 29 22 17 13 10 8
21 95 69 49 36 27 21 16 12 9 7 6
15 95 67 49 36 26 19 14 11 9 7 5 4
10 95 66 47 32 24 18 13 10 8 6 4 4
4 95 64 45 31 22 16 12 9 7 5 4 4
Source: Ref. 54.

2. Mixed soybeans do not meet the requirements of yel- 1. Tempering-Cleaning

low class soybeans.
Additional definitions exist for damaged kernels, foreign
material, heat-damaged kernels, mottled or stained soy-
beans, design of the 8/64 round-hole sieve, soybeans of
other colors, and splits. Damaged kernels are divided into
two classifications: (1) total damage, consisting of ground
or weather damage, frost damage, immature soybeans, in-
sect damage, mold damage, and sprout damage, and (2)
heat damage. Grade Requirements (810.1604) are shown
in Table 14 [70]. Moisture content of soybeans does not
enter into establishing grade but must be shown on the
grading certificate that accompanies the shipment.
Although problems arising from high moisture content
and trash are well understood, for economic reasons the
permitted maximums have become the performance
norms. Generally soybeans are shipped at 13% moisture
and contain close to the maximum trash and foreign matter
permitted. This periodically results in complaints from
overseas buyers about the quality of exported soybeans.
D. General Seed Preparation for Extraction
Only a few plants have enough satellite facilities for re-
ceiving and holding their annual seed requirements under
their management. Many purchase at least some seed dur-
ing the year. They must accept what is on the market and
adjust their processes accordingly, resulting in variations
in extraction plant and refinery operations. The extraction
conditions selected typically are dictated by markets for
the meal, provided oil yield and quality are not reduced.
Referring to Figure 2, on arrival at the extraction plant's
terminal, shipments often are assigned to different silos or
piles based on apparent stability of the seed. Condition of
the seed is then monitored during storage and the process-
ing priority changed if needed.
Seeds taken from storage may be brittle because of dry-
ness, hard-frozen in winter climates, or too high in mois-
ture content for flaking. Various techniques have been de-
veloped to allow time for stored seed to equilibrate before
processing. Many oil mills fill a "day tank" with similar
seed to enable optimum equipment settings for extended
runs. Day tanks seldom are aerated and should not be so
large that higher-moisture-content seeds will start to heat.
A final cleaning (Fig. 2D) is given the seed to remove
trash that was missed earlier, animal filth, and clumps that
may have developed during storage and to protect machin-
ery against tramp metal. Equipment used for preprocess
cleaning may include round hole flat shaker screens to re-
move sticks and large trash, herringbone screens to remove
sand, zig-zag aspirators to remove small leaves and free
hulls, and vacuum legs to entrain and carry away light
seeds such as fuzzy (nondelinted) cottonseed while allow-
ing soil lumps to drop into a take-away conveyor. Al-
though expensive, gravity tables may be used to separate
small stones from seeds, e.g., for peanuts grown in gravel-
ly soil and cereal grains and weed seeds. Some large instal-
lations have found it profitable to separate the extraneous
seeds using disc separators and reclaim cereal grains.
2. Dehulling—Separation
Dehulling (Fig. 2E) is accomplished in two steps: (1)
cracking the hull and (2) separating the lighter hull frac-
tions from the meats by screening and aspiration (vacu-
um). The objectives of dehulling ("hulling," "decorticat-
ing") generally are to:
Reduce fiber content of the meal
Reduce loss of oil absorbed by the hulls during processing
Increase extractor throughput
Reduce energy costs of recovering solvent by minimizing
the quantity of marc to be desolventized
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 313

TABLE 14 U.S. Soybean Grades and Grade Requirements (Yellow Soybeans)

Grades

Grading factors 1 2 3 4

Test weight (lb/bu), minimum pounds 56.0 54.0 52.0 49.0

Damaged kernels, maximum percent limits
Heat (part of total) 0.2 0.5 1.0 3.0
Total 2.0 3.0 5.0 8.0
Foreign material, maximum percent limits 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0
Splits, maximum percent limits 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0
Soybeans of other colors,a maximum percent limits 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
Other materials, maximum count limits of
Animal filth 9 9 9 9
Castor beans 1 1 1 1
Crotalaria seeds 2 2 2 2
Glass 0 0 0 0
Stonesb 3 3 3 3
Unknown foreign substance 3 3 3 3
Total' 10 10 10 10

U.S. Sample grade are soybeans that:

(a) Do not meet the requirements for U.S. Nos. 1, 2, 3, or 4; or
(b) Have a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except garlic odor); or
(c) Are heating or otherwise of distinctly low quality.
Special Grades and Special Grade Requirements
(a) Garlicky soybeans: Soybeans that contain five or more green garlic bulblets or an equivalent quantity of dry or partly dry
bulblets in a 1000-g sample.
(b) Purple mottled or stained: Soybeans with pink or purple seed coats as determined on a portion of approximately 400 g
with the use of an FGIS Interpretive Line Photograph.
Disregard for mixed soybeans.
bIn addition to the maximum count limit, stones must not exceed 0.1% of the sample weight.
`Includes any combination of animal filth, castor beans, crotalaria seeds, stones, and unknown foreign substances. The
weight of stones is not applicable for total material.
Source: Ref. 70.

Typical compositions of selected oilseeds and oil-bear-
ing materials are shown later (see Table 16.) Approximate
hull contents are soybeans, 7-9%; rapeseed, 15%; cotton-
seed, 37-40%; peanuts, 20-30%; and oil-type sunflower
seed, 20%. Peanut hulls are loose and easily removed. An
effective system is not available for removing hulls from
rapeseed/canola seeds because of their small size. Soybean
hulls generally are removed completely to increase capaci-
ty of the solvent extractor and to produce high-protein
(48.5%) meals. They may be sold for feed or added back
when standardizing solvent-extracted meal to 44% protein.
The presence of some hulls helps flaking and aids traction
of high-oil-content seeds (sunflower seed, rapeseed/
canola, peanut, and sometimes corn germ), which typically
are prepressed before solvent extraction.
Soybeans typically are cracked into six to eight pieces
using corrugated rolls, and passed over a two-deck vibrato-
ry shaker (as from Rotex, Inc., Cincinnati, OH) fitted with
4-mesh and 10-mesh screens. The loose hulls are aspirated
from the end of the top deck [59]. Alternatively, a gravity-
fall zig-zag aspirator (as from Kice Industries, Wichita,
KS) may be used. The hulls then are sent to "hull beater" to
loosen adhering meat particles.
Bar-type hullers are used for cottonseed and sunflower
seed. The latter also may be dehulled using centrifugal im-
pact (Entoleter-type) dehullers. The hulls are removed by
aspiration, and the "uncut" (undehulled) seed is separated
and recycled through the dehuller. Passing hulls through a
"beater" to recover meats particles is typical in processing
most dehulled seeds [59].
Fiber content of meals can be reduced by "front-end de-
hulling" before flaking and extracting the seed, or by "tail-
end dehulling"-removing the hulls by sieving after ex-
traction and desolventizing the meal. Front-end dehulling
is practiced by the majority of oil mills [59].
3. Preheating-Cooking
The most common heating device used in oilseed milling is
the vertical stack cooker. It consists of modular ring proces-
sors that have been modified in various ways for heating
314
seeds and for desolventizing, "toasting," drying, and cool-
ing meals. The basic "ring" is a round tray with a slowly
moving sweep arm. Material for processing is deposited in
the top tray and stirred while the sweep arm makes nearly a
full circle, at which time the material drops by gravity to a
lower tray. The bottom of each tray may be steam-jacketed
for heating, or steam may be introduced by sparging. Addi-
tional rings can be added to the stack if more capacity or
residence time is needed. For freely flowing seed, vertical
gravity-flow heaters, consisting of a shell with crossed lay-
ers of horizontal steam pipes, may be used.
The objective of applying heat at this point (Fig. 2F) is
to increase plasticity of the seed during flaking. It also is an
opportunity to inactivate enzymes, if beneficial to final
products. Enzymes and factors of broad concern in oil
milling include [71]:
Lipases, which cleave free fatty acids from triglycerides
Phospholipase D, which cleaves the water-soluble moi-
eties (mainly choline and ethanolamine) from the phos-
phatides ("lecithins") in the oil, enabling them to form
insoluble complexes
Lipoxygenases, which cause flavor degradation of soybean
meals and oils
Trypsin inhibitors, which interfere with digestion of pro-
teins in meals used as feeds or foods
Other toxic or antinutrition factors, including other pro-
tease inhibitors, lectins (hemagglutinins), goitrogens,
antivitamins, and allergens
The lipases will already have done most of their dam-
age during wet fall harvest and storage if the seed was not
dried early or adequately. They can continue to cleave fat-
ty acids if disrupted (dehulled or flaked) seed is not moved
rapidly to screw pressing or extraction. Phospholipase ac-
tivity can start in seed damaged during harvesting and han-
dling or stored with insufficient drying. The role of lipoxy-
genases in oil quality is not fully understood, but they
cause beany flavor in soy proteins and appear to hasten fla-
vor reversion of oil.
Although varying slightly among species, oilseed lipas-
es, phospholipases, and lipoxygenases are most active at
57-77°C (135-170°F). Preheating seed to temperatures
within this range brings the enzymes to their optimum ac-
tivity, ready to act on substrate that becomes available
when seed structure is disrupted. However, enzymes also
require moisture and time for reactions to occur. Inactiva-
tion of lipoxygenase in soy milk, where water is plentiful
requires 85°C (185°F) to prevent development of beany
flavor. Complete inactivation of lipases and phospholipas-
es in oilseeds at 10-12% moisture requires well over
100°C (212°F) and steam-pressurized reactors. Effective
pressurized heating of rapeseed flakes to inactivate phos-
Lusas
pholipase has been demonstrated commercially recently,
and the process may come into broader use in the future
[72].
Internal temperatures of seeds can be raised to enzyme
inactivation temperatures of 115-120°C (240-248°F),
without disrupting the structure, by microwave heating
[73]. Intact seed or cotyledons can be rushed to enzyme in-
activation temperatures under pressure in a few seconds,
without allowing time for significant enzyme activity, in
high-shear "dry" extruders (InstaPro International, Inc.,
Des Moines, IA). But this type of equipment is not widely
used in large oil mills currently.
Guidelines for minimizing enzyme activity when pro-
cessing soybeans with current equipment [74] include:
Operate at as low a moisture content as practical, typically
10-11% for flakes.
Operate either above or below the temperature range of
highest enzyme activity (57-77°C, 135-170°F). Sub-
jecting soybeans to higher temperatures (82+°C,
180+°F) will reduce their activity.
The behavior of flakes on rolls (which varies with temper-
atpre and oil content of the seed) must be considered.
Before arriving at the extractor, flakes or collets must be
cooled to temperatures (typically 57°C, 135°F) that will
not flash the solvent.
4. Flaking
Flaking (Fig. 2G) soybeans with smooth-faced rolls to
thickness of 0.25-0.5 mm, or 0.010-0.018 inches, (typical-
ly 0.30 mm, 0.012 inches) enhances solvent permeation of
the seed particle. The rolls operate with a differential (one
turns slightly faster than the other), which adds a smearing
action to assist rupturing oil spheresomes and (cottonseed)
gossypol glands.
5. Cooking and Full Pressing
The moisture content of flakes usually is in the 10-12%
range. In "cooking" for full pressing (Fig. 2H, I), they are
dried to approximately 5% moisture content to maximize
oil recovery. Most cottonseed today is processed by flak-
ing, passing through an expander, and then solvent-extrac-
tion. In earlier years, when full pressing was primarily
used, additional moisture was added to cottonseed flakes
and the cooking continued at elevated temperatures to in-
activate ("bind," "fix") the gossypol before drying and
pressing. A meal with about 0.06% free gossypol for feed-
ing poultry was produced.
6. Prepressing
Oil contents of rapeseed/canola, peanut, and sunflower
seed flakes generally are reduced to about 16-20% by pre-
pressing (Fig. 2J), and the cake is then crumbled (to about
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
10 mm) and extracted with hexane to a residual oil content
of 1.0% or less. Sending flakes directly to solvent extrac-
tors results in as much as 3% residual oil content in meals
of the high-oil-content seeds. Prepressing is not used in
processing soybeans. It essentially has been abandoned do-
mestically for extracting cottonseed, but is used in other
countries.
7. Expanders, "Dry" Extruders, and Mini
Oil Mills
Expanders (Fig. 2K) are specialized versions of extruders
with interrupted-flight screws (Fig. 5) used to homogenize
flaked seed by shearing the oil spheresomes. Heat is cre-
ated by internal friction and by injection of steam. The
hot (110°C, 230°F) extrudate is formed into "collets"
(pellets), which are porous on cooling and easily ex-
tracted with solvent. Advantages of using expanders in-
clude:
Solvent extraction is converted from a diffusion process to
a leaching process and oil removal is faster.
Collets weigh more per cubic unit than flakes, resulting in
increased extractor loading.
Hourly throughput of solvent extractors is essentially dou-
bled if auxiliary equipment is enlarged to eliminate bot-
tlenecks.
Solvent hold-up in the marc is reduced, resulting in signif-
icant energy savings for desolventization.
Enzymes are essentially completely inactivated.
Water injected
into product.
A '."A
lti.* -7 .1;1 Dry Feed. if
Interrupted worm flights W
for uniform mixing.
FIGURE 5 Cut-away drawing of Anderson International Solvex Series ExpanderTM interrupted flight extruder used for preparing low-
oil-content oilseeds for solvent extraction and for making full-fat soybean meal. (Courtesy of Anderson International Corp., Cleveland,
Ohio.)
315
Options exist for reducing the free gossypol content of cot-
tonseed meal.
Costs of installation typically are recovered by energy sav-
ings in less than a year.
Collets from the expander must be air-dried and cooled
during conveying to the extractor to avoid vaporizing the
solvent.
Small-scale extraction systems, sometimes referred to
as "mini oil mills," are being installed in the United States
and throughout the world. "Dry" extruders were developed
in the late 1960s for on-the-farm (or local community) in-
activation of trypsin inhibitors in soybeans fed to mono-
gastric animals (poultry and swine). The mini oil mill
process consists of homogenizing soybeans with a high-
shear extruder and hard pressing the resulting shreds to re-
duce oil content from approximately 19% to 6-7% [75].
Domestically, a minimum throughput of 1200-1500 metric
tons per day currently is required for profitable soybean
solvent extraction operations. Extruder, screw press, and
cooler combinations with 6, 24, and 100 tons per 24 hour
capacities are offered as the ExPressTM system by InstaPro
International, Inc. (Des Moines, IA). Provided nearby mar-
kets exist for the partially defatted meal, mini oil mills en-
able entering the oilseed processing industry with low cap-
ital investment. Systems have been sold globally and are
especially attractive in emerging countries where develop-
ment of a small entrepreneur class is encouraged. The oil
may be refined for food uses or used for feeding or indus-
Steam injected
into product.
Cutter to size
and shape
product-provide
texture.
'40
s* 0
Die inserts "2
"Imul\LIprovide variety
of products
and cooking
conditions.
316
FIGURE 6 Cut-away photograph of screw and barrel, Insta-
Pro International "dry" extruder used in ExPressTM "mini oil
mills" and for making full-fat soybean meal. (Courtesy of Insta-
Pro International, Des Moines, Iowa.)
FIGURE 7 Insta-Pro International extruder used in ExPressTM
"mini oil mills" and for making full-fat soybean meal. (Courtesy
of Insta-Pro International, Des Moines, Iowa.)
trial applications. Approximately 45 mini oil mills had
been installed for processing soybeans and cottonseed in
the United States at the time of this review. A cut-away
photograph of the Insta-Pro International "dry" extruder
barrel and screw is shown in Figure 6. A commercial size
extruder is shown in Figure 7.
Special versions of expanders are offered by Anderson
International Inc. (Cleveland, OH) for preparing soybeans
for the relatively few domestic full-press operations.
Lusas
8. Expander and Cage for
High-Oil-Content Seeds
The use of expanders for low-oil-content seeds has been
well accepted globally. Expanders are used in an estimated
90% of the domestic cottonseed crush and 70% of the soy-
bean crush.
Expander-processed high-oil-content seeds do not form
cohesive collets. Thus, expanders have been equipped with
horizontal bar cages (Fig. 2L), similar to those used in
screw presses, to reduce oil content of seeds from >40% to
<28%. This enables forming partially defatted cohesive
collets, which can be transported to the solvent extractor.
Expanders equipped with oil-removal cages have been
demonstrated as replacements for prepressing rapeseed/
canola, sunflower seed, and peanuts before solvent extrac-
tion. A drawing of an expander equipped with an oil-re-
moval cage is shown in Figure 8.
9. Solvent Extraction
Many continuous solvent extractor designs have been
demonstrated over the years, and some machines over 50
years old are still in operation. Three currently popular de-
signs use wedge-bar screens for supporting the marc.
These are parallel trapezoidal bars welded to a cross mem-
ber for support. Placing the wider face on top, with the bars
sufficiently apart to support flakes or collets but allow per-
colation of solvent, results in a self-cleaning screen. De-
signs include (1) drag chain vertical loop, (2) rotating bas-
ket, and (3) diffusion belt. All are percolation types (the
solvent is applied at the top of the bed and drains through
by gravity, compared to earlier flooded-bed extractors,
where solvent rose from the bottom). All operate in coun-
tercurrent fashion, where the entering product is extracted
with the richest miscella and then with progressively more
FIGURE 8 Anderson International Hivex-Series-Expander Tm
with horizontal bar-type drainage cage for partial removal of oil
from high-oil-content seeds. (Courtesy of Anderson International
Corp., Cleveland, Ohio.)
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
FIGURE 9 Crown Model III Extractor (drag chain loop-type, with slatted parallel wedge bar bottom). (Courtesy of Crown Iron Works
Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota.)
dilute miscellas until the marc receives a final washing
with fresh reclaimed solvent. Typically, ratios of 1-1.25
weights of solvent per weight of prepared oilseed are used,
and extraction is conducted at about 8-11°C (15-20°F)
lower than the boiling point of the solvent. Hexane is high-
ly flammable, and insurers of oil-extraction plants require
that construction and operation practices follow the NFPA
36 Standard for Solvent Extraction Plants established by
the National Fire Protection Association [76].
A cutaway drawing of a drag chain vertical loop extrac-
tor is shown in Figure 9. The material to be extracted is
dragged across a top and a bottom parallel wedge-bar
screen while being extracted. The exiting miscella, contain-
ing 28-35% oil, is next pumped to the solvent recovery
unit. After the last solvent wash and draining, the extracted
marc is conveyed to a desolventizer-toaster (DT) for desol-
ventizing.
317
t •wammill,, ...1*
atvalio riletinics wort,
tivatcaty %come IMMIX SIAM
A rotary basket-type deep bed extractor is shown in Fig-
ure 10. The material to be extracted is pushed in a circular
fashion by the side walls of wedge-shaped "baskets" over
a bottom screen assembled from many pie slice—shaped
wedge bar screen sections. The unique screen of this ex-
tractor is shown in Figure 11. Whereas the chain-type ex-
tractor has a "shallow bed" up to 1.5 meters high, "deep
beds" in basket-type extractors are up to 4 meters high. Af-
ter a series of countercurrent extractions by miscellas and
fresh solvent, the marc is allowed to drain and passes
across an open section of the screen, where it drops to a re-
ceiving chamber. This design is used in the world's current
largest solvent extractor, with a processing capacity of
8000-9000 metric tons of soybeans per day.
A drawing of a diffusion extractor is shown in Figure
12. In this design, a bed of product is conveyed on a
drainage belt while solvent percolates through it. The belt
318 Lusas

Top and bottom bearings accessible from outside

the unit for easy maintenance
Ultra-free turning
spindle

— Slurry filling spout

Sealed dividers
form baskets to Conical top with
ensure miscella sight glasses for
stage separation maximum visibility

Reliable bevel
gear drive
Self-cleaning screen
1 --- for outstanding
drainage

Miscella
collection pan

Sealed dump
hopper to prevent
contamination

FIGURE 10 REFLEXTM (Reliable FrenchTM Low Energy Extractor) rotating basket slatted wedge bar bottom extractor. (Courtesy of
French Oil Machinery Company, Piqua, Ohio.)

can consist of wedge-bar links or woven mesh. The mis-

cella is recycled countercurrent to the flow of the marc.
This type of extractor is also used for extracting sucrose
from sugar cane with water.

10. Desolventizing the Miscella and Oil

The last step in solvent extraction is recovering the sol-
vent. This must be done because hexane:

FIGURE 11 Pie-shaped slatted wedge bar screen sections
forming drainage floor in REFLEXTM extractor. (Courtesy of
French Oil Machinery Company, Piqua, Ohio.)
Is highly flammable
Costs six to seven times more per unit weight than the sell-
ing price of crude vegetable oil
Discharges and losses are closely watched by environmen-
tal regulatory agencies
Hexane is removed from the miscella by double-effect
evaporation and steam stripping [59]. In the first stage
(sometimes called the "economizer") miscella is concen-
trated in a vertical tube, rising film, evaporator with the
outside of the tubes heated by steam and vapors from des-
olventizing (Fig. 20) the marc. Vapors from the miscella
are drawn away through the dome of the economizer by
vacuum, and oil content is raised from about 28-35% to
70-85% (65% for miscella refining of cottonseed oil). The
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
FIGURE 12 DeSmet LM ExtractorTM diffusion belt-type: (1) self-cleaning wedge bars; (2) (3) access to parts; (4) drive; (5) wedge bar
or woven mesh conveyor chain. (Courtesy of Extraction De Smet N.V./S.A., Antwerp, Belgium.)
concentrated miscella then is pumped for further concen-
tration to the second stage of the evaporator, again a rising
film evaporator operating under vacuum but with the tubes
heated by steam. Finally, solvent is steam-stripped from
the concentrated oil as it flows down over a disk-and-donut
or other type of packed column. Vacuum for the system is
provided by steam ejectors. The vapors are condensed in
tube-in-shell heat exchangers, and the condensate sepa-
rates into an upper hexane layer and a lower water layer in
a holding tank. Air, which is not condensable but carries
hexane vapors, is collected from solvent holding tank
vents, vents at the extractor feed inlet, and miscella desol-
ventizer vents, and bubbled through a mineral oil scrubber
to scavenge hexane [59]. The mineral oil is heated periodi-
cally to recover collected hexane by distillation.
11. Desolventizing, Toasting, Drying, and
Cooling Meals
The objectives in desolventizing-toasting (Fig. 2P) are to:
Desolventize the marc
Inactivate trypsin inhibitors
Reduce protein solubility of meals for specific feed uses
Rather than dry heating, which logically would be expect-
ed, "toasting" in the oilseed-processing industry means
steaming. It is conducted in a machine called a "desolven-
tizer-toaster" (DT). The meal, which has condensed steam
during desolventizing, must then be dried and cooled. If
both operations are conducted in one machine, it is called a
319
WET LM EXTRACTOR'
"desolventizer toaster dryer cooler" (DTDC). These func-
tions often are separated in very large solvent extraction
plants.
A DTDC is shown in Figure 13. Note that it is of the
ring processor design, although built in common shell.
Marc enters the top tray where it is partially desolventized
by solvent vapors and steam rising from the bottom trays.
It then drops to the steam sparge trays, which are built to
enable upward passage of vapors through holes drilled in
the bolts that hold the tray assembly together. The hot
moisture, condensed during steam distillation of the hex-
ane, initiates toasting of the meal. The meal then drops
through a rotary valve to dryer trays where the moisture is
removed by heated air. Finally, the meal is air-cooled and
removed for storage.
Soybean marc leaves the extractor at about 57°C
(135°F) and, for feed uses, is cooked by steam at
100-105°C (212-220°F) at moisture levels of 16-24% for
15-30 minutes. In the drying and cooling operations, the
toasted meal is dried from 16-22% moisture to 12% and is
cooled from 45-75°C (113-167°F) to less than 32°C
(90°F) or within 6°C (10°F) of ambient air temperature,
whichever is higher [77].
Solvent extraction is essentially an anhydrous opera-
tion, with moisture content of the flakes or collets in the
10-12% range. If undesirable heat-sensitive components
have not been inactivated while preparing seed for extrac-
tion, they must be addressed during toasting. In addition to
trypsin inhibitors (TI), lectins with hemagglutination abili-
320 Lusas

Typical Crown/
Schumacher " HOT VARCALS
IQ Ftfts-TsTAGE
Counterflow IYIDC

--7(1,FRE1.) TRAYS

FAN DRYER TRAYS

HEATERS
(LAMPER.4
MEAL CONVEYOR
(1:1(' /1-;

FIGURE 13 Schumacher-type desolventizer toaster dryer cooler (DTDC). (Courtesy of Crown Iron Works Company, Minneapolis,
Minnesota.)

ties, other toxic compounds, and allergens often are de-

Minutes at 100st
FIGURE 14 Effect of atmospheric steaming on trypsin in-
hibitor activity and protein efficiency ratios of soybean meal fed
to rats. (From Ref. 78.)
stroyed.
Because of the detoxifying abilities of rumen microor-
ganisms, cattle, sheep, and goats can tolerate higher di-
etary levels of raw soybeans and cottonseed than mono-
gastric animals. Figure 14 shows the relationship between
heating, TI inactivation, and protein efficiency ratio (PER)
for rats, a measurement of protein quality used in earlier
years, for soybean meal [78].
Although human nutritionists now are using the protein
digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) for de-
termining protein quality for children over one year old
and adults [79], PER values are common in older litera-
ture. The 28-day rat PER estimation procedure was biased
in favor of fur-bearing animals, which have far greater sul-
fur essential amino acid requirements than humans. Its
abandonment by the FAO/WHO and the U.S. National Re-
search Council moved the major oilseed proteins into the
same protein quality category as meat for humans. Calcu-
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 321

100.0
80.0
60.0
50.0

Soybean trypsin inhibitor, mg/g

40.0 30 C
20.0 a
10.0 Trypsin inhibitor
8.0
6.0 20 4
4.0
2.0 5'
1.0
.8 Urease activity 10 m
vi
.6
.4
.2
10 20 30
Steaming time, min at 100°C

FIGURE 15 Relationship of urease activity to trypsin inhibitor in soybean meal. (From Ref. 80.)

lations of minimum daily requirements for food-labeling
purposes, which greatly favored animal protein sources,
were revised. Of course, this did not change the essential
amino acid contributions of different protein sources when
formulating complete diets for animal feeds.
Many scientists have accepted 80% inactivation of
original TI concentration for feeding animals. Determina-
tion of TI activity is time consuming, and its inactivation
generally is followed in the industry by measuring residual
urease activity because both inactivation curves are similar
(Fig. 15) [80]. The industry has accepted a urease activity
value (UA) of 0.2 pH increase (maximum) as a safe level
in soybean meal products, but the details are complex.
Urease activity is of concern for ruminants who also are
fed urea. A UA of above pH 0.6 increase in soybean prod-
ucts is considered an indication that the product has re-
ceived only mild heat treatment. Poultry growers have ex-
pressed concerns that a 0.10-0.05 pH increase in UA
indicates overheating of the meal. Residual antigen levels,
significant to young animals, have been reported at TI lev-
els of 3.1. Apparently, soybean meals have to be processed
differently for optimum performance with various animal
species and possibly for various age groups within species.
Relationships between trypsin inhibitor, UA, amino acid
digestibility, and usable energy are shown in Table 15 [77].
Exposure of meals to moisture and heat reduces protein
solubility as measured by the protein dispersibility index
(PDI) or the nitrogen solubility index (NSI) methods. Both
methods determine solubility of soybean protein in water.
The relationship between these two methods [81] is:
PDI = 1.07 (NSI) + 1.
Although the results are not interchangeable, either
method may be reported, depending on the processor. The
relationship between urease activity and NSI is shown in
Figure 16 [80].
Reduction of PDI/NSI in soybean meal is beneficial to
ruminants because of reduced availability of protein to ru-
men microflora. These microorganisms utilize essential
amino acids for their growth but produce cellular proteins
lower in nutritional quality than the original soybean pro-
tein. The ability of a protein to resist digestion in the rumen

TABLE 15 Performance-Influencing Variables in Soybean Meals

Severely Quality Severely
Meal Raw undercooked Undercooked processed Overcooked overcooked
Amino acid digestibility (%) 40 57 75 100 80 45
Usable energy (%) 49 80 85 100 92 86
Trypsin inhibitor activity (mg/g) 58 >21 12-20 6-7 3-4 0
Urease activity, ApH 2.0 0.51-2 0.21-0.50 0.05-0.20 0.04 0
Source: Ref. 77.
322
50
40
30
0
z
20
10
10 20
Urease activity, mL N/10 HCI per gram
FIGURE 16 Relationship of urease activity to nitrogen solubility index (NSI) in soybean meal. (From Ref. 80.)
is referred to as "bypass" or "ruminal escape." The follow-
ing in vivo values have been published for ruminal escape
of proteins from different sources: cottonseed meal, 40%;
fish meal, 68%; meat meal, 65%; rapeseed meal, 23%;
soybean meal, 26%; sunflower seed meal, 24% [82]. Ru-
men escape values can be increased by toasting meals.
In contrast, provided TI activity has been reduced, high-
solubility proteins are beneficial to monogastric animals.
In recent years, researchers have probed interactions be-
tween protein solubility, trypsin inhibition, and urease de-
struction and have found conditions for producing highly
soluble protein with low TI having high urease activity
values. The specifics of these processes have been kept
proprietary thus far.
12. Stabilizing Crude Oils Before Leaving
Extraction Plants
Crude oils should be desolventized for safety purposes.
NOPA Trading Rules [68] set a flashpoint minimum of
250°F for soybean oil—Flash Point, Closed Cup Method,
AOCS Cc 9b-55 [38]. Some extraction plant laboratories
analyze for hexane residues by gas chromatography
(AOCS Ca 3b-87).
Crude oils are filtered to remove particulate material.
Typically, trading rules have a maximum combined limit
of 1.0% for moisture and insoluble impurities (M&I),
where M means moisture and volatiles (M&V) lost in the
drying oven. Pressed- or solvent-extracted crude oils con-
tain natural antioxidants and are relatively stable against
Lusas
• 105°C
n 110°C
O 115°C
30 40 50
oxidation. Copper, brass, and iron rust are prooxidants and
should not contact crude oils in storage or ship's tanks,
railroad tank cars or tank trucks.
Soybean is the row crop oil richest in phosphatides,
which hydrate by attracting available water and precipi-
tate. NOPA trading rules require that crude soybean oil be
degummed to less than 0.02% (200 ppm) phosphorus to
avoid precipitation during storage and shipping.
Essentially all oil-trading rules have maximum color
specifications and provide for discounts if exceeded.
Gossypol-origin color in cottonseed oil will "fix" if the oil
is not cooled to ambient temperature rapidly after extrac-
tion or refined soon. Early cottonseed oil mills either
rushed their oil to refineries or installed small refining
lines. Now, it is known that rapid cooling of the oil will
slow color fixation. Also, compact miscella refining lines
(Fig. 2N) have become common in domestic cottonseed oil
mills. Sodium hydroxide solution, calculated on the basis
of free fatty acid content, is mixed with cottonseed oil
while still in the presence of hexane, and the resulting soap
is removed by explosion-proof continuous centrifuges.
Gossypol and hydrated phosphatides also are occluded and
removed with the soap.
The soap-hexane mixture is spread over the marc in the
DT to recover the solvent, where it becomes part of the
meal and raises its fat content accordingly. The need for an
efficient means of disposing gums from soybeans, and
soapstocks from refining all oils, has encouraged construc-
tion of extraction plants and refineries at the same location.
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
E. Species Differences in Oil Extraction
1. Soybean
Most of the operations in Figure 2, as applied to soybean
extraction, have already been explained. Soybeans can be
processed at 12% moisture if not dehulled to make 44%
protein content meal. In earlier years, in order to make
high-protein content soybean meal, hulls were "loosened"
by drying the seed from 13% moisture to 10% moisture at
a seed temperature of 65°C (149°F), cooling, and holding
for 1-5 days before dehulling. Heating and holding was
practiced to loosen the hulls even if drying of the soybeans
was not needed [83].
The "hot dehulling process" was developed to eliminate
double heating of soybeans. Soybeans at 13% storage
moisture are heated to 60°C (140°F) during a period of
20-30 minutes to allow the moisture to migrate to the sur-
face. Then they are rapidly heated to surface temperatures
as high as 85°C (185°F) to loosen the hulls. During this
process, moisture content is reduced by 1-3%. The soy-
beans are then cracked into six to eight pieces and flaked at
60-65°C (140-150°F) and 10-11% moisture [59,83].
Phospholipase activity can be minimized by:
Drying seed adequately before storage
Avoiding breakage in handling
Moving seed rapidly from dehulling to extraction with
minimum addition of water
Operating outside the optimum activity temperature range
of the enzyme
Soybean oil is the main source of commercial lecithins har-
vested by a separate degumming operation before alkali
neutralization. The crude oil must be partially degummed
to prevent precipitation in storage and shipping. A more
complete degumming process is used if the oil goes direct-
ly to an on-site refinery.
2. Rapeseed/Canola
The conversion of rapeseed to canola by Canadian re-
searchers before development of genetic engineering tech-
niques is a crop breeding milestone of this century. Rape-
seed belongs to the genus Brassica in the Cruciferae
family, which also includes condiment mustards and veg-
etables like cabbage, kale, broccoli, swede, turnip, rutaba-
ga, and radish. Oilseed rape has been grown throughout
the world for thousands of years. Its oil was used by an-
cient civilizations (in India, China, Greece, and Rome) for
lamps, soap, and cooking. Cultivation of rapeseed was be-
gun in the cooler European countries in the sixteenth cen-
tury because of its hardiness at low temperatures and short
growing season. Records of B. rapa L. (previously called
B. campestris L.) indicate widespread cultivation 2000
323
years ago. B. napus L. is believed to have originated later
in the Mediterranean and B. juncea in China, east India,
and the Caucasus [6].
B. rapa was first grown in Canada by a Polish farmer in
Saskatchewan in 1936. Demand for all oils increased dur-
ing World War II. Rapeseed oil was accepted for food uses
in Canada in the early 1950s. By the mid-1950s, nutrition-
al effects of the oil were questioned because of an associa-
tion of erucic acid with fatty deposits in the heart, skeletal
muscles, and adrenals of rodents. Approval of sales of
rapeseed oil for human consumption was withdrawn in
1956 [6].
Varieties of B. napus and B. rapa with low—erucic
acid—content oils were developed in Canada, and B. juncea
later in other countries. At the same time, Canadian breed-
ers were reducing glucosinolates contents of rapeseed.
These compounds are hydrolyzed to isothiocyanates and
other active sulfur-containing compounds that interfere
with uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland, contribute to
liver disease in poultry, and have adverse effects on growth
and weight gain of animals [6]. The liberated sulfur com-
pounds also poison nickel and other catalysts for hydro-
genating (hardening) oils for use in margarine, spreads,
and shortenings.
In 1978, the name "canola" was registered by the West-
ern Canadian Oilseed Crusher's Association for rapeseed
cultivars containing less than 5% erucic acid in the oil and
less than 3 mg glucosinolates/g meal. The trademark was
later transferred to the Canola Council of Canada and the
definition amended to name B. napus and B. rapa. By
1996, Brassica species containing 1% or less erucic acid in
the oil and less than 20 mot glucosinolates/g meal were
available [6]. Many parts of the world use the term
"LEAR" (low—erucic acid rapeseed) instead of "canola"
and "HEAR" (high—erucic acid rapeseed) for varieties
with traditional erucic acid content. Low—erucic acid, low-
glucosinolate rapeseed is often referred to as "double zero"
or 00 type.
The original LEAR oil was far from perfect. It con-
tained at least as much (tri-unsaturated) linolenic fatty acid
as soybean oil and was highly susceptible to oxidation.
Also, the fatty acids were primarily members of the 18-
carbon family and favored formation of coarser crystals
when used in making margarine and spreads after hydro-
genation than the earlier HEAR-type rapeseed oil.
Because of interest taken by genetic bioengineering
firms, rapeseed has become a "pilot" plant for the oilseed
modification industry. Varieties have been released with
oils containing oleic acid contents equal to or higher than
those in olive oil. This is attractive to health-concerned
consumers and to processors of fried and snack foods
seeking longer product shelf lives. Varieties with oil pro-
324
files (1) high in stearic, lauric, or palmitic acids, (2) con-
taining medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) for special di-
ets, and (3) potentially suitable for making cocoa butter re-
placements are being developed.
The majority of rapeseed/canola oil recovery is by pre-
press-solvent extraction, with about 60% of the total oil re-
moved in the first operation. Seed often is flaked at
7.0-9.5% moisture in two stages: to 0.1 0.7 mm thickness
in the first and to 0.2-0.3 mm in the second. Cooking:
Reduces moisture content to 5-6% for hard pressing
Denatures the protein and enhances coalescing of minute
oil droplets into larger ones more easily extracted
Inactivates the enzyme myrosinase, thus preventing hy-
drolysis of glucosinolates and reducing sulfur content
of the oil
Inactivates phospholipases and prevents development of
nonhydratable phosphatides in the oil
3. Corn Germ
The distribution of oil in corn is approximately as follows:
germ, 83%; endosperm, 15%; bran, 1.3%; tip cap, 0.7.
Some of the solvent-extracted lipids are waxes (consisting
of a long-chain alcohol connected to a fatty acid by an es-
ter linkage) rather than triglycerides and serve the function
of delaying moisture loss from the kernel during storage.
Most corn germ is a by-product of starch and corn sweet-
eners production by wet milling, or alcohol fermentation,
and contains 44-50% oil when dried to 2-4% moisture
content. Corn germ from dry-milling processes (the pro-
duction of corn meal and flours) accounts for less than
10% of the total germ extracted. Dry-milled germ contains
only 20-25% oil because there is more endosperm at-
tached, and is more easily adapted to direct solvent extrac-
tion [13].
Dried wet-milled germ is moistened to 8%, heated to
90-105°C to soften its intracellular structure, flaked to
0.10-0.13 mm in thickness, prepressed, and solvent ex-
tracted to 0.5% residual oil. Extraction of corn germ flakes
may take twice as long as soybean flakes under similar
conditions [13].
4. Cottonseed
The vegetable oils of the ancient world included olive and
sesame and oils of other oilseeds obtained by pounding the
seed and expressing with a wedge press or bringing the
macerated seed to a boil in water and skimming off the top
layer. Cottonseed was the first oil whose processing tech-
nology was developed during the Industrial Revolution
starting in the 1800s. The first domestic crop of soybean
was not grown until 1922.
Dr. Otto of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, is given credit for
Lusas
demonstrating its first production in 1768. Invention of the
cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 led to a large cotton-
growing and export industry in the southeastern United
States. Accumulated seeds resulted in unsightly rotting
piles, pollution of streams by runoff, and some of the earli-
est environmental antipollution laws in the country [4].
Cottonseed requires special handling techniques. Most
of the varieties grown throughout the world for use as tex-
tile fibers are American Upland Cotton (Gossypium hirsu-
turn L.), whose seed is encased in a cocoon of "fuzzy"
(crinkled) fibers, distinctly different from the long, straight
fibers ("staple") ginned from the cotton boll. (Minor
amounts of "black" or "naked" seed cotton also are
grown.) Cottonseed oil is dark in color, objectionable in
taste, and was initially used for lamps, soaps, greases, and
industrial applications. Whole cottonseed and cottonseed
presscake and meal can be fed in limited amounts to rumi-
nants, but understanding and reducing its high toxicity to
swine and poultry took many years of research.
In time, saw blade delinters ("saws") were developed to
remove linters from the seed, followed by techniques for
hydraulic pressing, screw pressing and solvent extraction,
and for inactivating ("binding") the toxic pigment in feed
meals. Cottonseed oil was the material on which modern al-
kali neutralization (refining), bleaching, deodorization, hy-
drogenation, and winterization techniques were developed.
In processing, the linters are removed primarily to re-
duce loss of oil by absorption in later operations. Typically,
two "cuts" are made. The fibers from the "first cut" are
longer and are sold primarily for use as padding in bed-
ding, furniture and cushions. The shorter fibers from the
"second cut" and an optional "third cut" are sold to the
chemical industry for making cellulose, rayon, plastics,
smokeless gun powder, and explosives.
A bar dehuller is used to crack the seeds, which then pass
over a vibrating separator equipped with several decks or
sections of screen for sizing and an aspirator to remove the
hulls. The "uncut" seed is recovered in a hull and seed sep-
arator and returned to the bar dehuller for a second attempt.
The hull fraction passes through a hull beater to recover as
much adhering meats pieces as possible.
Most of the cottonseed oil in the United States is recov-
ered by direct solvent extraction. Prepress-solvent extrac-
tion and hydraulic pressing have essentially been retired,
although a few full-screw-press operations still exist.
The objective of flaking is to rupture both the sphere-
somes containing the oil and "glands" containing gossy-
pol. The following conditions are necessary for gossypol
binding to occur:
Freeing the gossypol for reaction
Moisture content of 12% or higher
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
Heat
Time
Gossypol binding before extraction is preferred to reduce
color of the oil, but could be completed after desolventiza-
tion. In the earlier years of cottonseed oil milling, five-high
rolls were used for flaking, resulting in four occasions to
smear the seed during size reduction. The industry primari-
ly uses two-roll stands now. Extensive cooking, with high
initial moisture content before full pressing, is effective for
binding gossypol, but screw press oil mills are declining in
numbers in the United States. Globally, cottonseed with as
much as 1.4% gossypol is produced. The current upper
range in the United States is about 0.7% for American Up-
land Cotton but is appreciably higher for naked cottonseed.
Targets of 0.001% free gossypol per percent of protein
(0.041% for 41% protein cottonseed meal) have been set
by some researchers for feeding monogastric animals.
FDA has set a maximum of 0.045% free gossypol in foods
sold for human consumption, and the Food and Agriculture
and World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) of the United
Nations has set 0.060% and 1.2% maximum levels for free
and total gossypol, respectively, for hunger relief pro-
grams.
The world's cotton crop is large enough to provide the
annual protein needs of about 400 million people [84,85].
During the period 1960-1990, considerable research was
conducted on developing low-gossypol-content ("gland-
less") cottonseed. Breeding was led by the USDA and pri-
vate breeders in the United States and by the former Insti-
tut de Recherches du Coton et des Textiles Exotiques
(IRCT) at Montpellier, France, in former French colonies
in Africa—Chad, Mali, and Ivory Coast. Utilization re-
search was led by the Food Protein Research and Develop-
ment Center at Texas A&M University, the USDA South-
ern Regional Research Center in New Orleans, and the
IRCT. Smaller programs also existed in Egypt, Israel, the
Soviet Union, and China. The program was initiated by
discovery of a wild cotton mutant, which made gossypol
"glands" in the seed and plant but did not fill them. Dis-
tinct benefits in animal feeding, oilseed processing, and
utilization of food-grade flours and protein concentrates
and isolates were documented. The program was set aside
primarily because of (disputed) beliefs among growers that
glandless cotton plants lacked the natural insecticides of
traditional cotton varieties.
A decade ago, full press meals contained less than 0.1%
free gossypol, and direct solvent extracted meals contained
0.3-0.5% free gossypol. Meals containing 0.025% gossy-
pol are achievable by extruding flaked cottonseed through
an expander at 13% moisture and 100°C (212°F). Holding
the material hot for 20 minutes, reextruding at 113°C
325
(235°F), and drying/cooling the collets to 11% moisture
and 57°C (135°F) before solvent extraction. Even without
specifically producing meals for monogastric animals, the
industry average for free gossypol content of direct solvent
extracted meal has dropped to an estimated 0.11-0.14%
since expanders have come into use.
The residual oil content in cake from a well-run full
press operation is in the 4.0-6.5% range. Solvent-extracted
meal contains 0.5-0.7% residual oil, but the fat analysis
may be in the 1.2-1.8% range because of added soapstock
from miscella refining.
5. Peanut
The processing of peanuts poses special problems. They
mature in the soil, and additional efforts are needed to re-
move small stones and sand to reduce wear on machines.
Aflatoxin contamination is a potential and must be moni-
tored constantly. The world first became aware of aflatox-
ins when Brazilian-produced peanut meal was found to be
the cause of death of young turkeys in England in the late
1950s. Statistics show increased liver cancer in African
populations as consumption of whole peanuts has in-
creased. Fortunately, oil extracted from high-aflatoxin-
content peanuts can be effectively refined for food use, but
disposing of the hot meal may be a problem.
Dehulling typically is 99% efficient, and the hulls often
are used as fuel to generate steam and occasionally elec-
tricity for the oil mill. Shelled peanuts contain 50% oil and,
if cooked and flaked by traditional oilseed-processing
techniques, become a paste that is difficult to convey and
extract with conventional equipment. Extraction of sliced
peanuts to produce intact peanut flakes for food uses has
been reported.
Generally, peanuts are processed by full press or pre-
press-solvent extraction. To provide traction in the screw
press, they are cooked to 5% moisture content and fed to
the screw press whole or cracked to no less than one-quar-
ter kernel size. If only a prepressing is given, the cake is
crumbled and solvent extracted. One direct solvent extrac-
tion process uses two stages [86]:
1. The kernels are cooked and sent to a roll stand
equipped with an upper set of corrugated rolls and a
lower set of smooth rolls. They are cracked into quar-
ters by the upper rolls, then given a light flaking in the
lower rolls without production of fines.
2. After the first extraction stage, the flakes are rolled
again and reextracted.
Care should be taken to dispose of aflatoxin-containing
meals as fertilizer or treat with ammoniation to make it
safe for animal feed.
326
6. Sunflower Seed
Two of today's major oilseeds originated in the New
World. Peanuts originated in South America. The exact lo-
cation is unknown after a 3,500 year history of cultivation
and human migration, but is thought to be the Bolivia,
Peru, northern Argentina, Brazil highlands [87]. Single-
head sunflowers were cultivated in New Mexico—Arizona
2,000 years ago, and multiflowered plants are common
weeds in the Missouri-Mississippi River Basin [88]. Wild
sunflower seeds were brought back to Europe by early ex-
plorers and remained ornamental and garden curiosities
until the plant was developed as a short-growing-season
oil and food crop in Russia.
Sunflower seed is the only major row crop oilseed that
does not have identified antinutrition factors requiring in-
activation during processing. Nor is aflatoxin a recognized
problem.
The black-and-white striped "confectionary" varieties
were developed earlier and are better known to the public.
These have a loose seed and consist of approximately 40%
hull and 30% oil on a total weight basis. Oil-type seeds
generally are black, about one-third the weight of confec-
tionary seeds, and consist of 20% hull and 40-45% oil.
The seed clings to the hull, which is thin, flexible, and dif-
ficult to remove. The extent of dehulling is often dictated
by local markets for the meal. The meal of undehulled, sol-
vent-extracted, oil-type sunflower seeds contains approxi-
mately 28% protein and 28% fiber. Highly dehulled meals
are traded at 42% protein [89].
A major problem with sunflower seed meal is chloro-
genic acid, normally a colorless compound which, in the
presence of alkali, turns irreversibly dark green-blue in
color. This has restricted the use of sunflower seed protein
concentrates and isolates in foods and has resulted in green
patches on soiled shells of eggs from hens fed sunflower
seed meal.
Typically, oil-type sunflower seeds are dehulled to the
desired fiber content, heated, flaked, prepressed, and then
solvent-extracted.
III. PROTEIN PROCESSING
AND UTILIZATION
Oilseed proteins reach markets as (1) extracted feed meals,
(2) whole seeds and full-fat meals, (3) specially prepared
food flours and protein concentrates and isolates, and (4)
industrial ingredients.
A. Solvent-Extracted Animal Feeds
In the United States, nearly 98% of extracted soybean
meals, and essentially all meals of other oilseed species,
Lusas
are used for feed. Desolventized mares and presscakes of
all oilseeds become "meals" on grinding, usually by ham-
mer mills, and may be pelleted before sale as feed proteins.
Oilseeds contain natural antioxidants that provide tempo-
rary protection against oxidation. Meat and fish meals typ-
ically are screw-pressed and may contain as much as 10%
fat. They do not have natural reserves of antioxidants, and
it is common practice to add synthetic antioxidants, like
ethoxyquin, propylgallate, butylated-hydroxytoluene
(BHT), or di-t-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) at the end of
processing. Fish oil is highly unsaturated, and stabilization
of fish meal is necessary to prevent heating and sponta-
neous combustion during storage. Shippers are especially
concerned about accepting partially defatted animal or
oilseed meals containing highly polyunsaturated or recog-
nized drying oils unless stabilized by antioxidants. Sol-
vent-extracted meals are preferred.
Typical compositions of meals of the major oilseeds
and oil-bearing materials are shown in Table 16. Solvent-
extracted meals are generally traded at the following pro-
tein levels: soybean, 44% and 48.5%; cottonseed, 41%;
and sunflower seed 42%. In practice, oil mills often estab-
lish special contracts with local feeders to produce meals
at other protein (and fiber) contents that are beneficial to
them. Feeders and feed mixers, working with "open for-
mulas," formulate to specific nutrient composition levels
and can accommodate variations in meals provided the as-
say of the shipment on hand is known. Producers of feeds
with "closed formulas," for example, dry dog and cat
foods with labels that must list the ingredients in diminish-
ing order, require meals closely adhering to compositions
listed in trading rules or purchase specifications.
Some persons refer to soybean meals with 48.5% pro-
tein as "high-protein-content meals." In reality, they are
"low-fiber meals," meant for poultry and swine with limit-
ed fiber-handling capabilities, and contain approximately
3.0% fiber compared to 7.0% fiber in 44% protein soybean
meal.
As mentioned earlier, fat contents of oilseed meals can
vary substantially depending on whether soapstocks or
surplus phosphatides have been spread over the marc at
the DT and the uniformity of addition. Disposal of spent
bleaching earths (clays used in oil refining) also is a prob-
lem, and they have been spread over meal at the DT-dryer
at times. However, this practice should be monitored care-
fully. The bleaching and deodorization processes serve as
built-in safety functions in oilseed processing. Gossypol,
aflatoxins, and overdosed toxic agricultural chemicals
(pesticides and herbicides) are absorbed in the bleaching
earth or removed as volatiles during deodorization and
collected in the condensed deodorizer distillate.
The effects of meal toasting on nutritional values of
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 327

TABLE 16 Representative Compositions of Whole Oilseeds, Oil-Bearing Materials, and High-Protein

Meals (%)

Material Moisture Protein Fat, EEa Crude fiber Ash

Corn germ
Dry milled 10.0 13.0 22.5 4.5 2.5
Wet milled 5.0 8.0 50.0 2.5 2.0
Wet milled, solv. extd. meal 9.0 18.0 1.0 6.0 5.0
Cottonseed
Cottonseed with linters 10.0 22.0 19.5 19.0 4.5
Cottonseed hulls 9.0 3.8 2.8 43.2 2.7
Cottonseed meal, solv. extd, 41% protein 10.0 41.3 1.5 12.0 6.8
Cottonseed meal, mech. extd, 36% protein 9.0 38.0 5.9 14.5 6.5
Peanut, ground nut
Shelled kernels 10.0 26.0 45.0 4.0 2.5
Peanut hulls 9.0 7.0 1.8 57.0 4.0
Peanut meal, solv. extd. 9.0 49.0 1.2 8.0 5.0
Peanut meal, mech. extd. 9.0 43.2 6.5 7.0 4.8
Rapeseed/Canola
Whole seed 8.0 22.0 41.0 10.0 5.0
Canola meal, solv. extd. 10.0 36.0 2.0 12.0 7.0
Soybean
Whole seed 10.0 36.3 18.9 5.0 4.4
Soybean hulls 9.0 11.0 2.0 36.4 4.6
Soybean meal, solv. extd. 44% protein 10.0 44.6 1.5 6.2 6.5
Soybean meal, dehulled, solv. extd. 10.0 49.5 0.9 3.4 5.8
Sunflower seed, oil-type
Whole seed 10.0 21.0 42.0 19.0 4.5
Sunflower seed hulls 10.0 7.0 2.2 50.0 3.0
Sunflower seed meal, solv. extd 10.0 23.5 1.0 31.5 5.6
Sunflower seed meal, dehulled, solv. extd. 10.0 44.0 3.0 11.5 7.5
aEE: ether extraction.

meals have been discussed earlier in this review. Animal
nutrition science has developed to the point where ingredi-
ent energy and digestibility differences are recognized for
individual species. For example, 44% protein solvent-ex-
tracted soybean meal has 37.5% ruminant-digestible pro-
tein, 78% ruminant-total digestible nutrients (TDN) and
71% swine TDN, and 2240 kcal/kg poultry metabolizable
energy (ME), and 3090 kcal/kg swine ME according to the
annually published Feedstuffs Reference Issue [90]. Com-
position, digestibility, metabolizable energy, and amino
acid data are used in calculating least-cost diets for the re-
spective species by linear programming techniques. Gen-
eral composition values usually are published first by the
National Research Council (NRC) of the U.S. National
Academy of Sciences, often in the series "Nutrient Re-
quirements of Domestic Animals" pamphlets, which are
updated periodically. However, book values are not as reli-
able as analyses of batches received. The NRC series cur-
rently includes nutrient requirements for beef cattle, dairy
cattle, cats, dogs, fish, goats, horses, laboratory animals,
mink/foxes, poultry, rabbits, sheep, and swine. The later is-
sues of these publications include computer diskettes for
calculating diets for animals in different physiological
conditions.
Cottonseed and its meals should be fed only to animals
sufficiently mature to have functioning rumens. Young ru-
minants are at least as or more sensitive to free gossypol as
monogastric animals. Sensitivities of fish to free gossypol
vary with the species.
B. Whole Seeds, Full-Fat Soybeans, and
Associated Products
Some seeds are fed directly to animals. As much as 3.2
kg/day (7 lbs/day) cottonseed has been fed successfully on
a continuing basis to lactating dairy cattle. Ruminants have
limited gossypol-deactivation capabilities, which should
not be overtaxed.
Soybeans are increasingly converted into trypsin-inacti-
vated full-fat meals by extruders for feeding poultry and
328
swine. Sometimes, part of the oil is separated and sold for
refining or other uses by the already described mini mills.
The development of full-fat soybeans began in the mid-
1960s in the United States when farmers realized it was
more profitable to feed home-grown soybeans to swine as
protein and energy sources rather than sell soybeans and
purchase solvent-extracted meal. Various processes for in-
activating trypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinins, other antinu-
trients and allergens were evaluated. The two used most
often today are extrusion and roasting [22,91]. Full-fat
soybean meal has been used with excellent results in feed-
ing poultry, swine, dairy and beef cattle, and various
species of cultured fish and shrimp.
Two systems are used for extrusion of full-fat soybean
flour. In small operations, whole soybeans are fed into a
high-shear "dry" extruder, where they are homogenized
and heated to temperatures of 154°C (310°F) to inactivate
trypsin inhibitor [92]. The machine is autogenous and gen-
erates its heat by friction. The soybeans are turned into
shreds. The same basic design (Figs. 6 and 7) has been used:
In low-cost cooking extrusion in overseas hunger relief
programs [93]
In the previously described ExPressTM "mini mills," where
oil is partially removed by hard pressing extruded soy-
beans and cottonseed
For coextruding solvent-extracted soybean meal or other
cereal fractions with wet animal, poultry, fish, and
shrimp by-products as a means of drying and recycling
them as feeds without rendering
For making texturized soybean food ingredients [94]
A second extrusion approach for larger full-fat soybean
installations is to use an Anderson International interrupt-
ed-flight screw expander for heating the soybeans. This
machine is built in higher capacities per hour but has low-
er shear and requires pregrinding the soybeans, plus steam
for injection heating the product and a dryer.
Full-fat soybeans also are produced for feeding rumi-
nants by dry roasting whole soybeans to 150°C (300°F)
and a PDI of about 9.5 [95]. Rumen protein by-pass is
raised to about 62% when the roasted soybeans are
cracked to no more than four pieces each. Dairy cattle fed
roasted soybeans are reported to produce more milk and
higher fat content per unit feed, which is contested by ex-
truder manufacturers.
The reader is cautioned that the NRC uses the collective
term "heat processed soybean seed" for full-fat soybeans
and has reported a metabolizable energy value of 13.8
mJ/kg (3300 kilocal/kg) for poultry (very similar to raw
soybeans). However, feeding results as high as 16.5 mJ/kg
(3936 kcal/kg) have been experienced with soybeans ex-
truded at proper temperatures [91]. Nutritionists should
Lusas
use values determined for the specific process, rather than
book values, when calculating feed diets.
C. Vegetable Food Proteins
The term "vegetable food proteins" as used in this review
refers to edible flours and protein concentrates and isolates
but does not include soy milk, tofu, soy sauce, or other
Asian foods. Considerable research on extracting concen-
trated proteins for food use has been conducted over the
years [96,97]. Flours and protein concentrates and isolates
have been prepared from the world's major oilseeds, cere-
al grains, nuts, many legumes, including peas, beans, and
lentils, and grasses and alfalfa [98].
Cottonseed flour had been produced for food use since
early in the twentieth century, primarily by tail end de-
hulling cottonseed press cake or solvent-extracted meal by
sieving. It was withdrawn from the domestic food ingredi-
ents market and now is sold primarily as pharmacological
media. Facilities were built for producing low-gossypol
cottonseed flour by the Liquid Cyclone Process in West
Texas in the 1970s [99] and in India in the early 1980s.
Both were closed for technical and probably marketing
reasons. A European and North American sampling pro-
gram of sunflower protein concentrate produced in Italy
was conducted in the early 1980s but did not lead to a sus-
tained business. Aside from soybean products, the only
other widely successful vegetable food protein products
are glutens extracted from wheat.
1. Food-Grade Full-Fat Soy Flours and Grits
Unique to the vegetable food protein industry, soybean
products often are simply called "soy." Three types of full-
fat soy flours are produced: enzyme-active, toasted, and
extruder-processed [100]. Refatted and lecithinated flours
also are produced and are described later.
Enzyme-active flours are made by:
Tempering soybeans with moisture and heat
Cracking into six to eight pieces
Removing the hulls by aspiration
Grinding the dehulled pieces by a hammer mill, or an im-
pact pin mill like the Alpine Contraplex (Alpine Corp.,
Natick, Massachusetts) or an Entoleter (Entoleter, Inc.,
New Haven, Connecticut), to a granulation of less than
1% retained on a U.S. No. 45 screen
Typical specifications are moisture, 10.0% maximum; and
on moisture free basis (mfb): protein, 42%; fat, 21.0%; and
ash, 4.7%. Enzyme-active full-fat soy flours are preferred
for bleaching wheat flour (by lipoxygenase activity) in
making bread in Europe, and enzyme-active defatted flours
are preferred in the United States.
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 329

Toasted soy flours ("heat-treated full-fat soy flours") are are combined with extracted soy flour to make lecithinat-
made by: ed/refatted flours. Dustiness is reduced, and the products
disperse more readily in beverages, dry mixes, and during
Cleaning whole soybeans
food processing [104].
Steaming under slight pressure for 20-30 minutes to pre-
vent development of beany flavor 3. Soy Protein Concentrates
Drying, dehulling, milling, and sieving Soy protein concentrates are basically flour from which
Product PDI is in the 20-35 range. Toasted flours pass U.S. sugars (sucrose and the nondigestible oligosaccharides
No. 100 or 200 mesh screens. Grits are available in various stachyose and raffinose) and other soluble materials have
granulations, for example, coarse, through No. 10 screen been removed by either [100]:
on No. 20; medium, through No. 20 on No. 40; and fine, Extraction of white flakes in a shallow-bed, countercur-
through No. 40 on No. 80. rent, drag chain loop extractor with 20-80% ethyl alco-
Full-fat soy flours have been made using extruders to hol (typically 60%)
inactivate lipoxygenase. Dry heating soybeans to 104°C Leaching white flakes or flour with acidified (pH 4.5) wa-
(220°F), tempering to 20% moisture, and extruding at ter
135°C (275°F) with a 2-minute retention is reported to Denaturing the protein with moist heat, as by extrusion,
achieve 89% trypsin inhibitor inactivation, a PER of 2.15, and extraction with water
urease activity of 0.1 pH change, and a product NSI of
21% [101]. Full-fat soy flours contain approximately 40% The extracted material is dried and ground using various
protein (N x 6.25). equipment. Concentrates are made to remove nondi-
gestible flatulence sugars and produce blander ingredients.
2. Extracted Flake Products and Flours
Extraction of soybeans for food protein uses differs from
processes where the meal is used for animal feeds [102]. A
more thoroughly cleaned U.S. No. 2 soybean, or a U.S.
No. 1, is used. Major emphasis is placed on removing DEFATTED
splits, which may harbor early lipoxygenase activity that "WHITE" FLAKES"
produces beany flavor.
In processing soybean food proteins, a solvent-extract- WATER Extraction Tank
ed "white flake" is made first. It may then be sold as a food SODIUM HYDROXIDE--). (pH 9-10)
ingredient, ground into flour or grits, extracted to produce FIBER
Centrifuge
soy protein concentrate, or solubilized in preparation of (Spent Flakes)
soy protein isolate [100]. A typical soybean meal, after ex-
Acidification Tank
traction and before toasting to reduce TIs, has an NSI of HYDROCHLORIC ACID —>
(pH 4.0)
about 34-40. In contrast, NSIs of white flakes before toast-
ing are in the 85-90 range. High NSI is achieved by keep- Centrifuge I *WHEY
ing moisture of the seed low, running the extraction
process as anhydrous as possible, and evaporating the sol- ACID CURD
vent remaining in the mare by "flash-desolventization" WATER ----It,.
while flakes are conveyed pneumatically. Energy for the
process is provided by superheated hexane vapors under Centrifuge 1.--> WASH WATER
pressure at 116-138°C (240-280°F) [103].
The Soy Protein Council [104] has defined flakes as WASHED CURD
"white," NSI > 85, "cooked," 20-60 NSI, and "toasted," WATER -4. Dispersion and
NSI < 20. One domestic supplier offers high-PDI white ALKALI (Optional)—+ Neutralization Tank
flakes with 86-88 PDI, 80% lipoxygenase (bleaching) ac- f
Spray Dryer I
tivity, minimum 2.2 pH rise urease activity, and granula- I
tion: on U.S. No. 20, 35%; through U.S. No. 20 and on
SOY PROTEINATE, ISOELECTRIC (pH 4.0)
U.S. No. 100, 45%; and through U.S. No. 100, 15%. De- Sodium, Calcium SOY PROTEIN ISOLATE
fatted flours are white, cooked, or toasted extracted flakes
ground to pass a U.S. No. 100 screen. FIGURE 17 Flow diagram for commercial preparation of soy-
Refined lecithin or vegetable oil, at 0.5-30.0% levels, bean protein isolates.
330 Lusas

110 or first brought to neutrality with sodium hydroxide, in

which case it is called a "proteinate" [100]. A flow sheet of
90
the process is shown in Figure 17. In making isolates, es-
o SO sentially all solubles, including sugars, and fiber are re-
moved from the starting flour.
70
Preparation of soy protein isolate takes advantages of
g 60 solubility characteristics of proteins at different pHs. Fig-
ure 18 shows that soy protein is over 90% soluble at pHs
A: 50
z above 8 but is least soluble at its "isoelectric point" of pH
• 40 4.5 [105]. Nitrogen solubility curves for six oilseed flours
G)
01 are shown in Figure 19 [85]. This figure also may help ex-
12 30
plain why cottonseed meal, being considerably less soluble
1
• i 20 at pH 6.5 than soybean meal, is less degraded by microor-
a.
ganisms at rumen pH and has higher bypass values.
10
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. About
0 two dozen have been identified. Of these, 9-11 are consid-
2 3 4 5 6 1 II 9 10 11 12
pH of Extraction ered dietary essential for humans, depending on age, i.e.,
they cannot be synthesized by the body and must be ob-
FIGURE 18 Extractability of nitrogen from defatted soybean tained from the food supply. The essential amino acids
meal as a function of pH. (From Ref. 105.) (EAAs) are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methion-
ine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine; ad-
100 ditionally cystine can substitute for methionine and tyro-
sine for phenylalanine. Arginine is synthesized by most
o COCONUT
80 A PEANUT
mammals but not always in quantities sufficient to meet
>- o SESAME the needs of the very young [106]. Arginine is considered
• SOYBEAN essential for poultry, and glycine + serine levels also have
7.1
Ei 60 • SUNFLOWER
• GLANDLESS been listed [107]. Proteins are built from amino acids by
COTTONSEED forming an amide linkage ("peptide bond" or "peptide
0
cn
linkage") between the a-amino group of one amino acid
and the a-carboxyl group of another amino acid with elim-
8 20 ination of one molecule of water. This structure is used to
form dipeptides and then longer protein chains. Water is
added to these bonds when they are hydrolyzed by acids or
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 enzymes. Almost all peptide bonds exist in the trans con-
pH OF MEASUREMENT figuration because it is thermodynamically more stable
than the cis configuration.
FIGURE 19 Nitrogen solubility curves of six oilseed flours.
(From Ref. 85.) Peptide
Bond

4. Soy Protein Isolates R R' R R'

Soy protein isolates are made by:
H-N-C-C
° N-COH.+
I i II I
H-N-C
9 I 9
+ H2O
Fine grinding white flakes and dispersing in water
H H H
Raising the pH to 9-10 with sodium hydroxide to solubi-
amino acid R amino acid R' dipeptide
lize the protein
Centrifuging the solution to remove the unsolubilized fiber Oilseed proteins typically contain a small (<10%) albu-
Precipitating the protein by acidification to pH 4.5 min (water-soluble) fraction and three or four globulin
Separating the precipitate (curd) from the soluble sugars (salt-soluble) fractions. The albumin and small molecular
and salts by centrifuging weight globulins (about 20,000 daltons) are richer in the
Washing and recentrifuging the curd essential amino acids than the globulins, highly soluble,
Spray-drying and often lost in making protein concentrates and isolates.
The isolate may be dried at its isoelectric point of pH 4.5 This explains why nutritional quality (based on optimum
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
100
PERCENT NIT ROGENIN SOLUTION
80
"CLASSICAL"
ISOLATE
FROM SINGLE
EXTRACTION
60 (COMBINED
PROTEIN)
I
40
20
ISOLTE-I
SELECTIVE
EXTRACTION
(NON- STORAGE ‘...„/
PROT IN)
2 4
pH (after centrifugation )
FIGURE 20 Nitrogen solubility curves of 1% solutions of cottonseed protein isolates from single-step and selective extraction process-
es. (From Ref. 84.)
EAA ratios) decreases slightly although protein content in-
creases from about 50-52% in flours to 65-70% in protein
concentrates, to >90% in isolates. Also, as protein content
increases, the products become increasingly bland but
darker.
The major globulin fraction has been called "storage
protein" and the secondary fraction "nonstorage protein,"
implying cellular and interstitial origins, respectively.
Their relative centrifuge sedimentation rates are about
11-12S and 7S for most oilseeds. In soybeans, they are
known as "glycinin" and "conglycinin," respectively.
As shown in Figure 20 [84], the isoelectric points of
nonstorage and storage proteins in cottonseed protein are
about 2.5 pH units apart. In making isolates, the alkaline
extract can be acidified to pH 5.0 to precipitate a mixture
of the two fractions. Or the extract can first be acidified to
pH 6.5, the precipitated storage protein removed by cen-
trifugation, and the remaining solution acidified to pH 4.0
and the nonstorage protein curd harvested by centrifuga-
tion. The two fractions of cottonseed protein have distinct-
ly different functional characteristics. For example, cotton-
seed storage protein is highly soluble in acidic conditions
and has been suggested as a potential protein fortification
ingredient for fruit juices and carbonated beverages.
Unfortunately, the isoelectric points of soybean gly-
331
/
/
I
I
ISOLATE II
SELECTIVE
EXTRACTION
(STORAGE PROTEIN)
6 8 10 12
cinin and conglycinin are only about 0.8 pH units apart,
which has thwarted attempts to commercially separate
these two soy protein fractions, at least until recently. The
11S glycinin fraction is the more important when selecting
soybeans for tofu production.
Soy protein isolate preparation technology is older than
food flour or protein concentrates technology and was ini-
tiated in the mid-1930s when purified proteins were re-
quired for making acid-precipitated fibers for textiles use
[108].
5. Texturized Proteins
Texturized soy protein (TSP), by far, is the major extruder
texturized vegetable protein made. Texturized Vegetable
ProteinTM and TVPTM are registered trademarks for textur-
ized soy protein marketed by the Archer Daniels Midland
Company (Decatur, IL). Various texturized wheat gluten
food products also are marketed in the United States.
The initial TSP foods were "spun" by solubilizing soy
protein at pH 10-11 with sodium hydroxide, and the filtered
"dope" pumped through a platinum textile spinneret (with
15,000 or more holes, 0.2-0.25 mm, 0.008-0.01 mm in di-
ameter) into an acid coagulating bath. The tow of parallel
fibers then went through successive heating and stretching
operations, and egg albumin, fat, flavor, and coloring ma-
332 Lusas

LL6
(I) II
• 4-- Supply Bin

111
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ay= •
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a Die and Cutter
Barrel and Screw
MIIII
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FIGURE 21 Twin-screw extruder used for texturizing soy protein flour and soy protein concentrate. (Courtesy of Wenger Manufactur-
ing Co., Sabetha, Kansas.)

--"K — Compression/Feeding — >—{--et Cooking/Melting —

S
Reacting H
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Texturizing

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7
FEED ZONE KNEADING FINAL COOKING ---0,--
(Raw Material and ZONE ZONE
Surface Moisture) (Dough-Like Mass) (Visco-Amorphic Mass)

FIGURE 22 Barrel and screw of twin-screw extruder used for texturizing soy protein flour and concentrate. Note the use of cut-flight
worm segments to add shear. (Courtesy of Wenger Manufacturing Co., Sabetha, Kansas.)

terials were added before shaping into meat analog prod-
ucts [109]. Spun soy meat analogs were replaced by ex-
truder-texturized TSPs, made by less expensive processes
and using less expensive soy flour or soy protein concen-
trate ingredients. However, a limited amount of fibers is
still made from soy protein isolate by various processes for
use as texturizing agents in manufactured foods.
An extrusion system consists of several important com-
ponents:
A feed supply system capable of delivering the flour or
protein concentrate at controlled rate
A high-shear cooking extruder that turns the protein into a
melt
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 333

A laminar-flow area or die that allows the protein mole-
cules to align in parallel fashion
A set of dies and cutter to shape the melt into pieces
A dryer/cooler to reduce moisture in the final product to a
microbiologically stable level
Two decades ago, single-screw extruders were used for
making TSP. Since then, twin-screw extruder systems,
with loss in weight feeders, improved conditioners, and
more uniform feed flow, have been introduced (Fig. 21).
The introduction of cut-flight worm screw sections has
also enabled increasing shear in the melt (Fig. 22).
In earlier years, high-PDI/NSI flours or protein concen-
trates were required for making TSPs. Now, twin-screw
extruders are able to provide sufficient shear to enable use
of soy products over the 20-80 PDI range, containing up to
6.5% fat and 7% fiber, and particle sizes up to U.S. No. 8
screen. Moisture during texturization is in the 20-30%

TABLE 17 Composition of Commercial Soy Protein Products (%)

Defatted flours and grits Concentrates Isolates
Constituent as is mfb as is mfb as is mfb
Protein-(N x 6.25) 52-54 56-59 62-69 65-72 86-87 90-92
Fat (pet. ether) 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.1 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0 0.1-1.0
Crude fiber 2.5-3.5 2.7-3.8 3.1 1.8 3.5-5.0 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2
Ash 5.0-6.0 5.4-6.5 3.8-6.2 4.0-6.5 3.8-4.8 4.0-5.0
Moisture 6-8 0 4-6 0 4-6 0
Carbohydrates (by difference) 30-32 32-34 19-21 20-22 3-4 3-4
mfb-Moisture-free basis.
Ref. 104.
Source:

TABLE 18 Essential Amino Acid Profiles (g/16 g N) and Protein Efficiency Ratios of Various Food Ingredients
Essential amino acid
Lys Leu Val Ileu Thr Phe + Tyr Met + Cys Try PER
Soybean
Defatted flour 6.9 7.7 5.4 5.1 4.3 8.9 3.2 1.3 2.2
Concentrate 6.3 7.8 4.9 4.8 4.2 9.1 3.0 1.5 1.8
Isolate 6.1 7.7 4.8 4.9 3.7 9.1 2.1 1.4 1.6
Peanut
Defatted flour 3.0 6.4 5.3 3.2 2.6 8.4 1.9 1.0 1.8
Concentrate 3.0 6.7 4.5 4.3 2.5 10.0 2.4 1.1 1.6
Isolate 3.0 6.6 4.4 3.6 2.5 9.9 2.4 1.0 1.4
Glandless cottonseed
Defatted flour 4.0 6.0 4.5 3.1 3.2 8.5 3.8 1.5 2.2
Concentrate 4.0 6.2 4.9 3.2 3.1 8.8 3.5 1.5 2.0
Isolate, classical 4.0 6.1 4.7 3.2 3.2 8.7 3.7 1.5 1.8
Nonstorage protein 6.2 6.4 4.6 3.4 3.4 7.4 5.0 1.6 2.4
Storage protein 2.9 5.6 4.6 3.0 2.6 9.2 2.4 1.0 1.6
Sunflower seed
Defatted flour 4.2 7.2 5.7 4.5 3.9 8.7 3.6 1.1 2.1
Concentrate 4.2 6.9 5.7 4.6 3.7 8.7 3.6 1.0 2.0
Isolate 4.1 6.4 5.5 4.3 3.7 8.6 3.4 1.0 1.9
Sesame
Defatted flour 3.5 7.4 4.6 4.7 3.9 10.6 5.6 1.9 1.7
Concentrate 3.0 7.1 4.5 4.2 3.6 8.4 4.9 1.9 1.6
Isolate 2.1 6.6 4.6 3.6 3.3 7.9 3.7 1.8 1.4
Source: Ref. 110.
334 Lusas

TABLE 19 Comparison of NRC Essential Amino Acid Requirement Patterns and Composition of Commercial Soy Protein Products

Amino acid requirement pattern by age groupsa Composition of soy protein productsb
(mg/g protein) (mg/g protein)

Children Protein
Infants 3-4
Amino acid months -2 years 10-12 years Adults Flours/Grits Concentrates Isolates

Histidine 16 19 19 11 26 25 28
Isoleucine 40 28 28 13 46 48 49
Leucine 93 66 44 19 78 79 82
Lysine 60 58 44 16 64 64 64
Methionine plus cystine 33 25 22 17 26 28 26
Phenylalanine plus
tyrosine 72 63 22 19 88 89 92
Threonine 50 34 28 9 39 45 38
Tryptophan 10 11 9 5 14 16 14
Valine 54 35 25 13 46 50 50

'From Ref. 106.

bFrom Ref. 104.

range, and temperature in the 143-160°C (290-320°F)
range. TSP products can be made in various chunk and
shred sizes and colored if needed.
A low-cost texturization process, which bypasses tradi-
tional solvent extraction plants, has been developed. Soy-
beans are cleaned, dehulled if desired, and homogenized
using the previously mentioned high-shear dry-type sin-
gle-screw extruder (Figs. 6 and 7). The rapid heating ar-
rests lipoxygenase activity and prevents development of
beany flavor. Fat content in the extruded material is re-
TABLE 20 Carbohydrate Constituents of Dehulled
Defatted Soybean Meal
duced to the 6-7% range by screw pressing. The press
cake is ground into flour, moistened to the 20% range, and
reextruded in the same or a second machine, this time
equipped with an appropriate forming head and cutter. In
addition to lower capital entry costs, smaller extruders and
screw presses enable dispersed processing, especially in
countries encouraging development of small entrepreneurs
and private enterprise [94].
6. Compositions
Gross compositions of commercial soy food protein prod-
ucts are shown in Table 17 [104]. Essential amino acid pro-
files, determined experimentally for other oilseeds, are

Carbohydrate Source Percent

Monosaccharides TABLE 21 Processing and Nutrition Parameters of Heat-

Glucose Cotyledons 0.3 Treated Soy Flours
Arabinose Hulls Trace-0.1
Rat
Ribose Nucleic acids Trace-0.1
Heat' TI pancreas weight
Oligosaccharides
(min) NSI (TIU/mg) PER (g/100 g body wt)
Sucrose Cotyledons 8.1
Maltose Cotyledons 0.6 0 97.2 96.9 1.13 0.68
Raffinose Cotyledons 1.1 1 78.2 74.9 1.35 0.58
Stachyose Cotyledons 4.9 3 69.6 45.0 1.75 0.51
Verbascose Cotyledons Trace 6 56.5 28.0 2.07 0.52
Polysaccharides 9 51.3 20.5 2.19 0.48
Arabinan Cotyledons 15.0 20 37.9 10.1 2.08 0.49
Arabinogalactan Cotyledons 5.0 30 28.2 8.0
Xylan (hemicellulose) Hulls 3.5
Galactomannans Hulls Trace 'Live flowing steam at 100°C.
Cellulose Hulls 1.5 NSI-Nitrogen solubility index; TI-trypsin inhibitor; TIU-trypsin in-
hibitor units; PER-protein efficiency ratio, corrected for casein = 2.5.
Source: Ref. 111. Source: Ref. 111.
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 335

TABLE 22 Applications of Defatted Soy Products in Foods shown in Table 18 [110]; the concentrates in this table
were prepared by acidic water extraction. Relationships
PDIa Application between essential amino acid requirement patterns for dif-
90+ White bread bleaching agent ferent age groups of humans, established by the U.S. Na-
Fermentation tional Research Council [106], and compositions of com-
Soy protein isolates, fibers mercial soy food proteins [103] are shown in Table 19. The
60-75 Controlled fat and water absorption essential amino acid ratios in soybean flours, concentrates,
Doughnut mixes and isolates meet requirements for ages 2 years through
Bakery mixes adulthood, but not of infants 3-4 months old.
Pastas Carbohydrate constituents of dehulled defatted soybean
Baby foods
meal, including the flatulence-causing sugars, are shown
Meat products
in Table 20 [111]. Humans do not have the enzymes to di-
Breakfast cereals
Soy protein concentrates gest stachyose or raffinose. These (reducing) sugars pass
30-45 Meat products into the large intestine, where they are attacked by bacte-
Bakery mixes ria that cause discomfort and carbon dioxide and odorifer-
Nutrition, fat and water absorption, emulsification ous gases.
10-25 Baby foods
Protein beverages 7. Ingredient Functionality
Communicated meat products The relationship between steaming time of flakes, NSI and
Soups, sauces, and gravies TI reduction, increased PER and (desirable) reduction in
Hydrolyzed vegetable proteins rat pancreas weight is shown in Table 21 [111]. A summa-
Soy grits Nutrition, meat extenders ry of defatted soy products applications in foods, as related
Patties, meatballs and loafs, chili, sloppy joes to PDI, is shown in Table 22 [111]. Functional properties
Soups, sauces, and gravies
for which different soy products are used in specific foods
'Protein dispersibility index is a standard AOCS method (Ba 10-65) for are shown in Table 23 [111].
measuring the amount of heat treatment used in the processing of soybean Two decades ago, the major emphasis in vegetable food
meal products. protein research was on optimizing extraction techniques
Source: Ref. 111.
and inventorying the world's potential crop sources. Dur-
ing the past decade, with the exception of a few countries
still working to develop food proteins from local crops like
canola sunflower seed and cottonseed, research attention

TABLE 23 Functional Properties Supplied by Soy Proteins

Functional property Mode of action Food system used Products'

Solubility Protein solvation, pH dependent Beverages F, C, I, H

Water absorption and binding Hydrogen-bonding of water, entrapment of Meats, sausages, breads, cakes
water (no drip) F, C
Viscosity Thickening, water binding Soups, gravies F, C, I
Gelation Protein matrix formation and setting Meats, curds, cheeses C, I
Cohesion-adhesion Protein acts as an adhesive material Meats, sausages, baked goods, pasta
products F, C, I
Elasticity Disulfide links in deformable gels Meats, bakery items
Emulsification Formation and stabilization of fat emulsions Sausages, bologna, soups, cakes F, C, I
Fat absorption Binding of free fat Meats, sausages, doughnuts F, C, I
Flavor-binding Adsorption, entrapment, release Simulated meats, bakery items C, I, H
Foaming Forms film to entrap gas Whipped toppings, chiffon desserts,
angel cake I, W, H
Color control Bleaching (lipoxygenase) Breads

C, I, H, W denote soy flour, concentrate, isolate, hydrolyzate, and soy whey, respectively.
Source: Ref. 111.
336
has turned mainly to functionality modification of soybean
products. This has included:
Upgrading uses of the lower-priced forms, i.e., substituting
soy protein concentrate for isolate and soy flour for pro-
tein concentrate
Modification of protein functionality by physical and en-
zymatic means [112]
Promoting soy products as healthy alternatives to persons
concerned about the role of diet in disease [113]
8. Food Applications
Soy protein ingredients are used in a broad variety of
foods, including meat, bakery, and dairy-like products.
(a) Meats. In the United States, processing of meat and
poultry products in interstate commerce is overseen by res-
ident USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) in-
spectors. Ingredients in processed meats must be approved
by USDA-FSIS as well as FDA. Soy food proteins can ab-
sorb water and fat at up to three times their weight and
generally have replaced heat-treated milk powder in
processed meat products that can only absorb an equal
weight. USDA-FSIS allows the use of [114]:
Up to 3.5% soy flour or protein concentrate, individually
or collectively, as a binder or extender in Standard of
Identity sausages and frankfurters
Up to 2% soy protein isolate to bind and extend sausages
and frankfurters and to prevent purging of brine solu-
tion in cured pork products
Up to 8% soy flour or protein concentrate in chili con carne
Up to 12% soy flour or protein concentrate in spaghetti
with meatballs with sauce and similar products
Uses of soy flours and protein concentrates in processed
meats and of soy protein isolate in preparing skin and fat
TABLE 24 Bakery Applications of Various Soy Proteins
White bread Specialty breads
and rolls and rolls
Defatted soy flour
Enzyme-active soy flour
Low-fat soy flour
High-fat soy flour
Full-fat soy flour
Lecithinated soy flour
Soy grits
Soy concentrates
Soy isolates
Soy fiber
Source: Ref. 119.
Lusas
emulsion, which is used as an ingredient in further pro-
cessing, are described in detail in cited literature [115].
Restructured meats are made by mixing and tumbling
flakes or chunks of red or poultry meats in salt and
polyphosphates to extract the protein. Soy flours and pro-
tein concentrates and isolates are used at about the same
levels as in processed meats to improve texture and mini-
mize shrinkage. The tumbled mix is placed in loaf pans or
plastic casings for shaping, heat-set at about 68°C (154°F),
and cut to desirable thickness after cooling [116].
Texturized soy flours or concentrates may be rehydrated
to 18% protein content (60-65% moisture) and legally used
as extenders at up to 30% of hamburger and ground meat
blend weight. However, product texture and flavor consid-
erations have limited practical use of rehydrated TSP to
20% in the past. Significant cost reductions are possible
when feeding large numbers of people on limited budgets.
Typically, additional vitamin and mineral supplementation
are specified in purchase specifications of extended meat
products for school lunch programs and prison and military
garrison feeding. TSP products are used in vegetarian
recipes, in frozen "imitation" hamburger patties, and in
canned chili, stews, and hashes to enhance the meatiness
appearance of products already containing the amount of
meat required by the Standard of Identity.
Meat, poultry, and seafoods may be extended by pump-
ing or soaking in brines consisting of salt, polyphosphates,
and soy protein isolates or functional concentrates. Various
regulations apply. For example, corned beef and ham can
be pumped to achieve 130% yield, provided a minimum
protein content of 17% is maintained [115,117].
(b) Baked Goods. Water is highly absorbed by veg-
etable food proteins, resulting in reduced volumes of
yeast- or chemically raised products. Classical remedies
Cake Yeast-raised
Cakes doughnuts doughnuts Sweet goods Cookies
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
when experimentally fortifying breads with vegetable food
proteins of many species oilseed species have included (1)
addition of more water to the formula, (2) increased toast-
ing of the protein ingredient to reduce its water solubility,
or (3) adding surfactants like sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate
(SSL), calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate, or ethoxylated mono-
glyceride. The types of soy food protein ingredients used
in different bakery products are summarized in Table 24
[118,119]. Substitution of 80 PDI soy flour for 60 PDI
flour requires an additional three quarters to one pound of
water for each pound of flour added. The following effects
of using defatted soy flour (on a total flour basis) have been
reported:
Bread and buns-1-3% defatted soy flour increases water
absorption by one pound for each pound of soy flour
and improves crumb body resilience, crust color
(because of reducing sugars), and toasting characteris-
tics.
Cakes-3-6% defatted soy flour improves batter smooth-
ness and distribution of air cells and gives a more even
texture and a softer, more tender crumb.
Sweet goods and yeast-raised doughnuts-2-4% defatted
soy flour improves water-holding capacity and sheeting
properties.
Cake doughnuts-2-4% defatted flour improves structure
and "star" "hole" formation, reduces fat absorption dur-
ing frying, moisture retention, product yield, and shelf
life.
Hard (snap) cookies-2-5% defatted soy flour improves
dough machining and imparts a crisp bite.
Enzyme-active full-fat and defatted soy flours, at 0.5%,
bleach the carotenoid pigments in wheat flours and pro-
duce peroxides that strengthen gluten proteins.
Up to 15% of toasted defatted flours can be added to
leavened quick breads. Toasted defatted flours with PDI 20
add color to the crumb and nutty toasted flavor to whole-
grain and specialty breads.
Relecithinated soy flours in cakes improve emulsifica-
tion of fats, ingredient blending, pan release, and machin-
ability and partially replace egg yolks.
(c) Dairy-like Products. Soy milk and tofu, a calcium
and magnesium salt-set curd, are made directly from
whole soybeans [120-122]. Since soybeans are lower in
calcium content than bovine milk, other provisions must
be made for calcium fortification of the diet. Soy protein
concentrates have been used in beverage powders, imita-
tion cheeses, coffee whiteners, frozen desserts, whipped
toppings, infant formulas, imitation sour cream, and dairy-
type dips. Soy protein isolates have been used in frozen
desserts and infant formulas [100,104].
337
9. Nonfood Uses
Nonfood uses of purified soy proteins have included milk
replacers for calves and piglets. Industrial applications
have included wood adhesives, textiles, paper coatings,
plastics, water-thinned paints, latex paints, textile and pa-
per sizes, and fire-fighting foams [123-125]. Nonfood uses
of soy protein products were first championed domestical-
ly by Henry Ford and other industrial leaders in the early
1930s, and interest has returned during periods of soybean
crop surpluses. Research activity is again strong. However,
because of the relatively few industrial processors, produc-
tion statistics are hard to obtain (as with TSPs), and much
of the practical technology is cloaked in secrecy.
IV. VEGETABLE OILS PROCESSING
AND UTILIZATION
A. Introductory Chemistry
Crude oils from solvent extraction and screw pressing of
oilseeds typically contain over 95% triglycerides, plus
phosphatides ("lecithins"), free fatty acids, plant sterols,
tocopherols, oil-soluble pigments and other compounds,
residual solvent, water, and suspended fine particles,
which eventually settle to become part of the sludge
("foots"). Understanding the characteristics of the compo-
nents facilitates their removal and leaves essentially
triglycerides, natural antioxidants, and color pigments in
oils sold for food uses.
1. Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are the building blocks of triglycerides. The el-
ements are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with 4, 1, and 2
bonds, respectively. Carbon is unique in that it can loan or
borrow electrons for sharing in bonds. A fatty acid consists
of a chain of carbon atoms with each of the carbon bonds
attached to another carbon, a hydrogen, or an oxygen
atom. One end of the chain consists of a relatively inert
methyl group (carbon attached to three hydrogen atoms).
The other end has a carboxyl (organic acid) structure,
which is highly reactive (Fig. 23).
(a) Characteristics. Fatty acid chains mainly are syn-
thesized by adding two-carbon units to an acetate (two-
carbon) base; thus, most fatty acid chains consist of even
numbers of carbons. Microorganisms also produce signifi-
cant amounts of propionates (three-carbon units). If a pro-
pionate, rather than an acetate, is chosen as the base, the
resulting fatty acid chain will consist of odd numbers of
carbons. Odd-number fatty acids are found in triglycerides
produced by microbial fermentations and in tallows of ru-
minants.
338 Lusas

FATTY ACIDS HYDROGENATION BONDS

0 HH HH
11 1 I I H2 I I 11 11
H-O-C- (CH2)„ -C-H -C=C- -C-C- -C=C- -C=C-
catalyst I I
HH H
(Carboxyl end, (Methyl end, Unsaturated Saturated cis trans
Carbon 1 Carbon 1
systematic system. omega, N system.
Count to right) Count to left)

TRIGLYCERIDE SYNTHESIS
Ester
Glycerol
Linkage
Carbon
Position H 0
, II
H H
1 H-Cp-H + HiO-C-(CH2),,C-H --I,H- C (CH2)„C-H + 3H20
o A
I ff 1
H- 010-H + HIO-C-R' H-C-O-C-R'
0
I , II
3 H-C40-H + H1O-C-R" H-?-0-R"
H H
Glycerol Fatty Acids Triglyceride

PHOSPHATIDES, "LECITHINS"

CH2-0-R
CH-0-R' = "beta" Form
1 9
cH2-0-F)-0-R". "aloha" Form
0-
WHERE: PHOSPHATIDE NAME:

R" = CH2-CH2-F(CH3)3 Phosphatidylcholine

" = CH2-CH2-Ali3 Phosphatidylethanolamine
" = CH2-9H4H3 Phosphatidylserine
COO"
" = C6H6-(OH)6 Phosphatidylinositol
"=H Phosphatidic acid

R' = -4-0R" or fatty acid

OH
R = Fatty acid

FIGURE 23 Common fat and oil structures.

If all of the carbon-to-carbon links consist of only one
bond, the fatty acid is "saturated." If two of the carbons are
linked by a double bond, the site is "unsaturated." Most of
the double bonds in fats synthesized by plants and animals
are of the cis form, depicted in two dimensions as a struc-
ture where the hydrogens on the adjacent carbons are on
the same side of the double bond. Cis bonds greatly reduce
melting points of fatty acids but also are the sites of oxida-
tion induction. Hydrogenation saturates the bond by
adding two hydrogen atoms. If the reaction is not complet-
ed, one of the existing hydrogen atoms can move to the
other side of the double bond, resulting in a trans form.
The closer a cis bond is to the center of the fatty acid
chain, the greater the melting point depression because of
increased mobility for vibration of the chain beyond that
point. Replacing the normally cis bond by a trans bond in-
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
creases the melting point of the unsaturated fatty acid to
nearly that of saturated fatty acids of the same carbon
chain length. Microorganisms in active rumens typically
hydrolyze liquid triglycerides, metabolize the glycerol,
and hydrogenate the unsaturated sites of fatty acids as pro-
tection against their toxicity. Some trans fatty acids are
formed in the process, and incorporated into body triglyc-
erides after absorption by the animal. Ruminant fats
(tallows) are unique and may contain 5-7% trans fatty
acids. Commercially, fatty acids attached to triglycerides
are hydrogenated to convert oils into semi-solid fats for
use in shortenings, margarines and spreads, confections,
and icings.
(b) Fatty Acids Nomenclature. Two systems for desig-
nating carbon positions on fatty acids are shown in Figure
23 [126,127]. Chemists count carbon positions from the
carboxyl end of the fatty acid. Nutritionists attach great
significance to how far the last unsaturated bond occurs
from the methyl carbon. The most common fatty acid in
nature, monounsaturated oleic acid, is called 9-octade-
cenoic fatty acid, signifying to chemists that it has 18 car-
bon atoms (octadec) and one unsaturated bond (enoic) lo-
cated after the ninth carbon from the number 1 carboxyl
carbon. To the biochemist/nutritionist, the notation C18:1
(n-9) indicates an 18-carbon fatty acid with one unsaturat-
ed bond, and a member of the n-9 fatty acid family in
which the first unsaturated bond occurs after the ninth car-
bon from the number 1 methyl carbon. (Sometimes n is
designated as omega, or a) The significant point made by
biochemists/nutritionists is that linoleic acid, C18:2, is not
simply oleic acid, C18:1 with one more unsaturated bond.
Rather, the two are from different families: one whose
members are fatty acids with the last unsaturated bond lo-
cated 6 carbons from the methyl (w) carbon, and the other
from a family whose members are fatty acids with the last
unsaturated bond located 9 carbons from the methyl car-
bon. Four families of unsaturated fatty acids have been
recognized: n-3, n-6, n-7, and n-9. Across the many animal
species, the dietary essential fatty acids typically have be-
longed to the n-3 and n-6 families. Nomenclature and char-
acteristics of the more common fatty acids are further elab-
orated in Table 25 [126].
The unsaturated bonds are the sites for hydrogenation
and peroxides development on the fatty acids. The relative
activities of selected fatty acids in hydrogenation and oxi-
dation are shown in Table 26 [128].
(c) Sources. Fatty acids compositions of the major edi-
ble and industrial fats and oils are shown in Table 27
[53,129]. The row crop oils (soybean, cottonseed, canola,
corn, peanut, and sunflower seed) consist mainly of 18
(C18) fatty acids with varying amounts of 16 (C16) fatty
339
acids. Tropical oils generally have shorter chain lengths
(predominately 12 and 14 carbons for coconut and palm
kernel oil and 16 and 18 carbon chains for palm oils). With
the exception of the 22-carbon, once-unsaturated eru-
cic acid (C22:1) from the mustard family (mainly tradi-
tional rapeseed and crambe), the longer-chain fatty acids
are found only in small quantities and mainly in fish oils.
Their role in heart disease and the aging process is being
studied intensively. Some of the polyunsaturated (two or
more unsaturation sites per chain) fatty acids cannot be
synthesized and are considered to be essential. For hu-
mans, the dietary essential list includes linoleic acid, possi-
bly linolenic acid, and apparently some of the fish-type oils
for individuals with impaired ability to synthesize the
more complex polyunsaturated fats. Many of the carnivo-
rous (high food chain order) fish have lost their ability to
synthesize the more complex fatty acids, and their feeds
must contain EPA and DHA usually supplied in fish meal
or fish oil.
2. Triglycerides
Triglycerides, technically called triacylglycerols, consist
of three fatty acids joined to a glycerol backbone, each by
an ester linkage (Fig. 23). During synthesis, one molecule
of water is released for each ester linkage formed. Con-
versely, during hydrolysis, one molecule of water is used
for each linkage broken. A fatty acid is called "free" if it is
not attached to a glycerol backbone. Figure 23 also shows
some of the abbreviations practiced in depicting triglyc-
erides. Some authors, who do not want to go into detail,
simply indicate a fatty acid as carboxyl group plus R, or
simply R alone. Identity of the fatty acids may be retained
by attaching a superscript or subscript to the R.
(a) Nomenclature. Several conventions are used for
positioning fatty acids in two-dimensional representations
of triglycerides. The R/S system [130] is used when the ex-
act position of the fatty acid is not known. The longest fat-
ty acid chain is placed in the number 1 position, followed
by the second longest in number 2, and the shortest in the
number 3 position. Modern analytical methods now enable
precise identification of where fatty acids are positioned.
In the sn (sterospecific numbering) system, the longest out-
er fatty acid is still placed in the number 1 position to avoid
confusion from inversion of the 1 and 3 carbon positions
[131]. Placing the designation sn immediately before the
word glycerol, as in 1-stearoyl-2-oleoyl-3-myristoyl-sn-
glycerol, indicates a glycerol backbone with the designated
fatty acids in the respective 1, 2, and 3 positions. The term
rac (racemic mixture), as in rac-StOM indicates that the
middle acid in the glycerol 2 position is known, and the re-
maining fatty acids are equally divided between the sn-1
and sn-3 positions. The term 13, as in 13-St-O-M, indicates
340 Lusas

TABLE 25 Nomenclature and Characteristics of Common Fatty Acids

Carbon Common Systematic Melting point' Iodine

atoms Abbreviation Symbol name name (°C) value Common sources

Saturated
fatty acids
3 3:0 Propionic Propanoic —20.8 Bacterial fermentations
4 4:0 B Butyric Butonic —7.9 Milk fats
6 6:0 H Caproic Hexanoic —3.4 Goat milk fats, some
seed oils
8 8:0 Oc Caprylic Octanoic 16.7 Goat milk fats
10 10:0 D Capric Decanoic 31.6 Sheep and goat milk,
palm seed oils
12 12:0 La Lauric Dodecanic 44.2 Coconut oil, palm kernel
oil
14 14:0 M Myristic Tetradecanoic 54.4 Palm kernel oil
16 16:0 P Palmitic Hexadecanoic 62.9 Palm oil
18 18:0 St Stearic Octadecanoic 69.6 Tallow
20 20:0 Ad Arachidic Eicosanoic 75.4 Some animal fats
22 22:0 Behenic Docosanoic 80.0 Peanut and other seed
oils
24 24:0 Lignoceric Tetracosanoic 84.2 Seed oils
Unsaturated
fatty acids
16 16:1 (n-7) Palmitoleic 9-Hexadecenoic 99.8 Fish seed oils
18 18:1 (n-9) 0 Oleic 9-Octadecenoic 16.3 89.9 (cis form of 18:1), all
fats and oils
18 18:1 — Elaidic 9-Octadecenoic 43.7 (trans form of 18:1),
butter fat, tallow
18 18:2 (n-6) Lo Linoleic 9,12-Octadecadienoic —6.5 181.0 Most vegetable oils, lard
18 18:3 (n-3) Ln Linolenic 9,12,15- —12.8 273.5 Linseed, soybean, tung,
Octadectrienoic and drying oils
20 20:1 9-Eicosenic 23-24 81.8 Fish oils, HEAR
rapeseed oil
20 20:4 (n-6) An Arachidonic 5,8,11,14- —49.5 333.5 Fish oils, lard
Eicosatetraenoic
20 20:5 (n-3) EPA 5,8,11,14,17- Fish oils
Eicosapentaenoic
22 22:1 E Erucic 12-Docosenoic 33.5 75.0 HEAR rapeseed, crambe
22 22:5 (n-3) 7,10,13,16,19- — Fish oils
Docosapentaeonic
22 22:6 (n-6) DHA 4,7,10,13,16,19- Fish oils
Docosahexaenoic

aThe melting points listed are for relative comparison. Fatty acids are polymorphic and can have several melting points depending on the prevailing crys-
tal structure.
Source: Modified from Ref. 126.

the middle fatty acid is in the glycerol 2 position, but dis-
tribution of the other two acids is unknown [126].
(b) Importance of Fatty Acid Position. Positions of fat-
ty acids on triglycerides are very important to their proper-
ties and utilization:
The saturated forms of fatty acids are the most stable
against oxidation, but they also have high melting
points. Liquid oil is a good solvent for fat crystals. Na-
ture parsimoniously positions the available mono- and
polyunsaturated fatty acids on triglyceride molecules to
ensure liquid oil in maturing and sprouting seeds. If a
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 341

TABLE 26 Relative Fatty Acids Reactivities in others). Although the phospholipid remains oil soluble, it
Hydrogenation and Oxidation loses its water solubility and becomes a nonhydratable
phosphatide (NHP). The major practice for removing it
Relative
and restoring water solubility is addition of an even
hydrogenation Relative
stronger chelating agent like phosphoric, citric, or malic
Fatty acid reactivity oxidation rate
acids to withdraw the polyvalent cation from the phos-
Stearic, C18:0 0 1 phatide structure. Since phospholipase D splits after the
Oleic, C18:1 1 10 phosphorous moiety, phosphorus always will be present in
Linoleic, C18:2 20 100 NHPs. However, some analysts prefer to quantify the spe-
Linolenic, C18:3 40 150 cific divalent cations present.
Source: Ref. 128.
4. Analytical Characterization Methods
Aside from those mentioned in specific operations, some
of the AOCS analytical methods [38] additionally used to
triglyceride contains only one unsaturated fatty acid, it characterize fats and oil are:
usually is in the 2-position. p-Anisidine value Cd 18-90 Estimates aldehydes in oil,
Many enzymes, in seed development, animal digestion, or principally 2-alkenals and
food processing, are specific for either positions 2 or 2,4 dienals
1,3. This property enables various manipulations in Ash Ca 11-55 Ash in fats and oils
modifying oils for various uses. Boemer number Cb 5-40 Detection of foreign fats in
pork fat
3. Phospholipids Chlorophyll Cc 13d-55 Chlorophyll in refined and
Phosphatides (phospholipids, "lecithins," "gums,") along pigments bleached oils
with plant sterols, are nature's natural emulsifiers in veg- Fatty acid compo- Ce lc-89 Fatty acids composition, cis,
etable oils. Crude phosphatides sometimes are called sition by GLC cis and trans isomers
lecithins, although purified lecithin is diacylphosphatidyl Fatty acids, n-3 Ce ld-91 Total fatty acids,
choline and cephalin is diacylphosphatidyl ethanolamine. and n-6 com- unsaponifiables, n-3, n-6 by
Crude and commercial lecithins have been credited with position capillary GLC
Halphen test Cb 1-25 Detection of presence of
"natural antioxidant" properties, but effects of the minor
cottonseed oil in mixed oil
components are not clear.
samples
In nature, phosphatides consist of two fatty acids plus Iodine value Cd 1-25 Estimate of unsaturated fatty
phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl ethanol amine, phos- acid sites
phatidyl serine, phosphatidyl inositol, or phosphatidic Melting point
acid. Structures and components of phosphatides are Capillary tube Cc 1-25 Often used for tropical oils
shown in Figure 23. Beta (2-position) phosphatides have Dropping point Cc 18-80 Melting point by Mettler drop-
been reported, but the 3-position structure is shown most ping point apparatus
often. Domestically, lecithin is a co-product of soybean Moisture, Karl Ca 2e-84 Detects minute amounts of
and corn oil processing [132,133]. Fischer moisture by titration
Intact phosphatides have polar and nonpolar sites, low Moisture and Ca 2c-25 Oven method; not applicable to
volatiles coconut and drying oils
HLB (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance) values, and are ef-
Peroxide value Cd 8-53 All substances that oxidize
fective water-in-oil emulsifiers. Enzymes traditionally are potassium iodide.
named according to the sites they attack. Phospholipases Saponification Cd 3-25 Estimate of average fatty acid
are esterases. A review of the phosphatide structure (Fig. value chain length
23) shows they can cleave at (1) Site A, the fatty acid at the Soap in oil Cc 17-79 Titrimetric determination of
1-glycerol position, (2) Site B, the fatty acid at the 2-glyc- residual soap
erol position, (3) Site C, between the 3-glycerol and the
phosphorous moiety, and (4) Site D, between the phospho-
B. Oil Processing
rous and the attached choline, ethanolamine, serine, and
inositol structures. Phospholipase D is the main concern in As shown in the flow sheet in Figure 24, many pathways
oil processing. Its action produces phosphatidic acid, exist for processing crude oil into the various commercial
which dissociates leaving a negative charge that attracts oil and fat products. Additional processes are described in
available polyvalent cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Cu2+, and references already cited. Partially degummed, once-re-
 C.64
4Q,
C.4

TABLE 27 Representative Fatty Acids Compositions of Major Edible and Industrial Fats and Oils (%)a
Source <10 10:0 12:0 14:0 16.0 16.1 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 20:0 20:1 22:0 22:1
Edible
Canola oil (LEAR) 0.1 4.7 0.4 1.8 59.5 10.2 10.3 0.5 1.8 0.3 2.4
Cocoa butter - 0.1 25.4 0.2 33.2 32.6 2.8 0.1 0.6
Coconut oil 7.3 6.7 47.7 16.8 8.2 - 2.8 6.8 1.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Corn, maize, oil 0.2 0.2 13.6 0.2 2.5 33.4 50.0 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3
Cottonseed oil 0.1 0.8 23.9 0.6 2.7 18.2 52.5 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2
Fish (menhaden) oil - 9.6 20.5 12.6 3.3 11.0 0.7 1.6 0.3 - 0.8
Grapeseed oil 0.3 0.2 8.3 0.6 4.5 20.0 68.0 0.5 0.5 0.2
Lard 0.5 1.3 23.8 2.7 13.5 41.2 10.2 1.0 - 1.0 -
Olive oil - - - 0.1 11.0 0.8 2.2 72.5 7.9 0.6 -
Palm kernel oil 3.8 3.6 48.4 16.3 8.6 - 2.2 15.6 2.4 0.4 0.2 0.3
Palm oil 0.1 1.0 43.2 0.2 5.3 38.8 10.8 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.1
Palm olein 0.3 1.2 40.6 0.2 4.3 41.9 11.9 0.4 0.4
Palm stearin 0.3 1.5 61.1 0.1 4.8 25.8 6.5 0.4 0.5
Peanut oil 0.1 0.1 11.2 0.1 3.2 51.8 28.5 0.1 1.4 1.2 3.3 0.2
Pumpkin oil - 10.0 - 10.0 32.5 51.5 - -
Rapeseed oil, HEAR - 0.1 0.1 2.6 0.3 0.9 11.2 12.8 8.6 - 7.5 - 48.1
Rice bran oil 0.6 22.0 0.5 3.0 45.0 26.0 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 -
Safflower seed oil 0.1 6.7 0.1 2.4 14.9 75.5 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.9
Sesame seed oil 0.1 9.1 0.2 5.5 39.1 44.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 -
Soybean oil 0.1 0.1 11.5 0.1 4.2 21.4 53.5 7.5 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.2
Sunflower seed oil 0.1 0.1 6.5 0.2 4.8 26.5 57.0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.1
Sunflower seed oil, high oleic - 5.4 0.2 3.5 80.6 8.4 0.2 0.3
Tallow 0.3 0.6 3.7 24.9 4.2 18.9 36.0 3.1 0.6 1.0
Tomato seed oil 0.2 15.0 0.5 4.4 21.9 50.8 2.3
Industrial
Castor oil 1.5 - 1.5 5.5 4.0 0.2 - - -
Crambe oil - 2.0 0.3 1.0 13.5 9.0 6.5 1.5 3.5 0.2 57.5
Croton oil 2.5 5.4 6.2 0.2 3.2 15.8 49.4 3.0 2.9 8.9 0.2 0.6
Emu oil 0.3 20.0 3.0 10.1 60.1 14.2 1.3 0.2 0.3
Linseed oil 7.0 - 4.0 20.0 17.0 52.0
Tall oil - - 50.0 7.0 41.0
Tung oil 3.1 - 2.1 11.2 14.6 69.0 -
Whale oil 3.3 8.1 26.9 1.1 33.3 - 10.9 2.2
aBroad variations occur within species because of varietal and seed maturation temperature effects, and feed of animal. Unique components of oils, outside of above characteristics are not
shown.
LEAR-Low-erucic acid rapeseed (canola); HEAR-(traditional) high-erucic acid rapeseed.
Source: Modified from Refs. 47 and 128.
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 343

CRUDE OIL
4,
(A) Analyses

WATER (B) Degumming

CRUDE LECITHIN
PHOSPHORIC, Optional)
CITRIC,ACIDS
DEGUMMED OIL

CAUSTIC (NaOH SOLN.) (C) Neutralization SOAPSTOCK

SYNTHETIC SILICA I (D) Silica Absorption I

ACTIVATED EARTH 4(E) Vacuum Bleaching 1.—). SPENT EARTH

HYINFlEN 4
(I) 011 Blending
(F) Hydrogenation (Optional)
f
(G) Multi-stock 14 (J) Deodorization STEAM
interesterification Physical Refining VACUUM
DEODORIZER
(H) Chill RBD OIL DISTILLATE
Fractionation

FRYING SHORTENING MARGARINE

OILS STOCK STOCK

SALAD AND LIQUID MARGARINES

COOKING OILS SHORTENINGS SHORTENINGS & SPREADS

FIGURE 24 Composite flow sheet of oils processing. Pathways vary with species.

fined, and miscella-refined oils are fitted into the scheme
according to their assays and the product to be made.
1. Analyses at Receiving
On receiving a shipment of oil, the first step is sampling
and determining the expected yield of saleable neutral oil.
The information is used to determine the price paid to the
extraction plant. (If reason exists for concern, the receiving
refinery also may check the residual solvent content, al-
though it should have been done at the extraction plant as
previously described.)
In earlier years, a small-scale refining test (Refining
Loss, AOCS Ca 9a-52), extending into 2 days, was used.
Currently, activated alumina column chromatography
(Neutral Oil and Loss, AOCS Ca 9f-57) often is used. The
triglycerides (neutral oil) pass through the column first and
the polar compounds, including free fatty acids and non-
saponifiable substances are held back as "loss."Refineries
also check free fatty acid content (AOCS Ca 5a-40), mois-
ture and volatiles content (AOCS Ca 2c-25), insoluble im-
purities (AOCS Ca 3a-46), bleaching test for once-refined
or miscella refined oils (AOCS Cc 8 series as per specific
oil), color (by AOCS—Tintometer in the United States,
AOCS Cc 13b-45), phosphorus (by several AOCS meth-
ods), and other quality factors specified by the applicable
trading rule.
Before starting processing, oils are brought from stor-
age tanks into a "day tank," which is thoroughly mixed and
344
sampled for analyses to determine the treatments to be ap-
plied. At the minimum, these tests include free fatty acids
and phosphorus contents.
2. Degumming
Degumming is the process of removing phosphatides by
hydration with water. The phosphatides must be removed
to prevent darkening of the oil during the high tempera-
tures of deodorization and in later applications like frying
and to extend oil shelf life. Degumming is practiced for re-
covering crude lecithin for later purification, and by refin-
ery operators who believe degumming reduces entrain-
ment and loss of neutral oil in alkali neutralization. If a
separate degumming operation is not conducted, the phos-
phatides will hydrate in the subsequent neutralization step.
The relationship between phosphorus content and phos-
phatides is:
% Phosphatides = 30.0 x Phosphorus content
Approximate phosphatides contents of the major crude oils
are canola, 1.0-1.5%; corn, 1.0-2.0%; cottonseed,
0.5-1.0%; peanut, 0.3-0.5%; rice, 0.5%; and soybeans,
1.0-3.5%. Palm oil has a very low phosphatide content
and, after bleaching, can be physically refined to remove
the free fatty acids.
Crude oil is pumped from the day tank through a basket
strainer heated to 60-80°C (140-175°F) and into the hy-
dration tank. Soft water is added at approximately 75% of
the phosphatide weight, and the hydration allowed to occur
with mixing for 30-60 minimum. Although the hydrated
gums will settle by gravity, in commercial installations,
separation is accelerated by use of decanters and disk-type
centrifuges. Simple water degumming typically reduces
phosphorus content of soybean oil from 500-800 ppm to
well under 50 ppm [132].
Levels of 0-5 ppm phosphorus are desired in oils going
to the deodorizer. To obtain this, it may be necessary to
solubilize the nonhydratable phosphatides (NHPs) by
"acid degumming" or "super-degumming" [132,134]. Re-
fineries saving gums can determine the amount of phos-
phorus, or calcium, magnesium, and other metallic cations,
and include sufficient chelating acids for their release in the
succeeding alkali neutralization step. Phosphoric and citric
acids are used to chelate and withdraw the divalent cations
and restore phosphatide solubility in water. Uses of other
organic acids and ethanolaminetetraacetic acid as chelators
have also been reported. Crude gums obtained with chelat-
ing agents are not used for preparing commercial lecithins.
Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy (ICP) is gain-
ing popularity in the industry because of its ability to rap-
idly analyze for phosphorus and abroad spectrum of
metallic cations in oil without elaborate sample prepara-
Lusas
tion. Analyses on day tank contents and refinery streams
can be conducted rapidly enough to adjust the process for
each batch of oil. Refineries that don't save lecithin can de-
termine the amounts of NHPs present in the crude oil, for
example, by simulating water degumming in the laborato-
ry and adding the chelating acids at the hydration step. If
degumming is not practiced or partially degummed oil is
processed, the chelating agents can be added to the day
tank and the oil sent to alkali neutralization. Refineries
saving lecithins can determine the need and include suffi-
cient chelating acids to hydrate NHPs in the succeeding al-
kali neutralization step. When acids are used for chelating,
a stoichiometric amount of caustic is added for neutraliz-
ing their acidity since the anion is the active component.
Acid-degummed and unsold water-degummed "lecithins"
are commonly removed by spreading the gums over desol-
ventized meal in the DTDC.
3. Neutralization
Neutralization is the step of converting the free fatty acids
in crude oils to soaps. It sometimes is called "alkali neu-
tralization" or simply "refining." Sodium hydroxide is the
most popular neutralizer and makes a sodium soap that is
easy to remove by centrifuging. The amount (weight) of
sodium hydroxide solution to be added is known as the
"treat," which is calculated as follows:
% Treat = (% FFA x 0.142) + % Excess
% NaOH/100
where the factor 0.142 is the ratio of MW NaOH/MW ole-
ic acid (40/282). The excess is determined empirically for
the specific refining installation. Sodium hydroxide is typ-
ically bought at 50% concentration and diluted to the con-
centration desired. Various factors, like the types of oils
processed, mixing efficiency of the system, viscosity of the
oils, and ease of separation and later handling of the soap,
enter into selecting the concentration of alkali solution
used in refining and the excess applied. For example [135],
a crude soybean oil with 0.75% FFA to be treated with
14°Baume (9.5%) caustic solution with an excess of
0.12% will require the following treat:
(0.75 x 0.142) + 12 0.2256
% Treat = = 2.38%
9.5%/100 0.095
If a chelating acid is added to the alkali to solublize NHPs,
additional NaOH must be added to neutralize it on a sto-
icheometric basis.
Two continuous refining systems are used: long mix
process and short mix process. The long mix process, fa-
vored in the United States for heat-sensitive oils, including
soybean, uses a lower concentration of caustic and is con-
ducted at ambient temperature 33°C (90°F) with 8- to 15-
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
minutes retention depending on the oil processed. Then,
the oil is heated to 70°C, (158°F) to assist "breaking" the
emulsion and the mixture is passed through a primary
(first) centrifuge.
In contrast, the short-mix process, developed in Europe,
is conducted at 90°C (84°F), uses a more highly concen-
trated caustic, and a mixing time and primary centrifuging
time of less than 1 minute [135]. Less heat damage to the
oil and higher refining yield are claimed by advocates of
the long mix process.
4. Silica Absorption
In traditional refining, oil from the primary centrifuge is
washed with warm soft water to remove residual soap and
passed through a (secondary) centrifuge. The washed oil
then is dried under vacuum. However, disposal of wash
water is increasingly becoming a problem, and the indus-
try is shifting to a modified caustic "waterless" refining
process. Soaps poison the adsorption sites of clays in later
bleaching operations and are removed by silica hydrogels.
The oil may be degummed with use of chelating acids,
caustic neutralized, passed through a primary centrifuge,
and may be partially vacuum-dried. Synthetic silica hy-
drogels, effective in removing 7-25 times more phos-
phatides and soaps than clay on a solids basis, and for re-
moving phosphorus and the major metal ions, is added
and mixed with the oil. By absorbing these contaminants
first, the bleaching clay is spared for adsorbing chloro-
phyll and the oxidation-degradation products of oil
[136-138].
5. Bleaching
The objective of bleaching is to remove various contami-
nants, pigments, metals, and oxidation products before the
oil is sent to the deodorizer. Removal of sulfur is especial-
ly important before hydrogenation of canola and rapeseed
oils. Flavor of the oil also is improved. As mentioned in the
preceding section, silica hydrogels will adsorb many of
these contaminants and spare the bleaching earth. Howev-
er, earths are still used for these purposes in installations
that have not adopted hydrated silicas. Types of bleaching
materials available include [136,139,140]:
Neutral earths: Basically hydrated aluminum silicates,
sometimes called "natural clays" or "earths," and
fuller's earth, which vary in ability to absorb pigments.
Acid-activated earths: Bentonites or montmorillonites,
treated with hydrochloric or sulfuric acid to improve
their absorption of pigments and other undesirable
components, are most commonly used.
Activated carbon: Expensive, more difficult to use, but of
special interest for adsorbing polyaromatic hydrocar-
bons from coconut and fish oils.
345
Synthetic silica hydrogels: Described in the immediately
preceding section.
The general dosage of acid-activated bleaching earths is
0.3-0.6%, depending on the quality of the oil and bleach-
ing earth. Bleaching earths provide catalytic sites for de-
composition of oxidation products. Peroxide values (mea-
sure of aldehydes) and p-anisidine values (precursors for
oxidative degradation) first rise and then decrease during
bleaching. Bleaching processes used include atmospheric
batch, vacuum batch, and continuous vacuum. Vacuum
bleaching has the advantage of excluding air, partially by
vaporization of water in the earth, and is recommended. A
typical vacuum bleaching process is 20-30 minimum at
100-110°C (212-230°F) and 50 mmHg absolute [135].
The reactions catalyzed during bleaching continue into
the filter bed and are known as the "press bleaching ef-
fect." The reactive components of oil remain in the bleach-
ing bed. Care should be taken to "blow" the filter press as
free of oil as possible and to wet the filter cake (which can
be very dusty) to prevent spontaneous combustion [137].
At this point, the product is RB ("refined, bleached")
oil. If the intended product is an oil, it can be sent to the de-
odorizer and become RBD. If solids are desired, the solids-
temperature profile of the oil may be modified by hydro-
genation, interesterification, or chill fractionation, alone or
in combination.
6. Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is the process of adding hydrogen to satu-
rate carbon-to-carbon double bonds. It is used to raise try-
glyceride melting points and to increase stability as by
converting linolenic acid to linoleic in soybean oil [141]. A
lighter, "brush" hydrogenation is used for the latter pur-
pose.
Most of the catalysts that assist hydrogenation are nick-
el-based, but a variety is available for special applications.
"Selectivity" refers to ability of the catalyst and process to
sequentially saturate fatty acids on the triglycerides in the
order of most unsaturated to the fully saturated. For row
crop oils, perfect selectivity would be:
C18:3 C18:2 C18:1
Linolenic acid Linoleic acid Oleic acid
C18:0
Stearic acid
Although typical hydrogenation is not selective, it can be
favored to a limited degree by selection of catalyst and by
temperature and pressure of the process. Efficient hydro-
genation requires the cleanest possible feed stock (without
soaps, phosphatides, sulfur compounds, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen compounds, or oxygen-containing compounds)
and the purest, driest hydrogen gas possible [140].
346 Lusas

TABLE 28 Glyceride Structure of Soybean Oil (%) as a means of obtaining trans-free margarines, spreads,
and shortenings, but domestic interest is increasing.
Glyceride class Random Founda
In nature, the fatty acids are located on triglycerides in
SSS 0.4 0.07 patterns varying with the species. Expected and actual dis-
SUS 2.1 5.2 tributions for soybean oil are shown in Table 28 [143]. It
USS 4.2 0.4 should be noted that the table doesn't differentiate between
USU 11.2 0.7 palmitic and stearic saturated fatty acids or between mono-,
UUS 22.4 35.0 di-, or triunsaturated fatty acids. When these distinctions
UUU 59.7 58.4
and the minor fatty acids are considered, a far greater num-
S = Saturated, either palmitic or stearic acids; U = unsaturated, ber of triglyceride structures is possible for all species.
either oleic, linoleic, or linolenic acids. Unraveling nature's patterns for positioning fatty acids
aDetermined by lipase hydrolysis data. on triglycerides occurred over many years. Although pos-
Source: Ref. 143.
sibly still not fully understood, the available unsaturated
fatty acids appear to be positioned for maximum effect in
The degree of hydrogenation often is followed by on- lowering the melting points of the triglycerides. When lim-
line refractometry and reference to charts that have been ited in quantity, the unsaturated fatty acid generally is lo-
calibrated for the specific oil, processing conditions, and cated in the number 2 position (SUS). When unsaturated
(preferably) for the installation. Iodine values also decrease fatty acids are more available, they are placed in the USU
as sites become saturated. During hydrogenation to pro- or UUS positions. Hardly any SSS triglycerides are found
duce solids for spreads and shortenings, significant in vegetable or animal fats, although considerable quanti-
amounts of trans fatty acids are produced. Historically, this ties of UUU occur. (Increases in total unsaturated fatty
has not occurred by accident, but was intentionally sought
to create a mixture of triglycerides with different configura-
tions and melting points. Trans isomers can occur at one or
more of the unsaturated sites, resulting in many different
steric configurations of triglycerides for any species of oil.
Trans contents of over 30% have been reported for hydro-
genation-stabilized soybean salad oils, and over 65% in fats RANDOM
SOFT
used to make all-soybean oil margarines. LARD
Various techniques to reduce trans isomer production
during hydrogenation have been studied. The results vary NATURAL

with the oils hydrogenated. Lower contaminants (sulfur, LARD DIRECTED

LARD
phosphorus) levels, higher hydrogen pressure and catalytic
C ONSISTENCY

activity, and substituting modified platinum catalysts for

nickel catalysts favor reduced trans isomer formation.
Currently, trans forms can only be eliminated by hydro-
genation to complete saturation. Much research is needed
to significantly reduce trans isomer formation during hy-
drogenation [142]. The catalyst must be completely re-
moved by filtration before further processing of the oil.
7. Interesterification
Controversies exist about the healthfullness of trans fatty
FIRM
acids produced during hydrogenation. They are unsaturat-
ed relative to iodine value but, with higher melting points,
have resulted in serum cholesterol elevation when con-
sumed. Although not broadly found in nature like the cis 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
forms, trans forms occur at least in microbial-synthesized
TEMPERATURE °F
fats and in ruminant tallows.
Interesterification is a technique for positioning or rear- FIGURE 25 Consistencies of plastic shortenings made from
ranging fatty acids on triglycerides. Currently, it is prac- natural lard, rearranged lard, and directed rearranged lard. (From
ticed more in Europe and Canada than in the United States Ref. 144.)
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
90
80
60
COCOA BUTTER
CON TEN TINDEX
50
40
a 30
0
20
10
60 70 80 90
TEMPERATURE °F
FIGURE 26 Solid content profile of cocoa butter and randomized cocoa butter. (From Ref. 144.)
acids contents of oils in seeds maturing at lower seed tem-
peratures were discussed earlier in this review.)
Historical techniques for repositioning fatty acids on
glycerol have included acidolysis and alcoholysis [144].
Currently, interesterification mainly uses sodium methy-
late (methoxide), sodium ethylate (ethoxide), or other cat-
alysts and is assisted by temperature manipulation. (Warn-
ing: The metal alkylates are explosive if allowed to contact
water!) The use of specific 2-glycerol or 1,3-glycerol posi-
tion enzymes is increasingly promoted. Synthesis of the
main triglycerides of cocoa butter (POSt, StOSt, and POP),
using position-selective lipases, has been demonstrated
many times. But many processors still consider enzyme-
directed interesterification too expensive except for premi-
um-priced products.
The melting point of a fat can be increased by random-
ization of the fatty acids already present or by transesterifi-
cation between molecules. However, the later technique
requires introducing higher—melting point fatty acids into
347
RANDOMIZED
COCOA BUTTER
100 110 120 130
the mixture. These can be obtained by use of chill-fraction-
ated natural fats, such as palm oil stearin or stearins from
winterization of salad oils, or by completely hydrogenating
an oil so its fatty acids contain neither cis nor trans bonds.
Randomization can be beneficial or adverse. Figure 25
[144] shows changes in consistency of lard that has been
rearranged using a chemical catalyst: (1) randomly and (2)
with assistance of temperature direction. The plastic
ranges of both rearranged lards have been broadend signif-
icantly over natural lard, thus extending the temperatures
in which the lards can be handled in pastry shops.
Figure 26 [144] shows changes in the solids content
profile of cocoa butter resulting from rearrangement. Co-
coa butter (in chocolate) is valued for its (1) brittle, dry
texture at room temperature which enables handling con-
fections with the fingers, (2) fast melting in the mouth,
which gives a pleasant and cooling sensation, and (3) com-
plete "cleanup" in the mouth because it is entirely melted
at body temperature. Some of these properties are lost in
348
the randomized cocoa butter sample. The modified product
is softer, lacks the rapid melting sensation of natural cocoa
butter, and, with approximately 30% solids remaining at
body temperature, is chewy and leaves a greasy feeling in
the mouth.
Reduction of saturated fatty acids contents of cotton-
seed oil by temperature-controlled randomization has been
demonstrated [145]. Palmitic acid is well dispersed among
the triglycerides of cottonseed oil, and only small olein
yields can be obtained by chill fractionation to reduced sat-
urated fatty acid content. In temperature-controlled ran-
domization, catalyst-freed palmitic acids are able to
reesterify into tri- and dipalmitate triglycerides whose
melting temperatures are below that of the reactor. They
precipitate and remove themselves from the process. Cot-
tonseed oils meeting the same low-saturated fatty acids
content label claims of soybean, corn, and sunflower seed
oils can be produced.
Various techniques exist for interesterification
[146-148]. The catalyst must be inactivated and the result-
ing oil purified before further processing.
8. Chill Fractionation
Chill fractionation is the process of chilling an oil to a se-
lected temperature to cause crystallization of a fraction.
The crystals were removed by vacuum belts, now being re-
placed by frame pressure filters equipped with inflatable
air bladders.
"Oleomargarine" was developed in France in the 1870s
by cooling beef tallow to solidification and pressing in hair
cloth to obtain a liquid portion called "olein." The remain-
ing solids were called stearin. These names are still used to
designate liquid and solid fractions from chill separation.
Salt and water were worked into the olein fraction to ob-
tain the first butter substitute.
The best natural solvent for fat crystals is oil, and
triglycerides with surprisingly high melting points can be
separated from liquid oils by chill fractionation. Solids
S (27,272 kg) batch deodorizers are still in operation because
OS L
FEEDo( E Soybean oil is deaerated, then deodorized in continuous
00S
0 D
00 • ing stripping steam at the rate of 1-3% of the weight of the
N oil [152]. Batch-type deodorizers are less efficient and
000 • have required 2-3 hours for deodorization and 5-15%
FIGURE 27 Products available from a cascade chill fractiona-
tion. (From Ref. 150.)
Lusas
fractions with melting points as high as 58°C (137°F) have
been obtained from butterfat [149]. These are of interest in
Danish "puff" pastry, other bakery products, and for rais-
ing the melting point of milk chocolate.
Flexibilities in chill fractionation and blending to obtain
fats with selected melting points are depicted in Figure 27
[150]. Many chill fractionation techniques have been de-
veloped [151].
Chill fractionation is more broadly used than many peo-
ple realize. Essentially all of the palm oil entering world
trade is chill fractionated. The fraction seen most as "palm
oil" is the olein, although still a solid at domestic room
temperature. Waxes solubilized from sunflower seed hulls
during screw pressing and solvent extraction may be re-
moved by centrifuging the chilled oil.
In theory, any combination of hydrogenation, inter-
esterification, and chill fractionation may be used to obtain
desired products. Domestically, interesterification and chill
fractionation are used primarily for making specialty prod-
ucts like cocoa butter extenders and equivalents from C16
and C18 oils and cocoa butter substitutes from C12 and
C14 oils.
9. Oil Blending
Oil blending is an optional step, used primarily when oils
with specific solids-temperature profiles are prepared. If
blending does not occur, the oil may go directly from
bleaching to deodorization. The last treatment given an oil
before leaving a refinery is deodorization to reduce its per-
oxide value to essentially "zero." Since peroxides build up
with time even in the best of oils, refineries have found it
beneficial to hold RB oils, after modification if needed,
blend, deodorize, and ship. Deodorized individual base
stocks of fats with different melting points are difficult to
find in the domestic market.
10. Deodorization
Deodorization is essentially a steam-distillation process
for removing peroxides, as well as flavors and odors, from
the oil. Most processes are continuous, but many 60,000 lb
of flexibility for making tank car lots of specialty oils rap-
idly for customer needs.
deodorizers for 15-60 minutes at 252-266°C (485-510°F)
with an absolute pressure of 1-6 (typically 3) mmHg, us-
steam by weight. Besides removing undesired compounds,
heat during deodorization bleaches as much as 40% of the
carotenoids.
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
In order to expose the oil as completely to the steam as
possible, deodorizers are designed to include violent agita-
tion, bubbling of steam, shallow oil-holding trays, and/or
flowing the oil as thin films over packed columns by grav-
ity while steam rises countercurrent. Some heat-sensitive
oils are deodorized at slightly lower temperatures, but
more steam and time is required. Short-path high-vacuum
distillation units, operating at 2-4 .tmHg, have been used
for fish oils and high-value "health food" oils. While effec-
tive in removing aldehydes and exposing oils to shorter-
time and less destructive heat treatment, some row crop oil
processors claim that the same desirable flavor in not de-
veloped as during traditional deodorization.
Deodorizers have traditionally been heated by coils and
contact surfaces containing thermal fluids, which are heat-
ed at relatively low pressures. Problems with leaking of
toxic nonrecommended fluids in Europe have led to global
marketing pressures and regulations for heating deodoriz-
ers with high-pressure steam (85 bar, 1150 psig). This re-
quires installation of high-pressure steam generators and
rebuilding heating systems of deodorizers to withstand the
operating pressures [150]. Vacuum for deodorization typi-
cally is provided by four-stage steam ejectors, although
centrifugal vacuum pumps are becoming more common.
A market exists for the condensed deodorizer distillate
as a source of tocopherols and vitamin E. The distillate
must be carefully processed because it also can contain
volatile pesticides and other undesirable compounds. Up to
one half of tocopherols can be lost during deodorization,
and interest is growing in leaving more of the natural an-
tioxidants in the oils to prolong their shelf lives.
At the conclusion of deodorization, the temperature of
the oil is above its smoke point and near the flash point
[234°C (453°F) and 328°C (623°F), respectively, for soy-
bean oil] [153]. It is partially cooled by passage through a
countercurrent heat exchanger to preheat oil going into the
deodorizer. Citric acid (at about 50 ppm because of its lim-
ited solubility in oil) may be added as a water solution to the
partially cooled oil still under vacuum as a chelator of
prooxidant metals. Air leaks are eliminated in deodorizer
design and operation. After deodorization and final cooling,
oil is kept under nitrogen blanket during storage and ship-
ment and while awaiting use in the buyer's tanks. Up to 2%
trans fatty acids may be produced during deodorization.
11. Physical Refining
The term "physical refining" is reserved for processes
where the free fatty acids are removed by steam distillation
in the deodorizer instead of by alkali neutralization. Physi-
cal refining is routinely used for removing fatty acids from
palm oil, which doesn't contain significant quantities of
phosphatides. It also is being explored by firms producing
349
"nonchemically refined oils" for health food stores. How-
ever, significant quantities of phosphatides occur in do-
mestic row crop oils. Advances in acid deguming and in-
troduction of synthetic silica hydrogels have encouraged
various refiners to develop physical refining processes for
row crop oils. The oil sent to physical refining must be
treated to remove the other impurities except for free fatty
acids. Thoroughness is required in degumming, silica ab-
sorption, and bleaching. Recently, several refiners have an-
nounced success in making RBD soybean oil by physical
refining.
12. RBD Oil
Some countries want characteristic flavors and color left in
their oils. In contrast, modern domestically produced RBD
oils are light colored and bland regardless of the species.
Supplier specifications generally are tighter than trade as-
sociation specifications. Several suppliers offer soybean
oils with <0.05% free fatty acids, 1.0 meq peroxide value
(maximum), and 2.0 red (maximum), and produce and ship
oils at lower values and with zero soap content.
C. Fat and Oil Products and Fat
Solid Profiles
Some applications, including shortenings, margarines and
spreads, and confections, require fats with controlled
solids-temperature profiles. Two considerations are impor-
tant: the inherent crystal "habit" and state (form) of the
solids, and methods of determining and manipulating the
profiles.
1. Polymorphism of Fats
In the 1850s, Heintz and other scientists observed that tris-
tearin melts at 52°C and on continued heating resolidifies
G
FIGURE 28 Gibbs energy relationships of a, fi', and f3 poly-
morphs of monoacid triglyceride. Activation Gibbs energy (LS,G*)
is depicted for each polymorph. (From Ref. 155.)
350
and melts again at 62°C and again at 70°C [154]. This was
very shocking to the scientific community. Until that time,
melting point had been used as a criterion for identification
of organic compounds and an indication of their purity.
Fatty acids and triglycerides are polymorphic (assume sev-
eral types of crystal forms). Further research led to the ex-
planation that, on cooling, fats solidify as an amorphous-
like glass that rapidly changes to an unstable a crystal
form and later passes progressively through other forms as
sufficient energy to activate phase changes becomes avail-
able. With each change, triglycerides assume more com-
pact crystal structures with lower internal energy. The first
semi-stable crystals are small, fine-textured, and are called
As crystallization continues, the crystals may pass
through several [3' forms (133', 132, and (31') before reaching
the most stable 13 form. Large crystals grow larger by ab-
sorbing smaller crystals. In the succession, the melting
point increases and the total surface available to absorb
free oil decreases. In the final 13 form, the product, which
initially was a brittle "glass" when chilled, may consist of
large coarse crystals in oil.
This phenomenon is shown in Figure 28 [155]. The en-
tire mass of a fat does not need to reach a critical tempera-
ture to change to another crystalline state. The transi-
tion from a to the final f3 state is an ongoing process as
sufficient activation energy becomes concentrated at spe-
cific localities. This explains changes in fat texture when
products are exposed to seemingly small temperature
cycling. The progression is in one direction only, and 13
and 13' crystals do not change to higher internal energy
forms unless the fat is completely melted to destroy crystal
memory.
Cocoa butter (chocolate) has as many as six transforma-
tions [156] and serves as an extreme example of this phe-
nomenon. Many persons have experienced leaving choco-
late in heat, which on cooling:
Has a gray appearance ("bloom") because cocoa butter has
melted, migrated to the surface, and resolidified in its
normal white color
Has lost the brittleness of the original product
Has a different mouthfeel (graininess because of formation
of crystals whose melting points are above body tem-
perature)
Has a different flavor because of changes in physical char-
acteristics of the product
May not resolidify into a solid bar at room temperature if
recycled enough times
Cake icings, shortenings, and margarine products have po-
tential for showing similar problems, although to a lesser
degree.
Although the physical chemistry forces that drive fats in
Lusas
TABLE 29 Classification of Fats and Oils
According to Crystal Habit
13' Type 13 Type
Cottonseed Soybean
Palm Canola (LEAR)a
Rapeseed (HEAR)a Sunflower seed
Tallow Corn
Herring oil Peanut
Menhaden oil Palm kernel
Milk fat (butter oil) Safflower
Modified lardb Sesame
Coconut
Olive
Cocoa butter
Lardb
'By eliminating erucic acid from traditional rape-
seed, the variety of fatty acids was reduced resulting
in canola oil having a 13-type habit.
bRearrangement of lard increased the effective vari-
ety of triglycerides, resulting in its changing to a 13'
habit.
Source: Ref. 157.
crystallization to attainment of lower thermodynamic low-
er energy levels cannot be reversed, the rate of change (ki-
netics) often can be slowed or hastened to benefit a prod-
uct's properties or shelf life.
1. Controlling the rate of cooling and introducing physi-
cal working can stabilize a product in a specific crys-
tal state. Chocolate processors have learned many
techniques to that effect. Processors of margarine and
low-calorie spreads work (shear) products immediate-
ly after chilling to avoid the glassy and a stages and
bring them into spreadable iy stages before leaving
the machine.
2. Fat crystals grow by adding similar triglycerides to
the existing lattice face. Increasing the variety of
triglycerides in a fat lessens opportunity for similar
triglycerides to align for crystal growth. Making a
smooth-textured soybean margarine is more difficult
than a cottonseed margarine. The former oil contains
about 85% C:18 fatty acids, whereas the latter has
only about 70% with C:16 palmitic acid making up
the difference.
Increasing the variety of triglycerides improves
margarine smoothness, but is not possible in single-oil
species margarines. However, creation of a variety of
trans fatty acids by hydrogenation or by rearrange-
ment of the same oil partially serves the purpose.
If oils can be mixed, the formulator can include
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials
Polyacetal
420 ± 10mm
clamp
FIGURE 29 Dilatometer tube used for determining AOCS sol-
id fat index (SFI) (Cd 10-57). (From Ref. 38.)
forming fats shown in Table 29 [157]. The fy property
results from the fats having a larger variety of fatty
acids or triglycerides.
3. Including a partially similar ingredient that attaches to
a crystal's face but interrupts its growth into large
crystals helps stabilize fats in the 13' state. Examples
include fatty acids, mono- and diglycerides, other
emulsifiers, and increasing the variety of triglycerides
present.
2. Winterization
Winterization is a light chill fractionation process conduct-
ed for two purposes: (1) to produce salad and cooking oils
which remain clear if stored in a refrigerator, and (2) to re-
351
move solids that may result from trans fatty acid formation
during deodorization. Winterization was first developed
for cottonseed oil but has been extended to other salad oils
that are brush hydrogenated (under conditions that mini-
mize but cannot avoid trans fatty acid formation). Salad
oils are expected not to cloud during the 5.5-hour AOCS
Cc 11-53 cold test at 0°C (32°F). The resulting oil some-
times is called "RBDW." Oils for other food uses some-
times are chill-fractionated before deodorization and are
referred to as RBWD.
Waxes (long-chain mono-alcohols joined to single fatty
acids by an ester linkage) also are removed during winteri-
zation. However, their presence in sunflower seed oil may
be high enough to interfere with its deodorization. Batch
chilling-filtration or continuous chilling-centrifugation
processes are used for their removal [8].
3. Solid Fat Index and Solid Fat Content
Two techniques are used for determing the fat solids-tem-
perature profile. The "solid fat index" (SFI, AOCS Cd 10-
57) was developed first in the United States and continues
to be the major method used domestically. Fats are melted
to destroy all memory of crystal habit, placed in a
dilatometer bulb equipped with a calibrated stem to mea-
sure expansion on heating (Fig. 29), solidified, and tem-
pered at successively higher temperatures. Changes in vol-
ume are related to the melting of fat crystals. Readings are
taken at 10°C (50°F), 21.1°C (70°F), 26.7°C (80°F),
33.3°C (90°F), and 37.8°C (100°F). In practice, a higher
temperature, for example 40°C (104°F), may be substitut-
ed for the last point, or only three points may be used for
in-plant quality control. The results are then plotted as SFI
against temperature.
The SFI method is reliable for fats containing less than
50% solids at 10°F and requires special tempering tech-
niques for lauric and palmitic acid oils. A wide-band
pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance method, "solid fat con-
tent" (SFC, AOCS Cd 16-81), was developed later for the
modern palm oil industry and is used throughout much of
the world for all oils. Readings are made at the same tem-
peratures, and special techniques are used for tempering
tropical oils. The SFC method is applicable for oils with
fat solids contents up to 90% at 10°C. SFI and SFC curves
are similar in appearance but do not duplicate each other.
Figure 30 shows SFI curves for a hard stick margarine,
soft stick margarine, tub margarine, all-purpose shorten-
ing, and a heavy-duty frying oil. By manipulating conribu-
tions of various oils to SFI, it is possible to produce a mar-
garine that is softer than butter when taken from the
refrigerator but remains firmer than butter if accidentally
left on the kitchen table. It should be noted that the mar-
garine oils are completely melted at body temperature. If
352
50
40
Solid Fat Index (SFI)
30
20
10
10 °C
50°F
FIGURE 30 Solid fat index (SFI) curves for a hard stick margarine, soft stick margarine, tub margarine, all-purpose shortening, and
heavy-duty frying oil. (Data from Ref. 141.)
more than 2-3% solids remain at body temperature, the
margarine or fat product will leave a greasy coating in the
mouth. More than 5% solids at body temperature can result
in a greasy mouthfeel in bakery and snack foods.
Figure 31 [158] shows SFI curves for various types of
shortenings. The higher melting points improve fat stabili-
ty but may have objectionable mouthfeel, depending on
the amount used in the final food product and the tempera-
ture of consumption.
4. Fat Stability
The two major types of spoilage occurring in processed
fats and oils are oxidation and hydrolysis.
Oxidation involves the development of free radicals at
the unsaturated carbon-to-carbon bonds of fatty acids and
cleavage of hydroperoxides into aldehydes and over 200
identified compounds. Many types of oxidation mecha-
nisms have been reported. The reader is referred to the
ever-growing literature for the latest concepts. The most
practical methods for controlling oxidation include:
Selecting oils with low degrees of unsaturation
Including antioxidants to extend product shelf life where
appropriate
Avoiding prooxidants (copper and rusted iron) in the fat-
handling equipment, in food product formula ingredi-
ents, and removing chlorophyll
Minimizing exposure of the bulk fat and final product to
oxygen by nitrogen blanketing and oxygen-barrier
packaging, respectively
Minimizing exposure of the fat-containing product to light,
as by avoiding clear plastic windows in packaging
Lusas
-.-Stick Margarine -A-Soft Stick Margarine
-41-Tub Margarine -All-purpose Shortening
-B-Heavy Duty Frying Oil
21.1 26.7 33.3 37.8 40
70 80 92 100 104
Temperature
Domestic food laws allow use of butylated hydroxy-
toluene (BHT), or di-t-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), alone
or combined, at 0.02% of added fat. Other antioxidants
also are permitted, as are various chelating agents of
prooxidant metallic cations. Vegetable oils contain about
one half of their natural tocopherol antioxidants. General-
ly, these are weak and short-lived compared to the synthet-
ic antioxidants. Animal fats do not contain antioxidants
and must be stabilized before leaving the refinery. Antioxi-
dants are steam-distilled during frying and mainly prolong
the prefrying life of the fat. Additions of antioxidants after
heat processing to prolong shelf lives of foods may be war-
ranted.
Hydrolysis is the addition of water at a glycerol—fatty
acid ester linkage resulting in freeing a fatty acid. It can
occur rapidly at high temperatures during food frying. En-
zymatic activity of ingredients should be a prime suspect if
it occurs at ambient temperatures.
The stability of fats generally is checked by bubbling
air at a controlled temperature and rate through a test tube
containing the sample of liquid test fat. The long-used ac-
tive oxygen method (AOM) for fat stability (AOCS Cd 12-
57) measured the time, in hours, for a fat to reach a perox-
ide value (PV) of 100 milliequivalents per 1000 g sample.
In the last several years, it has been replaced by the oil sta-
bility index (OSI, AOCS Cd 12b-92), which determines
the point of inflection where the antioxidant reserves of an
oil have been exhausted and peroxide generation begins to
increase rapidly. OSI values (in hours) are about 25-35%
of the former AOM values.
Predicting in-product shelf lives of fats by accelerated
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 353

65 - Specialty

60

55

50 - Frying

45
Nondairy
ao -

35

30 -

25 " All-purpose

Plastic
20 range

15 liquid
bread
10

0 I . I I I I I I I L
30' 40 • (50°) (60°) (701 (60°) I(90') (100°) (110') 120° 130°
10•C 20°C 30•C 40•C
Temperature, °C ('F)

FIGURE 31 SFI curves for various types of shortenings. (From Ref. 158.)

testing is extremely difficult, since storage at high temper-
atures melts fat and can introduce artifacts that would not
occur during typical storage of the product.
5. Frying Fats
Frying fats are an extremely diverse group of products
[158,159]. They may be sold (1) in tank car, truck, or bar-
rels as clear liquid oils, (2) in tank lots as fats kept melted
by applied heat and insulation, (3) as 35-50 lb (15.9-22.7
kg) cubes of plasticized shortenings filled into plastic-lined
corrugated boxes, or (4) as 1 and 2.5 gallon plastic bottles
filled with clear or opaque oil.
Oils may be sold without antioxidants to snack food
fryers who maintain "no added chemicals" images. An-
tioxidants may be added for small fryer and food service
uses, with some products having AOMs as high as 250
hours and OSIs of 70 hours. Methylsilicone may be added
at 0.5-2.0 parts per million to reduce foaming and has been
reported to increase frying oil stability 3- to 10-fold [159].
The fried snack food industry must chose between fats
that are oily in appearance and handfeel and smear pack-
age windows and fats with greasy mouthfeel if the solids
content is too high at body temperature. Some fried food
producers choose RBWD frying or coating oils, which
melt just below body temperature, resulting in products
that feel dry when picked up by hand but melt quickly in
the mouth to avoid a greasy feeling. Processes that produce
dry-extruded or baked snack foods can reduce product fat
content by applying oils by spray. The oils can be fortified
with antioxidants, contain flavors, and serve as carriers to
354 Lusas

60 66 IV might prepare. The base stocks, plus hard stock (nearly

0 completely hydrogenated soybean oil at 5 IV), plus RBD
L 60
1
soybean oil with about 130 IV, would be used for formulat-
70 IV ing the various products made at the refinery. (If the prod-
40
F 76 IV uct in not limited to one species of oil, the hard stock can
D
30 be an excellent avenue for introducing (3' favoring fats like
T cottonseed and palm.)
80 IV
20
661V
The use of a hard stock (soybean oil hydrogenated to IV
5) to extend the plastic range of two bases is shown in Fig-
10 ure 33 [160]. Hard stocks are either stored melted or
E
D 108 IV processed into flakes by cooling on a drum chiller
°F 50 70 60 92 104 equipped with a doctor knife. "Plastic range" usually is de-
°C 10.0 21.1 26.7 33.3 40.0 fined as the temperatures between which shortenings and
FIGURE 32 SFI curves of soybean oil base stocks. (From Ref. fats contain 15-25% solids and can be machined in bakery
160.) products. In the example shown, addition of hard stocks
broadened the machinability ranges to include a wide
range of bakery conditions.
30 80 IV PLUS 8% Hydrogenation conditions for making six shortening
S HARDSTOCK
and margarine bases are shown in Table 30. SFI curves of
0
L the resulting bases are shown in Figure 34. Proposed
85 IV PLUS 12% 4
13 20
HARDSTOCK PLASTIC blends of the bases for shortenings are shown in Table 31,
/1( RANGE
and SFI curves of the resulting products in Figure 35. Pro-
F
T posed blends for formulating margarines are shown in
I 10 Table 32, and SFI curves of the resulting hard stick, soft
N stick, and tub margarines in Figure 36 [141].
D
E Shortening and margarine stocks are designed to pro-
vide specific fat solids-temperature profiles and crystal-
0
o
f 60 70 80 92 104 120
lization habits where important. Oils processors are in an
°C 10.0 21.1 26.7 33.3 40,0 49.0 excellent position to add antioxidants, emulsifiers, and
special additives like colors and fat-soluble vitamins if de-
FIGURE 33 Effects of adding hard stocks on broadening
sired by the customer. Shortenings may be shipped in melt-
working temperatures within the 15-25% SFI plastic range.
ed form and filled into the customer's holding tanks or
(From Ref. 160.)
plasticized for ease of handling in small bakery shops.
Some small users prefer pourable shortenings. These are
made by adding small [3 crystals to oils to impart viscosity
stick cheese, seasoning powders, and salt to the snack and an opaque appearance.
foods. In the production of plasticized shortenings, margarines,
Applications where fryers are designed to turn oils over and spreads, chilling is done in internal scraped heat ex-
rapidly by absorption in the product are preferred, but var- changers. These machines sometimes are called "votators"
ious customers must be accommodated. Many oil proces- in recognition of the first successful equipment manufactur-
sors and/or distributors have found it advantageous to offer er, although the name VotatorTM is copyrighted and is
recommendations and training on design and operation of owned by a specific company. The oil passes through a tube
fryers, fryer operation and cleaning, and extending life of that is surrounded by ammonia or freon. As heat passes
frying fats to food service operators. from the oil through the chilling wall, the cooling medium
is vaporized into a gas, which is pumped away, compressed,
6. Shortening and Margarine Oils: Base cooled, and returned by a commercial refrigeration system.
Stock Programs The chilled oil solidifies against the inside wall of the heat
Rather than produce oils with specific solids-temperature exchanger and is scraped free by knives and immediately
profiles directly, refineries typically make a variety of worked into a 13' crystal form to prevent assuming a brittle,
bases, which are stored in liquid form and blended as need- glass-like structure. Nitrogen is injected into the chilling
ed to fill orders for various applications. Figure 32 [160] tube under pressure to form minute bubbles, which impart a
shows a variety of soybean oil base stocks that a refinery white appearance and plasticity to the shortening.
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 355

Margarines differ from shortenings in that they are wa-
ter-in-oil emulsions, while shortenings essentially are all
fat. Emulsions are prepared at the margarine and spread
production facility. In the United States, margarine must
contain a minimum of 80% fat, the same as butter. Mar-
garine-like materials containing less than 80% fat are
called "spreads." Some refineries produce industrial mar-
garines filled into plastic-lined 50 lb corrugated box cubes.
For the most part, margarine and spread processing tech-
nology is practiced in separate facilities, although they are
sometimes owned by oil-refining companies.

TABLE 30 Preparation of Typical Soybean Oil Base Stocks for Making Shortenings and Margarines
Shortening or
Shortening bases Margarine bases margarine base
Base stock numbera 1 2 3 4 5 6
Hydrogenation conditions
Initial temperature (°C) 150 150 150 150-163 150-163 140
Hydrogenation temperature (°C) 165 165 165 218 218 140
Pressure (atm) 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.3 0.6 2.7
Catalyst concentrate (% nickel)" 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.05' 0.02' 0.02
Final iodine valued 83-86 80-82 70-72 64-68 73-76 104-106
Final congeal point (°C) 25.5-26.0 33.0-33.5 24.0-24.5
SFI
10.0°C 16-18 19-21 40-43 58-61 36-38 4 max.
21.1°C 7-9 11-13 27-29 42-46 19-21 2 max.
33.3°C 9-11 21 max. 2.0 max.
'Properly refined and bleached to remove soap, phosphatides, and peroxides.
"Based on weight of oil.
`Very select catalyst.
dApproximate final IV.
Source: Ref. 141.

70
-0-Shortening base 1 -A-Shortening base 2
-0-Shortening base 3 -*Margarine base 4
60
-8-Margarine base 5 —Short. or marg. base 6
SolidFat Index (SFI)

50

40

30

20

10

0
10°C 21.1 26.7 33.3 37.8 40
50°F 70 80 92 100 104
Temperature
FIGURE 34 SFI curves of base stocks prepared in Table 30. (From Ref. 141.)
356 Lusas

TABLE 31 Formulation of Shortenings from Base Stocks in Table 30

Required SFI for shortening Formula
Shortening type 10.0°C 21.21°C 33.3°C 40.0°C Base stock
All-purpose No. la 22-24 18-20 13-15 10-12 No. 1 88-89
Hardfatb 11-12
All-purpose No. 2° 24-27 18-20 12-14 6-8 No. 2 92-93
Hardfatb 7-8
Frying (heavy-duty) 41-44 29-30 12-14 2-5 No. 2 97
Hardfatb 3
Frying (fluid) 5-6 3-4 2-3 1-2 No. 6 98
Hardfatc 2
Specialty (nondairy) 43-47 27-30 6-9 1-5 No. 4 30 ± 5
No. 5 70 ± 5
'Emulsified shortenings made by adding proper type and amount of emulsifier.
b13' hardfat (1-8 IV).
cp hardfat (1-8 IV).
Source: Ref. 141.

50
-..-All-purpose No. 1 -A-All-purpose No. 2
-A-Frying - heavy duty -A-Frying - fluid
40 -e- Specialty - nondiary
SolidFatIndex (SFI)

30

20

10

21.1 26.7 33.3 37.8 40

70 80 92 100 104
Temperature
FIGURE 35 SFI curves of shortenings prepared in Table 31. (From Ref. 141.)
Oilseeds and Oil-Bearing Materials 357

TABLE 32 Formulation of Margarines from Base Stocks in Table 30°

Required SFI for margarine Formula
Margarine 10.0°C 21.21°C 33.3°C 40.0°C Base stock
Regular stick 30.0 max. 17.5 max. 3.5 max. 0 No. 4 38 ± 5
No. 5 20 ± 5
No. 6 42 ± 5
Soft stick 20-26 13-17 1.4-3.0 0 No. 4 50 ± 5
Nonhydrogenated soybean oil 50 ± 5
Tub 12-13 7-8 3 max. 0 No. 3 20-30
Nonhydrogenated soybean oil 70-80
aThese formulations are all soybean oil and suitable for refrigerated product. For maximum resistance to thermal shock, use 5-10% pi' fats with
SFI profile similar to base stock No. 4. Emulsified shortenings made by adding proper type and amount of emulsifier.
Source: Ref. 141.

35
+Reg. Stick Margarine -.-Soft Stick Margarine
30 +-Tub Margarine
Solid Fat Index (SFI)

25

20

15

10

10°C 21.1 26.7 33.3 37.8 40

50°F 70 80 92 100 104
Temperature

FIGURE 36 SFI curves of margarines prepared in Table 32. (From Ref. 141.)
358
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12

CEREAL PROTEINS: COMPOSITION OF THEIR MAJOR

FRACTIONS AND METHODS FOR IDENTIFICATION

George Lookhart
U.S. Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas
Scott Bean
Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

I. INTRODUCTION cultivars have received considerable attention. Such analy-

ses are much faster and less costly than traditional tech-
The ability to distinguish among different cultivars of par-
niques and require less space and personnel.
ticular crops is especially important to the agricultural sec-
The identification of cultivars is in effect an expression
tor. Differences exist among cultivars in their quality and
of genotype characterization. All cultivars must have dif-
other agronomic properties. Millers and bakers need to be
ferences within their genomes, and since the primary prod-
certain that the wheat cultivars they use are suitable for
uct of a structural gene is a protein, that protein may be-
their intended use, whether for bread, cake, pasta, crackers,
come a marker for the system or a chromosome. For
or gravies. Brewers and malters want to be sure of using
cultivar differentiation, it is necessary to study those pro-
those cultivars that are suitable for malting. Farmers need
teins that exist in multiple forms. The most commonly
to know the identification of the cultivars they are planting,
used proteins for cultivar differentiation are the storage
since there may be a premium for a particular variety due
proteins, which are polymorphic in size, charge, or both of
to quality or a yield benefit as a result of its genetic poten-
these parameters in nearly all species examined [25].
tial resistance or adaptability.
Proteins in cereal grains can be divided into two broad
The methods traditionally used to assess cultivar identi-
groups based on their biological functions: biologically ac-
ty and purity vary in detail from crop to crop but generally
tive enzymes and biologically inactive storage proteins.
involve a lengthy and detailed morphological survey of the
The storage proteins make up most (up to 80%) of the total
field-grown plants. Those methods are effective but con-
proteins (Table 1). Storage proteins are genotypic (depen-
sume much time and space, since large land areas and long
dent on the genetic background of the plant) and used most
time periods are required to grow the plants so their agro-
often for varietal identification.
nomic properties can be studied. For example, to identify
The classical fractionation procedure of Osborne [104]
barley varieties using the agronomic method, over 80 sep-
has been used for years to divide cereal proteins into four
arate morphological characters are measured [25]. As a re-
major groups based on their solubilities. In Osborne's
sult, laboratory-based (biochemical) methods for cereal
scheme, albumins are soluble in water, globulins are solu-
ble in dilute salt solutions but not water, prolamins are sol-
Mention of firm names or trade products does not constitute en- uble in aqueous alcohols but not water or salt solutions,
dorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture over others not and glutelins are soluble in acid or alkalai but not alcohol,
mentioned. water, or salt solutions. Although much overlap between

363
364
TABLE 1 Cereal Protein Distribution in the Four Major Solubility Fractions
Protein fractions (% total proteins)
Grain Albumin Globulin Prolamin
Wheat 5 10
3-5 6-10
Rice 5 10
Trace 2-8
Corn 4 2
Barley 13 12
3-5 10-20
Oats 1 78-80
1 13
Source: Ref. 22.
these fractions is now known to exist and much criticism
has been leveled against this procedure, it has provided the
basis for, and been most useful in, both structural and func-
tional investigations of cereal proteins [17].
Large differences in estimating the relative proportion
of proteins of the four major solubility fractions are found
in different cereal species and even within a given species
analyzed by different researchers (Table 1). The substantial
variations in the proportions of each group within a species
may be due to differences in the extraction methodology.
However, protein content, growth location, and varietal
differences may have larger predominant effects.
The amino acid compositions of each of the five major
cereal grains are listed in Table 2 [22]. The amounts of the
essential amino acids (EAA) are listed at the top of the
table and summed to give a total nutritional score (total
EAA). The larger the score, the greater the amount of es-
sential amino acid provided. Wheat has the lowest with a
score of 33, whereas corn has the highest with a score of
42. Compositions of the Osborne solubility fractions are
listed in Tables 3-7 [22] for the cereals wheat, rice, corn,
barley, and oats, respectively. Considerable variation exists
for amino acid compositions both among cereals and
among fractions with a given cereal.
The two storage protein fractions or groups, prolamins
and glutelins, make up the bulk of the proteins in all cere-
als, except for oats. In general, storage proteins constitute
80-85% of the total wheat and barley proteins (in nearly
equal proportions) and 85-90% of the rice proteins (main-
ly glutelins). Rice and oats have the lowest amount of pro-
lamin of the cereals reviewed in this chapter, and those
prolamins have the lowest proline values (Tables 4 and 7).
Electrophoresis is the process whereby charged species
move under the influence of an external electric field. Dur-
ing electrophoresis, proteins are separated by moving
through a polymer matrix based on their apparent size
Lookhart and Bean
Glutelin (+ residue) Ref.
69 16 17,112
40-50 30-40 65
5 80 17,38,112
1-5 85-90 65
55 40 17,112
52 23 17,112
35-45 35-45 38,65
10-16 5 17, 65,112
18 68 38
and/or charge. Traditionally, polyacrylamide gel elec-
trophoresis (PAGE) has been the major method used. It
uses cross-linked and polymerized acrylamide to form the
separation matrix. The three major variations of PAGE are
(1) separations performed at acid pH to ionize the proteins
and keep them soluble, (2) the detergent sodium dodecyl-
sulfate (SDS) to solubilize proteins and to ensure that all
proteins have a uniform charge distribution, and (3) the use
of pH gradients in a gel system to separate proteins by the
difference in their surface charges.
The first method, usually referred to as A-PAGE, sepa-
rates proteins by differences in their charge densities and
possibly by their apparent sizes (depending on the exact
gel used). Thus, a small protein moves faster than a large
protein with the same charge, but the higher the charge, the
faster the proteins move. This is the technique that has
been used most often in "fingerprinting" or identifying cul-
tivars for plant variety protection or for specific end uses.
SDS-PAGE separates proteins on the basis of their ap-
parent sizes as the surface charge is made uniformly nega-
tive by the SDS. It is envisioned that the SDS wraps itself
around the proteins and thus gives a homogeneous charge-
to-mass ratio. This technique is used for varietal identifica-
tion and also for potential end-use quality (glutenin high
molecular weight subunits) and molecular weight determi-
nations.
The third technique, isoelectric focusing (IEF), sepa-
rates proteins or polypeptides on the basis of their isoelec-
tric points by setting up a pH gradient and moving the pro-
teins through the gel to the point in the gel (pH) where the
proteins have no net electrical charge and hence stop mov-
ing (isoelectric point). It is a very sensitive and high-reso-
lution method. It is normally used when the other two tech-
niques are not sufficiently powerful for resolving the
proteins in question, for example, in identification of corn
varieties. IEF is more expensive than the other methods
Cereal Proteins 365

TABLE 2 Amino Acid Content of Five Cereal Grains (g/16 g 1\)e

Wheat Rice Corn Barley Oats

Amino acid 16 2' 16 1b 2f lb

2d lb 2e 2g

Ile 3.3 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.8 3.9
Leu 6.7 6.7 8.2 8.7 12.5 13.6 6.7 6.5 7.3 7.4
Lys 2.9 2.4 3.8 4.0 2.7 2.6 3.5 3.4 3.7 4.2
Met 1.5 1.7 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.7 2.6 1.7 2.5
Cys 2.5 2.5 1.1 1.0 1.6 1.1 2.3 1.2 2.7 1.6
Phe 4.5 4.9 5.2 5.4 4.9 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.0 5.3
Tyr 3.0 2.8 3.5 3.6 3.8 4.4 3.1 2.5 3.3 3.1
Thr 2.9 2.8 3.9 3.9 3.6 3.6 3.3 3.1 3.3 3.3
Trp 1.5 1.2h 1.3 0.6h 0.7 1.5h 1.3b
Val 4.4 4.5 5.5 5.5 4.8 5.3 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.3
Total EAAsi 32.8 33.5 38.5 39.4 40.1 41.9 35.8 33.1 37.2 36.6
Arg 4.6 4.0 8.3 9.4 4.2 3.8 4.7 4.4 6.3 6.9
His 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.2
Ala 3.6 3.4 6.0 6.4 7.5 7.9 4.0 4.1 4.5 5.0
Asp 4.9 4.8 10.3 10.8 6.3 5.7 6.3 7.7 8.9
Glu 29.9 33.1 20.6 22.6 18.9 23.6 27.4 20.9 23.9
Gly 3.9 3.8 5.0 5.3 3.7 3.4 3.9 3.8 4.7 4.9
Pro 9.9 11.0 4.7 4.7 8.9 8.3 10.9 12.3 5.2 4.7
Ser 4.6 4.9 5.4 6.0 5.0 4.8 4.0 3.5 4.7 4.2
N (g/100 g)i 2.38 2.90 1.45 2.12 1.52 1.89 2.18 2.23 2.74

aData from Ref. 22 unless otherwise noted.

bCalculated from 140.

`Calculated average of two varieties [137].

dCalculated average of six varieties [141].

eFrom Ref. 145.

'From Ref. 113 (an average of 113 cultivars, expressed as g/100 g recovered).
gFrom Ref. 117 (an average for oat groats of 289 cultivars of Avena sativa, expressed as g/100 g recovered).
hDetermined by a microbiological method.
'EAAs = Essential amino acids, including cysteine and tyrosine.
'On dry-weight basis.

since the ampholines used make the pH gradients are ex-
pensive and difficult to make.
Electrophoresis methods may also be combined into
two dimensional (2D) separations. Traditionally, IEF is
combined with SDS-PAGE, separating proteins first by
their isoelectric points and then by size [100]. By using
two complementary separation techniques, resolution of
2D separations can far exceed any single-dimensional sep-
aration. Over 1000 polypeptides have been reported from
2D separations of wheat proteins [139].
One of the newest techniques for separating cereal pro-
teins is capillary electrophoresis (CE). Where traditional
PAGE systems separate proteins in a polyacrylamide gel,
CE utilizes small fused silica capillaries. These capillaries
typically have an inner diameter of 25-100 and are
coated on the outside with polyimide to provide strength
and flexibility. These capillaries provide an anticonvective
separation medium, which is one of the roles of starch and
polyacrylamide in traditional electrophoresis. Due to their
small inner diameter, they have very high surface area-
to-volume ratios, which makes them dissipate heat very
rapidly. This in turn means that very high separation volt-
ages can be used, resulting in rapid, efficient, high-resolu-
tion separations.
A CE instrument consists of a relatively simple design.
A high-voltage power supply, typically capable of deliver-
ing up to 30,000 V, is connected to two platinum elec-
trodes. The ends of the capillary are placed in vials along
with the electrodes. A detector, usually UV, is placed near
one end of the capillary, where a small section of the pro-
tective polyimide layer has been removed from the capil-
lary to allow UV light to pass through. The capillary and
vials are filled with separation buffer and the voltage is
turned on, creating an electric field inside the capillary.
Proteins then move through the capillary just as they
would in traditional PAGE systems. CE offers the comput-
366 Lookhart and Bean

TABLE 3 Amino Acid Composition (% of total amino acids) of Wheat

Protein Fractionsa
Albumin
Amino acid Globulin, Prolamin Glutelin
or ammonia 1b 2C watery Gluten' (gliadin)r (glutenin)g
Ile 2.6 1.8 1.3 3.7 4.1 3.2
Leu 8.2 7.9 9.1 6.5 6.8 6.5
Lys 3.3 5.9 12.4 1.1 0.6 1.7
Met 3.0 3.2 Trace 1.5 1.5 1.6
Cys 6.4 7.6 13.6 1.4 1.0 1.0
Phe 2.2 0.2 3.1 4.6 5.4 4.0
Tyr 5.8 5.1 2.7 3.2 2.5 4.1
Thr 2.5 2.2 7.4 2.1 1.8 2.6
Trp 3.5 5.2 1.1 0.9 1.5
Val 6.9 10.3 2.2 4.4 4.1 4.1
Total EAAsh 44.4 49.4 51.8 29.6 28.7 30.3
Arg 8.5 8.1 14.6 3.1 2.3 3.1
His 1.8 trace 1.3 2.0 2.0 1.8
Ala 8.6 5.5 4.0 2.1 1.7 2.4
Asp 6.3 8.1 6.8 2.5 2.2 2.6
Glu 13.0 12.8 5.6 36.7 39.6 35.9
Gly 4.5 4.3 4.9 2.6 1.4 4.5
Pro 6.7 6.7 3.7 13.0 13.9 11.1
Ser 4.8 5.1 7.3 3.4 3.2 4.4
NH3 1.3 5.0 5.0 4.1
'From Ref. 22 unless otherwise noted.
'Calculated from number of amino acid residues as in Ref. 59, except for water-soluble globulin.
'From Ref. 39.
dFrom Ref. 41.
'From Ref. 98.
'From Ref. 154.
gFrom Ref. 156.
hEAAs = Essential amino acids, including cysteine and tyrosine.

erized data and operations of HPLC with the separation
mechanisms of gel electrophoresis. Unlike HPLC, howev-
er, CE produces very little hazardous waste.
Just as gel electrophoresis can be used in several modes,
so can CE. The most common types for separating proteins
are (1) free zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE), (2) size
based separations, or (3) capillary isoelectric focusing
(cIEF). In FZCE, capillaries are simply filled with separa-
tion buffer and the proteins injected into one end of the cap-
illary, and the separation is begun with the proteins separat-
ing mainly by differences in their charge densities. This
type of CE is the simplest and has been used the most with
cereal proteins [12,77,81,147]. FZCE has also been com-
bined with RP-HPLC to form unique 2D separation of
wheat proteins [7].
The 2D separations were accomplished by collecting
the HPLC separation in 30-second aliqouts and analyzing
each of these by FZCE. Computer software was then used
to construct 2D maps of the separations. The use of 25-µin
inner diameter capillaries was reported as critical to suc-
cess of the separations [7]. These capillaries have been re-
ported to provide increased peak heights compared to 20-
nm i.d. capillaries [6].
Originally proteins were separated by size in capillaries
by casting polyacrylamide gels inside the capillaries [24].
These types of separations provided high resolution, but
there were a large number of problems associated with
them, such as breakdown of the gels and void formation
during polymerization. To overcome these problems, solu-
tions of entangled polymers were used [56]. These solu-
tions remain liquid and are of low enough viscosity to be
pumped into the capillaries before each separation (termed
"blow in, blow out"). The polymers entangle with each
other and form a matrix for proteins to separate through.
Cereal Proteins 367

TABLE 4 Amino Acid Composition of Rice Protein Fractions

Amino acid composition (g/16 g N)
Brown Ricea Milled Riceb
Albumin and Prolamin Glutelin Prolamin Glutelin
Amino acid globulin (oryzin) (oryzenin) Albumin Globulin (oryzin) (oryzenin)
Ile 3.1 4.9 3.7 3.9 2.9 4.5 4.5
Leu 6.3 11.8 7.7 7.5 6.3 10.8 7.5
Lys 4.6 0.3 3.0 4.7 2.4 0.5 3.3
Met 2.3 0.8 1.5 2.4 2.2 0.5 1.3
Cys 3.1 1.8 1.0 2.8 0.0 0.3 1.2
Phe 3.6 6.0 5.3 2.9 3.1 6.0 5.9
Tyr 4.0 8.4 5.2 3.7 4.8 8.3 4.9
Thr 3.8 2.4 3.4 4.4 2.8 2.3 3.6
Trp 1.4 0.9 1.5 1.8' 1.2' 0.9' 1.1'
Val 5.4 5.0 4.9 8.3 5.9 6.7 6.2
Total EAAsd 37.6 42.3 37.2 42.4 31.6 40.8 39.5
Arg 10.4 6.5 9.0 8.0 10.5 5.6 10.1
His 2.6 1.5 2.4 2.5 1.5 0.9 2.5
Ala 6.6 6.2 5.1 8.3 8.7 6.3 4.8
Asp 8.3 6.4 8.8 10.3 7.4 7.5 10.3
Glu 16.4 27.7 21.9 11.9 11.2 20.4 19.2
Gly 6.1 2.9 4.5 6.6 5.6 3.0 4.3
Pro 5.5 5.5 4.9 6.3 5.2 3.9 4.0
Ser 5.0 6.1 5.3 5.0 5.2 4.9 6.6
N (g/100 12.59 9.98 16.8 2.11 16.80 3.57 16.9
From Ref. 105.
bCalculated data from Ref. 160.
`From Ref. 55.
dEAAs = Essential amino acids, including cysteine and tyrosine.
'On dry-weight basis.

Cereal proteins have been separated with this method us-
ing a commercially available linear polyacrylamide [147]
and linear polyacrylamides made in-house (S. R. Bean and
G. L. Lookhart, unpublished data).
In capillary IEF, proteins and a mixture of ampholytes
and solubilizing agents are pumped into the capillary and
the voltage is applied. Suitable acids and bases, typically
phosphoric acid and sodium hydroxide, are placed at the
ends of the capillary and a pH gradient is formed across the
capillary. The proteins will then migrate to the isoelectric
point (pI), just as in slab gel IEF. However, once the pro-
teins reach their pI, they cease moving. This process is
termed focusing [47]. Next, the proteins must be moved
across the detector located at one end of the capillary. This
process is termed mobilization and can be accomplished in
a number of ways. One of the two most common is salt
mobilization, where the acid or base at the end of the cap-
illaries is replaced by a salt solution. The salts will migrate
into the capillary, titrating the pH gradient and causing it to
be charged again, after which they migrate as in FZCE
across the detector. The other method utilizes low pressure
to push the focused proteins across the detector while the
voltage is maintained to keep the proteins focused. cIEF is
capable of extremely high resolution, but to date only pre-
liminary reports of unsuccessful attempts to use it for cere-
al proteins have been published [80].
An alternative to electrophoretic methods for separating
cereal proteins is high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC). The use of HPLC for separating cereal proteins
was first reported by Bietz [9]. HPLC is capable of sepa-
rating proteins by several different mechanisms, just as
electrophoresis is. Proteins may be separated based on
their size (size exclusion chromatography), differences in
their charge states (ion exchange chromatography), and
differences in their surface hydrophobicities (reversed-
phase). Reversed-phase (RP) HPLC has been widely used
in the cereal protein field and has been one of the dominant
analytical techniques.
368 Lookhart and Bean

TABLE 5 Amino Acid Composition of Corn Protein Fractions'

Albumin Globulin Prolamin (zein) Glutelin

Amino acid lb 2' 3d

lb 2' 3d
lb 2' 3e Whole
G1c
G2e G3`

Ile 4.6 3.3 3.7 4.3 4.0 3.0 4.3 3.2 4.4 3.6 2.7 2.4 3.5
Leu 9.8 6.0 6.4 8.5 8.0 5.9 20.1 19.7 23.0 12.0 12.7 8.4 10.5
Lys 6.3 5.5 6.4 5.9 5.2 6.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 3.0 0.1 1.7 4.2
Met 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.0 1.0 0.4 0.9 1.6 4.0 4.1 1.2 1.9
Cys 0.2 2.8 1.2 2.0 0.1 Trace 1.7 1.4 Trace 1.3 Trace
Phe 4.4 2.2 3.5 4.8 4.9 4.6 6.2 6.5 7.1 4.4 5.6 2.7 4.4
Tyr 3.6 2.1 3.4 3.8 3.5 3.1 4.1 4.3 6.5 4.9 4.7 2.6 3.7
Thr 4.8 4.7 5.4 4.7 3.4 3.3 2.7 2.4 3.1 3.5 3.1 4.1 4.0
Trp 0.7 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.2
Val 6.7 4.8 5.9 6.6 5.9 5.7 4.4 3.2 3.7 5.4 3.6 5.8 5.9
Total EAAsf 42.0 33.5 36.2 41.2 38.8 32.6 42.4 40.3 51.1 42.2 36.6 30.5 39.3
Arg 7.4 6.6 7.5 7.7 9.9 12.5 1.4 1.3 1.7 4.1 2.2 4.1 5.9
His 2.4 2.8 2.5 2.5 3.4 3.9 0.9 0.9 1.2 3.3 2.0 7.3 3.5
Ala 7.9 10.3 7.6 7.4 6.6 5.3 10.0 13.0 10.4 7.2 10.9 4.1 7.0
Asp 8.8 9.4 9.7 9.2 6.6 7.7 5.7 5.3 5.6 6.0 4.1 3.1 7.7
Glu 14.5 15.0 12.7 13.7 17.2 16.8 24.3 26.8 29.0 19.0 23.7 25.4 19.1
Gly 6.1 9.0 7.0 6.8 5.4 5.5 1.2 0.8 1.9 4.1 2.8 5.2 4.9
Pro 6.4 6.9 5.2 6.8 6.8 3.8 9.2 8.6 14.7 9.9 11.8 15.9 7.7
Ser 4.8 5.6 5.0 4.8 4.9 5.6 4.8 5.0 5.9 4.3 5.7 4.1 4.9

aAmino acid compositions are expressed differently, depending on source.

bFrom Ref. 161. Amino acid composition is expressed as a percentage of total amino acids.

'From Ref. 124. Amino acid composition is expressed as g/100 g of amino acids recovered. GI, G2, and G3 represent glutelin fractions 1, 2, and 3,
respectively. Tryptophan was determined colorimetrically.
dFrom Ref. 107. Amino acid composition is expressed as g/100 g of protein.

eFrom Ref. 92. Amino acid composition is expressed as g/100 g of protein.

fEAAs = Essential amino acids, including cysteine and tryosine.

There are four components in any HPLC system: a
pump, an injector, a column, and a detector. The pumping
system consists of one or more high-pressure pumps capa-
ble of producing accurate and reproducible flow rates of
various solvents at pressures up to 5000 psi. The injector,
usually a multiport valve, introduces sample into the high-
pressure solvent line without stopping the flow or chang-
ing the pressure substantially. The column or separation
system is usually made of stainless steel and ranges from
10 to 30 cm in length and 4 to 4.6 mm in diameter.
Most HPLC systems use variable-wavelength UV-VIS
detectors to be able to detect compounds at their maximum
absorbance wavelength. Many other types of detectors are
also used, including conductivity, refractive index, and flu-
orescence. Most protein separations for varietal identifica-
tions use wide-pore (300 A) C18 (reversed-phase) columns
at elevated temperatures (45°C) and are eluted at 1
mL/min with water and acetonitrile gradients (25-50%
CH3CN), each containing 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA)
with detection at 210 nm.
In this chapter, methods for extracting various protein
fractions from the cereal grains (wheat, rice, maize, barley,
and oats) and electrophoretic analysis of those fractions
will be discussed. The HPLC method will only be men-
tioned when it is used in a complementary way. For com-
plete information on the use of HPLC for the separation of
cereal proteins, the reader is directed to Ref. 66.
II. WHEAT
Wheat (Triticum species) ranks first in production among
the cereal grains grown in the world today. Wheat con-
tributes one third of the total annual cereal protein produc-
tion, and as such its importance as the major cereal grain
cannot be over stated. The characteristics of its protein
fractions and the amino acid composition of the fractions
were related to nutrition by Lasztity [68].
Proteins in wheat have been characterized in three basic
ways: by their solubilities [104], electrophoretic mobilities
[54,151], and relative molecular weights [109,143]. The
classical Osborne fractionation procedure [104] separated
proteins into four groups on the basis of their differential
Cereal Proteins 369

TABLE 6 Amino Acid Composition of Barley Protein Fractionsa

Prolamin (hordein) Glutelin
Amino acid Albuminb Globulin" lb 3d
lb
Ile 4.4 3.9 3.7 3.6 4.0 4.2 4.1 4.1
Leu 8.5 8.2 6.8 6.8 7.4 8.3 8.7 9.0
Lys 6.2 6.2 0.6 0.9 0.8 2.5 4.1 3.9
Met 2.4 2.2 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.5 1.7 2.1
Cys 0.5 0 1.4 1.3 2.7 0.5 1.8 2.2
Phe 5.2 4.8 7.5 4.7 8.3 5.7 5.2 5.7
Tyr 3.7 4.2 3.4 3.3 4.7 3.9 2.2 3.5
Thr 4.4 4.1 1.8 1.8 1.3 3.4 3.8 3.1
Trp
Val 6.8 6.9 4.0 3.9 3.7 5.8 5.6 6.0
Total EAAsf 42.1 40.5 30.2 26.9 33.7 35.8 37.2 39.6
Arg 5.8 8.0 2.7 2.8 2.8 4.5 4.5 5.4
His 2.5 2.1 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.7 2.3
Ala 7.2 5.1 1.5 1.7 2.5 3.2 4.3 5.7
Asp 11.4 8.5 1.6 1.5 1.6 4.3 6.0 5.6
Glu 17.8 18.3 38.9 41.2 36.4 29.9 25.4 21.6
Gly 4.8 5.0 1.2 1.4 2.3 3.2 4.4 5.0
Pro 6.7 8.2 19.4 19.9 18.8 12.2 10.4 10.6
Ser 4.5 4.3 3.2 3.2 2.6 4.4 4.8 4.5
'Data from Ref. 14 and Ref. 37 are expressed as a percentage of total amino acids. All other data are expressed as
g/16 g N.
"From Ref. 14 (Bombi variety).
'From Ref. 88 (Bombi variety).
'From Ref. 134 (NP-113 variety).
'From Ref. 134 (NP-113 variety).
bEAAs = Essential amino acids, including cysteine and tyrosine.

solubilities as previously described. Armed with those sol-
ubility definitions, Jones et al. [54] segregated the gliadin
proteins into four subfractions on the basis of their elec-
trophoretic mobilities. He referred to them as the alpha,
beta, gamma, and omega gliadins. Woychik et al. [151]
used a more discriminating electrophoretic procedure and
further subdivided the alpha and beta fractions into two
and four fractions, respectively. Subsequently, the gamma
and omega fractions were found to have three and eight
components, respectively [20,49]. Since these early stud-
ies, RP-HPLC and the newer capillary electrophoresis
methods have resolved the gliadin subclasses into numer-
ous peaks. More recent studies using protein sequencing
have suggested that the alpha and beta gliadins should be
classified together [10,58,59,148].
The storage proteins, gliadins and glutenins, are the
most often used in varietal identification. Cluskey et al.
[23] and Graham [44] were among the first to show the
uniqueness of gliadin electrophoresis in identifying wheat
cultivars. Several reviews dealing with the use of elec-
trophoresis in identifying wheat varieties by gliadin analy-
sis are available [3,25,59,60,64,84,152]. Konarev et al.
[64] reported that among cereal seed proteins, the alcohol-
soluble fraction (prolamins and nonprolamins) was most
suitable for identification of genomes and genotypes. For
genomes, they found the nonprolamins (presumably albu-
mins and globulins) most useful. For genotype identifica-
tion, they found the prolamins most useful. Doekes [32],
Bourdet and Autran [13], and Nierle [97] have reported
that the gliadins (prolamins) were best suited for wheat va-
rietal identification.
Various procedures have been used to extract and ana-
lyze proteins for varietal identification, a few of which are
listed in Table 8. For the extraction methods without re-
ducing agent listed in the table, the solvent systems range
from the classical aqueous ethanol (EtOH) and urea to the
more modern solvents dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and
dimethlyformamide (DMF). Not only the solvents vary,
but the ratios of solvent to flour or ground seed (meal)
varies from 1:1 with the DMF procedure (procedure 9,
Table 8) to 6:1 with the urea method (procedures 11 and
12, Table 1). Aluminum lactate (AL) is the buffer most of-
370 Lookhart and Bean

TABLE 7 Amino Acid Composition of Oat Protein Fractions

Albumin Globulin Prolamin (avenin) Glutelin

la 2b 3'
Amino acid 2b la 2b 3' la 2b 3' l a

Ile 4.8 3.1 4.3 4.5 4.4 3.7 2.8 3.3 5.0 4.1 4.8
Leu 8.6 6.4 6.8 7.5 7.5 10.6 11.2 10.5 8.1 9.4 7.4
Lys 8.2 8.1 5.5 4.2 5.0 3.3 0.7 1.1 5.0 2.9 3.3
Met 2.4 0.5 1.8 0.7 3.3 3.7 2.2 2.3 1.8 1.2 1.3
Cys 1.4 5.4 1.3 1.2 3.5 4.2 2.8 3.4 0.9 1.9 1.6
Phe 7.3 3.6 5.9 5.8 4.6 7.0 6.7 7.0 6.8 6.9 6.9
Tyr 3.1 4.0 2.4 4.2 4.2 1.7 2.1 2.4 4.9 3.9 4.6
Thr 5.6 4.7 3.6 3.5 4.1 2.3 1.4 1.5 4.4 2.8 3.5
Val 6.6 4.7 4.9 5.2 5.2 5.9 6.7 6.6 5.5 6.0 5.1
Total EAAsd 48.0 40.5 36.5 36.8 41.8 42.4 36.6 38.1 42.4 39.1 38.5
Arg 5.3 7.9 9.7 9.3 9.5 4.8 3.5 3.8 9.5 7.9 8.6
His 2.9 2.4 2.9 2.6 2.5 1.7 0.9 1.1 3.1 2.6 2.7
Ala 8.0 6.3 5.7 4.4 4.3 4.4 3.5 3.4 5.1 4.1 4.1
Asp 12.2 8.1 8.8 9.4 8.0 3.3 1.7 2.1 10.0 6.5 9.7
Glu 13.7 16.1 20.2 21.1 20.1 37.6 42.1 40.2 17.5 33.4 23.1
Gly 6.7 7.6 5.4 4.5 4.3 2.4 0.8 0.9 5.0 3.0 3.8
Pro 6.1 6.7 5.4 4.2 4.9 9.1 8.4 8.7 5.5 7.3 4.6
Ser 6.6 7.0 4.9 4.9 4.5 2.9 1.9 2.0 5.1 3.8 5.1

'From Ref. 33. Data are expressed as g/16 g N.

bFrom Ref. 155. Data are expressed as g/16 g N.

`From Ref. 110. Data are expressed as a percentage of total amino acids. Total protein amino acid data are for oatmeal defatted with water-sat-
urated n-butanol.
d EEAs = Essential amino acids, including cysteine and tyrosine. Tryptophan was not determined.

ten used. Jones et al. [54] found that AL buffers gave the
most symmetrical electrophoretic patterns. Early problems
with obtaining pure AL have been stated as the reason
some researchers switched to sodium lactate or other
acidic buffers [34,48,60,85].
For A-PAGE, in most cases 6% acrylamide gels are
used, which are typically 1.5 or 3 mm in thickness. These
gels give improved separations and reduce run times. The
highest voltage system listed in Table 8 is 1000 V [138],
but at such high electrical densities heat effects can cause
the bands to bend (smile). The trend in the last few years is
to use moderately high voltages (-500 V) for shorter peri-
ods of time (2 h) with glycine-acetic acid buffer (proce-
dures 5 and 13, Table 8) or the AL (procedure 8, Table 8)
buffer system at pH 3.1 in 6% polyacrylamide gels of 3
mm thickness or less (D. D. Kasarda, private communica-
tion) [75,121]. Khan et al. [60a] examined the effect of the
catalysts used to polymerize the gels for gliadin analysis.
They concluded that the amount of catalysts used affected
both the resolution and the firmness of the gels.
Gliadins have also been separated with several 2D gels.
The classical IEF x SDS-PAGE of O'Farrell [100] has
been used by a number of authors. Novel types of 2D work
such as native PAGE at two different pHs [67] have also
been reported.
The use of HPLC has grown extensively, especially RP-
HPLC. Extensive work developing CE for the separation
of wheat proteins has also been recently reported
[12,77,78,81,147]. For CE, proteins are typically extracted
with 30% ethanol [12,77], although other typical gliadin
solvents can be used. Extraction buffers of high ionic
strength should probably be avoided because high ionic
strength in the sample matrix can have detrimental affects
on CE separations [101].
To this date all reported separations of gliadins by CE
have been done in uncoated capillaries. Early work by
Bietz and Schmalzried [12] used 27-cm-long capillaries
with inner diameters of 501.tm with either high-pH borate
SDS buffers or a low-pH phosphate buffer. The low pH
phosphate buffer, commercially available from Bio-Rad,
was found to provide the best resolution and the best re-
producibility. Subsequent studies by Lookhart and Bean
[77] found that by using smaller-inner-diameter capillaries
(20 p.m) separation time could be reduced to 10 minutes.
Lookhart and Bean [79] later reported buffers made in-
house to be as effective as the commercially available
Cereal Proteins 371

TABLE 8 Electrophoretic Methods for Wheat Variety Identification

Extraction Methodology Ref.

NONREDUCING CONDITIONS
A. Gliadins
Alcohol
1. 3 x wt with 70% EtOH from gluten ball AL SPINCO H SYSTEM pH 3.2, 8.7 V/cm, 3 h 54
2. 3 x wt with 60% EtOH AL PAGE-agarose 0.5 M urea, pH 3.2, 8 h 4
3. 3 x wt with 70% EtOH and flour 2 x vol buffer AL PAGE (6%) 21°C 6 mm gels, 73 mA, 6.5 h 18
4. 3 x wt with 70% EtOH AL PAGE (6%) 7°C 1.5 mm gels, 1000 V, 40 min 138
5. 50 IL 70% EtOH with 100 IL Elect buffer Glycine/Acetic PAGE (6%) 3 mm gels, pH 3.1, 400 V, 2.5 h 85
6. 3 x wt with 70% EtOH Na Lactate PAGE (7.5%) 3 mm gel, pH 3.1, 20 mA, 4.5 h 111
7. 3 x wt with 70% EtOH Na Lactate PAGE (6%) 15°C 6 mm gel, pH 3.1, 300 V, 5 h 60
8. 3 x wt with 70% EtOH flour or ground meal AL PAGE (6%) 20°C 3 mm gel, pH 3.1, 500 V, 2 h 75
Dimethylformamide
9. 25 IL/mg seed AL PAGE (6%) 20°C 50 mA, pH 3.1, 300 V, 6.5 h 91
Dimethylsulfoxide
10. 150 IL of 40% DMSO/seed TRIS-Lactate PAGE (6%) 1.5 mm gel, 400 V, 4.5 h 48
Urea
11. 6 x wt with 2 M urea AL urea SGE (12%) 20°C, pH 3.1, 200 V, 4 h 89
12. 6 x wt with 1 M urea Na Lactate gradient PAGE (2-16%) 3 mm gel, pH 3.1, 4 h 35
13. 100 IL urea (6%)/seed Glycine/Acetic acid PAGE (6%) 2.7 mm gel, 20°C, pH 3.1, 121
400 V, 130 min
B. Albumins and Globulins
14. 3 x wt with water AL 3 M urea SGE (13%) 3 mm gel, pH 3.1, 30 mA, 160 min 32
15. 3x wt with water TRIS-Borate PAGE CYANOGUM41 (5%) 15°C, pH 8.9, 500 50
V, 2h
16. 3 x wt with .125 M TRIS-Borate pH 8.9 TRIS-Borate SDS-PAGE CYANOGUM (5-25%), 3 mm gel, 51
pH 8.9, 400 V 90 min
REDUCING CONDITIONS
Glutenins
17. TRIS-Borate with SDS (5%) and ME (1%) 1 g
meal/3 ml buffer SDS-PAGE, SDS (0.1%) 3 mm gel, pH 7.1, 400 V, 90 min 50
18. 200 IL solvent/seed (55%), 2-PROPANOL with ME
(2%) SDS-PAGE (17.5%) with & without 4-VP pH 8.9, 20 mA, 3 h 128
19. 400 IL solvent/seed 0.1 M TRIS-Glycine with ME
(.05%) TRIS-Glycine PAGE (5%), pH 8.9 103

buffers. These buffers may be preferred as proper control
of buffer composition may lead to better reproducibility
[11]. Using this buffer, Lookhart and Bean determined the
migration order of the gliadin subclasses to be the same as
that found with A-PAGE [78].
Later improvements to the basic phosphate buffer sys-
tem found that the addition of 20% acetonitrile to the
buffer greatly improved the resolution of gliadin proteins
[81]. Reproducibility was also improved by using 1 M
phosphoric acid as the only postseparation rinse. Relative
standard deviations of migration times for 20 consecutive
analyses was found to be 0.1-0.2%.
Three methods for identifying wheat varieties by the
analysis of albumin and globulin fractions are also listed in
Table 8. The water-to-flour extraction ratio was constant at
3:1, which is also common for gliadin extraction. The sol-
vent extraction systems were chosen in accordance with
the protein solubilities determined by the Osborne frac-
tionation procedure: water for albumins and salt for globu-
lins. The electrophoretic methods vary from the older AL-
urea 13% SGE system at pH 3.1 to the tris-borate pH 8.9
SDS-PAGE procedure. The paucity of methods for sepa-
rating these protein fractions points to their limited useful-
ness in varietal identification. The separation of albumins
and globulins by CE has also been reported [78,130], al-
though the separation of globulins was poor, possibly due
to the high level of salt present in the sample matrix.
The identification of wheat varieties by analysis of
372
gliadin fractions can be complemented by analysis of their
glutenin-subunit compositions, since syntheses of those
two groups of proteins are under separate genetic control
[73]. Glutenin subunits were extracted with the aid of p-
mercaptoethanol (ME) to break disulfide bonds (reduction)
and the anionic detergent SDS to disrupt various noncova-
lent bonds. The ME concentration ranged from 0.5 to 2%,
and the solvents ranged from alcohol (55% 2-propanol) to
tris-glycine or tris-borate with SDS. When reduced protein
extracts were alkylated with 4-vinyl pyridine (4-VP), more
high molecular weight (HMW) gliadin bands were found
on SDS-PAGE analysis than when only reduced [26]. That
technique reportedly helped differentiate varieties that
were indistinguishable by normal starch gel electrophore-
sis (SGE). The group of largest size glutenins (slowest
moving) or HMW subunits have been correlated with po-
tential bread-baking quality [108], while total glutenin ex-
tracts have been used for varietal identification [36].
Several improvements in the classical Laemmli type of
SDS-PAGE have also been reported for glutenins
[45,86,135]. Two-dimensional gels have also been widely
used to separate glutenins. Again, the classical system of
O'Farrell [100] as well as other novel systems have been
used, such as A-PAGE and 2D A-PAGE x SDS-PAGE
[29,94,115].
IEF continues to be used for extremely high-resolution
separations, with newer methods utilizing ultrathin poly-
acrylamide [94]. Preparative separations using the Bio-
Rad rotofor have also been reported [28,96].
Glutenins have been separated by CE both in FZCE
mode [78,81], by size [158,147], and by 2D RP-HPLC and
FZCE [7].
For FZCE, total glutenins were found to be separated
best in 100 mM phosphate buffer, at pH 2.5, containing
20% acetonitrile with 26 mM lauryl sulfobetaine. For size-
based separations, the commercially available ProSort
Reagent was used [158,147]. For optimum separation of
the HMW-GS, glycerol and methanol were added to the
buffer [147]. However, this caused a decrease in repro-
ducibility. Later work by Sutton and Bietz [158] indicated
that this may be somewhat instrument dependent, at least
in short-term situations.
Hussein and Stegemann [51] reported that a total pro-
tein fraction could be extracted directly from flour or
ground meal with 0.125M tris-borate, pH 8.9, containing
5% SDS and 1% ME. Similar extraction procedures have
been reported by many authors [36,108,128]. However, the
electrophoretic (separation) procedures used to separate
the resultant extracts vary with respect to the total acryl-
amide (T) and the bis-acrylamide (cross-linker) concentra-
tion in the running and stacking gels. The comprehensive
review of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis recently pub-
Lookhart and Bean
lished by Lookhart and Wrigley [84] and the classical pa-
per by Weber and Osborn [146] on determining molecular
weights of proteins by SDS-PAGE are indispensable for
workers in this field.
An area of increasing interest in wheat proteins is the
separation and characterization of polymeric glutenins.
Singh et al. [131] demonstrated that sonication could be ef-
fectively used to extract proteins in the polymeric form.
Numerous papers have since utilized this method com-
bined with size exclusion chromatography to study these
proteins. A novel electrophoretic method was reported by
Khan and Huckle [61], modifications of which were re-
ported by Bekes et al. [8]. This technique, termed multi-
stacking gel electrophoresis, uses slab gels with multiple
layers of stacking gels. These stacking gels are made of in-
creasing concentrations of polyacrylamide, in effect form-
ing a step gradient gel. Aggregates that are too large to
penetrate into the stacking gels are caught at the bound-
aries between the stacking gels. In this manner, several dif-
ferent sizes of aggregates are stopped at the various inter-
faces, with the largest aggregates being at the top of the gel
[61]. Extraction of the polymeric proteins has been done
mainly with SDS-containing buffers, but recently Fu and
Sapirstein [42] presented an extraction scheme using 50%
1-propanol. It was also reported that 50% 1-propanol is ca-
pable of removing all monomeric proteins from flour along
with polymeric glutenin, complicating the classical defini-
tions of wheat proteins even more [42].
III. RICE
Rice (Oryza sativa) is second only to wheat as the leading
food crop in the world. It is grown on every continent ex-
cept Antarctica and is the food staple of over one half the
world's population. A review on the nutritive value and
characteristics of the rice proteins was reported by Lasztity
[69].
Rice seed proteins can be grouped into four fractions
according to their solubilities by Osborne fractionation: al-
bumins, globulins, prolamine, and glutelins. The major
storage protein fraction is the glutelin [55]. Villareal and
Juliano [142] indicated that little variation was found in
the SDS-PAGE patterns of glutelins from various milled
rice varieties. Damardjati et al. [30] found nearly identical
electrophoretic patterns of the total protein extracts pre-
pared from a limited number of Indonesian rices. Howev-
er, Sarkar and Bose [122] reported differences in the elec-
trophoretic patterns prepared with salt-soluble proteins
(globulins) of rice. It is the intent of this section to present
several examples of extraction and analysis methods that
have been successful in identifying rice varieties.
Table 9 lists some of the major extraction and analysis
Cereal Proteins 373

TABLE 9 Electrophoretic Methods for Rice Variety Identification

Extraction Methodology Ref.
A. Albumins and globulins
1. 4 x wt with 0.1 M NaC1 Crossed immunoelectrophoresis pH 8.6, Rabbit 126
Antisera
2. NaC1 (5%) 1 hr PPT GLOB with Ammonium Sulf AL SGE with 7.5 M urea, pH 3.1 TRIS-citrate SGE 52
(35%) pH 8.9 with 7.5 M urea,
3. 6 x wt with 0.5 M TRIS buffer pH 7.6 b-Alanine buffer PAGE (10%) 4°C, pH 4.5 12
4. Extract defatted flour with 0.5 M NaC1 dialyzed vs. AL, 3 M urea and TRIS-borate SGE (12%), 25°C, 62
water pH 3.2 and pH 8.95
B. Prolamins
5. 6 M urea Acid-PAGE 93
6. 3 x wt with 70% EtOH HPLC, C18 reversed phase 76
C. Glutelins (Oryzenin)
7. 4 x wt with 3 M urea plus ME (1%) Na Lact. PAGE gradient (3-27%) 23°C, 3 mm gel, 34
200 V, 90 min
8. 2 x wt with 5 N HAc AL PAGE (6%) 20°C 6 mm gel, pH 3.1, 60 mA, 2 h Dejong and Bushuk,
unpublished
9. 5 x wt with buffer 50 mM TRIS-HC1, SDS (2%)
with 0.6 ME and 4 M urea pH 7.5 TRIS-Glycine SDS-PAGE (14%), pH 8.3 21

methods used for analysis of rice seed proteins. In the first
three extraction procedures, both albumins and globulins
are initially extracted. Pure globulins are analyzed only in
the second procedure, where the globulins were precipitat-
ed with saturated ammonium sulfate, redissolved in 5%
NaC1, dialyzed against water to reprecipitate the globulins,
and then redissolved in 5% NaCl. The separation proce-
dures vary from classical acid-PAGE and AL starch gels
containing urea to the method of combining electrophore-
sis and immunochemical response to rabbit antisera. Kim
and Jo [62] reported the use of acid (pH 3.2) and alkaline
(pH 8.95) SGE to identify rice varieties from their albumin
and globulin fractions. They also reported that SDS-PAGE
of the rice glutelin fraction could be used for varietal iden-
tification.
There are few reports in the literature on the use of pro-
lamin fractions for identifying rice varieties. Most authors
have used other fractions because of the limited amount of
prolamin (3-7%) in rice and its lack of importance in deter-
mining the quality of milled rice. However, Konarev et al.
[64] reported that the cereal prolamins were most useful for
genotypic (varietal) identification. In the methods listed in
the prolamin extraction and analysis section of Table 3, the
EtOH solvent extracts mainly prolamins, but the 6 M urea
extracts glutelins, globulins, and albumins as well. The sep-
aration methods vary from the traditional acid-PAGE to the
modern reversed-phase HPLC method. Recently, CE has
been utilized to separate rice prolamins [79,81].
The rice HMW storage protein fraction (glutelin or
oryzenin) can be extracted with acid (5 N HAc) or with
urea and ME (procedures 7, 8, and 9, Table 9). Glutelin is
normally extracted with dilute NaOH, but du Cros and
Wrigley [35] reported that discrete electrophoretic bands
could not be obtained from such extracts. They reported
that the most promising solvents were mild aqueous acids
and strong (3 M) urea solutions.
Distinctions among varieties were accentuated by the
glutelin proteins [35] and by the prolamin proteins [76] ex-
tracted from the bran when brown rice was extracted in-
stead of milled rice. All major U.S. rice varieties were
identified by the HPLC patterns of their prolamin fractions
extracted from brown rice [76]. HPLC methodologies for
separating rice proteins were reviewed by Lookhart and
Juliano [82]. Electrophoretic methods ranged from AL
PAGE to Na Lactate gradient gels to SDS-PAGE. IEF and
2D electrophoresis utilizing IEF in one direction and
PAGE in the second direction were helpful in identifying
rice varieties [35].
The analysis of embryo proteins by SDS-PAGE was re-
ported by Aliaga-Morell et al. [1] to be effective for identi-
fying rice varieties. Rice is normally characterized as be-
longing to either the Japonica or Indica subspecies. Chen
et al. [21] reported in a study of 32 cultivars that all Japon-
ica types exhibited an SDS-PAGE band that migrated into
the gel 56 units, whereas the Indica types all had a band at
57 units. Each accession also exhibited a specific separa-
tion pattern.
Researchers involved in identifying rice varieties have
developed various methods with each group of proteins to
solve the identification problems. It is obvious that no one
374
system or protein fraction will be sufficient to identify all
varieties.
IV. MAIZE
Maize (Zea mays) ranks third in production among cereal
grains. Its rapid increase in production in the last 20 years
has placed it, along with rice, as the cereal produced in
greatest quantity after wheat. Most maize is used directly
for feed, but a smaller amount is used for food and some is
processed industrially into starch, oil, sugar syrups, and
protein concentrates. Reviews of the nutritional aspects
and a characterization of the maize protein fractions were
published by Chung and Pomeranz [22] and Lasztity [7O].
Cooke [25] has published an excellent review of the gener-
al electrophoretic procedures, and Righetti and Bosisio
[116] have reviewed the use of IEF procedures for identi-
fying maize varieties.
The proteins in maize (corn) have been classified by the
Osborne [104] fractionation procedure. The major storage
protein fraction in maize, the prolamin fraction, is called
zein. It constitutes more than 35% of the grain protein
[144]. Turner et al. [140] first demonstrated that zein was
heterogeneous by using SGE in AL buffer containing 8 M
urea. Since that time, each improvement in methods has
brought with it an increase in the number of demonstrated
polypeptides (better extraction and resolving methods),
and these same methods have made it possible to elucidate
the genetics of individual polypeptides.
Zein polypeptides do not vary greatly in their molecular
sizes but they do vary greatly in their isoelectric points
[25], so the favored system for variety identification is IEF.
Cooke [25] reported that 28 zein components were sepa-
rated on a 6-9 pH gradient. Wilson et al. [150] reported
that the protein patterns were affected by the composition
of the buffer in an SDS-PAGE system. Recently, Wilson
[149] has shown that reduced and alkylated zeins can be
separated into 41 different components, each belonging to
one of four groups with molecular weights of 13.5, 18, 24,
and 26.5 kDa.
Table 10 lists several of the various extraction and elec-
trophoretic methods that have been utilized to identify
corn genotypes. Nine methods are shown for the zeins and
only one each for the glutelins and allozymes, which close-
ly reflects the amount of work done on each of the protein
fractions.
The zeins are difficult to extract so ground corn is usu-
ally defatted with petroleum ether and the albumins and
globulins are removed with a weak (0.5 M) NaCl solution
and washed with water. The insoluble starchy material can
then be extracted with a 55-70% alcohol solution contain-
ing a reducing agent.
Lookhart and Bean
Procedure 3 of Table 10 [43] resulted in the preparation
of four zein fractions, each of which was then separated by
IEF. The extraction method (procedure 9, Table 10) of
Damerval et al. [31] eliminated protease activity during
extraction. Only in procedure 7 of Table 10 [145] were the
zeins reduced and alkylated prior to electrophoresis.
The separation methods for zeins listed in Table 10 in-
clude the following: one AL starch gel with urea; one AL
acrylamide gel with urea; two SDS acrylamide gels with
different acrylamide concentrations (12 and 20%); four
very similar IEF systems; one agarose-IEF system; and
one IEF rod system using urea and Triton X100, an anion-
ic detergent.
Wilson [149] reported that the agarose-IEF system re-
quired only 1/5 to 1/10 of the zein material required for
analysis with the PAG-IEF method. In many cases more
than one method was required to positively identify some
genotypes [150].
The glutelin extraction method, also listed in Table 10,
first extracted some of the albumins, globulins, and some
zeins with the weak salt solution (0.05 M sodium phos-
phate pH 7.8) containing 0.5 M sodium chloride (NaC1)
and dithiothreitol (DTT). The glutelins were then extracted
with an alkaline buffer containing urea and a reducing
agent. The polypeptides were alkylated before elec-
trophoretic analysis with 4-vinyl pyridine. Wilson et al.
[150] reported that the pyridylethylated (PE) glutelins
alkylated in the presence of DTT gave much sharper bands
than those alkylated in the presence of ME. The IEF and
SDS-PAGE procedures used for glutelin analysis were
similar to those used to analyze the zeins.
Cardy and Kannenberg [19] have published a compre-
hensive survey of allozymic variation in maize. Their ex-
traction and analysis methods are listed in Table 10. They
extracted 5-day-old coleoptile tissue with an alkaline sodi-
um ascorbate buffer, separated the extracted proteins on
starch gels, and stained for isoforms of 12 different en-
zymes. They were able to distinguish among 88 inbred
lines and 146 hybrids of maize.
V. BARLEY
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) ranks fourth in production
among cereal grains. Its major uses are in the brewing in-
dustry and in animal feeds. Only a small amount of it is
used as food. Lasztity [71] recently published a review of
the nutritional aspects and protein composition of barley
proteins. A general review of the electrophoretic methods
available for identifying barley and other cereal varieties
has been published by Cooke [25].
The proteins of barley are classified by their solubili-
ties, as in the other cereals: albumins, globulins, prolamins
Cereal Proteins
TABLE 10 Electrophoretic Methods for Maize Variety Identification
Extraction
A. Prolamins (Zeins)
1. Defatted meal extract with EtOH (70%), Dialyze vs water,
PPT SOL in AL-urea
2. Defatted meal with extract EtOH (70%) with 0.6 M ME
3. 10 x wt with .5 M NaCl Extract Insolubles Z1— 55% IPA Z2
Gl— 55% IPA + ME G2-pH10 Borate + ME + NaC1 G3-
pH10 Borate + ME + NaC1 + SDS
4. Defatted meal Extr with 0.5 M NaCl, Insol with EtOH
(70%) and NaOAc (0.5%)
5. Extract globulins-NaC1 Extract PPT-EtOH (70%) and ME
(1.5%), Lyoph, Suspend solid in TRIS pH 8.2 with 6 M urea
and ME (1%)
6. Extract globulins-NaC1 Extract PPT with Nprop (50%) and
ME (2%)
7. 35 x wt with EtOH (70%) dialyze, lyoph, reduce and
alkylate
8. IPA (55%) with ME (2%)
9. TRIS buffer with SDS (4%) and ME (5%), Heat 100°C,
3 min
B. Glutelins
10. 6 x wt with Na2HPO4 (0.05 M) pH 7.8 with NaCl (0.5 M)
and EDTA with DTT
Insolubles
Water wash
Suspend starchy residue in TRIS-NO3, pH 7.5 with 6 M urea
and ME Alkylate with 4-VP 15 x wt with SDS buffer
C. Allozymes
11. 12 mm Coleoptiles add 20 µL of pH 7.38 buffer Na
ascorbate with sucrose
(hordeins), and glutelins. The amount of albumins is gen-
erally low (3-5%). The endosperm contains a considerable
amount of globulin proteins (10-20%), but the main com-
ponent proteins are the prolamins (hordeins) and glutelins,
each of which comprises 40-45% of the total protein. Bio-
chemical methods for identifying barley varieties have re-
ceived less attention than in wheat, but several methods are
available, and a representative sampling of these are listed
in Table 11. Most published methods utilize the hordeins.
However, Jones [53] has reported the use of esterase pat-
terns from 4-day germinated root tissue to identify U.S.
barley varieties that were not differentiated by SDS-PAGE.
Shewry et al. [127] reported that in order to get repro-
ducible patterns, the barley proteins had to be vigorously
extracted with 50-60°C temperatures and a strong reduc-
ing agent, mercaptoethanol (ME). In 8 of the 11 extraction
375
Methodology Ref.
AL, SGE (16%) 8 M urea 20 V/cm, 24 hr, AGAR gels 140
(3%)
TLIEF Acrylamide (5%), 6 M urea pH 6-8 & 7-9 160
Ampholytes (2% EACH) 2°C, 13 W, 4 hr, SDS-PAGE
(20%) 4°C, 50 V, 15 h
IEF Acylamide (5%), 6 M urea pH 6-8 & 7-9 Ampholytes 43
(2% each) 2°C, 13 W, 4 h
AL with 8 M urea PAGE (5%) 107
TLIEF Acrylamide (5%), 6 M urea pH 6-8 & 7-9 99
Ampholytes (2% each) 2°C, 13 W, 4 h
SDS-PAGE (12%), pH 8.9 20 mA, 3 h 150
IEF Acrylamide (5%) 6 M urea pH 6-8, Ampholytes (2%) 145
13 W, 4 h
Agarose-IEF, 5 M urea with 2 mM DTT, pH 3.5-9.5 & 149
5-8 Ampholytes (1% EACH), 1300 V-h
IEF RODS (19.5 cm x 1 mm) Acrylamide (2.84%) with 31
9.2 M urea with Triton X100 (4%), Ampholytes (4%),
900 V, 24 h
IEF Acrlyamide (5%) with 6 M urea pH 5-7 & 7-9, 150
Ampholytes (1% EACH) 13 W, 3 h
SDS-PAGE (12.5%), pH 8.9, 8.9, 3 h
SGE (13%), 1 cm gels, 4°C 19
procedures listed in Table 11, ME was used to reduce the
proteins for extraction. Of the other three, one used
monothioglycerol (MTG) as the reductant and the others
either urea or 2-chloroethanol. The first extraction method
(procedure 1, Table 11) was used on single or half seeds,
the others on ground meal. The protein-separation methods
vary considerably, from SDS-PAGE (procedures 1, 2, 7,
10, 11 in Table 10) to IEF (procedures 2, 3, 8) to acid
PAGE (procedures 1, 4, 5, 6, 9) to SGE (procedure 2).
Within each procedure the buffers, pHs, % acrylamide
concentrations, gel thicknesses, and analysis times varied.
For the different SDS-PAGE procedures, various tris
buffers with and without urea were used. The acrylamide
concentrations ranged from 12.5 to 17.5%, but the pH was
consistent, 8.8-8.9. The IEF systems used different
amounts of urea, but, more importantly, the ampholines
376
TABLE 11 Electrophoretic Methods for Barley Variety Identification
Extraction
A. Prolamins (hordeins)
1. Single or half seeds 10 x wt with IPA (55%) and ME, dried,
suspended in TRIS (pH 7.5) 8 M urea and ME
2. 20 x wt with IPA (55%) and ME, add equal vol NaC1 (4%)
PPT hordeins, dry, reduce and alkylate
3. IPA (50%) and ME (0.3%) Dry and take up in 6 M urea
4. 6 x wt with 1 M urea
5. IPA (55%) and MTG (2%)
6. Chloroethanol (50%)
7. EtOH (70%), dried then suspended in TRIS pH 6.7, SDS
(2%) ME (1%) and 4 M urea
8. 1.0 M Urea and ME (1%)
9. IPA (55%) and ME (2%)
10. TRIS SDS Buffer (pH 6.8) and ME, DMF, water
11. IPA (55%) and ME (2%) Diluted 8:1 with TRIS (pH 6.8)
and DTT
used all covered the range from 5 to 9. The acid PAGE
methods were the most varied. The buffers ranged from
AL to Na lactate to glycine-acetic acid. The acrylamide
concentrations varied from 6 to 9%: one method used
3-27% acrylamide gradient gels and the pH values varied
from 2.9 to 4.6.
The most recent method (procedure 11, Table 11) de-
scribes the use of silver staining, which is more sensitive
than, but complements, the normal Coomassie blue stain-
ing procedure. The degree of discrimination with any of
these methods for barley is less than that obtained with the
wheat system. Cooke [25] listed two reasons for the re-
stricted degree of barley variety identification by hordein
electrophoresis: (1) the closely related ancestry of most
modern barley varieties and (2) the close proximity of the
genes coding for the hordeins. A probably more important
consideration than those listed by Cooke [25] is that barley
is a diploid and thus has only two copies of the protein
genes, whereas wheat is a hexaploid and has six copies of
each gene, each of which is free to mutate to new forms at
random. The occurrence of fewer polypeptide bands and
the limited number of band combinations require the use
of the various extraction and electrophoretic procedures in
Table 10 and the Jones [53] esterase method.
VI. OATS
Oats (Avena sativa) rank sixth in production among cereal
grains worldwide, after wheat, rice, corn, barley, and the
Lookhart and Bean
Methodology Ref.
SDS-PAGE (17.5%), pH 8.9, 20 mA, 3 hr Urea PAGE 128
(12.5%), 6 M urea pH 4.6, 15 mA, 18 h
TRIS-Borate SDS-PAGE (17.5%) pH 8.9, 3 h SGE 3 M 129
Urea, pH 3.3 IEF 6 M Urea, acrylamide (5%) pH 5-7
and 7-9 ampholytes (1% each) 13 W, 3 h
IEF PAGE (6.25%) 4.5 M urea pH 5-9 Ampholytes 2 h 125
Na Lact PAGE gradient (3-27%) 3 mm gel, pH 3.1, 35
0.5-4 h
AL PAGE (6%), PH 3.1 3h 87
HAc-Glycine PAGE (7%) pH 2.9, 3.5 h 123
SDS-PAGE (12.5%) 4 M Urea 0.125 M TRIS pH 8, 57
15 mA, 6 h
IEF PAGE (8.25%) 2 M Urea pH 3.5-10 Ampholytes, 152
3.5 h
AL PAGE (9%), pH 3.1 2 h 26
SDS PAGE (17.5%) 1.5 mm gel, pH 8.8, 10 mA, 16 h 136
SDS-PAGE (15%), 20 mA pH 8.8, 5 h, Ag Stain 46
sorghum and millet group. It is the most nutritionally bal-
anced of the cereals, but lysine is still the first of its limit-
ing amino acids [72].
The protein content of oat groats (dehulled kernel) is
the highest among the cereals, ranging from 12.4 to 24.5%.
Oat protein has some unique features, probably due to the
fact that its proteins are distributed differently among the
classical Osborne protein fractions than are those of other
cereals. The proportion of albumins and globulins is much
higher in oats, so the nutritional value is much better. In
particular, lysine and aspartic acid contents are higher,
whereas those of proline and glutamine are lower.
Oat cultivars have been identified by various elec-
trophoretic [15,16,26,35,63,74,90,103,114,118,119,132,
152] methods, both using proteins and isozymes. Lasztity
[72] reviewed the distribution of oat proteins, the amino
acid composition of the oat protein fractions, and methods
used for varietal identification. This section lists some of
the more recent studies that have utilized different ap-
proaches.
Table 12 lists some examples of the various methods
that have been used for extracting and analyzing oat pro-
tein fractions. The albumins and globulins section lists
three major extraction methods that utilized buffer salts
with varying ratios of solvent to solute from 10:1 (proce-
dure 1, Table 12) to 60:1 (procedure 3, Table 12). The elec-
trophoretic analysis methods varied as well, from a tube
gel system (procedure 1, Table 12) to SDS-PAGE slab pro-
cedures with either homogeneous acrylamide concentra-
Cereal Proteins
TABLE 12 Electrophoretic Methods for Oat Variety Identification
Extraction
A. Albumins and globulins
1. 10 x wt with Buffer 0.1 M NaAc and 0.1 N HAc pH 5
2. 25 x wt with Buffer 50 mM TRIS-HC1 (pH 8.0) with 1 M
NaC1, Dial
3. 60 x wt with Buffer 1 M NaC1 in 0.05 M TRIS (pH 8.5),
PPT Glob, Dial
B. Prolamins
4. 6 x wt with solvent 2-Cl-EtOH (25%)
5. 3 x with EtOH (70%)
6. 3 x wt with EtOH (70%), add equal vol Na Lact buffer with
2 M urea
C. Isozymes
7. Esterase Leucine aminopeptidase Anodal peroxidase
Cathodal peroxidase
8. Esterase Peroxidase
Total protein
9. 8 x wt with buffer SDS (2%), ME (5%), TRIS-HC1 (0.0625
M) pH 6.8
tions or linear acrylamide gradients (procedure 2, Table 2).
The electrophoretic analysis times varied considerably,
from the 1 hour (procedure 1, Table 12) of McDonald [90]
to the 12 hours (procedure 3, Table 12) reported by Robert
et al. [118,119].
The prolamins (avenins) were extracted with either 2-
chloroethanol (2-Cl-EtOH) or 70% EtOH. The solvent-to-
solute ratios were 3:1 for the EtOH extracts to 6:1 for the
2-CI-EtOH extracts. The EtOH system of Portyanko et al.
[114] included Na lactate and urea, which would also ex-
tract the albumins and globulins. The analysis methods for
the avenins were similar in that they all used lactate PAGE
with an acid buffer. However, the concentrations of acryl-
amide varied from 7.5% (procedure 5, Table 12) to 13%
(procedure 6, Table 12). Additionally, Lookhart [74] re-
ported the use of reversed-phase HPLC to aid in differenti-
ating those varieties whose electrophoretic patterns were
very similar. HPLC methodologies for separating oat pro-
teins were recently reviewed by Lookhart and Peterson
[83]. CE has also recently been used to separate avenin
fractions with high degree of resolution and rapid analysis
times (10-15 min) [79,81].
Singh et al. [132] reported the use of SGE to identify
oat varieties by analysis of the isozyme forms of esterase,
leucine aminopeptidase, and anodal and cathodal peroxi-
dases that were extractable in aqueous solutions. McDon-
ald [90], using the tube PAGE gel procedure (procedure 8,
Table 12), identified varieties from their esterase and per-
oxidase electrophoretic patterns.
377
Methodology Ref.
Disc-PAGE (7.5%), 7 cm tubes 3.3 mA, 1 h 90
SDS-PAGE (9, 12, 15 or 5-20%) Linear gradient, all with 15
EDTA, with or without DTT
TRIS-HC1 SDS-PAGE (11%) 4 M urea SDS (0.1%), pH 119
8.8, 60 V, 12h
Na Lact PAGE (12%) 480 V, 75 min 26
AL PAGE (7.5%) 6 mm gel, 10°C, 300 V, 5 h 74
AL PAGE (13%) Urea (7%) 1 mm gel, 32°C, pH 3.1, 580 V, 114
5h
TRIS-Citrate SGE Discontinuous Buffer system, pH 8.0 132
Disc-PAGE (7.5%), 3.3 mA, 1 h 90
SDS-PAGE (10 or 15%), TRIS-HCI (0.375 M), SDS 26
(0.1%), pH 8.8
Cooke and Cliff [26] extracted nearly all of the proteins
from oats with a buffer containing SDS and ME. Their pro-
cedure utilized SDS-PAGE to separate all of the proteins
on the basis of their relative molecular size, and they used
IEF to further characterize and identify the proteins.
VII. CONCLUSION
Prolamins and glutelins make up the bulk of the proteins in
all cereals, except for oats, where the globulins play a larg-
er role. The alcohol-soluble fraction (prolamin) is normal-
ly the most useful for varietal identification. However, the
large numbers of closely related cultivars have led to the
utilization of other protein components. The only consis-
tencies in the cereal analyses described are that no one sys-
tem or protein fraction has been found sufficient to identi-
fy all varieties of any cereal species and that Coomassie
blue dye is commonly used for staining all the cereal pro-
tein bands.
A. Wheat
The methods for identification of wheat varieties by analy-
sis of their storage proteins are varied. Gliadins and
glutenins are the major storage proteins, and the amino
acid compositions of those fractions are similar. The most
commonly used identification procedure is to extract the
gliadins with aqueous alcohols and separate the resulting
extract on a polyacrylamide gel (6%) of 3 mm thickness,
378
with AL buffer system at pH 3.1 for 2 hours at 500 V.
Staining of the resultant gel is done with Coomassie bril-
liant blue R250 (1%) in 6% trichloroacetic acid. Analysis
of the glutenins by SDS-PAGE yields information on both
varietal identification and genetic baking potential. The
use of RP-HPLC has grown considerably and is now the
method of choice for separating gliadins. The relatively
new method of CE offers the high resolution of elec-
trophoresis with the instrumentation and automation of
RP-HPLC.
B. Rice
The major storage protein fraction of rice is glutelin
(oryzenin). Among varieties, however, little variation in
the glutelin fraction patterns have been found. Researchers
have developed various methods within each group of pro-
teins. The glutelins were characterized by SDS-PAGE and
IEF, the prolamins by PAGE, HPLC, and CE, and the albu-
mins and globulins by PAGE and SGE.
C. Maize
The major protein fraction in maize is the prolamin (zein)
fraction. Zeins from different varieties have been found to
be heterogeneous using SGE, but the most common proce-
dure for varietal identification, IEF, makes use of their iso-
electric point heterogeneities. In many cases more than one
method is required to positively identify some varieties.
D. Barley
The main protein components in barley are the hordeins
and glutelins. Most identification procedures utilize the
hordeins. Wide variations in electrophoretic methods have
been employed. Storage extraction solvents and more vig-
orous extraction conditions are required to get repro-
ducible electrophoretic patterns from barley than are re-
quired for wheat.
The degree of discrimination of any of the methods
with barley is less than that obtained with the wheat sys-
tem. However, various SDS-PAGE, IEF, and acid PAGE
systems are available for identifying most barley varieties.
E. Oats
The major protein fractions in oats are albumins and glob-
ulins. The extraction solvents, solvent-to-solute ratios, and
electrophoretic methods for varietal identification all vary
widely. However, the most common procedure for globu-
lins and total protein utilize SDS-PAGE, whereas that for
prolamin analysis utilizes AL PAGE, HPLC, and CE.
Lookhart and Bean
REFERENCES
1. Aliaga-Morell, J. R., Culianez-Macia, F. A., Clemente-
Marin, G., and Primo-Yufera, E., Differentiation of rice
varieties by electrophoresis of embryo protein, Theor.
Appl. Genet., 74:1224-232 (1987).
2. Amino Acid Content of Foods and Biological Data on
Proteins, FAO Nutr. Stud. 24, Food and Agriculture Orga-
nization, Rome, (1970).
3. Autran, J. C., Bushuk, W., Wrigley, C. W., and Zillmann,
R. R., Wheat cultivar identification by gliadin elec-
trophoregrams. IV. Comparison of international methods,
Cereal Foods World, 24(9):471-475 (1979).
4 Autran, J. C., and Bourdet, A., L'identification des varietes
de ble: Establissement d'un tableau general de determina-
tion fonde sur le diagramme electrophoretique des
gliadines du grain, Ann. Amelior. Plant., 25:277-301
(1975).
5. Baudet, J., Mosse, J., Landry, J., and Moureaux, T., Etude
sur les proteines du maise. I. Composition en acides
amines des fractions azotees du grain, Ann. Physiol. Veg.,
8:321-329 (1966).
6. Bean, S. R., The development of high-performance capil-
lary electrophoresis (HPCE) for the separation of cereal
proteins, Master's thesis, Kansas State University, 1996.
7. Bean, S. R., and Lookhart, G. L., Separation of wheat pro-
teins by two-dimensional reversed-phase high perfor-
mance liquid chromatography plus free zone capillary
electrophoresis. Cereal Chem., (1997).
8. Bekes, F., Murray, D. J., Gianibelli, M. C., Paranerupas-
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139. Tkachuk, R., and Mellish, V. J., Use of two-dimension-
al electrophoresis procedures to characterize wheat pro-
teins, in: Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop
on Gluten Proteins, Budapest, Hungary, 1987, pp. 111-
124.
140. Turner, J. E., Boundy, J. A., and Dimler, R. J., Zein: A het-
erogeneous protein containing disulfide linked aggregates,
Cereal Chem., 42:452-461 (1965).
141. Vidal, A. J., and Juliano, B. 0., Comparative composition
Cereal Proteins
of waxy and nonwaxy rice, Cereal Chem., 44:86-91
(1967).
142. Villareal, R. M., and Juliano, B. 0., Properties of glutelin
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143. Wall, J. S., Cereal proteins, in: Symposium of Foods
(H. W. Schultz and A. F. Anglemeier, eds.), AVI Publish-
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144. Wall, J. S., and Paulis, J. M., Corn and sorghum proteins,
in: Advances in Cereal Science and Technology II (Y.
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Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1978.
145. Wall, J. S., Fey, D. A., and Paulis, J. W., Improved two-di-
mensional electrophoretic separation of zein proteins: Ap-
plication to study of zein inheritance in corn genotypes,
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146. Weber, K., and Osborn, M., The reliability of molecular
weight determination by dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis, J. Biol. Chem., 244(16):4406-4411
(1969).
147. Werner, W. E., Wiktorowicz, J. E., and Kasarda, D. D.,
Wheat varietal identification by capillary electrophoresis
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148. Wieser, H., Modl, A., Seilmeier, W., and Belitz, H.-D.,
High-performance liquid chromatography of gliadins
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149. Wilson, C. M., A nomenclature for zein polypeptides
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150. Wilson, C. M., Shewry, P. R., and Miflin, B. J., Maize en-
dosperm proteins compared by sodium dodecyl sulfate gel
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58(4):275-281 (1981).
151. Woychik, J. W., Boundy, J. A., and Dimler, R. J., Starch
gel electrophoresis of wheat gluten proteins with gluten
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proteins with 15 centrated urea, Arch. Biochem. Biophys.,
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152. Wrigley, C. W., Autran, J. C., and Bushuk, W., Iden-
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(1982).
153. Wrigley, C. W., and Bietz, J. A., Proteins and amino acids,
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154. Wu, Y. V., and Dimler, R. J., Hydrogen ion equilibria of
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Oats and their dry-milled fractions: Protein isolation and
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13
CEREAL CARBOHYDRATES
David R. Shelton
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
Won Jong Lee
Kangnung National University, Kangnung, Korea
I. INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates have special significance in cereals, the dry
substance of which is usually composed of 50-80% carbo-
hydrates. They are the basis of many important industries
or segments of industries, including sugar and sugar prod-
ucts, glucose and starch products, paper and wood pulp,
textile fibers, plastics, foods and food processing, and fer-
mentation. To a lesser extent, cereal carbohydrates are im-
portant in the development of pharmaceuticals, drugs, vita-
mins, and specialty chemicals [145].
Pigman [145] offers two definitions of carbohydrates.
The first is more in the form of a general statement: "the
carbohydrates comprise several groups of homologous se-
ries characterized by the plurality of hydroxyl groups and
one or more functional groups, particularly aldehyde or ke-
tone groups, usually in the hemiacetal or acetal form." The
second, in their view oversimplified definition states that
"the carbohydrates are composed of polyhydroxy alde-
hydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, their simple derivatives
and their polymers having polymeric linkage of the acetal
type."
Carbohydrates in cereals have been classified in a num-
ber of different ways. They are conveniently classified, on
the basis of their polymeric nature, into monosaccharides,
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Carbohydrates
could be considered to fall into two broad catagories:
available and unavailable. The available carbohydrates are
those digested and absorbed by humans, which include
385
starch and the soluble sugars. The unavailable carbohy-
drates, on the other hand, are not digested by the endoge-
nous secretion of the human digestive tract [174]. This
group includes the structural polysaccharides of the plant
cell walls in food and many other complex polysaccha-
rides.
The most important monosaccharides are the hexoses—
glucose and fructose—and the pentoses—arabinose and
xylose—these are generally seen in most cereal grains. Su-
crose and maltose are the most important disaccharides in
cereals. Cereals contain small amounts of free sugars—of
the order of 1-2%. The oligosaccharides are compounds
formed when small numbers (2-20) of monosaccharides
are coupled together. They are relatively rare components
of cereals, but the tri- and tetrasaccharides are present in
many cereals.
Cereals constitute a rich source of complex polysaccha-
rides, which are the world's most abundant, least expen-
sive source of dietary carbohydrates. The precise definition
of polysaccharides is difficult, but they are polymers with
more than 20 monosaccharide residues [20]. The polysac-
charides have diverse chemical and physiological proper-
ties. Due to their abundance, relative cheapness, and vari-
ety of chemical and physical properties, cereal
polysaccharides are of interest for chemical and biological
conversion to food and industrial products.
Starch is the most abundant cereal polysaccharide and
is a major food reserve providing a bulk nutrient and ener-
gy source—often at low cost—in the human diet [209].
386
The other carbohydrate components currently subject to
the most attention are those nonstarch polysaccharides and
digestion-resistant starch constituents broadly classified as
dietary fiber. Nonstarch polysaccharides consist mainly of
cellulose, [3-glucans, and the related hemicelluloses ac-
companied by lesser amounts of phenolic polymers
(lignin).
II. SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES
The monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ke-
tones. These compounds also are known as aldoses and ke-
toses. Common aldoses include 6-glucose, D-galactose,
and ribose, while D-fructose is the most common ketone.
An oligosaccharide contains 2-20 sugar units joined by
glycosidic bonds [20]. Disaccharides are glycosides in
which the aglycon is a monosaccharide unit. Disaccharides
commonly encountered in cereals include maltose and su-
crose. A compound containing three units is a trisaccha-
ride. Only a few oligosaccharides occur in nature. Most are
produced by hydrolysis of polysaccharides into smaller
units. Cereals contain small amounts of free sugars of the
order of 1-2%, although this will rise if the grain has been
allowed to germinated, e.g., in the preparation of malted
cereals.
The free sugars in wheat kernels are composed of
monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, and galactose), disac-
charides (sucrose and maltose), and trisaccharides (glu-
codifrutose and raffinose) [162]. Sucrose (0.57-0.80%),
raffinose (0.54-0.70%), fructose (0.02-0.04%), and glu-
cose (0.02-0.03%) contents were found in flour from
wheat [81] (Table 1). Other sugars such as stachyose, fruc-
tosylraffinose, xylose, and arabinose have also been re-
ported.
At least nine monosaccharides and seven closely related
compounds occur in barley [27]. Those are arabinose, xy-
lose, fucose, ribose, deoxyribose, glucose, fructose, galac-
tose, and mannose. Sucrose is the major sugar of the living
TABLE 1 Free Sugar Contents of Some Cereal Grains
Sample Glucose (%) Fructose (%) Sucrose (%)
Wheat 0.02-0.03 0.02-0.04 0.57-0.80
Barley 0.1-0.2 0.1
Brown Rice 0.12-0.13 0.11-0.13 0.60-0.66
Milled Rice 0.04 0.03
Sorghum 0.09 0.09
Corn 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.4
Oats 0.05 0.09
Rye 0.08 0.10
Shelton and Lee
tissues in barley. Soluble sugar content of normal barley is
about 2-3%; hulless barleys, 2-4%, high lysine barleys,
2-6%; and high-sugar barleys, 7-13% [87].
The major sugar of the rice embryo and endosperm is
sucrose, in addition to small amounts of raffinose, glucose,
and fructose [104]. The principal reducing sugar is glu-
cose, and the major nonreducing sugar is sucrose. Report-
ed total sugar content of the embryo varied from 8 to 25%;
reducing sugar ranged from 1 to 11%. Total sugars, of
6.4% in rice bran and 0.22-0.45% in milled rice were re-
ported [142].
A number of sugars have been identified in the en-
dosperm of the corn kernel. Sucrose, glucose, maltose,
fructose, galactose, cellobiose, ribose, mannose, and xy-
lose are all present [68]. The primary free monosaccha-
rides of the endosperm, D-fructose and D-glucose, occur in
approximately equal proportions in corn. Sucrose is the
major disaccharide in maize kernels. Sucrose content per
kernel remains relatively high-2-3 mg per one en-
dosperm-until near maturity. By maturity, when synthe-
sis is complete, sugars comprise only about 2% of the ker-
nel dry weight [26,127]. Besides sucrose, developing
maize kernels also contain low levels of maltose, which is
generally found at less than 0.4% of the dry weight. Trisac-
charides and higher oligosaccharides are very minor con-
stituents of the corn kernel. Low levels of the trisaccha-
rides raffinose have been reported. Maltotriose and
maltooligosaccharides would also have been reported.
Total free sugar content of oats was reported as 1.4%,
with sucrose the predominant constituent (0.64%), fol-
lowed by raffinose (0.19%), fructose (0.09%), glucose
(0.05%), glucodifructose (0.04%), and a trace of maltose.
The presence of stachyose (0.08%) in oat flour was report-
ed [120].
The free monosaccharides in sorghum grain range from
0.05 to 0.83% and are mainly glucose and fructose. Su-
crose varies from 0.20 to 1.68% and total sugars from 0.5
to 2.5% [194]. The grain contains about 0.34% of the raffi-
Raffinose (%) Total (%) Ref.
0.54-0.70 1.42-1.31 81
1.9-2.2 2.0-3.0 87
0.1-0.2 0.96-1.10 81
0.14 0.02 0.22-0.45 142
0.85 0.11 0.5-2.5 194
0.9-1.9 0.1-0.3 1.0-3.0 127
0.64 0.19 1.4 121
1.9 0.4 3.2 120
Cereal Carbohydrates 387

nose family of sugars [178]. Total free sugar content of rye
was reported as 3.2%, with sucrose (1.9%), raffinose
(0.4%), fructose (0.1%), and glucose (0.08%) [120].
Ill. STARCH
Starch is found in a number of plant sources, and the plant
relies on starch for its energy requirements for growth and
reproduction. For humans, starch is extremely important as
a macronutrient, because it is a complex carbohydrate and
an important energy source in our diet.
The commercial and technological uses of starch are
numerous; this arises from its unique character, because it
can be used directly as intact granules, in the dispersed
form, as a film dried from a dispersion, as an extruded
powder, or after conversion to a mixture of oligosaccha-
rides or via hydrolysis and isomerization.
When starch is heated in water, it absorbs water and
swells. This is the process of gelatinization, a process that
cause a tremendous change in rheological properties of the
starch suspension. The crystalline structure is destroyed
during gelatinization. The ability of starch molecules to
crystallize after gelatinization is described by the term of
retrogradation. Although some retrogradation of amylose
seems to be a prerequisite for the formation of a normal
bread crumb, long-term retrogradation usually causes
gradual deterioration of bread quality during the products'
shelf life [55].
Starch occurs as discrete granules in higher plants. Two
major polymers, amylose and amylopectin, are contained in
the granule. Cereal starch granules may also contain small
amounts of proteins, lipids, and minerals [118]. Cereal
starches are widely used in foods, where they are important
functionally and nutritionally. Commercial starches are ob-
tained from cereal grain seeds, particularly from corn, waxy
corn, high-amylose corn, wheat, and various rites, and
from tubers and roots, particularly potato, sweet potato, and
tapioca (cassava). Isolated starch can be modified physical-
ly and/or chemically to alter its functional properties.
Starches and modified starches have an enormous number
of food uses, including adhesive, binding, clouding, dust-
ing, film forming, and thickening applications [20].
A. Starch Content of Cereals
The most important sources of starch are cereal grains
(40-90% of their dry weight), pulses (30-70%), and tubers
(65-85%). Of the common starches, regular corn, waxy
corn, and high-amylose corn are by far the most important
sources. The starch content of corn may vary from about
54% in sweet corn to 64-78% in dent [194]. Corn is large-
ly used as stock feed but nevertheless supplies the bulk, by
far, of the world's starch production. Corn starch is manu-
factured by traditional wet-milling process. Only about 5%
of the annual world maize crop is used for the manufacture
of maize starch. About 70% of the maize starch produced
is converted into corn syrups, high-fructose corn syrup,
and dextrose. Corn starch has a wide variety of industrial
applications, with uses ranging from thickening and
gelling agents in puddings and fillings to molding for con-
fections [72].
Potato starch is a variable commodity, sensitive to vari-
ety, climate, and agricultural procedure. Potato starch,
however, is presently second only to corn and comparable
to wheat in terms of quantity produced and especially pop-
ular in Europe. About 3% of the world crop of potatoes is
used for the production of potato starch. Potato starch is
used in food, paper, textile, and adhesive industries.
The starch content of wheat has been reported to be in
the range of 63-72% [147] (Table 2). Wheat starch, found
in the endosperm of the wheat kernel, constitutes approxi-
mately 75-80% of the endosperm on a dry basis. The

TABLE 2 Carbohydrate Composition of Some Cereal Grains'

Sample Starch (%) Amylose (%) Pentosan (%) P-Glucan (%) Total dietary fiber
Wheat 63-72 (147) 23.4-27.6 (133) 6.6 (81) 1.4 (151) 14.6 (32)
Barley 57.6-59.5 (87) 22-26 (27) 5.9 (82) 3-7 (139) 19.3-22.6 (87)
Brown rice 66.4 (104) 16-33 (124) 1.2 (81) 0.11 (102) 3.9 (32)
Milled rice 77.6 (104) 7-33 (102) 0.5-1.4 (104) 0.11 (104) 2.4 (32)
Sorghum 60-77 (194) 21-28 (127) 1.8-4.9 (127) 1.0 (151) 10.1 (160)
Pearl Millet 63 (123) 17 (11) 2-3 (12) 8.5 (32)
Corn 64-78 (194) 24 (132) 5.8-6.6 (194) 13.4 (32)
Oats 43-61 (143) 16-27 (120) 7.7 (81) 3.9-6.8 (198) 9.6 (32)
Rye 69 (168) 24-31 (168) 8.5 (81) 1.9-2.9 (151) 14.6 (32)
Triticale 53 (22) 24-26 (40) 7.1 (81) 1.2 (151) 18.1 (32)
aSources shown in parentheses.
388
starch content of wheat appears to be inversely related to
the protein content. Thus, soft wheat varieties, in general,
have a higher starch content than do hard wheat varieties
because of their low protein content. Wheat starch is used
in the baking industry and in the production of adhesives
as well as having applications in the confection and can-
ning industries.
The starch content is particularly high, up to 77.6% in
milled rice [104] and varies from 57.6-59.5% in barley
[87]. Rice starch is used as laundry starch, in cosmetic
dusting powders, and as a thickener in puddings and ice
cream. Rye has an approximately 69% starch content, with
27% amylose [168]. Triticale has 53% starch [22], with an
amylose content of approximately 24-26% [40].
The starch content of sorghum cultivars ranged from 60
to 77% [194], with the sugary and waxy sorghums general-
ly having less starch than nonwaxy cultivars [21]. Starch
composes the major carbohydrate of pearl millet-63% of
the grain [65,123].
Other tuber starches, many of them from tropical plants,
include those from sweet potato and cassava; both are im-
portant for food use, showing high starch content (cassava,
86%) and high productivity [209].
B. Chemical Composition
Starch is made up of two distinct polymers, amylose and
amylopectin; 98.5% of the starch granule is oc-glucans.
Both amylose and amylopectin are glucose polymers
linked by the a(1-4) linkage. Amylopectin also contains
a few percent (4-5%) of all—>6) linkages, leading to a
branched molecule [38]. The average chain length for ce-
real amylopectins is 20-26 glucose units.
Amylose is a linear polymer composed of ID-glucose
units linked together by glycosidic bonds and having a mo-
lecular weight of about 150,000-1,000,000. It is linear
with some occational random branching. In a recent study
it was found that 1.6% of the glucose in amylose was in
fact found in an a(1--6) branch [38]. Its molecule, which
has both a reducing and a nonreducing end, are single or
double helices; the latter may contain lipid inclusions. The
secondary and tertiary structures are stabilized by hydro-
gen bonds and van der Waals forces [42].
There are two features of amylose in solution that are of
special interest. The first is the great tendency to form in-
tramolecular hydrogen bonds, which means a strong ten-
dency toward crystallization (also referred to as retrogra-
dation). The second feature of interest with respect to
amylose in solution is its ability to form helical inclusion
complexes. The formation of a complex between and amy-
lose and iodine gives rise to the typical blue color, which
has an absorption maximum at 640 nm.
Shelton and Lee
Amylopectin is a branched polymer, having a molecular
weight on the order of 108, and also made up of D-glyco-
sidic bonds. There is a range of molecular weights within
each of these two polymer types, each with hundreds of
glucose units. The ratio of each polymer is genetically con-
trolled. In some cereals a wide variation in amylose: amy-
lopectin ratios is found among starches from different vari-
eties.
Several models of amylopectin have been proposed for
its molecular structure, with the cluster models appearing
to be accepted as the most probable [85]. Amylopectin
consists of a chain containing the only reducing end group,
called a C-chain, which has numerous branches, termed B-
chains, to which one to several third-layer A-chains are at-
tached (Fig. 1). The A-chains carry no chains and the B-
chains carry either A-or other B-chains.
The amylose content of most normal cereal starches is
20-30%. The amylose content of the starch granule varies
with the botanical source of the starch and is affected by
climatic and soil conditions during grain development
[33]. High temperatures decrease the amylose content of
rice, whereas cool temperatures have the opposite effect.
Corn starch is normally composed of 74-76% amy-
lopectin and 24-26% amylose [132]. Some corn lines,
called "waxy," contain over 99% amylopectin [132]. Corn
amylose has a degree of polymerization of 1000-7000 glu-
cose units.
For wheat, no such wide variation in composition has
been found. Medcalf and Gillis [133] found a narrower
range of amylose contents (23.4-27.6%) in a study of
starches from 17 wheat varieties representing hard red
spring (HRS), hard red winter (HRW), durum, and soft
wheat classes. Most wheat starches have an amylose con-
tent very close to 25% [131]. Waxy wheat starch has been
shown to lack any measurable amylose [203]. The amylose
content of waxy wheats ranged from 1.2-2.0%; of waxy
0
B1
C1=
-12-16-•":
= 27-28
FIGURE 1 Cluster model of amylopectin. 0, Reducing chain-
end. Solid lines indicate (l-4)-a-p-glucan chain; arrows indi-
cate oc(1--,6) linkage. (From Ref. 85.)
Cereal Carbohydrates
maize, 1.4-2.7%; of waxy barley, 2.1-8.3%; and of waxy
rice 0-2.3%; thus the range of amylose contents of the
waxy wheats is comparable to that of other waxy cereal
grains. Biochemical features of starch from waxy wheats
are similar to those of waxy maize [71].
Starch from barley contains 22-26% amylose, the rest
being amylopectin [28]. However, samples of 11-26%
amylose are known, and starch from waxy barley contains
only 0-3% amylose, while high-amylose starches contain
up to 45%.
Amylose content of rice is categorized as very low
(0-9%), low (9-20%), intermediate (20-25%), or high
(25-33%) [124]. The amylose content of long grain rice
ranges from 23 to 26%, while medium grain ranges from
15 to 20% and short grain ranges from 18 to 20% [103].
Oat amylose content (16-27%) is similar to that of
wheat starch, but oat amylose is more linear and oat amy-
lopectin is more branched than that found in wheat [121].
Most sorghum starch is similar in composition to corn
and contains 70-80% branched amylopectin and 21-28%
amylose [127]. However, waxy or glutinous sorghum con-
tains starch with 100% amylopectin and has unique prop-
erties similar to waxy corn [158]. Badi et al. [11] reported
17% amylose in starch from one pearl milled population.
Gracza [69] reviewed the minor constituents of starch.
Cereal starches contain low levels of lipids. Usually, the
lipids associated with starch are polar lipids. Generally, the
level of lipids in cereal starch is between 0.5 and 1%. Be-
sides low levels of other minerals, starches contain phos-
phorus and nitrogen. In the cereals, phosphorus occurs
mostly in the form of phospholipids. The nitrogen is gener-
ally considered to be present as protein, but it may also be
a constituent of the lipid fraction.
The interaction between amylose and lipids is more
powerful by far than that between amylopectin and lipids
[55]. It is well established that polar lipids (e.g., mono-
glycerides, fatty acids, and similar compounds) form a hel-
ical inclusion complex with the amylose molecule, be-
tween the hydrocarbon chain of the lipid and the interior of
the amylose helix.
C. Starch Granule Structures
Starch is laid down in the shape of particles in special amy-
loplast cells in the plant. These particles are called gran-
ules, and they are the means by which the plant stores en-
ergy for the carbohydrate in a space-saving way, but also to
make the energy easily accessible when the seed germi-
nates [57]. One starch granule is synthesized in each amy-
loplast, and the shape and size of a starch granule is typical
of its botanical origin.
Starch granules are relatively dense, insoluble, and
389
swell only slightly in cold water. Granules differ in size
and shape among plants. For example, corn starch has an
average diameter of about 15 1.1,M, wheat starch has a bi-
modal size distribution of 25-40 and 5-10 [tm, potato
starch has an average size of 40 WTI, and rice starch has an
average size of 5µm [99].
The particle sizes of starch granules have recently re-
ceived much attention because of their important roles in
determining both the taste and mouthfeel of fat substitutes
and the tensible properties of degradable plastic films.
Daniel and Whistler [39] reported that small-granule
starch about 2 !um in diameter, or similar in size to the lipid
micelle, had advantages as a fat substitute. Lim et al. [117]
investigated the use of starches of different particle size in
degradable plastic film. They reported that a linear correla-
tion between film thickness and particle size and an in-
verse linear correlation between film thickness and particle
size. Small-granule starches may also be used as face pow-
der or dusting powder, as a stabilizer in baking powder,
and as laundry-stiffening agents.
The size of the wheat starch granule is 1-30 lam, the
size distribution being bimodal. Such a bimodal size distri-
bution is characteristic of wheat starch, as well as of rye
and barley starches. Wheat starch consists of two basic
forms: small spherical granules (about 5-10 wri) and larg-
er lenticular granules (about 25-4011m). The small B-gran-
ules are spherical and have a diameter of less than 10 wrt;
a mean value of about 4 lam has been reported. The large
A-granules are lenticular and have a diameter greater than
10 lam, with a mean 14.11.1m. In reality, the granules have a
continuous distribution of granule size within the range
designated for that starch. Amylose and amylopectin are
intermixed and distributed evenly throughout the granule.
Many believe that the composition and properties of small
and large granules are similar, but this is a subject of some
argument and the subject of many research studies [42].
Kulp [110] evaluated the fundamental and bread-mak-
ing properties of small wheat starch granules and com-
pared them with those of regular starch. Small granules
were found to be lower in iodine affinity, indicating differ-
ences in amylose levels or some fundamental structural
differences. Gelatinization temperature ranges, water-
binding capacities, and enzymic susceptibilities of small
granules were higher than those of regular ones.
Rice has one of the smallest starch granules of cereal
grains, ranging in size from 3 to 5 pm in the mature grain,
although the small granules of wheat starch are almost the
same size [33]. The small granule size of that starch results
in physical properties that make it useful as a dusting flour
in bakeries. Rice starch amyloses have degree of polymer-
ization (DP) values of 1000-1100 and average chain
lengths of 250-320. These structural properties of amylose
390
TABLE 3 Structural Properties of Amylose
13-Amylolysis Avg. degree of
Source limit (%) polymerization
Wheat 88 1300
Maize 82 930
Rice
Indica 73 1000
Japonica 81 1100
Tapioca 75 2600
Potato 80 4900
Source: Ref. 86.
from rice are similar to those from wheat and maize, as in-
dicated in Table 3 [86].
Many of the granules in tuber and root starches, such as
potato and tapioca starches, tend to be larger than those of
seed starches and are generally less dense and easier to
cook. Potato starch granules may be as large as 100 tm
along the major axis. Tapioca and potato have higher DP
values (2600 and 4900) and a larger average number of
chains [86].
D. Crystallinity
The interior of the starch granule is composed of alternat-
ing crystalline and amorphous regions [55]. Starch is fre-
quently described as a semi-crystalline or partly crystalline
polymer. The melting of crystallites and disruption of the
organized structure is the basis for gelatinization.
The crystallinity of starch gives a distinctive x-ray dif-
fraction pattern. Four different x-ray diffraction patterns of
native starch have been described: the A pattern, obtained
from cereal starches unless the amylose content exceeds
40%; the B pattern, obtained from root and tuber starches
(and from high-amylose varieties) and from retrograded
starch; the C pattern, obtained from beans and peas. An-
other pattern, V, is shown by some high-amylose starches
but more generally by gelatinized lipid-containing starch-
es. The C pattern is described as a mixture of the A and B
patterns but has also been regarded as a structure of its own
[205].
Three-dimensional models of crystalline and amor-
phous branching zones of starch granules were reviewed
by Imberty et al. [93]. In crystallites of both A and B
starch, double helices are found in pairs, and all chains are
packed in parallel arrays. The pairing of double helices is
identical in both polymorphs. The differences between A
and B starch arise from water content and the manner in
which these pairs are packed in the respective crystals. A
Shelton and Lee
Avg. number Avg. chain Branched
chains length molecules (%)
4.8 270 27
2.7 340 44
4.0 250 49
3.4 320 31
7.6 340 42
9.5 240
transition from B starch to the A form can be accomplished
by rearrangement of pairs of double helices. The 1, 6-
linked amylopectin branch points occur in amorphous re-
gions, but actually promote the formation of ordered dou-
ble helices.
Wheat starch possesses an A pattern before it is heated. It
is believed that starches such as wheat starch crystallize
with shorter chains to give the A pattern. Immediately after
starch is heated in excess water, the x-ray pattern loses its
peaks and is typical of a pattern obtained from an amor-
phous and less ordered arrangement of atoms. When this
occurs, conversion to the B pattern can occur through ret-
rogradation. Thus, starch that has been gelatinized and
stored for some time under certain conditions exhibits a B
pattern. Starches can exhibit V diffraction patterns as a re-
sult of lipid inclusions in the amylose positions in more lim-
ited water systems [210]. Also, V structures can develop in
baked products in the presence of natural and added lipids
under conditions of starch gelatinization during baking.
The degree of crystallinity in native starches is very
sensitive to the water content, and the highest amount crys-
tallinity is observed at some intermediate water content
[181].
E. Gelatinization or Pasting Properties
Gelatinization in the narrowest sense is the thermal disor-
dering of crystalline structure in native starch granules, but
in the broader sense it includes related events such as gran-
ule swelling and leaching of soluble polysaccharides [9].
Gelatinization is used as a collective term to describe
several changes that occur in granular starch at different
temperature intervals. These changes include loss of bire-
fringence, loss of x-ray diffraction pattern, absorption of
water and swelling, change of shape and size of starch
granule, and leaching of amylose from the granule. These
changes are followed by the formation of a gel or paste [9].
Cereal Carbohydrates 391

1. Gelatinization Temperature
Gelatinization of granules is described with, or related to, a
gelatinization temperature or range of temperatures. Dif-
ferent methods are used to determine the gelatinization
temperature, and therefore values found in literature differ
considerably, even for the same starch. Many parameters
affect the gelatinization temperature and temperature
range, the most fundamental of which is the influence of
water. This is because the role of water is a plasticizer for
both the amorphous and crystalline phases in granules. The
presence of water decreases the temperature of melting of
dry starch crystallites [50].
Starches varied in gelatinization temperature (Table 4).
Milo, corn, and rice starches gelatinized at much higher
temperatures than did the other starches and had poor bak-
ing characteristics [91]. However, oat, potato, and durum
wheat starches also had poor baking characteristics, even
though their gelatinization temperatures were relative-
ly low and essentially equal to those of the hard wheat
starches.
2. Loss of Birefringence
Starch granules show birefringence or a typical "maltese
cross" when viewed in polarized light [90]. The property
of birefringence is brought about because the starch mole-
cules are radially oriented within the granule. The level of
orientation then determines the degree of birefringence.
Birefringence, however, must not be confused with crys-
tallinity; molecules can be very ordered without necessari-
ly having three-dimensional crystalline order.
When the starch is heated in water, birefringence in po-
larized light is lost when viewed under a microscope. The
loss of birefringence is related to the water content, using
0.1-0.2% suspensions and noting the temperature intervals
for different levels of loss. In wheat samples the birefrin-
gence is completely lost at a temperature of 65°C or less. If
the water content is reduced, for example, to 50%, the
starch granules are still birefringent at 75°C, and if the wa-
ter content is as low as 30% the starch granules are bire-
fringent even after a heat treatment at 132°C [57].
Microscopically, the starch granule appears unchanged
up to about 50-55°C in excess water, and it exhibits bire-
fringence of varying degrees, depending on how long the
granule has been in contact with the water and at what tem-
perature. Loss of birefringence develops by the end of
gelatinization and is thought to be somewhat synonymous
to the loss of crystallinity as measured by differential scan-
ning calorimeter measurements. By the time the granule
reaches a temperature of about 75°C without an additive in
the water such as sugar, the granule integrity is disrupted.
3. Loss of Crystallinity
The loss of crystalline order during gelatinization is ob-
served in x-ray diffraction patterns [55]. In cereal starches,
the V pattern is often observed after gelatinization as the
polar lipids have an opportunity to complex with available
polar lipids [205]. The temperature range during which the
crystallinity is lost and the rate with which it is lost depend
on the water content and the type of starch. The tempera-
ture range increases with decreasing water content; at a
water content below 50% the temperature for complete
loss of crystallinity approaches 100°C.

4. Pasting Properties
TABLE 4 Gelatinization Temperature Range and When the starch is heated in water, certain characteristic
Temperature of 50% Gelatinization of Various Starches (4% changes occur, changes that usually manifest themselves
aqueous slurry)a in a change in rheological behavior, such as an increase in
Gelatinization viscosity [184]. The extent of these changes is related not
only to the type of starch, but also to the water content.
Source of starch Start (°C) End (°C) 50% (°C) If a granular suspension is subjected to a defined heat-
59 55 ing and cooling program with stirring, the viscosity may be
RBS 54
Omar 53 59 55 recorded as a function of temperature and time. For years,
Wells 45 60 53 the Brabender ViscoAmylograph has been used to measure
Corn 65 73 68 the pasting profile of starches for screening and quality
Milo 63 68 67 control and provides product specifications [167]. The
Oat 53 59 55 starch suspension is heated in a revolving cup to a desig-
Barley 56 61 60 nated temperature and held there as the viscosity is mea-
Rye 49 56 51 sured through resistance exerted on a paddle suspended in
Rice 69 75 71 the pasted starch. A continuous recording of this resistance
Potato 50 60 55 is marked on the moving chart.
Small-granule wheat 54 59 56
Many pasting profiles exhibit a peak viscosity (P) fol-
"As measured by loss of birefringence. lowed by a minimum [46]. The peak viscosity is related to
Source: Ref. 91. the situation where the granule shows an optimum balance
392 Shelton and Lee

Temperature, °C
30 55 95 95 50
SWELL I PASTE HOLD COOL
Setback viscosity,C
V
Peak viscosity
temperature, PT
SETBACK
TOTAL
SETBACK
P,
peak BREAKDOWN
viscosity

A
H , breakdown
viscosity

40 60 90
Time, mins

FIGURE 2 A pasting cycle curve, typical of wheat starch in the concentration range 8-12% db, showing definition of pasting parame-
ters. (From Ref. 46.)

between swelling and rigidity. Further heating and shear 1600

promote the weakening and disruption of the granules. The
1400
difference between this peak value and the viscosity mini- Potato Starch
mum is defined as the breakdown (Fig. 2). Breakdown vis- --1200
cosity (H) is regarded as a measure of the degree of disin- co
tegration of the granules or of "paste stability." During 1000
cooling, the viscosity increases again to a more or less con- V)
stant value (setback). Setback viscosity (C) is regarded as a Boo
measure of gelling ability or "retrogradation tendency." Tapioca Starch
600
Potato starch has a much higher viscosity than any of Waxy Corn Starch
the other commercially available starches. This is shown 400
grapically in Figure 3, where Brabender ViscoAmylograph
curves of corn, waxy corn, and tapioca at 5% solids are 200
compared with potato starch at 4% solids. Reasons for this _...,..."°"'"."'Com Starch
are threefold. First, potato starch granules are larger than 0 i iI
50' 60' 70° 80° 900 95P 95°
those from other common starches, as shown in Table 5. Tempera ure (°C)
Second, the molecular weight of the amylose component is
much higher than that of other starches except tapioca, as FIGURE 3 Brabender curves of three native potato starches at
indicated by the higher degree of polymerization for amy- 5.0% solids compared with potato starch at 4.0% solids. (From
Ref. 2.)
lose. And finally, as some would agree, there are natural
phosphate groups present that may have a role in viscosity
[2].
The Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) is mostly used to (DSC) to the study of starch was first described by Zobel et
characterize starches, using small samples and offering a al. [208]. This technique offers a thermodynamic approach
choice of short and long test times [73]. Several papers to the study of starch gelatinization by monitering changes
have dealt with the advantage of the RVA system. in the physical and chemical properties of starches [31].
The application of differential scanning calorimetry Use of DSC in investigating the thermal behavior of
Cereal Carbohydrates
TABLE 5 Granular Properties of Flour Native Starches Compared with Potato Starch
Property Potato Tapioca
Type Tuber Root
Shape Oval, spherical Truncated, oval
Diameter, range (µrn) 5-100 4-35
Diameter, no. average (um) 27 15
Diameter, wt. average (pm) 40 25
No. granules per g starch (x 106) 60 500
Source: Ref. 2.
starches has become increasingly more popular because it
requires a only small sample size and is easy to operate.
Additionally, DSC is relatively rapid compared with more
traditional methods of studying gelatinization, making it
suitable for breeding programs.
5. Significance in Baking
Starch chemistry, as related to bread baking, primarily in-
volves the gelatinization or pasting properties of starch.
Within the starch granule there are places where portions
of amylose molecules, or linear segments of amylopectin
molecules, parallel one another. When this happens, these
segments closely associate with one another and form
crystalline or micellular regions within the granule. When
no close association is possible, the areas are called amor-
phous regions of the granule.
Gelatinization of native starch grains embedded in the
glutinous matrix of bread dough seems to be essential to
the formation of a porous, elastic crumb [161]. Starch in a
bread dough, according to Sandsted [161], (1) dilutes the
gluten to a desired consistency, (2) furnishes sugar through
amylase action, (3) provides a surface suitable for a strong
union with the gluten, (4) becomes flexible during partial
gelatinization, thereby permitting further stretching of the
gas-cell film, and (5) takes water from the gluten by gela-
tinization, thus causing the film to set and become rigid. It
has been suggested that, in gelatinizing, wheat starch can
take up several times its weight in water from the gluten
and retain this moisture, allowing the surrounding dehy-
drated gluten matrix to maintain a semi-rigid form [131].
Many factors can affect gelatinization of starch• milling
severity, grain maturity, drying techniques, water availabil-
ity, and time and temperature relationships during baking
[110]. The relative quantities of amylose and amylopectin
and their molecular arrangement can also influence gela-
tinization properties. Hoseney et al. [91] observed that
poor baking results were obtained with starches that had
gelatinization temperature ranges slightly above or below
that of starch.
Ponte et al. [148] demonstrated an inverse relationship
393
Corn Waxy corn Wheat
Cereal Cereal Cereal
Round, polygonal Round, polygonal Round, lenticular
2-30 2-30 1-45
10 10 8
15 15 25
1,300 1,300 2,600
between loaf volume and the relative number of smaller
wheat starch grains. Smaller grains tend to gelatinize at a
slightly higher temperature and to have higher hydration
capacities than grains of average size. Little is known
about reactions occurring at the interface between starch
and gluten [47].
F. Retrogradation of Starch
Starch retrogradation is a process that occurs when the
molecules comprising gelatinized starch begin to reassoci-
ate in an ordered structure. In the initial phases of retrogra-
dation, two or more molecules may form a simple juncture
point, which then may develop into more extensively or-
dered regions. Ultimately, under favorable conditions,
crystalline order may appear and amylose precipitation
from "solution" may occur in dilute solution [9].
Retrogradation of gelatinized starch is a reorganization
process that can involve either amylose or amylopectin,
with amylose undergoing retrogradation at a more rapid
rate than amylopectin [98]. The rate of retrogradation de-
pends on a number of variables, including the structures of
amylose and amylopectin, ratio of amylose and amy-
lopectin, temperature, starch concentration, botanical
sources of the starch, and the presence and concentration
of other ingredients, such as surfactants and salts.
Many quality defects in food products, such as bread
staling and changes of viscosity and precipitation in soups
and sauces, are due, at least in part, to retrogradation. How
this process is affected by interactions between starch and
other food components needs to be understood to better
control the keeping quality of starchy food products. Al-
though both starch amylose and amylopectin components
are subject to retrogradation, the amylopectin component
appears to be more responsible for long-term quality
changes in foods [193].
Starch concentration influences the extent of retrogra-
dation. The maximum extent of retrogradation is obtained
in a starch concentration about 60% (w/w) [204]. Ret-
rogradation process is very sensitive to temperature. The
394
aging of wheat starch gels at 4, 21, and 30°C was studied
with DSC [115]. Crystallinity increased with time, and
crystallization occurred at the highest rate and to the great-
est extent in storage at 4°C.
Retrogradation is very sensitive to the water content in
starch gels. Lengton and LeGrys [115] observed that crys-
tallization during aging occurred only in gels with starch
content between 10 and 80%, and maximum crystalliza-
tion, measured with DSC, occurred in gels with 50-55%
starch. Other DSC studies have confirmed that maximum
crystallinity occurs in gels with 50-60% starch [204].
G. Bread Staling
Staling can be defined in terms of almost any change, oth-
er than microbial spoilage, that occurs in bread during stor-
age that makes it less acceptable to a consumer [18]. Such
changes may be of a sensory nature (loss of aroma, mouth-
feel) or a physical one (loss of crumb softness, develop-
ment of crumbliness). Thus, any sense of loss of freshness
in a bread may give rise to describing the bread as
"stale" [83,206]. Most bread produced in the United States
is white pan bread. The system of wholesale distribution
requires correlation between consumer acceptance and
firmness has been well documented.
Schoch and French [164] presented a theory of bread
staling. They suggested that during baking, starch granules
swelled, amylose was partially leached out the granules
and amylopectin was dilated. The limited amount of water
in bread restricted these processes. Fresh bread consisted
of soft, extensible granules embedded in a firm gel net-
work of amylose. They attributed bread firming during
storage time to changes in amylopectin within the starch
granule. Association of the branched molecules within the
swollen granules occurred during storage. The gel sur-
rounding the granules remained firm and gradually became
rigid. Bread firmed because the granule became rigid. Un-
til recently, that theory was generally accepted as fact.
However, it only presented the role of starch. Improvement
of flour proteins as factor in bread crumb firming has been
extensively investigated over the years [122], generating
lively debate but not significant evidence that this flour
component is a major contributor to development of firm-
ing in bread [35,206].
Staling of starch-based food products refers to a wide
range of adverse or undesirable changes of nonmicrobial
origin that take place during storage. More specifically,
however, it refers to the increase in firmness of the prod-
ucts that diminishes textural quality [165]. Staling begins
as soon as baking is complete and the product begins to
cool. The rate of staling is dependent on the product for-
mulation, the baking process, and storage conditions. Stal-
Shelton and Lee
ing is due, at least in part, to the gradual transition of amor-
phous starch to a retrograded state that may be partially
crystalline. In baked products, where there is just enough
moisture to gelatinize starch granules (while retaining a
granule identity), amylose retrogradation (insolubilization)
may be largely complete by the time the product has
cooled to room temperature. Retrogradation of amy-
lopectin is believed to involve primarily association of its
outer branches and requires a much longer time than amy-
lose retrogradation, giving it prominence in the staling
process that occurs with time after the product has cooled.
There is thus some dispute over whether staling of
starch-based products can be adequately evaluated by fol-
lowing changes in starch properties using techniques such
as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and x-ray dif-
fraction, which do not correlate well with rheological mea-
surements even for simple starch-water systems.
There is extensive work on the physical and chemical
changes that occur in starch during baking and staling
[112]. The semiquantitative method of x-ray diffraction
was widely used as the most direct means of estimating the
degree of recrystallization in starch, but the more quantita-
tive thermal analysis techniques were the preferred means
of studying crystallinity. DSC in particular has proved to
be a valuable tool to quantify crystallinity, both in native
starch and the retrograded starch of bread crumb and aged
gels. It enables us to directly measure the influence of var-
ious factors on the thermal properties of starch during
gelatinization and retrogradation [204]. Thermal analysis
shows that storage time, storage temperature, and reheat-
ing after storage, which are known to influence the firming
rate of bread, also influence the rate of starch retrograda-
tion.
Staling may be controlled by several methods [166].
Adding bacterial a-amylase, which has a high degree of
thermal stability, maintains freshness (i.e., softness) for a
long time by continuing to degrade starch after baking
[207]. If excessive levels of bacterial a-amylase are used
or if the storage temperature is too high, the crumb may be
gummy and sticky. Staling may be controlled by a surfac-
tant, which forms an insoluble complex with amylose and
prevents its leaching from the granule, by interacting to a
limited degree with amylopectin and by strengthening
flour proteins.
H. Hydrolysis and Fermentation of Starch
Starch is a polymer of glucose and, as such, can be hy-
drolyzed to glucose syrups, high-fructose syrups, and mal-
todextrins [77]. A variety of enzymatic and acid-catalyzed
processes are used for the manufacture of sweeteners. For
instance, dextrose is prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis of
Cereal Carbohydrates
starch and purified by crystallization. High-fructose corn
syrup is produced by partial enzymatic isomerization of
dextrose hydrolysate, followed by enrichment to a higher
fructose level by chromatographic separation.
Advances in enzyme technology in early 1950s greatly
advanced the commercialization of glucose syrups. Later
advances in the use of glucose isomerase in the 1970s
made high-fructose corn syrups possible.
Where syrup had been used (here the word syrup is
used in the meaning of starch hydrolyzed with enzymes to
the highest possible glucose content) the raw material has
been maize, wheat, tapioca, and potato [8]. However, with-
in the United States corn starch is used exclusively as the
raw material for production of starch-based sweeteners.
The conversion of starch into fructose syrup requires four
main stages, three of which are enzymatic: liquefaction,
saccharification, purification, and isomerization.
1. Liquefaction
The manufacturing of dextrose from starch is a multistage
process involving thermostable a-amylase for liquefaction
and amyloglucosidase for saccharification in successive
enzymatic steps. Liquefaction is performed with heat-sta-
ble a-amylase for about 1-2 hours at 95°C [8]. It was
found that at 30% of dry substance the liquefaction ran
very smoothly in order to obtain maximum DE of 10-15
(DE is defined as reducing sugars expressed as dextrose
and calculated as percentage of dry substance). It is gener-
ally recommended to hold the pH between 6.0 and 6.3 and
use a calcium content of about 100 ppm for stability of a-
amylase. a-Amylase stability during liquefaction is a func-
tion of the combined effects of temperature, pH, dry sub-
stance, time, and calcium level.
2. Saccharification
Saccharification is the hydrolysis of oligosaccharides or
dextrins to low molecular weight sugars such as glucose.
After liquefaction, the pH is adjusted to 4.5 and the tem-
perature quickly decreased to 60°C [72]. Amyloglucosi-
dase, which can hydrolyze a-1,6 linkages as well as a-1,4,
is added and the hydrolysis reaction allowed to continue
for 48 hours to more than 100 hours depending on enzyme
dosage. Temperature control is important, since a higher
temperature reduces enzyme stability and a lower temper-
ature increases the risk of microbial contamination.
3. Isomerization
Refining of dextrose hydrolysate is required to remove in-
solubles contributed by the starch, as well as ash, color,
and protein solubilized during processing [79]. The syrups
are treated with activated powder carbon 0.5 or 1% fol-
lowed by ion exchange with a strong cation and a weak an-
ion resin to remove ash [8]. Then glucose syrup is evapo-
395
rated and packed. After purification the syrup is then iso-
merized with glucose isomerase to a product containing
about 42% fructose, 51% glucose, and 7% oligosaccha-
rides. Through suitable, selected concentration techniques,
these products can be converted to syrup containing 90%
fructose or 55% fructose.
4. Uses of Sweeteners
Corn sweeteners have become widely accepted as food in-
gredients for imparting sweetness and various functional
properties [89]. The rapid increase of high-fructose corn
syrup (HFCS) use has been primarily due to the accept-
ance of HFCS as a replacement for sucrose in soft drinks.
In this respect, 42% HFCS is about equal to sucrose, 55%
HFCS is slightly higher, and 90% HFCS has the greatest
relative sweetness. HFCS is also used in baking, confec-
tionery, and dairy applications. HFCS supplies sweetness,
texture control, and humectancy.
5. Fermentation of Starch
Cereal grains have traditionally been used for fermentation
into alcohol, the basis of the large alcoholic beverage in-
dustry. At the typical distillery, ground whole grain is slur-
ried, cooked to gelatinize the starch, cooled, dosed with
enzymes for saccharification, and fermented with yeast.
There has been increased emphasis upon production of
alcohol for automotive fuel by fermentation of suitable
starch sources. Increasing amounts of alcohol have been
produced under government subsidy and have been used
for blending with gasoline as an automotive fuel.
Efficient production of ethanol requires a feedstock
with a high level of degradable starch [94]. Corn is the ma-
jor feedstock used by most fuel ethanol plants operated in
the United States. Hulless barleys, wheat, rye, and triticale
have been fermented to ethanol [95,192]. Thermostable
amylase was added to ground cereal grains and gelatiniza-
tion proceeded at 90-95°C and liquefaction proceeded at
80°C. Mash dextrins were saccharified to fermentable sug-
ars by adding glucoamylase. A common and effective
yeast food was added to the mash and fermented with yeast
to produce ethanol.
Starch provides the yeast with fermentable sugars in
baking, and it contributes to the structure of the crumb and
to the structure and color of the crust. Some of these roles
might be played by ingredients other than starch. For ex-
ample, sugar might provide nutrition for the yeast but also
add color to the crust because of caramelization.
I. Damaged Starch
All commercial starches and flour and many laboratory
preparations contain damaged starch granules, especially
if made by a dry-milling process [138].
396
It is of considerable importance to the baking industry
since at dough-forming temperatures, damaged starch both
absorbs more water and is more susceptible to enzyme
degradation than unmodified starch [14]. First, differences
have been reported between the exterior and interior of
granules that would indicate that the relatively inert char-
acter of native starch is most likely to be due to a different
arrangement of the polysaccharide at the granule surface to
the interior. Mechanical damage therefore may cause the
breakdown of the structure at the periphery of the granule
leading to increased access of water to the proportion of
polysaccharide chain that is in an ordered state. The
process of milling has been shown to decrease the crys-
tallinity of starch and is thus presumed to facilitate water
ingress into the granule by a network of "crazed cracks" in
the granule structure.
Other explanation has suggested that pores or cracks in
damaged granules may act as sites for amylolytic action
and water absorption. Recently, it has been reported that
the presence of microscopic surface pores on a variety of
undamaged starch granules from different botanical
sources, which may act as weak points through the outer
layer, giving enzyme access to the interior of the granule
[62].
The level of starch damage is an important quality in-
dex for the evaluation of wheat. Starch damage is unpre-
ventable during the process of conversion of cereal grain
to flour. During milling, some starch granules are physical-
ly damaged by the pressure and shear forces generated dur-
ing roller milling. Flour contains several percent of starch
granules damaged to varying degrees along with intact
starch granules [166].
The amount of damage varies with the severity of the
milling process and hardness of the wheat kernel [63]. The
extent of damage is directly proportional to the hardness of
the kernel, with a correlation coefficient of —0.95 with the
particle size index test. Starch damage is substantially and
consistently lower in soft than in hard wheat flours.
Damaged granules differ from sound granules in two
important aspects: they are significantly more susceptible
to attack by a-amylase, and they have an increased ability
to bind water. Damaged starch granules absorb more water
than nondamaged starch and are more susceptible to enzy-
matic hydrolysis [146].
Intact starch granules are relatively resistant to oc-and 13-
amylase, but damaged granules become susceptible to en-
zyme attack [166]. The interaction of an optimum level of
damaged starch and amylase enzymes produces three char-
acteristics that are desirable during bread-making: As the
dough is being developed, damaged starch plays a large
role in determining baking absorption. During fermenta-
Shelton and Lee
tion, proofing, and baking, maltose and other fermentable
sugars produced by amylase action ensure adequate gas
production. During baking, amylase enzymes are inacti-
vated and the resulting dextrins are available for crust
browning reactions.
Excessive starch damage will cause a decrease in bread
quality. Hampel [74] showed a decrease in volume and
crumb standards. The loss of loaf volume was attributed to
the instability of the air/dough interface during baking.
Tipples [185] suggested that there was not enough gluten
to cover the increased surface area caused by the increase
in damaged starch. This resulted in a loss of gas-retention
capacity.
The reasons why damaged starch granules have differ-
ent hydration properties are still poorly understood, al-
though various explanations have been proposed. The ma-
jor outstanding question concerns the presence or absence
of an outer layer to the granule, which is functionally dif-
ferent from the internal regions and protects the granule
from hydration. It does, however, seem likely that a combi-
nation of factors may contribute to the changed properties
of damaged starch.
J. Modification of Starch
The use of regular starch in foods is limited by its physical
and chemical properties [201]. The granules are insoluble
in cold water, requiring cooking to achieve dispersion.
Very often the viscosity of cooked native starch is too high
for use in certain applications. The objective of starch
modification is to alter the physical and chemical charac-
teristics of the native starch to improve the functional char-
acteristics [141]. Sometimes starch is chemically modified
to impart special functionality to the product; for instance,
in sauce the starch must first disperse and then thicken eas-
ily without lumping in cold or hot water.
Derivatization of starch is conducted to modify the
gelatinization and cooking characteristics of granular
starches, to decrease the retrogradation and gelling tenden-
cies of amylose-containing starches, to increase the water-
holding capacity of starch dispersions at low temperature,
thereby minimizing syneresis, to enhance hydrophilic
character, to impart hydrophobic properties, and/or to in-
troduce ionic substituents [159]. Modified starch can pro-
vide a wide range of functions, from binding to disintegrat-
ing, imbibing or inhibiting moisture, producing a short,
stringy, or cuttable texture, creating a smooth or pulpy tex-
ture, developing a soft or crisp coating, or stabilizing an
emulsion.
Types of modification that are most often made, some-
times singly, but often in combinations, are cross-linking
Cereal Carbohydrates
of polymer chains, non—cross-linking derivatization, de-
polymerization, and pregelatinization.
1. Converted Starches
The conversion of starch to glucose, maltose, and lower
molecular weight products by acid or enzyme is of great
importance. Conversion is a process that is used to reduce
the viscosity of raw starches. Its main objectives are to al-
low the use of starches at higher percentages, increase wa-
ter solubility, control gel strength, or modify the stability
of starch. Typically, native starch cannot be used at much
more than 6% solids because it imparts such a high viscos-
ity. However, in the confection industry for a product such
as a soft gum candy, a low-viscosity starch at high solids is
needed to obtain the desired starch gel structure and set
[116].
Converted starches were developed to weaken the
starch granule and degrade the starch molecules so that the
granules would no longer maintain their integrity on
swelling in water. In this way, it was possible to produce
modified starches, which because of their lower viscosity
could be dispersed at increasingly higher concentrations
than native starch [201].
Methods of conversion include acid hydrolysis, oxida-
tion, dextrinization, and enzyme conversion [141]. Each
method of conversion provides starch products with dis-
tinctive functionality. Historically, starch has been con-
verted to lower molecular weight products (starch syrups)
by acid hydrolysis. The preparation of acid-modified
starches consists of treatment of a fairly concentrated
starch slurry in 1-3% hydrochloric acid at about 50°C for
12-14 hours. After treatment, the slurry is neutralized and
the starch recovered by filtration. As the extent of hydroly-
sis is increased, yields decrease and undesirable by-prod-
ucts are formed. The use of selected enzymes has greatly
facilitated this process.
2. Cross-Linked Starches
Through chemical modification, one can control the
amount and rate at which the granule will swell. This is
done by chemically reinforcing the natural hydrogen bond-
ing that fastens the starch molecule into the granular form.
This type of derivatization is often referred to as cross-
linking [170].
Simply stated, cross-linking is the covalent bonding of
two starch molecules to make a larger molecule. This is a
treatment whereby small amounts of compounds that can
react with more than one hydroxyl group are added to the
starch polymers. Cross-linking holds the starch chains
fixed in space so they cannot interact strongly. Cross-link-
ing yields starch granules with increased resistance to
397
overcooking and other variations in processing conditions.
Cross-linking can be used to control the rate at which and
the amount the starch granule swells. This provides better
tolerance to acid, heat, and shear and also controls texture.
Cross-linked starches were developed to minimize or
prevent granule rupture during the cooking process, thus
providing starches that give better ultimate viscosity and a
short, noncohesive, paste texture, in contrast to the cohe-
sive, gummy textures associated with unmodified starch
dispersions.
There are two types of cross-linked food starches:
distarch adipates and distarch phosphates [141]. The for-
mer is made by treating an aqueous slurry of granular
starch with an adipic-acetic mixed anhydride under mildly
alkaline conditions to form distarch adipate. The other type
of cross-linked starch is distarch phosphate. This is made
by treating an aqueous slurry of starch granules under al-
kaline conditions with phosphorus oxychloride.
3. Stabilized Starches
Another important type of starch modification is that of
stabilization. Stabilization, which includes esterification
and etherification, prevents gelling and syneresis. It pro-
vides starch, which will produce pastes that are stable at
low temperatures. This is the process whereby blocking
groups are reacted with starch polymers to inhibit retrogra-
dation, an alignment of polymers that causes a change in
the structure of the food structure. Inhibiting retrograda-
tion imparts textural and freeze-thaw stability, thus pro-
longing the shelf life of the food product. This is most im-
portant in frozen foods, since retrogradation of starch
polymers is accelerated at cold temperatures, leading to an
opaque, gelled, and/or chunky texture with eventual
syneresis or "weeping" of liquid from the gel [116].
There are four major types of modified food starches
prepared by reacting starch with monofunctional reagents:
starch acetates, starch monophosphates, starch sodium
octenyl succinate, and hydroxylpropyl starch ether. These
reactions are usually performed on unmodified starch, in
combination with conversions such as acid hydrolysis or
subsequent dextrinization or on cross-linked starches
[201].
4. Pregelatinized Starches
Both native and modified food starches are insoluble in
cold water. Starch can also be physically modified using a
number of techniques to provide desirable properties. Such
techniques include pregelatinization of starch for quick
viscosity development in instant systems where more
process-tolerant products are needed, such as in mi-
crowaves, and adjustment of particle size to control dis-
398
persability and hydration. Some pregelatinized starches
can be dispersed directly into water without lumping to
give smooth, viscous pastes, while others may be treated
so as to produce a grainy or pulpy effect [170].
K. Resistant Starch
1. Occurrence
For nutritional purposes, starch in foods can be classified
into three categories: rapidly digestible (RDS), slowly di-
gestible (SDS), and resistant (RS) [59]. Resistant starch
can be further divided into three categories according to
the type found in foods. RS1 refers to physically trapped
starch that can be assumed to pass through the body un-
changed, such as that found in partially milled grains and
seeds. RS2 starch is raw B-type starch granule and is typi-
cally found in bananas and raw potatoes. RS3 starch is ret-
rograded, like the starch found in cooked and cooled pota-
toes, bread, and cereal.
Resistant starch (RS) is sometimes formed during cer-
tain types of food processing, usually at low levels that
rarely exceed 3% [60]. It has been found in both un-
processed foods such as bananas and lentils and processed
foods such as bread and cereals [92].
2. Properties
Resistant starch, fundamentally an oc-glucan, is a product
of starch retrogradation. Due to its specific physical prop-
erties, crystallized amylose, the main component of RS, is
accessible to amylases only after solubilization with potas-
sium hydroxide or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).
Resistant starch is not digested or absorbed in the small
intestine. This nondigested starch is subsequently passed
to the large intestine, and, like many soluble fibers, it is
broken down in the colon by fermentation to short-chain
fatty acids, carbon dioxide, hydrogen gas, and methane.
Like other fibers, resistant starch plays an important role in
normal digestive physiology.
Resistant starch, unlike common fiber sources, does not
retain much water. This may be advantageous in the pro-
duction of low-moisture products such as cookies and
crackers. RS is also free of gritty mouthfeel and is reported
to not alter flavor or textural properties of foods. These
functionality characteristics have resulted in concentrated
sources of RS becoming commercially available. Howev-
er, their effective use in food products requires a more
through understanding of functional and nutritional as-
pects of RS [153].
3. Resistant Starch in Food Processing
Resistant starch is often a result of heat processing of
starchy foods such as breakfast cereals and bakery prod-
ucts. Depending on heat-processing conditions, RS may be
Shelton and Lee
a significant component in some grain-based products. A
substantial amount of starch, up to 8% (dry weight basis),
was rendered resistant to amylases during heat treatment
unless solubilized in KOH [24]. Bjorck et al. [23] noted
that during the baking of white bread, a fraction of starch
(0.6-0.9%, on a dry weight basis) was rendered resistant to
enzymatic digestion in vitro. The mechanism behind for-
mation of RS during processing is believed to be retrogra-
dation of amylose. Commercially developed resistant
starch is technically classified as an RS3 starch. According
to Englyst and Macfarlane [58], the amount of RS pro-
duced during processing of starchy foods will be con-
trolled by a number of factors such as water content, pH,
heating temperatures, and cooling temperatures.
IV. NONSTARCH POLYSACCHARIDES
Starch occupies a unique position throughout the world,
because this natural polysaccharide is second only to cellu-
lose in availability and is without doubt the world's chief
food carbohydrate source. Among food polysaccharides,
starch-derived products outnumber all others, the remain-
der being collectively known as nonstarch polysaccharides
(NSP), which are "food polysaccharides" in the sense that
they contribute significantly to the intake of dietary fiber.
Dietary fiber, which was front-page news in the 1980s
and lauded for reducing the risk of colon cancer to heart
disease through cholesterol lowering, has taken a back seat
to other food issues, especially fat. Recent data from the
National Cancer Institute confirm that Americans' fiber in-
take is still well below the recommended levels [169]. As
the nation continues to focus on weight control and health-
ful foods, fiber's important role is still recognized by many
consumers and food companies.
A. Structural Characteristics
Of the several definitions of dietary fiber that have been
proposed, the most recognized and debated versions in-
clude the physiological, chemical, and Englyst's defini-
tions [66]. The physiological definitions, which were first
formulated and proposed by Trowell [187] and since mod-
ified by the same author and others, defines dietary fiber as
"plant polysaccharides and lignin which are resistant to
hydrolysis by the digestive enzymes of man." The chemi-
cal definition, which is favored by some investigations, de-
fines dietary fiber as "nonstarch polysacccharides and
lignin," which essentially excludes from consideration
other polymers that are not hydrolyzed by human digestive
enzymes [173]. Englyst's definition [60] defines dietary
fiber as "nonstarch polysaccharides" primarily for the sake
of simplicity and adaptability to his analytical method. The
main critique of this definition is the exclusion of lignin,
Cereal Carbohydrates
which, according to a number of researchers, should be in-
cluded since it forms an integral part of plant cell walls and
usually determines physicochemical as well as physiologi-
cal attributes of numerous dietary fibers.
The nonstarch polysaccharides are found in the cell
walls and in the matrix that holds cells together. They can
be divided into three groups: cellulose, f3-glucans, and
pentosans. The structural complexity of these polysaccha-
rides differ significantly, and in many cases the structures
have not been clearly determined.
The currently accepted definition of dietary fiber in-
cludes such components as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic
substances, oligosaccharides, mucilage, gums, and lignin,
which are resistant to endogenous digestion in the human
upper digestive tract [187]. Even though it is not a carbo-
hydrate, lignin is included in dietary fiber. Resistant starch
and resistant protein can also be included in the definition
of dietary fiber [186].
B. Physiological Properties
The heterogenic nature of dietary fiber has made the de-
sign and comparison of experiments difficult. Nonetheless,
critical physiological effects associated with dietary fiber
intake have been demonstrated, including increased fecal
bulk, modified nutrient availability, reduced glycemic re-
sponse, and changed serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels
and types [163]. Different sources of dietary fiber vary
widely in their physiological effectiveness. Ultimately,
these physiological conditions related to dietary fiber need
to be associated or disassociated with the prevention of
certain diseases [52].
The polysaccharides have strong water-holding proper-
ties, which can affect fecal weight, transit time, and gastric
intraluminal pressure [108]. The water-holding properties
of dietary fibers are of great interest and importance to
food scientists not only from the standpoint of nutritional
implications, but from the view of food functionality. For
example, high water-holding-capacity fibers not only in-
crease viscosity of intestinal juices, but they also have
wide application in foods [52]. The chemical composition
of dietary fiber plays a major role in determining water-
holding capacity. Components such as cellulose and lignin
tend to be associated with low water-binding capacity,
whereas hemicellulose tends to be associated with high
water-binding capacity [154]. Other factors that may influ-
ence water binding capacity include particle size, elec-
trolyte content, pH of the solution, and preparation or pro-
cessing conditions.
The polysaccharides can act as cation exchangers and
may increase trace mineral excretion. They have the poten-
tial of reducing mineral availability and electrolyte absorp-
399
tion mainly due to binding, leading to increased fecal ex-
cretion of minerals and eletrolytes [155].
Pectin and mucilages are gel formers and affect gastric
emptying and lipid cholesterol absorption. Among the ear-
liest studies on the effects of fiber on lipid metabolism were
those of Wells and Ershorff [195], who found that pectin re-
duced the increases of serum and liver cholesterol observed
in rats when 1% cholesterol was added to a fiber-free diet.
Fiber-rich foods substituted in the normal diet usually
lower plasma lipids in humans. Grande [70] summarized
the findings of a dozen studies in which sucrose was re-
moved from the diet and substituted isocalorically with
bread, fruit, cereal, or legumes; there was a decrease in
plasma cholesterol in every case. The principal effect of
fiber on serum lipids appears to be mediated via increased
fecal excretion of bile acids. Other possible explanations
include direct effects on intestinal microflora, variations in
bile acid pool size, and composition and influences on
lipoprotein metabolism.
Burkitt [28] has postulated that the incidence of colon
cancer seen in industrial populations is associated with
lack of dietary fiber. The presence of fiber in the intestinal
tract decreases transit time, which reduces contact time be-
tween potential carcinogens and mucosa, and it dilutes the
intestinal contents and thus reduces the possibility of inter-
action of procarcinogens with bacteria. Although some
epidemiological data would appear to bear out Burkitt's
hypothesis, other investigators, working from the same
data base, find little correlation between dietary fiber and
cancer formation but a strong correlation with ingestion of
animal fat. However, a high-fiber diet is usually a low-fat
diet, and vice versa.
C. Nonstarch Polysaccharides in Cereals
Dietary fiber occurs naturally in all plants and is available
for the human diet through a wide variety of food sources
such as cereal products, vegetables, fruits, and prepared
foods. Cereal brans have the highest dietary fiber content,
and cooked rice and pasta are among the lowest in dietary
fiber content. Many snack foods and nuts tend to have a
moderately high level of dietary fiber. Whole wheat bread
has over twice the dietary fiber level of white bread. The
cereal industry is making sure the consumer looks to
breakfast cereal products to fulfill daily dietary fiber re-
quirements.
Whole cereal grains consist of bran, endosperm, and
germ components. Bran, which includes the pericarp, seed
coat, and aleulone layer, is the highest in dietary fiber [52].
Wheat barn is a concentrated source of dietary fiber com-
pared to whole wheat flour [190]. The typical dietary fiber
content of wheat bran is between 35 and 45% dietary fiber.
400
The total dietary fiber of corn flour (13.4%) is concen-
trated in the bran fraction (82-92%), which has substan-
tially more fiber than wheat bran (43-45%) [32]. Refined
corn bran is a relatively high-fiber ingredient with between
80 and 90% total dietary fiber, which is almost double that
of unrefined corn bran. Snadstead et al. [171] found that
corn fiber was composed of 70% hemicellulose, 23% cel-
lulose, and 0.1% lignin on a dry weight basis. The amount
of soluble dietary fiber in corn is less than in any other ce-
real except rice [4].
3-Glucan content of oat ranged from 3.9 to 6.8% [198].
Oat barn is a good source of total dietary fiber (24-32%),
having about an equal mixture of insoluble to soluble di-
etary fiber, as indicated by Vetter [190]. Total dietary fiber
in scotch and pearled barley was found to be 19.0% and
17.3% [32]. Rice bran is also a good source of TDF (about
30%). Brewers' spent grain [34] and distillers' grains [113]
are moderately high in TDF content.
D. Cellulose
1. Occurrence
Cellulose is the major building block of the cell wall
structure of higher plants. Cellulose comprises 20-50% of
the dry matter of many fibrous foods such as vegetables
and cereals [175]. It is usually associated with the struc-
tural components hemicellulose and pectin. Collectively,
these three chemical systems are referred to as the plant
structural polysaccharides. Lignin is the main noncarbo-
hydrate component of the plant cell wall, which con-
tributes special characteristics to the structural properties
of the plant. These structural components (cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin) appear in various ratios
according to the type of plant tissue and the age of the
plant.
2. Structure and Properties
Cellulose is unbranched, and the chain may contain up to
10,000 (3-D-(1—>4)-linked glucopyranosyl units. Its molec-
ular weight varies depending on the type and location of
the plant studied. The extended molecule forms a flat rib-
bon, which is further stiffened by intra- and intermolecular
hydrogen bonds that produce a regular structure with low
solubility. Native cellulose is, however, composed of both
highly ordered, crystalline, and noncrystalline (amor-
phous) regions. Although the polymers are insoluble in
water, the amorphous cellulose has the ability to readily
absorb water. This allows the plant to have structural
strength, yet remain flexible and less susceptible to break-
age. Cellulose is a hygroscopic material, insoluble but able
to swell in water, dilute acid, and most solvents.
Shelton and Lee
3. Cellulose Derivatives
The most widely used cellulose derivative is sodium car-
boxymethylcellulose (CMC). CMC is an anionic, linear,
water-soluble polymer that can exist either as the free acid
or its sodium salt or mixtures thereof [107]. CMC is pro-
duced by treating cellulose sequentially with sodium hy-
droxide and sodium monochloroacetate. Since CMC con-
sists of long, fairly rigid molecules that bear a negative
charge due to numerous ionized carboxyl groups, electro-
static repulsion causes its molecules in solution to be ex-
tended. Also, adjacent chains repel each other. Conse-
quently, CMC solutions tend to be both highly viscous and
stable. Methyl cellulose comprises a family of cellulose
ethers in which methyl substitution occurs with or without
additional functional substituents.
Important roles for cellulose derivatives in foods are the
regulation of rheological properties, emulsification, stabi-
lization of foams, modification of ice crystal formation and
growth, and water-binding capacity [36]. High-fiber
breads make use of several cellulose derivatives.
E. Pentosans
1. Definition
Arabinoxylans are the other major group of polysaccha-
rides in endosperm cell walls of cereals. These het-
eropolysacccharides consist predominantly of arabinose
and xylose residues. They are called pentosans because
they are polymers of pentoses-monosaccharides with five
carbon atoms in the molecule. Their chemical structure is
illustrated in Figure 4. The D-xylose residues are linked by
13(1---4) glycosidic bonds to form a chain. Single arabi-
nose residue are attached to the xylose chain as branches.
Alternatively, pentosans could be described as hemicellu-
loses.
Hemicelluloses can be considered as polymers of vari-
FIGURE 4 Structure of wheat endosperm pentosans; possible
arabinose branching points at C2 and C3 are designed by *. (From
Ref. 166.)
Cereal Carbohydrates
ous hexoses, pentoses, xylose, and methyl uronic acid moi-
eties. It appears that the particular sequence of these poly-
mers may be peculiar to individual plants [175].
2. Solubility
The pentosans are classified on the basis of solubility into
water-soluble (WS) and water-insoluble (WIS) pentosans.
The WS pentosans are extractable with cold water, where-
as alkali is needed to extract the WIS pentosans [10]. Be-
cause of differences in extraction procedures, comparisons
of literature values for solubility and amounts of pentosans
extracted may not be very meaningful. The percentage of
soluble pentosans is higher in the endosperm than in the
bran and shorts fractions [45].
Arabinosyl side chains affect the solubility of the
(1--.4)-13-xylan, which in the unsubstituted state aggre-
gates into highly insoluble complexes. This has been
shown in the preparation of a series of water-soluble arabi-
noxylans from purified wheat flour arabinoxylan by partial
removal of arabinosyl side-branches using an tx-L-arabino-
furanosidase [6]. Uronic acid, short oligosaccharide, phe-
nolic, and acetyl substituents affect the shape and solubili-
ty of arabinoxylan in a similar way.
(a) Water-Soluble Pentosans. The water-soluble pen-
tosans, pentosans that are extracted from flour with cold
water, amount to less than 1.0% of the flour [135].
The water-soluble pentosans also contain ferulic acid.
The ferulic acid is bound only to the largest soluble arabi-
noxylans. The content of ferulic acid in pentosans extract-
ed from flour and dough is 0.31-0.56 mg/g pentosans. Fer-
ulic acid was not detected in the arabinogalactans.
(b) Water-Insoluble Pentosans. The amount of water-
insoluble pentosans in wheat is about 1-1.3% [135]. The
main sugars in this fraction are L-arabinose, D-xylose, and
D-glucose, with the proportion differing among varieties.
Alkali is needed to extract the WIS pentosans. One differ-
ence between WIS and WS pentosans is the degree of
branching, with the WIS pentosans having the greatest de-
gree of branching. Water-insoluble pentosans contain fer-
ulic acid in the range of 0.86-1.10 mg/g, depending on the
wheat from which they are isolated.
3. Pentosans in Cereals
Pentosans can be found in many cereals, such as barley,
wheat, oats, and rye, and in vegetables such as beans and
cassava. The composition and properties of pentosans are
very different in these materials. The amounts of pentosans
observed in wheat (6.6%) are in the range of levels found
in barley (5.9%), oats (7.7%), triticale (7.1%), and rye
(8.5%) and are significantly higher than amounts found in
401
rice (1.2%) (Table 2). The total pentosan content of flour
has been reported to vary from 1 to 2%.
Wheat pentosans consist of soluble and insoluble linear
arabinoxylans and branched arabinogalactans. Arabinoxy-
lans consist of linear xylans with single L-arabinose
residues, whereas arabinogalactans have a galactan chain
backbone that is highly branched with single L-arabinose
residues as well as with low molecular weight peptides.
The soluble arabiboxylans are responsible for the high vis-
cosity of their solutions in water [96]. The rheological
properties of soluble wheat arabinoxylans have been the
object of numerous investigations during recent years.
The main component of wheat and rye aleulone cell
walls is arabinoxylans [17]. Aleulone cell walls of barley
consist of 67% arabinoxylan and 26% mixed-linked P-glu-
cans, whereas the starchy endosperm cell walls contain
about 20% arbinoxylans and 70% mixed-linked P-glucans.
In wheat, barley, and rye, ferulic acid is esterified to the
arabinoxylans. Ferulic acid—arabinoxylan complexes are
concentrated in the aleulone layer.
Xylose and arabinose account for 90-95% of corn seed
hemicellulose. Maize pericarp hemicellulose contain 54%
xylose, 33% arbinose, 11% galactose, and 3% glucuronic
acid [194].
The pentosans of sorghum ranged from 1.8 to 4.9% in
mature cultivars, amounts similar to levels observed in
oats [127]. Pentosans constitute 2-3% of the whole pearl
millet grain [12].
4. Significance in Baking
It is generally accepted that the pentosans have excellent
water-holding capacity, although few studies have been
published on this property. Estimates suggest that the wa-
ter uptake of pentosans is about 15 g water/g dry basis
[29]. Thus pentosans have an impact on the water absorp-
tion of dough, especially rye dough, since the pentosan
content of rye is about twice as high as that of wheat. Even
in a standard wheat-baking recipe the pentosans are able to
bind one fourth of the water [29]. In studies of the effect of
added WS and WIS pentosans of rye and wheat on the
farinograph properties of wheat and rye doughs, pen-
stosans were found to contribute to the water absorption of
both doughs and dough development time of wheat dough
[135]. Pentosans have an effect on bread volume, cell uni-
formity, crumb characteristics, and elasticity. According to
Kim and D'Appolonia's studies [105], added pentosans
decreased the staling rate, with the water-insoluble fraction
having a more dramatic effect. Kinetic studies indicated
that adding pentosans decreased the amount of starch com-
ponents available for crystallization and, thus, decreased
the bread staling rate. Bechtel et al. [18] failed to observe
402
an antifirming effect in breads containing pentosans of the
starch tailings fraction. Thus, a clear view of pentosan ef-
fect on flour rheology and baking performance is not evi-
dent from published reports [206]. Perhaps for this reason,
no one mechanism has been given for pensosan effects.
Several possibilities are as follows. Pentosans influence
baking in at least two ways. First, because of their signifi-
cant water-holding capacity, they affect the water distribu-
tion in the dough. Pentosans can absorb 10 times their
weight in water because of their hydrophilic nature [111].
This effect is important in both wheat and rye baking
processes. Second, through their rheological properties
they also affect the gas retention of dough, particularly rye
dough. Whereas the ability of wheat dough to retain gas is
primarily associated with gluten, in rye dough the gas re-
tention is attributed to the high viscosity of soluble arabi-
noxylans [76].
Although it is generally accepted that pentosans influ-
ence the water absorption of doughs, the results describing
their impact on the loaf volume of wheat and rye breads
are contradictory [10].
F. p-Glucan
1 Definition
Cereal 13-(1—>3) (1—+4)-D-glucans are present in most cere-
al grains but occur in larger amounts in barley and oat
[198]. They are linear chains with (1—>3) and (1-4)- [3-
glucosidic linkages in the average ratio of 30:70. This av-
erage ratio would correspond to cellotriosyl and cellote-
traosyl (1-4) units linked to each other via (1—>3) bonds
(Fig. 5). Cereal [3-glucan, like amylose, amylopectin, dex-
trin, and cellulose, is composed entirely of glucose units.
The distinction among these polymers lies in the nature of
the linkage between the units.
CELLULOSE
MIXED-LINKED P-GLUCANS
Cellotriosyl unit
-0)-11-D-Glcp-(1-)4)-P-D-Glcp-(1-)4)-(3-D-Glcp-(1-4
Cellotetrosyl unit
-)3)-P-D-Gicp-(1-+4)-13-D-Gicp-(1.44)-13-D-Gicp-(1-44)-13-D-Gicp-(1-)
FIGURE 5 Structural features of cellulose and mixed-linkage
(1-4)-P-D-glucans. (From Ref. 183.)
Shelton and Lee
2. Solubility
The solubility of P-glucan is dependent on the fine struc-
ture. Most water-soluble 13-glucans contain approximately
30% (1-6)- and 70% (1-4)-linkages, which are organ-
ized into blocks of two or three (1-4)-linked residues sep-
arated by single (1-6)-linked residues. The (1-4)-link-
ages render the polysaccharide more insoluble, and the
difference in the number of consecutive (1-4)-linkages
may explain the differences in solubility of some f3-glucan
preparations [128].
13-Glucan is present in soluble and insoluble forms in
the barley. Most barley 13-glucan is located in endosperm
cell walls, but aleulone cell walls are also rich in P-glucan.
Water-soluble 13-glucans that were extracted at 40°C ac-
counted for up to 20% of the total [3-glucan in barley en-
dosperm cell walls, but at 65°C for approximately
50-70%. By contrast, the 13-glucans of wheat are unex-
tractable in water at 65°C [21].
3. 13-Glucan in Cereals
This polysaccharide is common in oats, barley, and rye and
also is present in wheat. The highest concentrations are
found in barley and oats. f3-Glucan contents of groats of
oats are reported to range from 3.9 to 6.8% [200] (Table 2).
[3-Glucan contents of hulled malting and feed barley grains
typically range from 3 to 7% [139].
13-Glucan in wheat has been largely ignored. The total 3-
glucan content in wheat (1.4%) is close to that of triticale
(1.2%) while being higher than rice (0.11%) and lower than
rye (1.9-2.9%). Wheat 13-glucan is found in the inner aleu-
lone cell wall and subaleurone endosperm cell wall, but a
considerable amount is also found in the crease area.
4. Functional Properties
From the point of view of the food and beverage industry,
one of the most important physical characteristics of the
cereal 3-glucans is viscosity. Most early studies reported
aqueous viscosities for barley and oat gums, composed
mainly of P-glucans, as being two to five times that of wa-
ter [198].
It has been known for some time that barley P-glucan
can form a gel. The same phenomenon was recently ob-
served for mildly acid-hydrolyzed oat f3-glucan [51]. Al-
though gel formation and high viscosity are considered to
be largely beneficial in baking and in human nutrition, [3.-
glucans may cause several problems in brewing: decreased
rates of wort separation and beer filtration and formation
of hazes and gelatinous precipitates in the final beer [10].
Yields of extract will be reduced if filterability is poor or if
the endosperm cell walls are not well modified and the
starch and protein enclosed by the cell walls do not be-
come accessible to amylases and proteases.
Cereal Carbohydrates
The main features of interest in (3-glucans are their wa-
ter-binding properties and their physiological effects as di-
etary fiber. 13-Glucan of barley, largely in the form of
(1-6),(1-4) mixed-linked (3-glucans, may contribute to
the glycemic effect [202] and has been shown to lower
cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic individuals [139].
Oat bran and oat products have captured the attention of
both industry and the scientific community because the
soluble P-glucan abundant in oat bran has been reported to
lower blood glucose and insulin in rats [189] and humans
[100]. Soluble mixed-linked P-glucan has a high viscosity
in water, and it has been suggested that the creation of vis-
cous conditions within the small intestine is one of the
mechanisms involved in hypocholesterolemic responses to
oat and barley in animals and in humans [4].
G. Lignin
Lignin is usually associated with mature plant cells and is
commonly found in cell groups with specialized functions,
such as mechanical support, conduction of solutes, and re-
sistance to microbial degradation [182].
Lignin can be described as three-dimensional, highly
complex networks built up by the aromatic p-hyroxy-
phenyl, guaiacyl, and syringyl units [183]. It is generally
agreed that the precursors of these building blocks are the
corresponding cinnamyl alcohols that form the phenyl-
propane units. These are transformed into lignins by a
complex polymerization process involving radical and hy-
drogenation reactions. Unlike polysaccharides, lignin is a
hydrophobic polymer, which gives it very different physi-
cal-chemical properties.
Most studies on lignin have been carried out on wood
lignins. It is not certain how similar lignins from wood ma-
terials are to lignin in food plants. The detailed structure of
lignin in our main foods is unknown.
Lignin is extremely resistant to both chemical and enzy-
matic degradation and is probably the most resistant sub-
stance found in nature. It is slowly soluble in organic sol-
vents such as dioxane but is classically isolated as the
residue insoluble in 72% (w/w) sulfuric acid.
H. Fructans
Polymeric forms of glucose (glucans) constitute the major
nonstructural reserve or storage carbohydrates throughout
biology in the form of starch in plants. One of the most
widespread alternatives to glucans as reserve carbohy-
drates are the oligomers and polymers of fructose, the fruc-
tans [80].
Fructans are defined as any compound where one or
more fructosyl-fructose linkages constitute a majority of
403
the linkages. This refers to polymeric material as well as
oligomers as small as the disaccharide inulobiose. Materi-
al included in this definition may or may not contain at-
tached glucose.
1. Occurrence
Fructans are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They
are present not only in monocotyledons and dicotyledons,
but also in green algae [134]. The first fructan that was dis-
covered and throughly studied was inulin. In general, fruc-
tans are distributed throughout the plants in which they oc-
cur, although their concentration in different parts of the
same plant varies considerably. Usually, their amount is
very small in leaves and especially large in roots, bulbs, tu-
bers, rhizomes, and some immature fruits.
Numerous cereals adapted to temperate or cool climates
contain fructan, a polyfructosyl-sucrose, as the main car-
bohydrate reserve in vegetative tissue [191]. Enormous
quantities of fructan may be accumulated in leaves, stems,
and roots depending on the stage of plant development and
on environmental conditions.
Fructans are considered not only to be another type of
reserve polysaccharide but also to play a role as protective
agents against chilling and freezing. Fructans may play the
role of "osmotic buffers," as plants that contain them are,
in general, species that endure a cold or a dry period during
their life cycle when the osmotic activity of fructans may
temper these conditions by increasing resistance to freez-
ing or desiccation [54].
Seeds of wheat were found to contain fructan during
certain stages of development. Undoubtedly, fructan plays
a prominent role in determining grain yields of cereals. Ini-
tiation of fructan accumulation has been monitered by
measuring the activity of sucrose: sucrose fructosyl trans-
ferase, which has been shown to increase its level follow-
ing chilling [30].
2. Chemical Structure
Frucatans have a unique structural feature within the family
of polysaccharides in that no bond of the fructose furanose
ring is part of the macromolecular backbone (Fig. 6). Be-
sides, they are one of the few natural polymers where the
carbohydrate exist in the furanose form. These two structur-
al features play an important role in the flexibility of the fu-
ranose ring in comparison with the relative rigid pyranose
ring of the majority of reserve polysaccharides, which
brings additional flexibility to the whole fructan molecule.
There are three main groups of fructans: (1) the inulin
type or those with P-(2--.1)-fructofuranosyl units, (2) the
phlein type or those with 13-(6---2)-o-fructofuranosyl units,
and (3) the branched type or those with both kinds of gly-
cosidic linkages.
404
HO—
HO—
OH
Isokestose
Neokestose
FIGURE 6 Structure of fructosyl-sucroses. (From Ref. 149.)
Bancal et al. [16] found that fructan in wheat is primari-
ly based on bifructose with the extension of 2,1- and 2,6-
linked chains. They separated oligomers up to DP 6 using
HPLC with a C18 column and mobile phase of water.
The degree of polymerization (DP) varies with plant
species and their life cycle, but all fructans have a low de-
gree of polymerization compared with starch [150]. In
contrast with winter cereals, cold-hardened oat crowns
have about a third the degree of polymerization (DP > 6) as
fructan but twice as much DP 3-5 fructan.
3. Fructans in Cereals
Considerable variation has been reported in fructan quanti-
ty within and between fructan-storing species. Among
grain crops, wheat, barley, and rye accumulate large
amounts of fructan during cold hardening [134]. In wheat
and barley, fructan is based exclusively on 1- and 6-ketose
[15], while Livingston et al. [119] indicated that oat fruc-
tan is based almost exclusively on neotestose and oat fruc-
tan primarily of DP 3-6.
Shelton and Lee
4. Industrial Applications
Fructan-containing tubers require long cooking time to im-
prove digestability and reduce flatulence problems. Fruc-
tans are not broken down by the human digestive system
and contribute only about 6 kJ/g through indirect colonic
fermentation. Fructans, due to this resistance to hydrolysis
by the endogenous secretions of the human digestive tract,
meet the definition of dietary fiber [25].
Industrially the fructan inulin is extracted from chicory
root, a biennial plant grown commercially in Holland. The
inulin-extraction process involves extraction, purification,
and finally spray-drying of inulin powder.
Owing to its great sweetness and high utilization in the
body, D-fructose has been of special interest in nutrition for
many decades. It can be used not only for the production of
fructose, high-fructose syrups, ethanol, and other organic
solvents, but also for the manufacture of furan-based and
other chemicals. Moreover, a mixture of isoketose, nys-
tose, and 1-fructofuranosyl nystose is commercially pro-
duced from sucrose in Japan under the trade name of Neo-
Cereal Carbohydrates
sugar, and it is widely used for humans and animals in
health foods and feeds [149].
V. ANALYSIS (ANALYTICAL METHODS)
The analysis of carbohydrates frequently involves not only
the determination of the total amount of sugar present in
the sample but often the identity, configuration, and con-
formation of the carbohydrate components as well. The
identification and analysis of carbohydrates, particularly
when they are part of a polysaccharide, have been limiting
factors in the development of knowledge and understand-
ing of the structure and function of complex polysaccha-
rides.
The analytical information most commonly sought for
mono- and disaccharide composition of cereal grains re-
quires the determination of some or all of the following:
glucose, fructose, sucrose, and maltose. Analysis of these
sugars must be applicable to a wide range of cereal prod-
ucts. Monosaccharide analysis is often employed for the fi-
nal determination of carbohydrate polymer constituent,
thus enabling specific groups or types of carbohydrates to
be measured. Dietary fiber determination is perhaps the
most common application in current practice, but others
include the measurement of pentosans and P-glucans in ce-
real products.
Most determinations of carbohydrates have employed
chromatographic techniques. The instrumental methods of
gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) and high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) have largely replaced the
earlier methods of paper chromatography and thin-layer
chromatography (TLC) for the determination of mono-
and disaccharides due to their advantages with regard to
separation efficiencies, quantification, and speed of analy-
sis.
Although chromatographic methods may currently be
regarded as the methods of choice, physical, chemical and
biochemical method will play a role in the analysis of car-
bohydrates. Physical methods, primarily polarimetry and
refractometry, are of limited use for mixtures of mono- and
disaccharides due to the obvious lack of specificity. How-
ever, chemical and biochemical methods can provide spe-
cific analyses by either direct or indirect measurements
[64].
A. Measurement of Sugars
1. Sample Preparation
The first stage in the analysis of the free sugars depends
primarily on whether the sugars are in solution or whether
they need to be extracted from the foodstuffs.
405
The free sugars are usually measured in aqueous
ethanol extracts. Glucose, fructose, and sucrose can fre-
quently be detected together with some maltose [174].
Some care is necessary in the extraction if hydrolysis of
the glucofructans found in most cereals is to be avoided.
The mixture of polysaccharides in cereals depends on
the type of cereal and its extraction rate. Cereal prepara-
tions of low extraction rate, where the branny outer layers
and the germ have been largely removed, contain mainly
starch, although small amounts of arabinoxylans are usual-
ly present.
Extraction with aqueous ethanol provides a convenient
way of isolating the free sugars; the residue insoluble in al-
cohol provides a convenient starting material for the esti-
mation of the polysaccharides
The free sugars are generally soluble to a significant ex-
tent in aqueous alcoholic solutions and, like proteins and
virtually all polysaccharides, are insoluble at alcohol con-
centrations about 70-75% (v/v). Most sugar methods are
sensitive to high concentrations of alcohol, and for reduc-
ing sugar methods in particular, alcohol must not be pres-
ent in the extract.
Prior to the analysis, the sugars must be dissolved in
water, and it is necessary to remove interfering substances.
This involves eliminating colored compounds, all optically
active nonsugar substances (tannins, glycosides, and
amino acids), and other potentially interfering con-
stituents. When using reduction methods, it is also essen-
tial to remove colloidal materials (proteins), which would
prevent the proper growth of Cu2O precipitate and, obvi-
ously, nonsugar, copper-reducing materials.
2. Chemical Methods
Reducing sugar methods can be applied to measure free re-
ducing sugars in the presence of the nonreducing sucrose.
A wide range of methods has been used for the measure-
ment of reducing sugars. The Lane-Eynon method and the
Munson and Walker method are the most regularly used
Micro-colorimetric methods are also available for the
measurement of total reducing sugars. The Nelson-Somo-
gyi method [172] carries out the determination of reducing
sugars using arsenomolybdate-copper reagent. Copper(II)
ions are initially reduced to the cuprous form by heating
with the carbohydrate solution, and the resulting Cu+ fur-
ther reduces the arsenomolybdate to molybdenum blue,
which is then spectrophotometically measured at 820 nm.
Ferricyanide reduction can be measured either by iodo-
metric procedures or colorimetrically. Reducing sugars
may also react with alkaline Fe(CN)6, if heated, forming a
ferrocyanide derivative which reacts with Fe3+ salts to give
406
Prussian blue. Then the excess ferricyanide can oxidize
potassium iodide to produce iodine, which is titrated with
sodium thiosulfate [88].
The wide range of condensation reactions used in
strong acid solution lead to colored products. The anthrone
procedure [156] is reasonably specific for hexoses, and the
ferric chloride/orcinol hydrochloric acid method [49] is
specific for pentoses.
The phenol sulfuric acid method [53] is a general
method for all carbohydrate species. This test is not only
qualitative, but if the composition of the polysaccharides
being assayed is accurately known, the method is quantita-
tive. The response factors for different polysaccharides
vary, however, so that if their compositions are not known,
the assay is only semi-quantitative. This method involves
two stages: dehydration of sugars to furfural and hydroxy-
methylfurfural with concentrated H2SO4 and condensation
of these substances with phenol to produce a yellow color,
its intensity being proportional to the carbohydrate con-
centration. Simple sugars, oligosaccharides, polysaccha-
rides, and their derivatives, including the methyl ethers
with free or potentially free reducing groups, give an or-
ange-yellow color when treated with phenol and concen-
trated sulfuric acid. The results obtained are given as total
carbohydrates, although different sugars give rise to differ-
ent intensities of color depending on the way in which they
are dehydrated by the acid.
3. Enzymatic Methods
Enzymatic biochemical procedures provide very specific
methods for some monosaccharides and disaccharides, and
the improvements in enzyme technology have made them
useful in routine analysis. The glucose oxidase methods
[13] have virtually displaced the older reduction methods
because of their specificity and their ease of operation. In
this method, the indicator yields colored oxidation prod-
ucts. The intensity of the color products is proportional to
the glucose concentration and is measured colorimetrical-
ly. The hexokinase method is another method for glucose
determination. A variation on this method is where the end
product is colorless but may be measured using a spec-
trophotometer, e.g., production of NADPH measured at
340 nm, where NADPH is proportional to the glucose con-
centration.
4. Chromatographic Methods
Analysis of the complex mixture of glucose, fructose, su-
crose, and maltose that occurs in many cereal grains is dif-
ficult using reducing sugar methods alone [172]. A combi-
nation of enzymatic and acid hydrolysis can be used, but
the most useful approach is either chromatographic analy-
sis or the specific enzyme methods.
Shelton and Lee
HPLC began to be applied to the analysis of sugar mix-
tures in the 1970s. It is possible to achieve complete sepa-
ration of the mono- and disaccharides present in most cere-
als, and it has been widely used in the analysis of higher
oligosaccharides [48]. HPLC separations using a range of
column packings, with water as the eluting medium and re-
fractive index detection, may give good separations.
GLC provides effective separation and analysis, but the
sugars must be derivatized. Two classes of derivatives
seem to provide the most satisfactory separation of sugar
mixtures: the trimethylsilyl derivatives of the sugars them-
selves [43] and the alditol acetates prepared after reducing
the sugars to the alditols with borohydride [37].
In comparing GLC and HPLC methods for determina-
tion of mono- and disaccharides, several factors are in-
volved, including sample preparation, speed of analysis,
sensitivity, and specificity. Overall, practical considera-
tions favor HPLC, at least for most routine analyses, with
GLC employed in specialized areas where its advantages
are beneficial [64].
B. Measurements of Starch Content
When starch is to be analyzed, the cereal is first extracted
with 80% hot ethanol to eliminate low molecular weight
sugars, followed by hot ethanolic KOH to remove interfer-
ing proteins and fats. As a last step, the food is reextracted
with 80% hot ethanol [144].
Most analytical procedures for the measurement of
starch involve hydrolysis of the polysaccharide and the
measurement of the products of hydrolysis (usually as glu-
cose). The hydrolysis is based on the use of enzymatic pro-
cedures. The availability of amylases stable at very high
temperature offers greatly reduced hydrolysis times.
The method involves treatment of a sample at approxi-
mately 95°C with thermostable oc-amylase to obtain starch
depolymerization and solubilization [129]. The slurry is
then treated with purified amyloglucosidase to give quanti-
tative hydrolysis of the starch fragments to glucose, which
is measured with glucose oxidase/peroxidase reagent. This
procedure is quantitative for a wide range of modified
starches and cereal products. This method is approved by
AACC [1].
C. Determination of Amylose Contents
Amylose and amylopectin are quantitatively determined
by several methods, and variable results have been report-
ed. The most widely used technique for amylose determi-
nation is a colorimetric assay in which iodine binds with
amylose to produce a blue-colored complex [101]. Ground
grains are gelatinized with NaOH solution at 100°C for 10
minutes and neutralized with acetic acid to provide a final
Cereal Carbohydrates
pH of 4.5. Iodine solution (0.2 g iodine and 2.0 g potassi-
um iodide in 100 ml of aqueous solution) is added and ab-
sorbance of the solution at 620 nm is measured with a
spectrophotometer.
Complex formation with iodine is competitively inhib-
ited by lipids, which make essentially the same helical
complex with the linear portion of the glucan. Starch often
contains small amounts of lipids. Cereal starches may con-
tain 0.6-1.3% lipid, which may cause considerable reduc-
tion of the iodine affinity and thus amylose content. There-
fore, it is necessary to remove the lipids completely by
proper methods.
An improved colorimetric method, based on the reac-
tion between amylose and iodine, has been described
[126]. Flour is dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide and the
starch precipitated with ethanol. The extracted starch is re-
dissolved in urea-dimethylsulfoxide and the resulting solu-
tion defatted with ethanol and then reacted with iodine.
The absorbance of the blue-colored amylose-iodine com-
plex is measured, thus determining the iodine-binding ca-
pacity of starch.
D. Viscosity Measurements of
Starch Suspensions
Several viscosity measurement techniques exist, working
with specially designed appliances [73]. Most of them do
not record the absolute viscosity of a starch paste, but the
torque as a viscosity signal, influenced by a number of fac-
tors such as rotational speed, geometry of the measuring
device, and other methodical factors. In spite of these prin-
cipal disadvantages, viscosity measurements of starch
pastes are well established and approved by different or-
ganizations. Most common techniques are handicapped by
long analysis time and requirements for pasting and mea-
suring. Considerable amounts of starch are also needed.
Viscosity of starch has been determined using a Braben-
der Visco-Amylograph as a standard method and more re-
cently the Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA).
With the Brabender Visco-Amylograph, one can register
the torque on a spindle while rotating the measuring cup
filled with a starch suspension, which is subjected to a de-
fined heating and cooling program [167]. A viscosity profile
is obtained in arbitrary units (Brabender Units, or BU).
However, the Brabender has some disadvantages, such as a
long analysis time and the need for a large sample size.
The amylograph measures and records viscosity
changes that occur during heating, holding, and cooling of
a starch-containing mixture. Curves obtained with a flour
slurry help to predict starch behavior during processing of
cereal-based products. Curves provide an approximate in-
dication of the gelatinization temperature of the starch, af-
407
ter which the paste viscosity exceeds the measuring ability
of the instrument and the test is terminated.
The RVA can shorten the run time, while maintaining
high correlation with Brabender Visco-Amylograph re-
sults, and provide good reproducibility for measuring
starch pasting properties [44,73,184]. An aqueous suspen-
sion of ground sample is prepared in the disposable canis-
ter and placed into the instrument, which simultaneously
heats and stirs the contents. The starch in the heated sam-
ple gelatinizes and forms a paste, with consequent increase
in viscosity, which is continually monitored. The maxi-
mum viscosity during heating (peak viscosity), minimum
viscosity after the peak, and final viscosity provide an indi-
cation of the pasting properties of the sample and hence its
processing value for different purposes.
E. Enzymatic Evaluation of the Starch
Retrogradation
An enzymatic evaluation procedure for the degree of
starch retrogradation, which is applicable to the complex
foods in the food industry, has been proposed [188]. This
procedure includes the digestion of gelatinized starch by
Bacillus subtilis a-amylase, which can only attack the ge-
latinized starch, after which the residual nondigestible
starch was determined colorimetrically with iodine. The
presence of considerable amounts of ingredients, i.e., 30%
sucrose, 20% NaCl, or 30% casein, did not interfere with
the determination.
F. Determination of Starch Damage
The methods currently available and routinely used for
measuring levels of starch damage are based on two prop-
erties. The first, the nonenzyme or "amylose" method, re-
lies on the increased extractability of amylose from dam-
aged starch granules, while the second, the "enzymatic"
method, uses the increased susceptibility of these granules
to the degradation by amylolytic enzymes [14]. The first
method is based on cold leaching of amylose, and the sec-
ond method is based on susceptibility to a-amylases and
[3-amylases.
The enzymatic method for measuring damage depends
on the fact that undamaged granules are totally resistant to
pure 13-amylase, while damaged granules are attacked at a
measurable rate [197]. The other starch-degrading en-
zymes all attack undamaged granules to some extent, al-
though their action on damaged granules is much faster, so
precise assays based on these enzymes are not possible
when there are low levels of damage.
Methods currently used for determination of starch
damage are based on enzymatic and iodometric assays.
Enzymatic methods depend on the increased susceptibility
408
of damaged granules to attack by a-amylase, the resultant
products being measured volumetrically or spectrophoto-
metrically. lodometric methods depend on the increased
reactivity of damaged granules with iodine, the reaction
being measured amperometrically or colorimetrically
[157]. Other analytical methods, such as the near-infrared
reflectance technique [140] and reverse-phase high perfor-
mance, have also been reported [180].
G. Measurement of Dietary Fiber
The choice of method for dietary fiber analysis is deter-
mined in the first place by the operational definition of di-
etary fiber being used. The procedure used for extracting
and digesting a food sample determines the components
that remain to be measured as dietary fiber, and the meth-
ods for measuring these components determine which of
them is actually part of the complex finally called "dietary
fiber" [137].
Although a number of analytical methods have been
proposed and developed for dietary fiber analysis, only a
few have received significant recognition and official ac-
ceptance. The AOAC method, which is based on the phys-
iological definition of dietary fiber, was approved by the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists as its official
method.
Sample preparation is an extremely important prelimi-
nary procedure for most fiber determinations, because
thorough extraction of nonfiber components, particularly
starch, is necessary to avoid overestimating fiber. Samples
must, therefore, be sufficiently fragmented and defatted for
polymers to freely diffuse for enzymes to gain unhindered
access to their substances during digestion. Pretreatment
should, however, be the minimum necessary to enable
sample digestion and fiber measurement without interfer-
ence, because heating, dehydrating, and grinding may lead
to reactions that change the solubility of fiber and other
food components.
Samples with a fat content greater than 5-10% are usu-
ally defatted. Dry milling or grinding, before or after defat-
ting, is the most common means of disintegrating samples.
A dry, homogeneous powder is convenient for accurately
obtaining a representative subsample for analysis. Very
small particle size has been associated with loss of fiber in
analysis, especially in methods using chemical hydrolysis
and/or detergent. This may be due to increased reactive
surface or loss of fine material during filtration [78].
The indigestible residue approach is a way to think
about dietary fiber both physiologically and analytically,
and proposed methods often employ a simulated digestion
with proteolytic and amylolytic enzymes followed by re-
covery of the residue and gravimetric measurement. These
Shelton and Lee
procedures were developed by an international group of
authors into the total dietary fiber method of the AOAC
[152]. In this procedure the sample is treated with enzymes
to remove proteins and starch. The mixture is precipitated
with ethanol, and the residue is filtered and weighed after
washing. The residue contains residual protein and mineral
matter, and corrections for protein and ash after incinera-
tion are made. Residual starch that has not been digested is
assumed to be unavailable and, therefore, falls within the
definition of dietary fiber.
The gravimetric methods for measuring fiber are rela-
tively easy and precise. They do not require the sophisti-
cated equipment or expertise demanded by GC analysis,
nor do they require the skill and control that seems neces-
sary with some of the more sensitive colorimetric methods.
Equipment for centrifuging or filtering, ovens for drying
and ashing, an accurate balance, water baths, and a pH me-
ter are the main requirements and are available to most an-
alytical laboratories. This procedure forms the basis of
many official regulatory methods for dietary fiber.
Due to the increased interest in soluble fiber because of
its unique physiological benefits, the AOAC method for to-
tal dietary fiber has been modified to give separate deter-
minations of SF (soluble fiber) and IF (insoluble fiber).
This definition includes one additional filtration step for
isolation and determination of SF.
Nongravimetric methods for analyzing dietary fiber
rely on measuring the sugar constituents of the fiber poly-
saccharides by GC or HPLC. GC or HPLC provides infor-
mation on the monosaccharide composition of the fiber but
requires chromatographic equipment. Derivatization for
GC analysis of sugars is now rapid, but GC has the draw-
back of rapid column deterioration, which can be expen-
sive and can lower reliability. An alternative derivatization
to aldonitrile acetate rather than alditiol acetate derivatives
and insertion of a guard column has been proposed to
lengthen column life [106]. HPLC has been successfully
used for separating the monosaccharides found in fiber hy-
drolysates [67].
The Englyst method [61] measures dietary fiber as non-
starch polysaccharides (i.e., non—a-glucan polysaccha-
rides) in plant foods and is based on dispersion of the ana-
lyzed sample in DMSO, in order to make the starch easily
hydrolyzable with a-amylase. The nonstarch polysaccha-
rides are then precipitated with ethanol and hydrolyzed
with sulfuric acid to monosaccharides. The uronic acids
are determined colorimetrically and neutral sugars by
GLC. The total nonstarch polysaccharides are expressed as
a sum of sugars. Due to elimination of lignin and losses
during acid hydrolysis of polysaccharides, dietary fiber
values are considerably lower than those obtained by non-
degradative methods.
Cereal Carbohydrates
Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is a
method with great potential because of its speed and sim-
plicity. However, the equipment is costly, and its useful-
ness depends on the adequacy of the chemical methods
used for calibration [137].
H. Measurement of Resistant Starch
Resistant starch is a minor component in most foods, but it
may contribute significantly to nondigestible polysaccha-
rides in starchy foods that contain little cell wall material,
particularly when the physical structure of the food or
starch, or retrogradation as a result of food processing, ren-
ders it indigestible [125]. Gravimetric methods have been
criticized for not providing a measure of nonstarch cell
wall material free from resistant starch, as the concept of
dietary fiber was originally intended to equate to plant cell
walls in food, and inclusion of resistant starch may make
fiber values vulnerable to food processing. Others argue
that when starch behaves as dietary fiber (nondigestible
polysacharide), it should be classified as a fiber compo-
nent, particularly as it has the physiological properties of
fiber.
Resistant starch is a component of total dietary fiber,
but TDF measurement gives no clue of the amount of RS
present in a food. A modified TDF method using dimethyl-
sulfoxide (DMSO) has been developed to measure RS di-
rectly [153]. TDF values with DMSO and without DMSO
were measured, and the difference was accounted to RS.
Englyst et al. [61] was able to measure resistant starch
by initially treating it with alkali and later with dimethyl
sulfoxide, which made it available to the enzymes so that a
better measure of plant-cell, nonstarch polysaccharides
could be obtained.
Sugar compositions can be analyzed using HPLC with
an Aminex HPX-87 column and refractive index detector
after hydrolyzing with H2SO4 at 100°C for 8 hours and
then desalinizing [179].
I. Measurement of Pentosans
The pentosans are estimated according to the colorimetric
methods of Hashimoto et al. [75]. In these assays, pen-
tosan-containing extracts are hydrolyzed, and the pentoses
released are estimated by an orcinol—hydrochloric
acid—ferric chloride procedure. Water-soluble pentosans
are extracted with water. The enzyme-extractable pen-
tosans are extracted in the presence of a standardized quan-
tity of pentosanase. The total pentosans are determined af-
ter acid hydrolysis of the entire sample with 2 N HC1 at
100°C, neutralization, and fermentation of hexose sugars
with fresh compressed baker's yeast.
409
J. Measurement of 13-Glucans
Viscosity methods have been used to screen barley culti-
vars for P-glucan content. Although good correlation with
soluble P-glucan was reported, in general the relationship
between P-glucan content and extract viscosity will tend to
be variable between different cereal grains or cultivars be-
cause of variations in structure and molecular weight of
the polysaccharide and different proportions of soluble
forms [5].
P-Glucan contents can be determined by the procedure
of McCleary and Glennie-Holmes [130]. These authors de-
scribe a rapid and precise method for the direct, quantita-
tive measurement of (13)(1-4)-P-D-glucan using highly
purified lichenase and P-glucosidase enzymes. The P-glu-
can is specifically hydrolyzed to oligosaccharides by
lichenase, and these oligosaccharides are quantitatively
cleaved to glucose by P-glucosidase. The glucose released
is measured at 510 nm, using glucose-oxidase—peroxidase
reagent.
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14

CEREAL LIPIDS

Okkyung Kim Chung and Jae-Bom Ohm

Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas

I. INTRODUCTION content or composition data reported by various re-

Lipids are relatively minor constituents in cereal grains.
However, they must be taken into consideration when dis-
cussing nutrition, grain storage, processing such as dry and
wet milling, brewing, cooking, and extrusion.
There have been extensive reviews on cereal lipids
[1-5], barley lipids [6,7], corn lipids [8,9], oat lipids
[10,11], rice lipids [12-15], sorghum and pearl millet
lipids [16], and wheat lipids [17-24]. The above reviews
and other specific studies cited in this chapter are recom-
mended for those who are interested in more detailed lipid
chemistry of each cereal grain.
This chapter is intended to give a broad overview of the
comparative values of cereal lipids—how they differ in
quantity and composition among various cereal grains.
Thus, most data are presented in tables so that this chapter
serves as a candid handbook. It includes data published
mainly since the 1970s.
IL WHOLE GRAIN LIPIDS
A. Free and Bound Lipid Components of
Nonstarch Lipids
Measured lipid content and composition depend largely on
extraction and purification procedures (extractant, extrac-
tion time and temperature, apparatus, the ratio of solvent to
solute, purifying methods, etc.) and to a lesser extent on
the samples (particle size, moisture content, varietal and
class differences, the growing conditions of a given grain,
etc.). Therefore, it is extremely difficult to compare lipid
searchers.
The terminology used to describe lipid preparations
should be defined. For a definition of the abbreviations
used throughout this chapter, see Table 1. Free lipids (FL)
are the portions easily extractable with nonpolar solvents
such as petroleum ether, hexane, diethylether, etc. by a
Soxhlet, a Goldfish extractor, or shaking. Bound lipids
(BL) are extracted from the FL-free residues at room tem-
perature with more polar solvents—generally alcohol
alone or mixed with a small portion of another solvent,
most commonly water. Water-saturated n-butanol (WSB)
is considered to be the most efficient solvent system for BL
extraction, especially from wheat flour. A mixture of chlo-
roform and methanol (2:1, 1:1, 1:2 by volume) also is com-
monly used. The sum of FL and BL is termed the nonstarch
total lipids (NSTL). NSTL also can be obtained by polar
solvent extraction at room temperature without the FL ex-
traction step. Therefore, for simplicity in this chapter, BL
or total lipids (TL) refer mainly to NSTL.
Lipids are generally reported in the literature as "crude
fat," determined by ether extraction. These data are most
available for whole grains, starchy endosperm, and other
structural portions. They are equivalent to FL contents.
The FL contents are more readily comparable among the
various laboratories than are BL or NSTL. Any polar sol-
vent, especially an alcohol-water mixture, extracts non-
lipid materials in substantial amounts, and a purification
procedure is required to remove the lipids. Therefore, the
reported quantities of BL or NSTL for a given grain are
more difficult to compare between laboratories, since some

417
418
are purified lipid contents and others are not, and the puri-
fied lipid content depends on the purification method.
Starch lipids (SL) are those bound to starch, and they
are the most difficult to extract. Since true SL are present
inside the starch granules, even a very polar solvent such
as WSB cannot extract them at ambient temperature. Effi-
cient extraction of SL requires mixtures of hot aqueous al-
cohol in proportions optimized for controlled swelling of
the starch granules and solubilization of the lipids [25].
The best solvents are n-propanol or isopropanol with water
(3:1, by volume) used under nitrogen at 100°C. However,
some n-butanol—water and methanol-water mixtures also
are reasonably efficient extraction solvents at 100°C [25].
Recently, a third lipid category was introduced. Starch sur-
face lipids (SSL) are portions of the nonstarch lipids
(NSL), which become firmly absorbed onto or into starch
granules during the separation of pure starch [24].
Lipids are minor components of the cereal grains shown
in Table 2. Data in this table, expressed on a dry basis,
were calculated from reported values [3,16,26-41]. Also,
some BL or TL contents were calculated by subtracting FL
from TL or by adding FL to BL, depending on the avail-
ability of data. The FL contents range from 1.5 to 2% of
the kernel weights of barley, rice, rye, triticale, and wheat
grains. They range from 3 to 7% of the kernel weights of
oats, millet, corn, and sorghum. However, BL contents in
grains are more uniform than FL contents. Therefore, the
FL:BL ratio is substantially higher for corn, millet, oats,
and sorghum than for rye, triticale, and wheat grains. The
FL:BL ratios for barley and rice are intermediate.
High oil-containing grains such as corn are continuous-
ly bred for higher oil content with improved production
yield. Application of wide-line NMR spectroscopy for
nondestructive analysis of the oil content in single corn
kernels made selection for higher oil content more efficient
[42]. Corn hybrids with 6-8.5% oil content and grain
yields equal to those of good commercial hybrids were
produced [43].
Several kinds of millet exist, and the lipid data in the
literature are confusing. Rooney compared the FL (ether
extraction) contents of several types of millet in a review
paper [16]. The average FL contents of pearl millet (Pen-
nisetum typhoids) were 5.1% (4.1-5.6%, 14 samples),
5.4% (2.8-8.0%, 167 samples, [44]), 5.6% (4.3-7.1%, 40
samples), and 6.2% (4.2-7.4%, 35 samples) [16]. Other
reported average FL contents were 4.8% (4.6-5.0%, 6
samples) for foxtail millet (Setaria Italica), 5.8%
(5.5-6.3%, 6 samples) for Japanese millet (Echinochloa
crusgalli), and 4.2% (3.8-4.9%, 20 samples) for proso
millet (Panicum miliaceum) [16]. Sridhar and Lakshmi-
narayana [30] reported a FL content range of 3.4-5.7% for
small millet, including little (Panicum sumatrense), kodo
Chung and Ohm
(Paspalum scrobiculatum), and barnyard (Echinocloa
colona). Sridhar and Lakshminarayana [32] also reported
FL contents of 5.0, 5.6, and 2.2% for Proso, Foxtail, and
Finger millet, respectively. Taira [45] found slightly high-
er average FL (ether extraction) contents for glutinous
foxtail millet (4.2-5.1%, average 4.7% of 21 samples)
than for nonglutinous foxtail millet (4.0-4.7%, average
4.4% of 31 samples). Among millet, pearl millet contains
the most FL.
Lipid contents of rice in Table 2 were cited by Morrison
[3] using the data of Nechaev and Sandler [2]. Taira and
Chang [46] reported that the average nonglutinous brown
rice FL (ether extraction) contents of 20 varieties each of
Indica and Japonica types were 2.7% (2.38-2.91%) and
2.9% (2.54-3.58%), respectively. More recently, Taira et
al. [47] reported the average FL contents of 15 nongluti-
nous varieties as 2.5% (2.24-2.97%) for Indica, 2.5%
(2.12-2.94%) for Japonica, 2.7% (2.35-3.03%) for Sinica,
and 2.6% (2.11-2.99%) for Japonica types.
B. Nonstarch Lipid Classes of Grains
Lipids can be separated into three broad classes by open-
column silicic acid chromatography. Nonpolar lipids (NL)
are first eluted by chloroform, glycolipids (GL) are eluted
next by acetone, and phospholipids (PL) are eluted last
with methanol. Mixtures of GL and PL are polar lipids
(PoL). After NL elution from a silicic acid column, PoL
can be eluted with methanol without the GL elution step.
Lipids can also be separated into various classes by thin-
layer chromatography (TLC) using different development
solvent systems. Each individual lipid class migrates dif-
ferently on the thin-layer plate, and the difference in mi-
gration rates makes it possible to separate complex lipids
into classes. The NL consists of SE, TG, DG, MG, and
FFA (see Table 1). The total NL content is obtained by
adding these NL class contents as measured by densitome-
try. Thus, the NL content of samples may differ, to some
extent, depending on methodology used (column separa-
tion or TLC separation).
The data [1,13,27,29,32,36-38,40,48-58] shown in
Table 3 may be used for only approximate comparison of
the NL content from different grains because some were
obtained by column chromatography and some by TLC.
All cereal grain lipids are richer in NL than in other class-
es: 60-70% of the TL are NL in wheat (hexaploid), triti-
cale, and rye; 65-80% for barley and oat groats; 77-87%
for sorghum and rice; and 75-96% for corn and millet
(Pennisetum americanum). Sridhar and Lakshminarayana
[32] reported 82, 80, and 79% of NL for Foxtail, Proso,
and Finger millet, respectively. There are significant vari-
etal effects on the NL/PoL ratio for corn and millet (P.
Cereal Lipids
americanum) [29]. Among wheat, tetraploid durum wheat
NSTL shows the highest NL:PoL ratio.
Among all grains, wheat is the richest in GL, followed
by triticale, rye, and barley. Millet lipids from P. ameri-
canum seed [29], corn, and sorghum lipids contain the
lowest GL content. However, other researchers [32] report-
ed that GL contents ranged from 6 to 14% for millet lipids
that were extracted by hot water—saturated butanol and
acid hydrolysis.
In general, PL also are more abundant in wheat, triti-
cale, rye lipids and slightly lower in barley, oat groats,
sorghum, and rice. Although corn NSTL were found to
have higher PL contents than GL contents, they were very
low in PL compared to other grains. Millet NSTL from P.
americanum seed [29] contains the lowest PL content of
all the grains.
Wheat flour FL, a minor component, have been report-
ed to have a significant effect on bread-making. When the
defatted flours were reconstituted with the extracted lipids
to their original levels, the PoL fraction of FL but not the
NL completely restored loaf volume and crumb grain
[59,60]. Among wheat flour lipids, GL are the best bread
loaf volume improvers [19-21].
In 1982, Chung et al. [61] reported a range of 177-230
mg/10 g (db) for wheat FL contents of 21 HRW wheats
(Table 4). Flours showed 83-109 mg FL, 67-84 mg NL,
and 11-27 mg PoL with NL:PoL ratios of 2.5-6.9. Ohm
and Chung [62] also investigated the FL contents of flours
from 12 commercial hard winter wheat cultivars grown at
six locations and reported the cultivar mean ranges of
90-109 mg/10 g (db) for total flour FL, 72-85 mg for NL,
11-16 mg for GL, 1.7-3.1 mg for monogalactosyldiglyc-
erides (MGDG), 5.3-6.5 mg for digalactosyldiglycerides
(DGDG), and 5-7 mg for PL (Table 4). The ratios of NL to
PoL were in a much narrower range than those of earlier
work by Chung et al. [61]. This was probably due to a
smaller variation in the released cultivars used by Ohm
and Chung [62]. Samples used by Chung et al. [61] includ-
ed some experimental lines.
Bekes et al. [63] investigated 22 hard and 4 soft spring
wheat varieties grown at 3 locations in Canada: varietal
means ranged from 72 to 134 mg per 10 g (db) flour for
FL, 61-115 mg for NL, 4-11 mg for GL, and 4-9 mg for
PL (Table 4). There were larger variations in FL contents
for Canadian spring wheats than for U.S. hard winter
wheats except for GL. Chung [64] showed that U.S. winter
and spring wheats could not be differentiated by lipid con-
tents and compositions.
Unlike the Canadian spring wheats [63], the U.K. soft
winter wheats [65] contained more FL (195-244 mg/10 g,
db) with higher NL content than hard winter wheats
(186-210 mg/10 g, db). In general, U.K. hard spring wheats
419
contained higher FL contents than the U.S. hard winter
wheats. Larsen et al. [66] reported New Zealand wheat flour
FL content ranges of 67-85 mg/10 g (db) for the 1984 crop
and 93-108 mg/10 g (db) for the 1985 wheat crop (Table 4).
Ten Greek bread wheat flours [67] contained lipid ranges
similar to those in U.S. Kansas flours reported by Chung et
al. [61]. Australian scientists [68,69] also investigated their
wheat FL. Compared with the means of U.S. wheat and
flour FL [61], Australian wheats contained substantially
less FL and NL but higher PL. Australian flours contained
similar FL and NL but still higher PoL content (Table 4).
C. Fatty Acid Composition of Grain Lipids
All cereal grain lipids are rich in unsaturated fatty acids
(FA) (Table 5). Palmitic acid (16:0) is a major saturated
FA, and linoleic acid (18:2) is a major unsaturated FA for
all cereals except for brown rice. In brown rice, oleic acid
(18:1) is a major unsaturated FA. The presence of palmi-
toleic acid (16:1) and eicosenoic acid (20:1) is reported
quite often but usually at levels below 1% of total FA com-
position.
Fatty acid compositions are generally similar for barley,
rye, triticale, and wheat lipids. Rye lipids are somewhat
higher in linolneic acid (18:3) than those of other cereals.
Oat lipid FA composition is similar to that of brown rice,
because oats and brown rice are rich in oleic acid. Millet
lipids are generally higher in stearic acid (18:0) than all
other cereal lipids.
There are wide ranges in FA compositions of corn oils
(Table 6). Jellum [82] reported a range of 14-64% oleic
acid and 19-71% linoleic acid for the world collection of
788 varieties of corn (Table 6). The wide ranges in FA com-
position were due to more lines having been examined in
corn than in any of the other cereal grains [1]. Dunlap et al.
[86,87] reported on corn genotypes with unusual fatty acid
compositions (Table 6). They found palmitic acid ranges of
6.3-7.6% and 16.7-18.2% for low and high saturated corn
genotypes, respectively. They also reported a range of
43.9-46.1% of oleic acids for high oleic acid lines.
Fatty acid composition differs depending on the lipid
extractant (Tables 5 and 6). For example, FL were higher
in both oleic and linoleic acids than the BL of corn and
pearl millet, whereas FL were lower in palmitic acid than
the BL of millet, oats, and corn. The FA composition of
NSTL from corn is intermediate to those of FL and BL
based on data complied by Morrison [3].
Wheat lipid FA compositions for different classes or
subclasses are shown in Table 7. The average of 6 HWW
wheats and 14 SWS wheat lipids was lower in palmitic and
stearic acids and higher in linoleic and linolenic acids than
the overall average of 290 wheat lipids. The average FA
420
compositions of 103 HRW and 46 HRS wheat lipids were
very similar. According to Davis et al. [80], the average of
17 durum wheat lipids was higher in palmitic acid and
lower in linoleic acid than overall wheat lipids. However,
the range of four durum wheat lipid FA compositions re-
ported by Youngs [88] is in agreement with the 290 wheat
lipids reported by Davis et al. [80], except that durum
wheat lipids were higher in linoleic acid.
III. NONSAPONIFIABLE LIPIDS IN GRAINS
Major cereal grain lipids are acyl lipids, which consist of
FFA and FA esterified to alcohols, primarily glycerol or its
derivatives. Other alcohols such as sterols, carotenoids,
and tocopherols may be esterified with FA, and, thus, these
esters can be considered as acyl lipids [5]. However, the
nonacyl parts of these lipids often occur in the unesterified
form. Nonsaponifiable lipids in cereals have been re-
viewed by Barnes [5], who included the sterols, triter-
penols, carotenoids, and tocopherols together with the hy-
drocarbons.
A. Tocol Derivatives
Tocol derivatives (tocopherols and tocotrienols) are re-
sponsible for the vitamin E activity of plant tissues. Vari-
ous combinations of all eight tocol derivatives are found
among cereal grains (Table 8). In general, y-T and y-T-3
are not detectable or are present in low concentration in
grains (e.g., wheat, rye, and triticale) that contain signifi-
cant proportions of 13-T and 13-T-3 (Table 8). Conversely,
the 13-tocol derivatives are found in insignificant quantities
when the corresponding y-tocol derivatives are present
(e.g., corn, millet, and rice). Barley grain is an exception
and contains both [3- and y-tocol derivatives. It may be pos-
sible that fl-tocopherol and 13-tocotrienol (5,8-dimethyl de-
rivatives) and y-tocopherol and y-tocotrienol (7,8-dimethyl
derivatives) represent components of alternative biosyn-
thetic routes to tocopherols and tocotrienols [5].
Significant difference in the tocol derivatives have been
reported for barley genotypes [91]. The a-T-3 ranged from
52 to 63% of the total barley tocol derivatives with an av-
erage tocol content of 5.9 mg/100 g (Table 9). Tocol deriv-
ative composition varies among corn inbreds [9], oat vari-
eties [91], and wheat classes [80]. The total tocol
derivative content of corn ranges from 2.6 to 10.2 mg/100
g, and the a-T content ranges from 2.1 to 44.8% of the to-
tal tocol derivatives (Table 9). Oat varieties showed aver-
age total tocol content of 2.59 mg/100 g, and a-T-3 content
ranged from 48 to 69% of the total tocol derivatives.
Among hard wheats, white wheats (HWW and HWS) con-
tain more tocopherols than red wheats (HRW and HRS).
White wheat tocopherols are richer in 8-T and poorer in a-
Chung and Ohm
T than red wheat tocopherols. Durum wheats contain the
smallest amount of total tocopherol, and their composition
is most similar to that of HRW wheats.
Among the structural parts of grains, tocol derivatives
are most abundant in the germ of barley, corn, and wheat
grains (Table 10). Tocol contents of rice bran oil ranged
from 88 to 1609 ppm (Table 11). The 13/y tocotrienol
formed 49.9-70.5% of total tocol of rice bran oil.
B. Carotenoids
Carotenoids are polyisoprenoid compounds. Carotenoid
hydrocarbons are known as carotenes and are the biosyn-
thetic precursors of the oxygenated derivatives called
"xanthophylls." The characteristics and properties of the
carotenoids reflect the presence of the conjugated polyene
chain, which accounts for the color and sensitivity to light,
heat, oxygen, and acid [5]. Color due to carotenoid is an
important factor in the use of cereal grains in food produc-
tion, particularly in the durum wheat used to make pasta.
Certain carotenoids are precursors of vitamin A (retinol).
Although they have no intrinsic activity, a-, [3-, and y-
carotene are converted into vitamin A in the intestinal mu-
cosa and liver [5].
Carotenoids are very minor constituents in cereal grains
(Table 12). They are most abundant in corn, yellow
sorghum, and millet grains. Durum wheats generally con-
tain more carotenoids than common bread wheats. Lutein
is the major carotenoid of wheat grain, although many
carotenoids appear to be present. It has been detected in
most studies of the carotenoids of other cereal grains. The
13-carotene also is commonly found as a minor component,
except in lipids extracted from barley grain, where it is
present as a major component together with xanthophylls.
The carotenoid contents of five Orenburg barley vari-
eties examined by Demchenko [102] were as follows:
Carotenoid Content (mg/kg oil)
a-Carotene 2.8-4.0
I3-Carotene 52-85
I3-Carotene isomer 0.9-2.0
y-Carotene 46-65
Ten carotenoid components are present in corn, with
zeaxanthin and lutein (xanthophylls) as major components
(Table 13). Carotenoids are not evenly distributed in corn
kernel fractions (Table 14). They are abundant in en-
dosperm, especially horny (vitreous) endosperm fractions
obtained by hand dissection: 74-86% of the total
carotenoid content was contained in the horny endosperm
(top portion, Table 14). Blessin et al. [105] further com-
pared the carotenoid contents in the hand-dissected frac-
tions with those in the dry-milled fractions. Fractionation
Cereal Lipids
was more crude using a sample from a commercial dry-
milling operation than by hand-dissection. Thus, xantho-
phyll contents were substantially higher in bran and germ
fractions from dry milling than in those obtained from
hand-dissection (bottom portion, Table 14).
Chen and Geddes [106] chromatographically deter-
mined the carotene, free xanthophyll, and xanthophyll es-
ters in various wheats (Table 15). They reported the total
carotenoid contents as being highest in soft wheats and
lowest in HRS wheats. Though the total carotenoid content
in durum wheat was comparable to those in other hexa-
ploid wheats tested by Chen and Geddes [106], durum
wheats are generally higher in carotenoid content than
bread wheats. Lepage and Sims [107] reported that a du-
rum (Mindum) flour and HRS (Thatcher) wheat flour con-
tained total carotenoid contents of 3.7 and 2.8 mg/kg, re-
spectively (Table 15). The carotenoid compositions in both
durum wheat and flour were substantially different from
those of three other classes of wheats; nearly 85% of the
carotenoid was free xanthophyll (Table 15).
In Australian bread wheat flours, the carotenoid content
varied from 1.5 to 4.3 mg/kg [108], whereas for the
semolina from eight American durum wheats, it ranged
from 4.4 to 6.9 mg/kg [109]. Later, the Canadian Grain
Commission [110] reported that a concentration of 5.5-8.4
mg/kg, expressed as 13-carotene on an as-is basis, was ob-
tained from 10,608 durum samples examined by the Grain
Research Laboratory in Winnipeg between 1972 and 1980
[111]. Hexaploid hard wheats have a much lower pigment
content.
The carotenoids are not homogeneously distributed in
the wheat kernel. The bran contains 0.88-2.22 mg/kg; the
germ, 4.13-11.04 mg/kg; and the endosperm, 1.57-2.18
mg/kg (Table 16). The carotenoid composition differs
among wheat classes and wheat fractions within a given
class of wheat.
The variety and the growing location have highly sig-
nificant effects on the carotenoid contents of durum wheats
[108,109]. The carotenoid content varied from 3.3 to 10.1
mg/kg among 15 semolinas from durum wheats grown in
France, and there was a 24 to 75% loss in carotenoid con-
tent during pasta-making [108]. Also, during milling into
semolina, large amounts of carotenoids are lost and can be
found in the by-products [106,111].
Wall and Blessin [112,113] reported zeaxanthin and
lutein as the major carotenoid components in yellow
sorghum grain (Table 17).
C. Sterols
Sterols are classified into three types: 4-demethylsterol, 4-
monomethylsterol, and 4,4'-dimethylsterols, including
421
triterpene alcohols. The major class is 4-demethylsterols,
which are generally called sterols.
The 13-sitosterol is the primary sterol in all cereal grains
(Tables 18 and 19) and their structural parts (Tables 18 and
20). The second major sterol is campesterol in corn and
rice kernels and their parts (Table 18) and in rye and
wheats (Table 19). However, the second dominant sterol is
A5-avenasterol in both common and wild oats (Table 18)
and stigmasterol is the second dominant sterol in sorghum
(Table 19).
Compositions of sterol in dissected wheat and sorghum
grain fractions are given in Table 20. Torres et al. [121] re-
ported stigmasterol as the second major sterol in wheat en-
dosperm and also a higher cholesterol content (Table 20)
than has been reported by others [116,119,120] (Table 20).
Palmer and Bowden [122] reported campesterol as the sec-
ond major sterol in both endosperm and embryo fractions
of sorghum (Table 20). Sorghum grain contained 394.0 mg
of 4-demethylsterols, 12.54 mg of 4-monomethylsterols,
and 65.6 mg of triterpenes in 1 kg (dry-weight basis) of
grain [122]. The 4-demethylsterol found was free (86% in
S), esterified (13% in SE), and glycosidated (1% in SG).
The 4-monomethylsterols were completely free (100% in
S), whereas the triterpenes were completely esterified
(100% in SE). Three quarters of the total sorghum sterols
were located in the embryo, whereas the triterpenes were
equally distributed between the embryo and the endosperm
of sorghum [122].
Sterol lipids are found in four forms in cereal grains:
free sterols (S), sterol esters (SE), sterol glycosides (SG),
and sterol glycoside esters (ASG). The P-sitosterol is the
major sterol in the sterol lipids of the wheat kernel [123],
aleurone fraction, and milled flour [125] (Table 21). In
milled wheat flour, 5 a-dihydrositosterol was reported to
be high, as was campesterol [125].
Ohnishi et al. [123] reported that the relative propor-
tions of wheat kernel sterols were 85% 4-demethylsterols,
3% 4-monomethylsterols, and 12% triterpenols including
4,4'-dimethylsterols in SE and similar proportions in S
(Table 21). The composition of 4-monomethylsterols was
38.5 and 35.2% gramisterol in SE and S, respectively; 25.8
and 18.9% citrostadienol; 11.0 and 20.0 obtusifoliol; 2.8
and 0.47% lophenol; and 21.9 and 25.5% unknown sterol
somponents [123]. The composition of 4,4-dimethylsterol
was 66.5 and 32.1% P-amyrin, respectively, in SE and S;
32.5 and 21.0% ot-amyrin; 1.0 and 8.2% cyclobranol in SE
and S, and 9.2% cycloartanol, 19.0% 24-methylenecy-
cloartanol, and 10.5% unknown component in S [123].
The composition [126,127] and sterol lipids [127] of
rice bran oil are shown in Table 22. The sterol composition
of rice bran oil was reported by Itoh et al. [126] to be 53%
4-demethylsterols, 12% 4-monomethylsterols, and 35%
422
triterpene alcohols including 4,4'-dimethylsterols, which is
substantially higher than those in corn oil and wheat germ
oil [126,127,129].
Kuroda et al. [128] analyzed SE, S, SG, and ASG of
bran separately (Table 22). The 4-methylsterols and triter-
pene alcohols with 4,4'-dimethylsterol were found along
with the 4-demethylsterols in SE and S but not in SG or
ASG. The principal FA components of SE were linoleic
(58.3%), oleic (30.4%), and palmitic (7.4%) acids, where-
as those of ASG were linoleic (42.5%), palmitic (29.9%),
and oleic (22.7%) acids [97]. The principal 4-demethyl-
sterols of all flour sterol lipids (SE, S, SG, and ASG) and
bran oil were (3-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol
(Table 22). The principal 4-monomethylsterols of bran oil
and sterol lipids (SE and S) were gramisterol and citrosta-
dienol, and the principal 4,4'-dimethylsterols were 24-
methylenecycloartanol and cycloartenol.
Mahadevappa and Raina [129] reported the total sterol
lipid content as 149 mg in 100 g finger millet including 13
mg SE, 91 mg S, 25 mg SG, and 20 mg ASG. The major
FA, totaling 85-90%, were the same in both esterified
sterols, but the proportions varied: palmitic, oleic, and
linoleic acids comprised 24, 49, and 17% in SE and 43, 36,
and 7% in ASG. All flour sterol lipids in finger millet con-
tained 80-84% (3-sitosterol with the reminder being stig-
masterol [129].
The 4-demethylsterols compose 87-98% of the total
sterols in both corn oil and wheat germ oil (Table 23). The
4-demethylsterol contents were 1441 and 1425 mg in 100
g of corn oil and wheat germ oil, respectively [130]. The 13-
sitosterol and campesterol are the major 4-demethylsterols
in both corn oil and wheat germ oil. The major 4-
monomethylsterols are gramisterol and citrostadienol. In
addition, obtusifoliol is another major component in corn
oil. The major 4,4'-dimethylsterols are 24-methylenecy-
cloartanol and cycloartenol in corn and wheat germ oils. A
substantial amount of 13-amyrin is present in wheat germ
oil (Table 23).
Long-term storage or heat treatment of flour [132] pro-
duces sitosterol oxides. The production of sitosterol oxides
was investigated using wheat flour [132]. The 7-hydroxy-
sitosterol of wheat flour lipid increased from 25.4 ppm af-
ter 2 months storage to 245.0 ppm after storage of 36
months (Table 24).
IV. LIPIDS IN STRUCTURAL PARTS
OF GRAINS
A. Lipid Contents in Various
Grain Fractions
Endosperms are the major fractions of all cereal grains,
and yet their lipid contents are significantly lower than
Chung and Ohm
germ and aleurone fractions (Table 25). Germs are the
richest source of lipids among all cereal grain fractions,
even though they are relatively small fractions of grain
kernels. The weight percentage of germ is 10-14% of corn,
8-12% of sorghum, 7% of oats, 2-4% of wheat and 1-2%
of rice kernel weights.
Lipids are unevenly distributed in grain fractions, and
lipid distribution differs among grains (Table 25). In corn
kernels, 73-85% of the lipid is distributed in the germ frac-
tions [137,138], whereas in rye, triticale, and wheat ker-
nels, 34-42% of the lipid is in the germ fraction [78]. The
corn lipid distribution is quite similar despite the genetic
differences in strains. The H51 is inbred; LG-11 is a three-
way cross hybrid forage corn; both the waxy maize and
amylomaize are endosperm mutants. Amylomaize is also a
high-oil strain [9]. Price and Parsons [139] reported that
the hulless barley (Prilar) and the hulless oat (James) lipids
were distributed mainly in the bran-endosperm fractions
(Table 26).
Among oat groat fractions, FL and TL were highest in
the scutellum and BL were highest in embryonic axis
(Table 27). Both red and white proso millet fractions con-
tained similar lipid contents except for the bran FL con-
tents, which were somewhat higher in the white than those
in the red proso millets [33].
The starch composition influences the lipid content of
starch. High-amylose barley and corn starch contained
higher FFA and LPL contents than waxy and normal types
(Table 28). Waxy-type starch contained lower lipid content
than normal starchs of barley, corn, and rice (Table 28).
B. Lipid Compositions in Various
Grain Fractions
Since the cereal lipid compositions are too complex to
compare for all grains in one section, each will be dis-
cussed separately.
1. Barley
The average compositions of NL and PL for two varieties,
Kearney (winter type) and Prilar (spring type), are given in
Table 29. In barley, like other cereal grains, NL are the ma-
jor class of NSTL (Table 3) and over one half of NL are TG
(Table 29). The NL also contains 9.8% free sterols, 4.4%
SE, and 5.7% HC [139]. The two major classes of PL are
PC and LPC (Table 29). The FA composition varies among
lipid classes. The major FA is 18:2 for all classes except for
PG and PA. The "others" in Table 29 include relatively
small quantities of the other minor FA (12:0, 14:0, 16:1
and 20:0) [142,143].
The NSL contents and compositions in hulless barley
(Prilar) fractions and their FA compositions of NL, GL,
and PL are given in Table 30. The FA composition differs
depending on the structural parts of the barley kernels
Cereal Lipids
within a given lipid class. The hull lipids are more saturat-
ed than those in the other two fractions, and the NSL in
bran-endosperm fraction are richer in 18:2 than those in
the embryonic axis and hull fractions (Table 30). In addi-
tion to the major FA listed in Table 30, Price and Parsons
[139] also reported other minor FA (12:0, 14:0, 16:1, and
20:0).
Holmer et al. [144] researched the changes in lipid
composition of the germinating barley (Kenia) embryo
(Table 31). Barley seeds were dissected before and after 5
days of germination, to distinguish between the scutellum,
the coleoptile half of the embryo, and the coleorhiza half
of the embryo. Concurrent decrease of TG but marked in-
crease in SE and ASG was found in tissues from the
coleoptile and coleorhiza halves of the embryo. In the
scutellum, the TG content also changed, but both SE and
ASG contents varied much less than did TG content (Table
31). The MG and DG were virtually absent from embryon-
ic tissue. The amounts of FA (18:2 and 18:3) increased af-
ter 5 days of germination in all the embryonic tissues, es-
pecially in the coleoptile half [144].
The nonwaxy barley starch showed a higher level of SL
content than waxy barley (Table 32), as indicated before
(Table 28). Fatty acid composition indicated that nonwaxy
SL contained a higher percentage of 18:2 but a lower per-
centage of 16:0 than waxy SL (Table 32). The SL content
of nonwaxy barley was higher than waxy barley through
grain filling stages (Table 33). The growing environment
influences the SL content of barley. High temperature dur-
ing grain filling increased the SL content of barley starch
(Table 34).
2. Oat Groats
The NSTL contents and compositions of hulless oat
(James) grain fractions and their FA compositions are
shown in Table 35. In addition to the FA listed, Price and
Parsons [139] also reported other minor FA (12:0, 14:0,
16:1, and 20:0).
Youngs et al. [35] investigated the NSL composition of
the two oat cultivars (Dal and Froker) grown in 2 years.
The ranges of lipid composition are given for groats and
the averages across years and cultivars are given for the
groat fractions (Table 36). The most abundant class was
TG, which averaged 41% of the NSTL in groats and
39-58% in the four groat fractions. The next abundant
component was DGDG: about 7% in the groats and 8% in
the bran and endosperm.
Sahasrabudhe [36] investigated 12 oat cultivars grown
at Ottawa, Canada, for protein and lipid content and their
groat FA compositions. The NL composition was investi-
gated for the six cultivars and the GL and PL were charac-
terized for only one cultivar (Hinoat) as shown in Table 37.
Oats have a potential as a source of edible oil. Oat lipid
423
contents vary widely with the range of 5-12% (Table 3 and
37). The NSTL content extracted with chloroform-
methanol (2:1 by volume) had a significant linear correla-
tion (r = 0.99) with the NL content. The variation in NSTL
content is considered to be under genetic control as are
those in millet and corn.
3. Millet
The compositions of FL and BL from millet are given in
Table 38. The FL contains approximately double the TG
and only half of the PoL compared to BL, reported by
Nechaev and Sandler [2]. The NSTL that are commonly
extracted by a chloroform-methanol (C-M) mixture (2:1
by volume) or WSB contain significantly more PoL. Os-
agie and Kates [29] extracted TL (NSL + SL) from millet
seeds (P. americanurn) grown in Zaire, northern Nigeria,
with hot WSB for 1 hour. Thus, TL may contain all NSL
and only a portion of SL, because a complete extraction of
SL may take 5-6 hours at 100°C [149]. The similar PoL
contents in FL by Nechaev and Sandler [2] and TL by Os-
agie and Kates [29] may be mainly due to the difference in
millet varieties. With a given sample, hot WSB will extract
the most PoL.
Among millet, GL class, SG and DGDG were the major
classes, and LPC was the major PL class (Table 39). The
LPC content was 4.9% of the TL and about 42% of the PL;
a substantial quantity of LPC, a major SL component, must
have been extracted with hot WSB from the millet starch
granules.
The FA profiles were similar among NL classes except
for FFA. Cerebrosides (I and II) had different FA composi-
tion from the other GL classes. The PG and LPC had sub-
stantially different FA compositions from the rest of other
PL classes. The "others" in Table 39 included other minor
FA (14:0, 20:0, and 22:0). In general, millet PL contained
less 18:0 and 18:3 than millet GL.
4. Corn
The lipid contents of corn ranges very widely and is prima-
rily influenced by genetic factors similar to oat lipids. Tan
and Morrison [138] investigated the distribution of lipids
in the germ, endosperm, pericarp, and tip cap of amylo-
maize, LG-11 hybrid maize, and waxy maize The quanti-
tative distribution of 23 acyl lipid classes and unsaponifi-
able matter in kernels of the three varieties were
investigated. The lipid compositions of LG-11 hybrid corn
are given in Table 40.
Corn lipids are extremely low in GL (Table 40) like mil-
let and sorghum lipids (Table 3). The distribution of corn
kernel lipids is about 80% in germ (Table 26). Germ lipids
are mostly TG, with some SE and DG, and small amounts
of GL and PL. The composition of NSTL in pericarp dif-
fered markedly from that in the other kernel fractions: over
424
half of pericarp lipids were unsaponifiable materials. Tip
cap lipids had more TG, GL, and PL than pericarp lipids,
but were otherwise similar.
The compositions of NL, GL, and PL were computed
(Table 41). The TG was over 90% of the NL in the germ
[137,138], about 60% in the endosperm NSL, but only
2.5% in endosperm SL. Over 90% of the NL was FFA in
the SL. Weber [137] detected substantial quantities of CB
and sulfolipids (tentative identification) in the GL of the
germ and endosperm NSL.
The major component in germ PL was PC, which was
in good agreement between Tan and Morrison [138] and
Weber [137]. However, the PL composition of the en-
dosperm NSL differed largely; Tan and Morrison [138] re-
ported 11.1% PC and 57.1% LPC, whereas Weber [137]
reported 44.6% PC and 36.5% LPC plus an unknown.
The FA compositions were higher in levels of 18:0 and
18:3 for endosperm than germ (Table 42). For the LG-11
hybrid corn, germ lipids contained significantly more 18:2
and less 16:0 and 18:3 than other parts of kernel [138]. For
the H-51 inbred corn, germ lipids contained less 18:3 than
other kernel parts but more 18:1 and 18:2 than pericarp and
tip cap. However, the 18:2 content was equal for both the
germ and the endosperm lipids [42]. The FA compositions
in root and leaf lipids differ significantly from those of
corn kernel or other kernel parts; corn leaf lipids contained
a much higher level of 18:3 and lower levels of 18:1 and
18:2 (Table 42).
Ohnishi et al. [150] investigated the positional distribu-
tion of fatty acids in glycerolipid classes from corn total
lipids (Table 43). Unsaturated fatty acids, 18:1 and 18:2,
are located mainly in the 2-position of these glycerolipids.
However, PI showed relatively high 16:0 content at the 1-
position and 18:2 content at the 2-position. Fatty acid com-
positions of molecular species of glycerolipids were also
investigated by reverse-phase high-performance liquid
chromatography (Table 44). The main species generally
contained 16:0-18:2, 18:1-18:2, and 18:2-18:2 for TG,
PC, PE, and PI. The main molecular species of DGDG
contained 18:3-18:3, 18:1-18:2, 18:2-18:2, 18:2-18:3,
and 18:1-18:3.
Vasanthan and Hoover [151] investigated the content
and composition of SSL and SL of purified corn starch
(Table 45). The SSL contained mainly free S, SE, and LPL.
The SL contained mainly FFA and LPL. Fatty acid compo-
sition indicated that 16:0 and 18:2 were the principal fatty
acids of SL and SSL (Table 46).
5. Rice
Rice hull lipid composition differs significantly from that in
brown rice and its fractions (Table 47). Silicic acid fraction-
ation of NSL from brown rice, bran, germ, and polish
Chung and Ohm
showed 86-91% NL, 2-5% GL, and 7-9% PL [14,56,152].
Milled rice NSL had a lower NL fraction and a higher
GL fraction. The ratios for the NL:GL:PL for milled rice
are 82:8:10 by Choudhury and Juliano [56], 76:12:12 by
Hirayama and Matsuda [55], and the range of (83-91):
(2-4):(1-3) by Azudin and Morrison [153].
Azudin and Morrison [153] investigated NSL and SL in
milled rice of two waxy varieties (1.0-2.3% amylose) and
12 nonwaxy varieties (12.2-28.6% amylose). The TL
(NSL + SL) were extracted from rice flour and SL from pu-
rified rice starch. The composition of the NSL could be ob-
tained by the difference, as shown in Table 47.
The major NL of NSL was TG, constituting 71-79% of
NSTL (Table 47) and 83-87% of NL [56,152]. The other
important NL class was FFA, at 4-7% of the NSTL and
13-17% of the NL for brown rice, bran, germ, and polish.
Unlike most other cereal NSL, the major GL of NSL of
brown rice and its milling fractions were ASG and SG
(Table 47). Major PL classes were PC and PE.
Choudhury and Juliano [56] reported that the distribu-
tion of brown rice NL was 14-18% in germ, 39-41% in
bran, 15-21% in polish, and 25-33% in milled rice
(12-14% in subaleurone layer and 12-19% in the en-
dosperm). The distribution of the NSL of brown rice was
43% in bran, 19% in germ, 15% in polish, and 21% in
milled rice; and for brown rice PL, 30% in bran, 14% each
in germ and polish, and 42% in milled rice [56,152].
The TL (NSL + SL) compositions are different between
waxy and nonwaxy rice varieties (Table 48). Azudin and
Morrison [153] reported that the two waxy rice (IR 29 and
C441-4) starches prepared from the milled rice had very
little amylose content (1.0-2.3%) and only traces of lipids
(16-19 mg per 100 g starch), which were probably SSL,
the NSL contaminants. The SSL were 100% FFA (Table
48). The TL in waxy rice were, therefore, NSL and they
evidently had suffered substantial lipolysis, judging by
high FFA values [153]. The nonwaxy starches contained
0.9-1.3% SL comprising, on average, 31.2% (29-45%)
FFA, 61.5% (48-67%) PL, and 3.2% GL [153], as shown
in Table 48.
Choudhury and Juliano [56] extracted SL from milled
rice after the NSL removal, using the one waxy variety (IR
4445-63-1 with 2% amylose) and the two nonwaxy vari-
eties (IR42 with 29% amylose and IR480-5-9 with 24%
amylose). The SL composition of the milled rice of the
waxy variety contained 41% PL and 7% GL, whereas the
waxy starch by Azudin and Morrison [153] contained no
GL and PL (Table 48). The SL compositions of waxy rice
and nonwaxy rice (both milled and brown) were different
[56] but not to the extent shown by Azudin and Morrison
[153].
The FA compositions of NSL and SL classes in the three
Cereal Lipids
brown rices and their milled fractions are given in Table 49
[14,56,152]. The NSL in brown rice, bran, germ, and pol-
ish fractions showed similar FA compositions, which were
substantially different from the SL in both brown and
milled rices. The SL classes had similar FA compositions
between brown and milled rices.
Vasanthan and Hoover [151] investigated the content
and composition of SSL and SL classes of purified rice
starch (Table 50). The SSL contained 41.3% NL, 20.2%
GL, and 17.8% PL. The SL contained mainly LPL (56.3%
of SL). Fatty acid composition indicated that 16:0 and 18:2
were the principal fatty acids of SL and SSL (Table 51).
The y-oryzanol that is known to decrease plasma cho-
lesterol is in the unsaponifiable fractions of rice bran oil,
containing ferulate (4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid)
ester of triterpene alcohols and plant sterols [154]. Rogers
et al. [154] reported that cycloartenyl ferulate, 24-methyl-
ene cycloartanyl ferulate, campesteryl ferulate, P-sitosteryl
ferulate, and cycloartanyl ferulate are the major oryzanols
of processed rice bran oil (Table 52).
Garcia et al. [155] investigated the fatty acid and fatty
alcohol composition of rice bran oil extracted by supercrit-
ical fluid CO2 and hexane (Table 53). They reported that
18:1 and 18:2 were the main fatty acids for rice bran oils
extracted by hexane. The oils extracted by supercritical
fluid CO2 contained more 24:0, 22:0, and 20:0 fatty acids
than those obtained by hexane extraction (Table 53). The
28:0, 30:0, and 32:0 fatty alcohols were mainly found in
rice bran oils extracted by supercritical fluid CO2 and
hexane (Table 53).
6. Rye
The NSL compositions of rye grain, its structural kernel
fractions, and milled flour are given in Table 54. Zeringue
and Feuge [78] dissected rye (Abruzzi) seeds into bran,
germ, and endosperm fractions. The NSTL were extracted
from each fraction and whole kernel meals with 80% n-bu-
tanol. Eleven spots of the major lipid classes separated by
TLC were measured densitometrically. The recovery per-
centage of those 11 classes ranged from 52 to 63%. The
converted data on 100% recovery are given in Table 54.
The most abundant class was TG for rye grain and germ
but not for bran and endosperm [78], whereas Chung and
Tsen [37] reported that TG was the major class for milled
rye flour lipids. Zeringue and Feuge [78] reported substan-
tially higher DGDG levels in both grain and endosperm
NSL than those in grains (Elbon and Balbo varieties) and
their milled flours reported by Chung and Tsen [37]. The
endosperm NSL contained a much lower level of TG
(17.7% of NSTL) and a higher level of PE than the rye
flour NSL. Such a large discrepancy may be due, in part, to
the different varieties.
425
The NSL compositions of FL and BL from rye grains
and their milled flours are given together with those from
triticale grains and their milled triticale flours (Table 55).
In rye grains as well as rye flour, FL contained higher lev-
els of NL classes (except for SE) than BL, whereas BL
contained higher levels of DGDG and PL. The amount of
SE in BL seems very high. Since the lipids were measured
by densitometry of charred spots on TLC plates, the SE
band may have contained other material such as HC.
7. Triticale
Zeringue and Feuge [78] dissected triticale (AM 2147)
seeds into bran, germ, and endosperm fractions. The NSTL
were extracted from those fractions in the same manner as
was done with the rye samples. Chung and Tsen [37] in-
vestigated the four triticale varieties (Bronco, Armadillo,
KS 385, and KS 419).
Zeringue and Feuge [78] and Chung and Tsen [37] re-
ported similar NSL compositions for triticale. Also, the
NSL compositions were similar for the endosperm and
milled triticale flours (Table 56). Triticale germ lipids were
similar to rye germ lipids in compositions (Table 54). Trit-
icale bran lipids contained a higher level of SE than rye
bran lipids.
The TG is a major component in FL of triticale grains
and flours but only a minor component in BL (Table 55),
which was the same for rye lipids. Triticale lipids are quan-
titatively similar to wheat and rye lipids analyzed under
the same conditions [37].
8. Wheat
Among cereal grain lipids, the greatest research effort has
been devoted to the study of lipids in wheat flour, but there
are still some gaps in our knowledge, especially about the
lipids in bran and germ [3]. The most detailed and com-
plete information was provided by Morrison [24], as given
in Table 57.
Wheat pericarp contains about 1.3% of its weight as
NSTL on a dry basis. Pericarp lipids consist of 86% NL,
7% GL, and 7% PL. Pericarp contains 40% DG, 25% FFA,
18% TG, 15% SE, and 1% MG.
Wheat does not exhibit the large range of lipid content
and composition observed in some other cereals [3], al-
though hexaploid wheat endosperm contained more NSL
than tetraploid wheat endosperm (Table 57). Tetraploid
wheat endosperm contained higher levels of TG, PG, and
PE but lower levels of GL, especially DGDG, and APE
than hexaploid wheat endosperm.
Wheat TL (NSL + SL) contains a substantially higher
level of PL than NSL in the endosperm and milled flour
due to the SL being very rich in PL (90-94% SL), espe-
cially LPL (Table 58).
426
Wheat germ oil contains very little GL (Table 58),
which makes it similar to the amount of germ oils in barley
(Table 31), corn (Tables 40 and 42), rice (Table 47), rye
(Table 54), and triticale (Table 56). Aleurone lipids contain
7-10% GL with ASG, DGMG, and DGDG as the major
classes.
The NSL composition of wheat endosperm differs sub-
stantially from that of milled flour mainly due to an in-
crease in TG for milled flour. Morrison et al. [97] investi-
gated the distribution of acyl lipids in wheat flour
millstreams and concluded that roughly three fourths of
the germ lipids and one fourth of the aleurone lipids were
transferred to endosperm material during the milling
process.
Endosperm SL contains over 90% PL and 1-6% GL
(Table 58). Therefore, SL composition is very different
from that of NSL in any wheat fractions.
Whole wheat contains 2.5-3.3% TL (NSL + SL), milled
flour contains 1.7-2.0% NSTL, and wheat starch contains
0.8-1.2% SL (Table 59). The NSL contents in flours milled
from high-grade spring, high-grade winter, and low-grade
winter wheats are compared. The winter wheat flours con-
tained higher levels of NSTL, TG, DGDG, and PC than the
spring wheat flour.
The SL in 100 g starch contained 35-62 mg NL, 9-54
mg GL, and 729-1047 mg PL (Table 59). Morrison [24]
defined NL and GL of SL as nonstarch and starch surface
lipids (SSL) and only LPL as true SL. Wheat starch LPL
have a fairly uniform composition; average values are LPC
= 86%, LPE = 10%, and LPG = 4% [24].
The lipid composition of starch is affected by the
method used to isolate the starch and by its final purity.
Crude starch contaminated with adhering proteins contains
small amounts of nearly all the lipids classified as NSL.
When the adhering proteins are removed, the starch con-
tains very little TG or diacyl lipids such as DG, MGDG,
DGDG, APE, PC, and PE [3], as given in Table 59. Then,
the SL consists of 90-94% LPL with 6-10% FFA and oth-
er monoacyl lipids [3,156-159].
Chung and Ohm
The FA compositions of total TG, DG, and MG are very
similar (Table 60). However, it is misleading when the
stereospecific distribution of the FA is considered. The FA
in SE and ASG are similar and generally segregate into
more unsaturated/saturated types according to the source
of the lipid [3]. The MGDG is the most unsaturated lipid in
wheat, with only trace amounts of saturated acids at the 2-
position. The DGDG is similar in this respect but has more
saturated acids in the 1-position (Table 60). The N-acyl FA
of APE and ALPE are less saturated than the 0-acyl FA.
The FA compositions of PRE and PC are similar. The FA in
LPE and PLC from the NSL are identical to the 1-position
FA in PE and PC, respectively. Starch LPE is much more
unsaturated than nonstarch LPE and PE. Starch LPC also
is slightly more unsaturated than LPC (Table 60).
Vasanthan and Hoover [151] investigated the content
and composition of SSL and SL of purified wheat starch
(Table 61). The SSL contained 52.4% NL, 26.1% GL, and
21.5% PL. The SL contained mainly LPL (87.1% of SL) as
indicated before. Fatty acid composition indicated that
16:0 and 18:2 were the principal fatty acids of SL and SSL
(Table 62).
Lipid contents of starch vary according to the size of the
starch granules. Whattam and Cornell [160] reported that
the fine-granule starch fraction contained more lipids than
coarse-granule starch (Table 63). Specifically, the LPL
content of the coarse starch fraction was 1.62%, while that
of the fine starch fraction was 2.53%. Soulaka and Morri-
son [157,158] also reported similar results. They reported
that small B granules contained more FFA and LPL than
large A granules (Table 64).
Stokes et al. [161] investigated changes in the lipid con-
tent of wheat at different development stages as summa-
rized in Table 65. The NL content drastically increased as
wheat developed. The fatty acid composition analysis indi-
cated that 18:2 was the main fatty acid throughout wheat
development (Table 66). For endosperm lipids the percent-
age of 18:2 and 16:0 fatty acids increased while 18:0 and
18:3 decreased as wheat developed.
 Cereal Lipids 427

TABLE 1 Abbreviations

Grouping Abbreviation Definition Grouping Abbreviation Definition

General term BL Bound lipids Simple glycerides MG Monoglyceride

CB Cerebrosides DG Diglyceride
db Dry basis TG Triglyceride
FA Fatty acids
FL Free lipids Glycosylglycerides MGMG Monogalactosylmonoglycerides
GL Glycolipids DGMG Digalactosylmonoglycerides
HC Hydrocarbons MGDG Monogalactosyldiglycerides
LPL Lysophospholipids DGDG Digalactosyldiglycerides
NL Nonpolar lipids AMGMG Acylmonogalactosylmonoglycerides
NSL Nonstarch lipids AMGDG Acylmonogalactosyldiglycerides
NSTL Nonstarch total lipids ADGDG Acyldigalactosyldiglycerides
PL Phospholipids
PoL Polar lipids Phosphoglycerides PC Phosphotidylcholine
SL Starch lipids PE Phosphotidylethanolamine
SSL Starch surface lipids PI Phosphotidylinositol
TLC Thin-layer chromatography PG Phosphotidylglycerol
TL Total lipids PS Phosphotidylserine
WSB Water-saturated n-butanol DPG Diphosphotidylglycerol
wt Weight PA Phosphatidic acid
LPC Lysophosphotidylcholine
Wheat class HRS Hard red spring LPE Lysophosphotidylethanolamine
HRW Hard red winter LPG Lysophosphotidylglycerol
HWS Hard white spring LPI Lysophosphotidylinositol
HWW Hard white winter LPS Lysophosphotidylserine
SRW Soft red winter APE N-Acylphosphotidylethanolamine
SWS Soft white spring ALPE N-Acyllysophosphotidylethanolamine
SWW Soft white winter
Lipid class Sterol lipids S Sterol
Fatty acids FFA Free fatty acids SE Sterol esters
12:0 Lauric acid SG Sterolglucosides
14:0 Myristic acid ASG Acylsterolglucosides
16:0 Palmitic acid
16:1 Pamitoleic acid Tocol derivatives a-T a-Tocopherol
18:0 Stearic acid a-T-3 a-Tocotrienol
18:1 Oleic acid (3-T 13-Tocopherol
18:2 Linoleic acid P-Tocotrienol
18:3 Linolenic acid y-T y-Tocopherol
20:0 Arachidic acid y-T-3 y-Tocotrienol
22:0 Behenic acid 8-T 6-Tocopherol
24:0 Lignoceric acid 6-T-3 6-Tocotrienol
26:0 Cerotic acid
28:0 Montanic acid
30:0 Melissic acid
32:0 Lacceroic acid
34:0 Tetratriacontanoic acid
428 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 2 Nonstarch Lipids of Cereal Grains

Nonstarch lipidsa
Grains Free (%) Bound (%) Total (%) Ratio of FL/BLb Ref.
Barley 1.7-1.9 (1.8) 1.5-1.7 (1.6) 3.2-3.4 (3.3) 2.7-3.0 (2.9) 26
1.8-3.9 (2.9) 0.7-0.8 (0.8) 2.5-4.7 (3.6) 2.6 1.9 (3.8) 27
Corn 4.9 0.2 5.1 24.5 16
4.6-5.6 (4.8) 0.4-0.9 (0.6) 5.2-6.0 (5.6) 6.2-11.5 (8.0) 3
Millet 3.9-4.3 (4.1) 0.4-0.7 (0.5) 4.3-5.0 (4.6) 6.1-9.8 (8.2) 3
5 0.5 5.5 10 28
5.4 0.7 6.1 7.7 29
Small millet 3.4-5.7 1.3-2.2 4.7-7.6 2.5-3.4 30
Pearl millet 5.6-7.1 (6.3) 0.6-0.9 (0.7) 6.2-7.9 (7.0) 7.2-11.0 (8.9) 31
Foxtail millet 5 5.2 10.2 0.96 32'
Proso millet 3.3-3.9 (3.7) 0.5-1.3 (0.8) 3.9-4.9 (4.5) 2.8-7.1 (4.6) 33
5.6 2.5 8.1 2.24 32'
Finger millet 2.2 2.4 4.6 0.92 32'
Oats 4.4-7.0 (5.7) 0.5-0.9 (0.7) 4.9-7.9 (6.4) 7.7-8.8 (8.1) 3
3.2-8.9 (6.3) 0.4-1.7 (1.2) 4.5-10.3 (7.5) 5.2-8.0 (5.3) 34
5.5-8.0 (6.8) 1.4-1.6 (1.5) 6.9-9.6 (8.3) 3.9-5.0 (4.5) 35
5.6 1.4 6.9 4 36
Rice 2.1-2.6 (2.3) 0.5-0.6 (0.5) 0.9-3.1 (2.9) 4.2-5.2 (4.8) 3
Rye 1.9-2.0 (1.9) 1.5-1.6 (1.6) 3.5-3.5 (3.5) 1.1-1.3 (1.2) 37
Sorghum 3.5-5.2 (4.2) 0.2-0.8 (0.4) 3.7-6.0 (4.6) (10.5) 3
2.8-4.4 (3.6) 0.6-0.8 (0.7) 3.6-5.0 (4.3) (5.8) 38
(3.7) (0.2) (3.9) (16.7) 16
Triticale 1.7-2.2 (1.9) 1.5-2.6 (2.0) 3.2-4.6 (3.9) 0.8-1.2 (1.0) 37
1.9 0.7 2.6 2.7 39
Wheat 1.4-2.6 0.7-1.2 2.1-3.8 3
HRW 1.3-1.7 (1.5) 0.8-1.0 (0.9) 2.2-2.6 (2.4) 1.4-2.1 (1.6) 40
(2.0) (1.5) 3.4-3.5 (3.5) 1.3-1.4 (1.4) 37
1.6-2.6 (2.1) 1.0-1.2 (1.1) 2.7-3.9 (3.2) 1.5-2.3 (1.9) 41
HRS 1.6-1.9 (1.8) 0.8-1.0 (0.9) 2.4-2.9 (2.7) 1.8-2.1 (1.9) 40
1.2-1.9 (1.6) 0.6-1.0 (0.8) 1.2-3.1 (2.2) 2.2-2.5 (2.4) 41
SRW 1.6 0.6 2.2 3.0 40
Soft white 1.7 0.9 2.6 1.8 40
Durum 2.1 1.2 3.3 1.8 40
1.9-2.0 (2.0) 0.5-0.6 (0.6) 2.5-2.6 (2.5) 3.3-3.8 (3.6) 41
aData in parenthesis are the average values. For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1.
'Calculated using the data reported in reference.
`Bound lipids were extracted by hot water-saturated butanol.
Cereal Lipids 429

TABLE 3 Nonstarch Lipid Classes of Cereal Grain

Nonstarch lipidsa
TL NL GL PL PoL (GL + PL) Ratiob of
Grains (% Wt) (% TL) (% TL) (% TL) (% TL) NL/PoL Ref.
Barley 2.6 1.9 (3.8) 65-75 (70) 7-26 (17) 18-9 (13) 25-35 (30) 1.9-3.0 (2.5) 27
3.1-4.6 (3.7) 65-78 (71) 7-13 (10) 14-26 (19) 22-35 (29) 1.8-3.6 (2.4) 48, 49
2.8 77 11 12 23 3.4 50
Malt 2.1 75 13 12 25 3.0 50
Corn 2.6-13.8 (7.2) 88-96 (92) - 4-12 (8) 7.3-24.6 (14.4) 51
5.2 92 3 5 8 11.3 1, 52
Millet 5.4-6.9 94-98 1-2 1-4 2-6 7.8-57.8 29
5.2-11.0 80-83 6-14 5-14 - 32'
1.7-1.9 75-81 13-15 5-6 25-27 3.7-4.1 53
Oat groats 4.6-11.6 (8.3) 66-80 (72) 6-10 (8) 12-26 (20) 20-34 (28) 1.9-3.9 (2.6) 36
Brown rice 2.4-2.6 (2.5) 78-87 (83) 4-12 (8) 9-10 (10) 13-22 (17) 3.6-6.5 (5.1) 13, 54, 55
2.9-3.4 85-87 4-6 8-9 13-15 56
Rye 3.6 71 10.7 18.3 29 2.4 57
3.5 63-68 (65) 10-12 (11) 22-25 (24) 32-37 (35) 1.7-2.1 (1.9) 37
Sorghum 3.3 86 3 11 14 6.2 57
3.6-5.0 (4.3) 77-85 (81) 2-6 (4) 13-17 (15) 15-23 (19) 3.4-5.8 (4.6) 38
Triticale 2.4 67 16 17 33 2.0 57
3.2-4.6 (3.9) 53-63 (59) 10-18 (14) 26-29 (27) 37-47 (41) 1.1-1.7 (1.5) 37
2.6 68 14 18 32 2.1 38
Wheat
HRW 3.4-3.5 (3.5) 60-61 (60) 17-18 (17) 24-26 (25) 39-40 (40) 1.5 37
2.2-2.6 (2.4) 65-70 (67) 15-17 (16) 15-19 (17) 30-36 (33) 1.8-2.3 (2.1) 40
HRS 2.3 62 22 16 38 1.6 57
2.2-2.9 (2.5) 67-72 (69) 13-16 (15) 15-17 (16) 28-33 (31) 2.0-2.6 (2.3) 40
1.4-1.9 (1.6) 69-71 (69) 29-31 (30) (2.3) 58
SRW 2.1 69 14 17 31 2.2 40
Soft white 2.4 68 16 16 32 2.1 40
Durum 3.3 74 12 14 26 2.8 40
'Data in parentheses are the average value. (-) denotes data not reported. For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1.
bCalculated using the data reported in reference.
`Bound lipids included lipids extracted by hot water-saturated butanol and acid hydrolysis.
430 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 4 Ranges of Wheat and Flour Free Lipid Contents (mg/10 g, db)
Free lipidsb
Source, Ref., and Wheat/ Crop year/
wheat class Flour Location (L) TFL NL PoL GL PL NL/PoL
USA (I): Chung et al. [61]
Hard Red Winter Wheat 1971-1976 177-230 158-202 15-28 1.61-5.49' 6.3-11.3
Flour 1974-1975 83-109 67-84 11-27 2.6-5.6' 2.5-6.9
USA (II): Ohm and Chung [62]
Hard Winter Flour 1993 90-109 72-85 17-23 11-16 5-7 3.2-4.2
Canada: Bekes et al. [63]
Hard Spring Wheat 1981, Ll 164-280 153-261 9-23 3-9 6-14 7.3-18.1
Soft Spring Wheat 1981, Ll 132-204 123-188 7-16 3-8 4-10 11.6-20.1
Hard Spring Flour 1981, Ll 80-139 73-118 7-21 3-10 4-11 4.5-11.0
Soft Spring Flour 1981, Ll 69-107 62-96 7-14 3-8 3-7 6.5-9.6
Hard Spring Flour 1981, L2 63-139 52-122 9-21 4-11 5-10 4.5-9.5
Soft Spring Flour 1981, L2 81-133 72-92 9-14 4-7 5-7 6.0-8.1
Hard Spring Flour 1981, L3 68-144 59-128 9-19 4-11 4-9 5.1-9.0
Soft Spring Flour 1981, L3 77-96 69-83 8-12 4-6 4-7 6.5-8.9
Hard Spring Flour Meanb 72-134 61-115 9-19 4-11 4-9 4.8-9.5
Soft Spring Flour Meanb 80-98 71-87 8-13 4-7 4-7 6.4-8.8
U.K.: Bell et al. [65]
Hard/Soft Winter Wheat 1983 171-226 153-190 10-33 6-18 4-20 9.0-15.3
Hard Winter Wheat 1984 186-210 155-175 26-36 13-19 13-17 4.8-6.2
Soft Winter Wheat 1984 195-244 163-212 30-36 15-19 15-17 4.9-6.6
Hard/Soft Winter Wheat 1984 178-246 150-215 24-40 13-22 11-19 4.2-7.3
Hard Spring Wheat 1984 242-267 206-226 31-41 17-22 14-19 5.5-7.3
Soft Spring Wheat 1984 213 176 37 20 17 4.8
Hard/Soft Spring Wheat 1984 210-272 176-229 28-45 15-25 13-21 4.2-8.0
New Zealand: Larsen et al. [66]
— Flour 1984 67-85 3.8-6.3'
— 1985 93-108 3.9-5.7a
Greece: Matsoukas and Morrison [67]
Flour 66-109 51.0-82.1 14.5-27.3 8.6-17.9 5.9-9.4 3.0-3.9
Australia (I): Panozzo et al. [68]
Wheat 1984 118.0-171.6 85.6-136.0 15.3-21.5 10.5-16.0
Wheat 1985 104.6-144.7 62.2-99.3 17.6-25.7 14.8-23.8
Wheat 1986 144.3-181.0 102.6-142.8 15.0-19.9 12.7-23.3 —
Wheat 3-year mean 148.9 108.7 35.2 19 16.2 3.09
Flour 1984 86.0-120.8 57.3-80.5 — 13.5-21.5 8.5-12.3
Flour 1985 92.0-123.0 57.0-86.0 12.0-21.0 12.0-19.0
Flour 1986 86.0-116.5 56.0-88.1 11.3-19.0 9.4-17.5
Flour 3-year mean 105.6 71.4 29.3 16.4 12.9 2.44
Australia (II): McCormack et al. [69]c
Flour 1985 54-100 40-68 14-35 1.8-2.8
Flour 1986 87-112 60-70 28-42 1.5-2.3
Flour 1987 68-100 46-64 21-37 1.6-2.4
Flour 3-year mean 71-103 50-66 21-37 1.8-2.4
Flour 1985 108-138 58-84 41-60 1.1-1.7
Flour 1986 116-148 67-85 44-67 1.1-1.6
Flour 1987 109-136 57-68 51-69 1.0-1.3
Flour 3-year mean 114-140 62-77 45-64 1.2-1.6
TFI, = Unfractionated total free lipids; NL = nonpolar lipids; PoL = polar lipids; GL = glycolipids; PL = phospholipids.
'Lipid galactose content.
b Average over three locations.
`The extractant was light petroleum for the first set and chloroform for the second set.
 Cereal Lipids 431

TABLE 5 Fatty Acid Composition of Grain Nonstarch Lipids

Fatty acid (wt %)a
Grains 14:0 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 Ref.b
Barley 2 21-24 <2 9-14 56-59 4-7 3, 70
0.3-0.6 (0.4) 19-26 (23) 1.0-1.3 (1.1) 13-18 (16) 51-58 (54) 6-7 (6) 49
19-22 1.0-1.7 14-21 51-60 4-6 27, 71
Two-rowed (TL) 23.3-27.6 0.6-1.8 10.4-17.1 53.7-57.4 4.5-6.7 72
Six-rowed (TL) 21.4-28.7 0.7-1.4 10.8-17.1 52.4-57.1 4.7-6.9 72
19-20 1 10 59-61 8 73
Millet- 16-17 5-7 25-27 47-48 3-13 28
Pearl millet tr-0.2 (0.1) 20-22 (21) 6.1-10.1 (7.9) 27-28 (28) 37-40 (38) 2.2-4.2 (3.2) 31*
0.4-0.8 (0.6) 20-23 (22) 4.8-7.9 (6.1) 17-20 (19) 27-32 (29) 1.9-3.3 (2.8) 31**
19 5.0 25 46 3.2 16
Finger millet 23.0-26.0 Tr 48.5-51.5 23.2-25.0 1.0-1.8 53
Foxtail millet
Type A 7-10 (8) 3.4-7.2 (5.2) 11-15 (13) 66-72 (68) 2.2-4.1 (2.9) 45
Type B - 7-9 (8) 1.0-1.9 (1.5) 14-17 (16) 69-72 (70) 2.1-3.3 (2.4) 45
Oats 0.4 19 2.2 39 38 1.3 35*
0.9 26 2.0 29 41 1.4 35**
tr-4.9 (1.4) 15-26 (20) 1.6-3.9 (2.4) 26-41 (35) 31-46 (38) 1.7-3.7 (2.4) 1*, 36*
tr-0.8 (0.6) 16-22 (19) 0.8-2.0 (1.5) 27-48 (38) 34-47 (40) 0.9-2.5 (1.7) 34, 75
16-22 (19) 1.1-2.1 (1.5) 22-33 (30) 44-52 (47) 1.9-3.4 (2.6) 71
Cultivar (TL) 17.2-21.4 (18.4) 1.2-1.7 (1.5) 34.4-40.4 (38.1) 39.6-42.5 (40.5) 1.3-2.1 (1.5) 74
Wild-type (TL) 14.9-21.3 (19.0) 1.0-1.6 (1.2) 33.6-45.1 (39.7) 34.3-44.7 (38.5) 1.3-2.4 (1.6) 74
Brown rice 0.4-1.0 18-26 1.6-2.7 36-44 25-35 1.0-3.7 13
0.2-0.4 (0.3) 14-21 (18) 1.3-2.5 (1.9) 37-52 (44) 29-39 (33) 1.0-2.0 (1.4) 46*, 47*
0.2-0.3 (0.2) 15-16 (16) 1.5-2.0 (1.7) 41-46 (44) 33-38 (35) 1.0-1.4 (1.2) 76*
Rye 12-19 (16) <1-2 (1) 12-16 (14) 57-65 (59) 3-12 (9) 77
0.1 15 0.8 17 58 7 78
Sorghum 10-14 (12) 0.2-1.3 (0.8) 28-42 (34) 42-56 (50) 1.1-4.7 (3) 44
- 15-17 (16) 0.9-1.2 (1.1) 21-27 (24) 55-58 (56) 2.1-3.0 (2.6) 38
Triticale 0.4 20 0.9 11 59 5.3 78
0.9-1.8 16-18 0.7-1.9 8-9 57-58 3.5-4.2 79
0.1 18 0.2 14 60 6 39
Wheat 17-24 1-2 8-21 55-60 3-5 3
24 1.3 18 55 2.3 80
aData in parentheses are the average value. (-) denotes data not reported. For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1.
bFatty acid composition of free lipids (5) and bound lipids (**).
432 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 6 Fatty Acid Composition of Corn Nonstarch Lipids

Fatty acid (wt %)a
Number of
Source/Origin samples 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 20:0 Ref.b
11-17 <3 33-39 43-49 <2 3*
19-22 2 18-28 31-39 2-6 3**
7-19 <4 23-46 35-66 <3 3***
United States 42 11.5 2.2 26.6 58.7 0.8 0.2 81
World 788 6-22 0.6-15 14-64 19-71 0.5-2 82
Yugoslavia 490 7.6-22.0 0.7-3.8 16.4-43.4 39.2-68.3 83
West Germany 19 8-12 1-2 17-31 54-69 1-3 84
India 4 10-28 2-8 32-52 10-53 0.3-1 85
United States 418 6.7-16.5 0.7-4.7 16.2-43.8 39.2-69.5 0.0-3.1 0.0-1.0 86
United States 5 Popul. 6.3-16.0 1.0-4.5 18.5-41.6 41.2-66.8 8.3-18.2 87
Chile 5 Popul. 8.9-18.2 1.2-3.4 20.8-45.2 37.7-64.1 11.0-19.8 87
Argentina 5 Popul. 8.9-17.2 0.9-3.1 21.5-44.5 37.8-62.5 10.9-20.0 87
Urguay 5 Popul. 9.9 -16.7 1.3-4.5 21.1 16.1 36.6-61.5 11.4-19.4 87
Low saturate
United States 3 6.9-7.2 1.6-1.8 23.8-29.6 59.8-66.1 0.6-1.6 <0.7 87
Exotic 3 6.3-7.6 1.1-1.4 25.3-30.6 57.7-64.1 0.8-0.93 0.43-0.61 87
High saturate
United States 3 16.1-16.5 1.4-2.0 21.3-33.8 45.6-58.6 0.5-1.4 0.5-1.0 87
Exotic 3 16.7-18.2 1.4-2.1 28.0-32.0 45.7-50.3 0.9-0.98 19.6-20.2 87
High 18:1
United States 2 11.3-11.8 1.9-2.6 42.6-43.8 41.6-49.5 0.7-0.8 0.6-0.9 87
Exotic 3 10.2-13.9 2.1-3.4 43.9-46.1 36.6-38.4 0.82-1.01 0.48-0.95 87
aData in parentheses are the average value. (-) denotes data not reported. For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1.
bFatty acid composition of free lipids (*), bound lipids (**), and total lipids (***).

TABLE 7 Fatty Acid Composition of Wheat Nonstarch Lipidsa

Fatty acid (wt %)
Class or Number of
subclasses samples 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3
HRW 103 22 1.3 19 55 2.3
HRS 46 24 1.3 19 54 1.9
HWW 6 21 0.7 16 59 3.0
HWS 2 24 20 54 2.2
SRW 14 22 1.2 20 54 2.5
SWW 88 25 1.4 15 55 2.5
SWS 14 21 0.7 16 59 2.8
Durum 17 26 1.4 21 50 1.8
4b 20-24 0.9-1.3 14-17 56-57 4.2-5.6
All 290 24 1.3 18 55 2.3
aFor definition of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denote data not reported.
bFrom Ref. 88.
Source: Ref. 80.
TABLE 8 Tocol Derivative Content in Cereal Grains
Tocol derivatives (mg/100 g)a
Grains a-T a-T-3 13-T I3-T-3 y-T y-T-3 6-T 6-T-3 Total Ref.
spidii reala3

Barley 0.2-0.4 1.1-1.3 0.04-0.4 0.3-0.7 0.03-0.5 0.2 0.01-0.04 0.16 <5.0 3
0.4 1.3 0.3 0.7 0.05 0.2 0.1 - 89
0.5 1.3 0.02 0.7 0.07 0.8 0.02 0.07 5
0.3 1.6 <0.1 0.6 0.1 0.6 <0.1 - 90
Genotype 0.72-1.16 2.38-4.30 0.05-0.13 0.31-1.21 0.04-0.12 0.24-0.96 0.04-0.14 0.02-0.20 4.22-8.00 91
Location 0.88-1.11 3.05-3.63 0.002-0.19 0.67-0.75 0.07 0.50-0.56 0.04-0.13 0.07-0.11 5.67-6.08 91
Malt 1.00 3.07 0.14 0.46 0.04 0.39 0.04 0.06 5.2 92
Spent grain 2.02 9.21 0.31 1.60 0.09 1.76 0.12 0.18 15.3 92
Corn 0.6-2.1 0.2-0.5 - 0.5-1.1 - 3
0.6 0.2 0.4 3.8 0.5 tr 89
0.1-2.3 0.3-0.7 1.1-7.1 0.1-1.9 2.6-10.2 9
Millet 0.05 - tr 1.3 0.4 89
0.1 <0.1 0.1 1.7 <0.1 0.6 90
Bulrush millet 0.13 - 5.54 0.53 0.08 0.2 5
Foxtail millet 0.19 0.04 0.04 2.78 0.06 5
Finger millet 0.32 0.05 0.03 1.76 - 5
Pearl millet - 0.04 1.5 - 0.35 5
Oats 0.3-1.7 0.7-1.1 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.3 - 3
0.7 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.3 - 89
1.3-4.0 0.2-6.3 0.3-0.5 0.3-1.1 0.7-6.1 0.91 0.14 0.32 1.3-3.0 11
Genotype 0.55-0.96 0.91-1.86 0.07-0.13 0.05-0.15 0.05-0.13 0.00-0.06 1.9-3.0 91
Location 0.72-0.96 1.17-1.83 0.07-0.11 0.05-0.14 0.08-0.11 0.01-0.03 2.1-3.1 91
Rice
Brown rice 0.6 0.4 0.1 <0.01 0.1 0.7 <0.1 90
Polished rice <0.1 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.3 <0.1 90
Milled rice 0.05-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.3 - <0.04 4
0.3 tr 0.3 0.5 0.04 89
0.06 - 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.02 5
Rye 0.5-1.8 0.7-1.5 0.3-0.7 0.8-0.9 0.6 - 3
0.8 1.3 0.4 0.9 0.6 89
Flour 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.6 - 90
Meal 1.0 1.4 0.3 1.1 90
Sorghum 0.08 1.15 5
Triticale 0.91 1.03 0.30 1.51 5
Winter 0.7-0.95 93
Spring 1.35-1.45 - 93
Wheat 1.0 0.2 0.4 1.9 - 5
0.9-1.8 0.3-0.7 2.5-3.6 4.9-5.8 3
1.0 0.4 0.9 2.5 0.08 89
aTocopherols include a-T, 0-T, y-T, and 5-T, and tocotrienols include a-T-3, 0-T-3, y-T-3, and S-T-3. (-) denote data not reported.
434 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 9 Tocol Derivative Composition of Cereal Grains

Composition (% total)a
Content
Grains a-T a-T-3 I3-T I3-T-3 y-T y-T-3 5-T 8-T-3 (mg/100 g) Ref.
Barley (30)6 14-23 (17) 52-63 (57) 1-3 (1) 7-16 (12) 1-2 (1) 5-13 (9) 1-2 (1) 1-3 (2) 5.85' 91
Corn inbreds
B37 44.8 13.2 36.1 5.9 5.2 9
C103D 25.3 14.3 43.3 17.1 2.6 9
B84 23.3 9.3 65.1 2.3 5.4 9
A619 8.1 4 69.7 18.2 10.2 9
W64A 2.1 5.1 87.8 5.0 6.7 9
Oat (12)6 21-39 (32) 48-69 (57) 3-7 (4) 2-6 (3) 2-5 (4) - 0-2 (1) 2.6' 9
Wheatb ((3-T-Fy-T)d
HRW (103) 51.9 20.8 27.3 3.1 80
HRS (46) 47.6 24.4 27.9 3.2 80
HWW (6) 32.8 23.3 43.9 5.2 80
HWS (2) 26.4 24.1 49.5 9.9 80
SRW (14) 46.6 19.9 33.4 3.3 80
SWW (88) 43.0 23.7 33.3 3.3 80
SWS (14) 37.0 25.7 17.3 4.1 80
Durum (17) 55.6 21.1 23.3 2.8 80
All (290) 46.6 22.6 30.8 3.3 80
For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denote data not reported. Mean values are in parentheses.
bCalculated data from reference. Number of samples are in parentheses.
`Mean of genotypes grown in three locations.
dSum of 13-T and y-T.
TABLE 10 Tocol Derivatives in Dissected Grain Fractions
spidn paaa3

Tocol derivatives (mg/100 g)a

Grain fractions a-T a-T-3 13-T 13-T-3 7-T y-T-3 6-T 6-T-3 Total Ref.
Barley
Germ 17.47 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.98 0.00 2.00 0.00 20.65 92
Hull 0.96 1.37 0.06 0.24 0.03 0.21 0.01 0.01 2.89 92
Endosperm 0.11 2.34 0.01 0.45 0.00 0.37 0.01 0.05 3.33 92
Corn
Germ 12.9-19.4 33.2-38.8 0.73-1.04 47.0-58.9 94
(95.8-95.9)b (94.8-94.6) (100) - 94
Embryo 0.00-13.82 0.00-40.93 7.93-46.89 95
Pericarp and tip
cap 0.51-0.75 tr 1.72-2.04 tr 2.44-3.23 94
(3.7-3.8) - (4.9-5.0) - 94
Endosperm 0.05-0.07 0.45-0.87 0.10-0.19 0.38-1.89 1.12-3.02 94
(0.4) (100) (0.2-0.4) (100) 94
Oat
Germ 10.79 0 0 0.14 2.02 0.15 0 0.02 13.12 96
Hull 0.05-0.10 0.11-0.17 0.00-0.03 0 0 0.03-0.04 0 0.01 0.23-0.31 96
Bran 1.51 6.38 1 0.56 0.23 0 0 - 3.48 96
Endosperm 0.34-0.36 3.75-3.21 0.00-0.01 0.22-0.25 0.06-0.07 0.03-0.02 0 0.02-0.03 3.89-4.49 96
Flour 2.3 5.38 0.97 0.53 0.39 0 0.11 0.33 2.77 96
Wheat
Whole 0.9-1.8 0.3-0.7 - 2.5-3.6 4.9-5.8 3
Germ 25.56 <0.2 11.44 <0.2 97
(98.0) - (97.3) 97
22.1 0.3 8.6 1.0 <0.1 90
Pericarp, testa, and
aleurone 0.05 1 <0.04 6.86 7.91 97
(1.2) (81.2) - (49.8) 97
Bran 1.6-3.3 1.1 1.0-1.3 2.9-5.4 3
1.6 1.5 0.8 5.6 - 90
Endosperm 0.007 0.045 0.01 1.35 1.41 97
(0.08) (18.8) (2.7) (50.2) - 97
Patent flour 0.26-0.34 0.14 0.20-0.22 1.04-2.18 1.5-2.8 3
'(-) denote data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount.
bData in parentheses represent % distribution among the fractions of the whole grain.
436 Chung and Ohm

TABLE H Tocol Contents of Rice Bran Oil from TABLE 13 Carotenoid Content in Corn Grain
Different Manufactures
Carotenoid content (mg/kg)a
Content (ppm) % of total tocol
Carotenoids A
Tocol Mean Mean
derivatives (n = 5) Range (n = 5) Range Zeaxanthin 0.8-27.4 6.1-15.8 0.1-33.1
Lutein (xanthophyll) 2.0-33.1 7.0-14.9 0.1-16.1
Tocotrienol Zeaxanthin and lutein esters 0.3-4.1 — —
a 37 0-86 5.9 0.0-11.4 Cryptoxanthin 0.3-5.1 0.9-2.3 0.0-6.9
13/7 429 62-975 62.2 49.9-70.5 Fisoxanthin — 0.5-2.0
8 35 0-104 3.4 0.0-6.5 Zeinoxanthin 0.0-7.8 — 0.1-5.1
Total 501 72-1157 71.4 50.9-81.8 Polyoxy compounds 0.4-3.0 0.1-7.5
Tocopherol a-Carotene — 0.1-0.6
a 82 0-218 11.0 0.0-33.8 I3-Carotene 0.1-5.4 0.4-1.7 1.5-4.8b
13/y 128 16-358 16.4 12.8-22.2 13-Zeacarotene 0.1-4.7 <0.6
6 13 0-40 1.3 0.0-2.5
Total 223 16-452 28.6 18.2-49.1 'A from Ref. 99; B from Ref. 103; C from Ref. 104.
Total tocol 724 'Including a-carotene, (3-carotene, and 0-zeacarotene.
88-1609 100
(—) denote data not reported.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 98. Source: Adapted from Refs. 3, 5.

TABLE 12 Carotenoid Content in Cereal Grains

Carotenoid content (mg/kg)a
Grains Grain Lipids Ref.
Barley 1 100-150 5
Corn 1-58 99
Millet 6.7-6.9 100
Oats 100-310 2
Rye 15-28 2
Sorghum
Common 1.5 5
Yellow 25-30 5
Wheat 1.8-5.8 43-99 2, 101
a(—) denote data not reported.
Cereal Lipids 437

TABLE 14 Carotenoid Content in Corn Fraction

Carotenoid (mg/kg)
Weight Distribution
Fraction (%)a Carotene Xanthophyll Total (% Total)a
Whole" 100 1.7-2.0 13.9-19.1 15.9-20.8 100
Bran 7-8 0.2-0.3 1.1-1.8 1.4-2.1 1
Germ 10 0.5-1.3 3.5-4.1 4.0-5.4 2-4
Endosperm 82-83 3.4-4.8 23.8-40.1 27.3-40.3 95-97
Floury (28-36) (0.3-1.1) (3.0-12.8) (3.3-13.9) (9-23)
Horny (46-54) (2.3-3.7) (20.8-27.3) (24.0-29.6) (74-86)

Hand-Diss.d Dry-Milled Hand-Diss. Dry-Milled Hand-Disc. Dry-Milled

Whole 100 1.7 1.7 19.1 19.1 20.8 20.8 100
Bran 0.2 0.8 1.4 11.4 1.6 12.2
Germ 1.3 1.8 4.1 7.7 5.4 9.5
Endosperm' 4.8 4.4 35.5 41.5 40.3 45.9
Floury (1.1) (1.5) (10.0) (15.6) (11.7) (17.1)
Horny (3.7) (2.9) (25.5) (25.9) (29.2) (28.8)
a(-) denote data not reported.
bHand-dissected fractions of three yellow dent corns.
`For commercial dry-milled samples, corn break flour and corn grits represent floury and horny endosperm fractions, respectively.
dHand-dissected.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 105.

TABLE 15 Carotenoid Content and Composition in Wheat Grains"

Wheat class
HRS Durum
Carotenoids HRWb Wheat" Flour' Soft white Wheat" Flour'
Content (mg/kg)
Carotene 0.21 0.18 0.00 0.25 0.15 0.00
Xanthophyll 0.79 0.99 0.60 1.33 1.67 3.14
Xanthophyll ester 1.04 0.63 2.20 0.72 0.15 0.56
Monoester - (1.30) - (0.36)
Diester - (0.90) - - (0.20)
Total 2.04 1.80 2.80 2.30 1.97 3.70
Composition (%)
Carotene 10.3 10.0 0.0 10.8 7.6 0.0
Xanthophyll 38.7 55.0 21.6 57.8 84.8 84.8
Xanthophyll ester 51.0 35.0 78.4 31.4 7.6 15.1
Monoester (46.5) - (9.8)
Diester (31.9) (5.3)
"For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denote data not reported.
bAdapted from Ref. 106.

`Adapted from Ref. 107.

438 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 16 Carotenoid Content and Composition in Wheat Fractions

Wheat class

Fractions Carotenoids HRW HRS Soft White Durum

Content (mg/kg)
Bran Carotene 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.10
Xanthophyll 0.33 0.42 0.32 1.31
Xanthophyll ester 0.60 0.47 0.53 0.81
Total 0.95 0.93 0.88 2.22
Germ Carotene 0.80 0.72 1.13 0.50
Xanthophyll 5.98 5.78 9.70 2.93
Xanthophyll ester 1.04 0.69 0.21 0.70
Total 7.84 7.19 11.04 4.13
Endosperm Carotene 0.11 0.09 0.21 0.08
Xanthophyll 0.77 0.84 1.18 1.78
Xanthophyll ester 1.12 0.64 0.79 0.10
Total 2.00 1.57 2.18 1.96
Composition (%)
Bran Carotene 2.1 4.3 3.4 4.5
Xanthophyll 34.8 45.1 36.4 59.0
Xanthophyll ester 63.2 50.5 60.2 36.5
Germ Carotene 10.2 10.0 10.2 12.2
Xanthophyll 76.2 80.3 87.8 70.8
Xanthophyll ester 13.5 9.6 1.9 17.0
Endosperm Carotene 5.5 5.7 9.6 4.1
Xanthophyll 38.5 53.5 54.2 90.8
Xanthophyll ester 56.0 40.8 36.3 5.1

Source: Adapted from Ref. 106.

TABLE 17 Carotenoid Content and Composition in Yellow

Sorghum Grain

Carotenoids Content (mg/kg) Composition (%)

Zeaxanthin 2.8 36.3

Lutein 2.2 28.6
13-Carotene 0.8 10.4
Xanthophyll I 1.5 19.5
Xanthophyll II 0.4 5.2
Total 7.7 100

Source: Refs. 112, 113.

Cereal Lipids 439

TABLE 18 Composition of 4-Demethylsterols in Corn, Oats, and Ricesa

Composition (%)h

Corn Oats Rice

Kernel Germ Common Wild Kernel Bran

Sterols A B C D E D A
13-Sitostero1 65 66-70 66-76 39 69 57 56 54
Campesterol 21 16-21 16-23 6 10 8 22 20
Stigmasterol 5 4-10 6-8 5 8 4 11 8
A5-Avenasterol 2-9 1-4 21 7 19 11
A7-Avenasterol 14 6 4
A7-Stigmasterol 0.2-1.0 1-5 6 2 2
Cholesterol tr 0.2-0.4 6 2 4 3
Brassicasterol —
5a-Stanols 9
Others tr 1 3 1 5

a(—)denotes data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount.

Composition as determined by: A, Knights [114]; B, Miric et al. [115] cited by Weber [9]; C, Morrison [3] D, Knights [116]; E,
b
Youngs et al. [35]; F, Weihrauch and Gardner [117].

TABLE 19 Composition of 4-Demethylsterol in Rye, Sorghum, and Wheata

Composition (%)b
Rye Sorghum Wheat

Sterols A B C A D Durum E Soft E

13-Sitosterol 59 55 54 55 41-53 56-62 71-73
Campesterol 20 20 9 21 14-27 25-39 20-24
Stigmasterol tr 20 23 — 1-3 1-2
A5-Avenasterol 8 — <5 1-2
A7-Avenasterol — <2 <1
A7-Stigmasterol <2 <1
Cholesterol 0.5 1 tr 0-4 1-3 1-2
Brassicasterol —
5a-Stanols 9 18
Dihydrositosterol 6-23
Dihydrocampesterol 13-23
Dihydrobrassicasterol 13
others 5 6 5

'(—) denotes data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount.
bComposition as determined by: A, Knights [116]; B, Weihrauch and Gardner [117]; C. Heupel et al. [118]; D, Berrie and
Knights [119]; E, Artaud et al. [120].
440 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 20 Composition of 4-Demethylsterols in Dissected Wheat and Sorghum

Grain Fractions
Composition (%)
Fractions Sitosterol Campesterol Stigmasterol Cholesterol
Triticum durum'
Endosperm 75.0 3.8 13.6 7.6
Bran 65.3 10.9 10.2 13.6
Embryo 55.2 12.8 16.2 15.8
Scutellum 69.6 17.4 10.4 2.6
Triticum aestivuma
Endosperm 67.0 4.6 14.6 13.3
Bran 67.2 10.6 10.6 11.6
Embryo 63.3 16.1 9.4 11.2
Scutellum 81.9 14.5 2.3 1.3
Sorghum vulgareb
Endosperm 47.3 26.7 17.7 1.0
Bran 55.2 23.7 12.9 0.6
'From Ref. 121.
bFrom Ref. 122. They also reported 5.6 and 4.7% 45-avenasterol and 1.6 and 2.9% A7-avenasterol in
sorghum endosperm and embryo, respectively.

TABLE 21 Composition of 4-Demethylsterols in Sterol Lipids of Wheat Kernel, Aleurone,

and Flours
Composition (%)
Kernel" Aleurone Milled flour"
Sterols SE S SE S SG SE S SG ASG
13-Sitosterol 71.8 65.6 55.8 63 50.2 75.2 63.2 65.6 63.8
5a-Dihydrositosterol - - - - - 14.1 13.6 14 14.3
Campesterol 22.8 26 32.5 22.6 34.8 4.8 16.8 14.4 17.2
5a-Dihydrocampestrol - - - - - 5.9 6.4 6.0 5.7
Stigmasterol 2 3 7.6 5.8 10.0
A5-Avenasterol 2.9 3.6 - - -
A,7-Avenasterol 0.5 0.5
,6,7-Stigmasterol <0.1 1
Cholesterol <0.1 0.3 4.1 8.6 5
'For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denote data not reported.
bAdapted from Ref. 123.
`Adapted from Ref. 124.
'Adapted from Ref. 125.
Cereal Lipids 441

TABLE 22 Composition of Rice Bran Oil and Its Sterol Lipids

Composition (%)a
Sterol Bran oilb SE` SC SG` ASG`
4-Demethylsterols (53)d
P-Sitosterol 49 51.6 57.2 77.2 80.2
Campesterol 28 20.2 16.2 9.3 8.0
Stigmasterol 15 9.2 18.8 11.8 11.3
A5-Avenasterol 5 11.4 6.0
A7-Avenasterol 1 2.7
A7-Stigmasterol 2 3.6 tr 1.0 0.5
Cholesterol 1.3 1.8
4-Monomethylsterols (12)
Obtusifoliol 7 9.5 7.7
Unknown 6 1.5 1.4
Gramisterol 39 55.4 60.5
Unknown 8 5.7 6.6
Citrostadienol 40 27.9 23.6
4,4'-Dimethylsterols (35)
Cycloartanol 9 2.5 3.9
Cycloartenol 41 26.6 19.6
24-Methylenecycloartanol 42 67.9 67.0
Unknown tr 2.1 6.6
Cyclobranol tr 0.9 2.9
Unknown 7 - -
aFor definition of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denote data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount.
bAdapted from Refs. 126, 127.
`Adapted from Ref. 128.
'Data in parentheses are % total sterols.
442 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 23 Composition of Sterol in Corn and Wheat Germ Oils'

Composition (%)b

Corn Wheat germ

Sterol A B A

4-Demethylsterols (98.0)c (92.5) (87.1) (92.4) —

13-Sitosterol 66 60 67 60 64
Campesterol 23 17 22 19 29
Stigmasterol 6 6 tr 4 1
45-Avenasterol 4 10 6 7 2
47-Avenasterol tr 1 2 2 2
47-Stigmasterol 1 tr 3 2 1
Cholesterol tr tr tr tr tr
Brassicasterol tr — tr <1
Others 6 5
4-Monomethylsterols (1.0) (4.0) (5.4) (3.8)
Obtusifoliol 30 21 6 14 7
47-Sterol 6 6
Gramisterol 34 26 41 25 41
Cycloeucalenol 6 6
24-Ethyllophenol 4 — 5
Citrostadienol 30 29 46 30 38
Unknown 5 3 7 3 14
Others 1 5 11 —
4,4'-Dimethylsterols (1.0) (3.5) (7.5) (3.8)
Cycloartanol 2 3 2 5
13-Amyrin 4 1 18 12 22
a-Amyrin — 2 8 7
Cycloartenol 38 43 17 25 17
24-Methylenecycloartanol 53 43 44 33 27
Cyclobranol 2 — 2 2 6
47-Sterol 5 6
48-Sterol 5 11
Unknown 1 — 2 10
Others 1 3 2

a(—) denote data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount.
bComposition as determined by: A, Itoh et al. [126,127]; B, Kornfeldt and Croon [130]; and C. Lercker et
al. [131], cited by Morrison [3].
`Values in parentheses are % total sterols.
Cereal Lipids 443

TABLE 24 Content of Sitosterol Oxides in Wheat Flour'

Storage
(months) 5a, 6a-epoxy 513, 6P-epoxy 7a-hydroxy 7P-hydroxy Total

Content (ppm in lipids)b

2 6.6 3.3 11.9 13.5 35.3
8 5.2 tr 9.3 9.8 24.3
36 55.0 29.0 118.5 126.5 329.0
Composition (%)
2 19 9 34 38 100
8 21 38 40 100
36 17 9 36 38 100

a(—) denotes data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount. Composition (%) were calculated from data.
bFat content was 1.4%.
Source: Ref. 132.
444 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 25 Weight Distribution of Grain Fractions and Their Free Lipid Contents in
Grain Fractions'
Free lipid content
Grain Fraction Weight (%) (% fraction) Ref.
Corn Whole kernel 100 3.9-5.8 133
Endosperm 79.7-83.5 0.7-1.1
Germ 10.2-14.1 31.1-38.9
Bran 4.4-6.2 0.7-1.2
Tip cap 0.8 3.7-3.9
Oats Whole kernel 100 5.4 134
Groats 64-81 7.6
Hulls 19-36 0.6
Groats 100 —
Endosperm 69 6.2-6.7
Bran 24
Germ 7 11.2
Rice Whole kernel 100 1.9-3.1 3
Brown rice 71-78 2.4-3.9
Hulls 23-29 0.2-0.4
Brown rice 100 2.9-3.4 56
Inner endosperm 82.5-83.8 0.4-0.8
Subaleurone layer 4.9-5.2 5.6-8.5
Polish 4.1-4.4 10.2-15.0
Bran 5.9-6.4 19.4-25.5
Germ 1.3-1.5 34.1-36.5
Sorghum Whole kernel 100 3.2-3.9 135
Endosperm 80.0-84.6 0.4-0.8
Germ 7.8-12.1 26.9-30.6
Bran 7.3-9.3 3.7-6.0
Wheat Whole kernel 100 1.8 136
Bran 5.1-5.8
Pericarp 5.0-8.9 0.7-1.0
Testa (hyaline) 0.2-1.1 0.2-0.5
Aleurone 4.6-8.9 6.0-9.9
Endosperm 74.9-86.5 0.8-2.2
Outer endosperm 2.2-2.4
Inner endosperm — 1.2-1.6
Germ 2.0-3.9 28.5
Embryonic axis 1.0-1.6 10.0-16.3
Scutellum 1.1-2.0 12.6-32.1
a(—) denotes data not reported.
Cereal Lipids 445

TABLE 26 Nonstarch Lipid Content and Its Distribution in Grain Fractions

Nonstarch lipid

Weight Content (% Distribution'

Grain Type Fraction (%) fraction) (%) Ref.

Corn H51 Whole 100 4.9 100 137

Germ 10.9 35.5 82.2
Endosperm 82.6 1.0 17.5
Pericarp 5.8 0.2 0.3
Tip cap 0.7 0.3 <0.1
LG-11 Whole 100 4.9 100 138
Germ 8.4 38.7 78.4
Endosperm 86.0 1.0 20.7
Pericarp 4.2 0.3 0.3
Tip cap 1.4 1.6 0.6
Waxy maize Whole 100 5.1 100 138
Germ 10.8 35.6 84.8
Endosperm 81.0 0.8 14.3
Pericarp 6.6 0.2 0.3
Tip cap 1.6 1.7 0.6
Amylomaize Whole 100 9.3 100 138
Germ 15.0 33.7 73.2
Endosperm 74.7 2.4 26.0
Pericarp 7.8 0.2 0.2
Tip cap 2.5 1.8 0.6
Barley Prilar Hulless 139
Whole 100 3.2 100
Bran-endosperm 90.2 2.8 77.1
Embryonic axis 3.0 19.6 17.9
Hull 6.8 2.4 50
Oats James Hulless 139
Groats 100 7.2 100
Bran-endosperm 84.5 7.1 84.7
Embryonic axis 2.4 21.2 7.2
Hull 13.1 4.4 8.1
Ryeb Whole 100 3.0 100 78
Endosperm 91.1 2.1 62.3
Germ 4.4 23.6 34.5
Bran 4.5 2.1 3.2
Triticaleb Whole 100 3.0 100 78
Endosperm 91.2 1.8 55.2
Germ 4.2 30.0 41.9
Bran 4.6 1.9 2.9
Wheatb Whole 100 3.3 100 78
Endosperm 92.0 2.2 62.7
Germ 4.0 27.8 33.8
Bran 4.0 2.8 3.4

'Distribution in corn kernels was calculated by using data of Weber [137] and Tan and Morrison [138].
bFractions were the milling products.
446 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 27 Free, Bound, and Total Nonstarch Lipids in Oats and Proso Millet
Grain Fractions
Lipid content (% fraction)
Grains Fractions Free Bound Total
Oatsa Groats 5.5-8.0 1.4-1.6 6.9-9.6
Hull 2.0-2.3 0.6 2.6-2.9
Scutellum 20.4-20.6 2.8-4.2 23.4-24.6
Embryonic axis 10.6-12.6 3.3-4.1 14.7-15.9
Bran 6.4-9.5 1.2-1.3 7.7-10.7
Endosperm 5.2-6.8 1.0 6.2-7.8
Red proso milletb Whole 3.5-3.9 0.5-0.9 4.3-4.9
Bran 3.5-4.3 0.3-0.7 4.1-5.0
Flour 3.6-4.1 0.5-0.9 4.2-4.9
White proso milletb Whole 3.3-3.9 0.6-1.3 3.9-4.9
Bran 4.0-6.8 0.3-0.5 4.3-7.3
Flour 3.2-4.0 0.5-0.7 3.8-4.5
aFrom Ref. 35. Total lipid were the sum of FL and BL.
bFrom Ref. 33. The total yields were 79.2-82.4% and 82.1-87.1% for red and white proso millets, re-
spectively.

TABLE 28 Lipid Contents of Cereal Starches (mg/100 g db)a

Lipid-
Starch Free fatty acid Lyso-PL phosphorousb
Barley
Waxy 28-43 (<233)c 120-751
Normal 31-51 (<400) 469-1136
High-amylose 51-92(<521) 864-1360
Maize
Waxy 5-46 (12-124) 3-29 ND
Normal 297-529 (var.) 162-344 16
High-amylose 375-671 (var.) 262-602 14
Millet 283-545 351-656
Oat 262-462 (var.) 977-1081 56
Rice
Waxy 0 (15-60) 0 ND
Normal 215-501 (var.) 407-863 48
Wheat 0 (84-202) 780-1189 53
aFor definition of abbreviations, see Table 1. (—) denote data not reported and (ND)
denotes not detected.
bFrom Ref. 140.
`Values in parentheses indicate levels of adsorbed surface lipid artifacts.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 141.
Cereal Lipids 447

TABLE 29 Average Compositions of Nonpolar Lipids and Phospholipids of Two Barley Grains and Fatty Acid
Composition of Each Lipid Class

Lipida Fatty acid (%)

Class Composition (%) 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 Others

Nonpolar lipids`'
TG 51.9 19.0 0.8 20.9 38.6 4.8 15.9
1,3-DG 7.3 20.9 2.3 12.9 59.5 3.9 0.5
1,2-DG 8.4 20.7 2.8 12.8 57.9 5.0 0.8
FFA 9.0 34.8 3.8 8.5 49.1 2.9 0.9
Unknown 1 0.8 23.0 4.2 18.6 46.1 4.2 3.9
Unknown 2 1.1 19.2 6.9 18.3 40.3 3.9 11.4
Unknown 3 1.5 20.2 6.3 18.7 46.9 5.7 2.2
Unknown 4 tr 25.6 18.1 27.3 8.4 5.6 15.0
Phospholipids`
DPG 1.6 18.9 4.6 12.9 53.6 1.9 8.1
PG 0.5 35.1 11.5 26.4 17.3 1.7 8.0
PE 8.2 20.8 6.3 16.5 52.0 2.1 2.3
PC 44.4 18.7 2.2 18.9 55.3 3.9 1.0
PI 1.2 22.9 4.4 23.8 44.1 1.3 3.5
PS 4.9 30.6 3.6 6.3 48.6 2.8 8.1
PA 0.1 35.7 15.2 20.2 12.1 2.5 14.3
LPC 37.0 27.3 1.8 12.7 53.3 3.5 1.4
Unknown 1 0.4 37.2 24.0 11.2 17.3 0.8 9.5
Unknown 2 1.7 27.0 13.8 9.8 42.9 2.8 3.7

'For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1. Lipid composition is expressed as % nonpolar lipids or phospholipids.
b From Ref. 142.

`From Ref. 143.

TABLE 30 Nonstarch Lipid and Fatty Acid Compositions of Hulless Barley Grain Fractions

Lipid" Fatty acid (%)

Grain fractions Content (%) Class Composition (%) 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 Others

Hull 6.8 NL 75.9 26.1 5.4 21.5 30.6 5.0 9.7

GL 18.2 41.9 7.3 15.3 17.1 9.3 6.2
PL 5.9 37.9 2.2 10.0 22.2 10.5 3.0
Embryonic axis 19.6 NL 75.8 19.5 0.6 20.4 49.7 9.6 0.2
GL 6.4 17.4 3.9 14.7 40.6 23.2 0.2
PL 17.8 17.5 0.2 19.1 45.2 9.4 0.2
Bran-endosperm 2.8 NL 64.4 20.6 1.3 16.6 56.8 4.4 0.3
GL 12.5 17.9 2.1 5.9 68.3 5.6 0.2
PL 23.1 30.4 1.5 17.4 56.4 2.0 0.6

'For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1. Lipid content is expressed as % of weight (dry basis) of fraction and lipid composition is ex-
pressed as % lipids.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 139.
448 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 31 Nonstarch Lipid Composition in

Two-Row Barley Embryonic Tissues at 0- and
5-Day Germination

Lipid composition (%)

Coleorhiza Coleoptile Scutellum

Lipid
classa 0 5 0 5 0 5

SE 7.1 15.4 5.3 11.8 1.1 3.7

TG 65.2 55.1 58.1 39.7 86.3 71.4
FFA 2.0 8.4 3.6 12.1 0.5 2.8
ASG 4.1 12.3 5.8 17.1 3.4 8.6
PE 5.2 3.2 4.7 9.6 2.5 4.7
PC 16.4 5.5 22.5 9.6 6.2 8.8

aFor definition of abbreviations, see Table 1.

Source: Adapted from Ref. 144.

TABLE 32 Lipid, Phosphorus Contents, and Fatty Acid Composition of Barley Starch (mg/100 g, db)a

Content (mg/100 g, db) Fatty acid (%)

Barley type Lipid-P FAMEb Total 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3

Waxy 7.9-35.1 174-630 120-569 58.6-80.6 0-5.6 2.4-5.9 13.8-34.5 0-1.6

Nonwaxy 47.7-61.2 757-1025 774-1032 47.5-56.3 0.7-5.6 2.5-3.8 36.5-44.4 2.7-4.0

aFor definition of abbreviations, see Table 1.

bFatty acid methyl esters.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 145.

TABLE 33 Lipid Contents, and Fatty Acid Composition of Barley Starch at Four Stages of Grain Developmenta
Fatty acid compositon (%)

Days after anthesis FAMEb (mg/100 g db) LPL (mg/100 g db) 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3

Waxy Hector
20 255 377 57.0 1.3 6.8 33.1 1.8
30 192 278 60.8 1.3 4.8 32.4 0.7
40 242 387 61.1 1.2 4.1 32.8 0.8
50 323 527 58.1 0.9 3.6 36.7 0.7
Hector
20 461 690 44.6 1.3 5.2 40.8 8.1
30 413 604 48.8 1.3 3.9 42.1 3.9
40 428 698 52.0 2.1 4.3 39.2 2.4
50 422 722 54.3 1.9 3.6 38.4 1.8

aFor definition of abbreviations, see Table 1.

b Fatty acid methyl esters.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 146.
Cereal Lipids 449

TABLE 34 Effects of Ambient Temperature During Grain

Development on Lipid Content of Starch from Four
Barley Genotypes'
FAMEb LPL
(mg/100 g, db) (mg/100 g, db)
Ambient
temperature (°C) Mean Range Mean Range
10 409 180-605 669 333-865
15 494 232-657 938 459-1251
20 493 258-647 859 482-1087

'For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1.

bFatty acid methyl esters.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 147.

TABLE 35 Nonstarch Lipid and Fatty Acid Compositions of Hulless Oat Grain Fractions

Lipid' Fatty acid (%)

Grain fractions Content (%) Class Composition (%) 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 Others
Hull 4.4 NL 66.9 32.4 4.7 18.2 27.6 8.8 7.7
GL 27.6 36.7 4.4 10.0 22.2 23.1 2.3
PL 5.5 32.3 2.2 14.8 36.6 12.3 1.3
Embryonic axis 21.2 NL 87.4 17.1 0.6 32.1 45.8 3.7 0.7
GL 3.8 19.9 3.7 19.1 45.2 10.0 2.1
PL 8.8 19.0 0.3 25.2 51.0 3.1 1.4
Bran-endosperm 7.1 NL 56.9 16.4 1.5 36.1 43.9 1.7 0.4
GL 21.4 20.1 2.0 17.4 56.4 3.3 0.3
PL 21.7 28.8 1.7 18.5 48.6 1.2 1.2

'For definition of abbreviations, see Table 1. Lipid content is expressed as % of weight (dry basis) of fraction and lipid composition is expressed as
% lipids.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 139.
450 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 36 Nonstarch Lipid Composition of Oat Groats and Groat Fractions

Lipid composition (% total lipids)

Groat fractions

Embryonic
Lipid classy Groat Bran Scutellum axis Endosperm
TG 32.4-50.6 38.6 50.1 57.7 41.0
DA 1.8-3.0 3.0 3.4 4.0 2.9
FFA 2.0-11.0 2.8 2.1 2.0 3.0
S 0.5-1.7 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.9
SG 0.9-1.4 0.9 0.5 0.8 1.2
MGMG 4.0-4.3 4.0 * 4.5
DGDG 6.9-7.6 8.0 * * 8.0
PE 0.8-2.2 2.5 0.9 1.1 2.3
PC 3.2-6.1 3.6 2.6 2.8 3.5
LPE 0.4-1.7 1.7 * 3.0
LPC 1.8-2.7 2.9 * * 3.0
Othersb 16.0-34.2 31.0 39.7 30.8 28.0
For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (*) denotes those not measured.
bLipids not measured, values obtained by differences.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 35.
Cereal Lipids 451

TABLE 37 Nonstarch Lipid Content and Composition of Oat Groats of Hinoat

and Five Other Strainsa
Lipid content (mg/100 g, db) Lipid composition (% TL)
Lipid classb Hinoat Five strains Hinoat Five strains
Total NL 4,150 3,150-9,270 65.8 66.9-79.8
SE 130 130-460 2.1 2.8-4.0
TG 3,390 2,320-6,570 53.7 43.1-56.4
DG + MG 270 260-1,010 4.3 5.7-8.9
FFA 250 300-1,220 4.0 6.4-10.5
S 110 140-670 1.7 2.3-5.8
Total GL 606 260-1,040 9.6 5.8-9.6
SG 44 * 0.7 *
MGDG 114 * 1.8 *
MGMG 38 * 0.6
DGDG 246 * 3.9 *
DGMG 32 * 0.5 *
Others 132 * 2.1 *
Total PL 1,550 1,200-1,830 24.6 11.6-26.0
PG 145 * 2.3 *
PE 227 * 3.6 *
PC 467 * 7.4 *
PA + PI 56 * 0.9 *
PS 50 * 0.8 *
LPL 315 * 5.0 *
Others 290 * 4.6 *
Total NSL 6,310 4,620-11,660 100.0 100.0
aSome data are calculated. Five oat strains included Exeter, OA-290-5, Terra, Lodi, and Cl-
4492.
bFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (*) denotes those not measured.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 36.
452 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 38 Composition of Free Lipids, Bound Lipids, Total Nonstarch Lipids, and Total
Lipids (Nonstarch + Starch) in Millet Grains

Lipid composition (% lipids)

Total NSL`
Total (NSL + SL)d
Lipid class' Freeb Boundb C-M WSB Hot WSB

Nonpolar lipids
SE + HC 8.7 12.1 6.0 4.8 3.0
TG 66.4 34.7 44.7 38.6 73.5
PPA. 3.1 9.2 16.7 14.5 1.8
S 4.5 11.4 9.5 5.4 5.4
DG 2.3 4.3 6.9 7.5 2.8
MG 15.2 33.4 3.3 3.5 2.8
Polar lipids 15.2 33.4 13.1 25.9 14.3

aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1.

bAverage data of two varieties by Nechaev and Sandler [2].
`Average data of two varieties by Salun and Kalugina [148]; C-M = CHC13-CH3OH (2:1, V/V); WSB =
water-saturated 1-butanol.
dFrom Ref. 29.
Cereal Lipids 453

TABLE 39 Composition of Total Lipids (Nonstarch + Starch) in Millet Grains and of Fatty Acids in
Lipid Classes
Lipida Fatty acid (%)
Class Composition (% TL) 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 Others
Total NL 85.7 16.7 8.2 24.7 45.7 3.2 1.4
SE 3.0 18.0 8.7 30.8 42.5 tr
TG 73.5 15.9 5.3 28.8 46.2 2.5 0.8
DG, MG 2.8 24.1 4.8 22.7 40.8 7.6 tr
FFA 1.8 21.1 8.8 27.2 37.8 4.1 0.8
S 5.4 - -
Total GL 2.6 19.4 4.3 24.4 39.5 10.9 1.5
SG 0.4 - - - -
ASG 1.0 27.9 4.4 26.9 37.3 3.4
MGDG 0.3 20.2 5.9 26.0 34.3 13.7
MGMG 0.04 20.9 8.1 22.5 42.1 6.3
DGDG 0.4 16.6 5.6 20.4 38.6 18.7
DGMG 0.06 13.9 10.8 29.8 35.0 10.5
AMGDG 0.05 27.5 8.0 22.1 36.2 6.2
CB-I 0.2 32.5 11.9 23.1 23.2 9.3
CB-II 0.04 25.9 18.0 19.9 29.2 7.0
Unknown 0.1 21.0 10.4 23.0 35.5 10.1 -
Total PL 11.7 29.6 2.6 26.4 37.3 4.1 tr
PG 0.1 8.2 2.4 10.5 70.4 1.8 6.6
PE 0.8 20.0 2.3 21.9 52.4 1.8 1.6
PC (+ PI) 2.9 18.8 2.8 28.2 48.1 2.2 tr
LPE (+ PS) 2.5 41.8 2.4 20.2 33.0 2.6 tr
LPC 4.9 46.0 3.2 28.9 18.3 3.7 tr
PA 0.2 26.8 4.8 21.4 37.3 1.9 7.9
Xab 0.2 31.8 6.1 20.4 36.0 tr 5.7
aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount. Lipid
composition was calculated using data by hot WSB-extraction [29] to express% total lipids (TL).
bX4 = biphosphatidic acid.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 29.
454 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 40 Compositions of LG-11 Hybrid Corn Total Lipids (Nonstarch and Starch), and Nonstarch Lipids in
Corn Fractionsa

Nonstarch lipids (% NSL)

Corn lipid Starch lipidsb
Lipid class' (% TL) Pericarp Germ Tip cap Endosperm (% SL)
Total NL 84.6 39.1 90.4 73.3 79.8 52.8
SE 2.5 14.9 1.9 10.0 6.9 0.6
TG 70.8 19.5 84.9 44.4 48.5 1.3
DG 2.8 3.4 2.9 3.3 4.6 0.5
FFA 8.1 1.1 0.7 13.3 18.8 48.6
MG 0.4 tr 0.1 2.2 1.0 1.8
Total GL 2.8 3.4 1.8 7.8 5.9 5.7
ASG 0.4 1.1 0.2 2.2 0.9 1.1
MGDG + MGMG 0.6 1.1 0.3 2.2 1.7 1.8
DGDG 1.1 tr 1.0 2.2 1.6 1.5
DGMG 0.7 1.1 0.4 1.1 1.6 1.3
Total PL 7.5 2.3 3.3 7.8 4.1 41.5
APE 0.3 1.1 0.3 1.1 0.4
ALPE + DPG <0.1 tr 0.1 0.1
PG 0.1 0.1 - 0.1
PE 0.4 0.4 1.1 0.1
PC 1.4 1.1 1.7 1.1 0.5
PI 0.5 0.6 1.1 0.4
PA 0.2 0.2 1.1 0.1 -
LPG 0.1 tr - 0.7
LPE 0.3 tr tr 0.1 2.7
LPC 0.4 <0.1 1.1 2.4 36.8
LPI, LPS 0.1 1.1 - 1.3
Total
Unsaponifiables 5.1 55.2 4.4 11.1 10.2
Tor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount.
'Starch lipids (SL) in endosperm fraction.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 138.
Cereal Lipids 455

TABLE 41 Compositions of Nonpolar Lipids, Glycolipids, and Phospholipids in Whole Kernel,

Germ, and Endosperm of Corn
Composition (% lipids)
Endosperm
Lipid classy Whole comb Germb Germ' NSLb NSL` SLb
Nonpolar lipids 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
SE 3.0 2.1 - 8.6 - 1.2
TG 83.6 93.8 99.4 60.8 58.9 2.5
DG 3.3 3.2 5.8 - 0.9
FFA 9.6 0.8 0.6 23.6 41.1 92.0
MG 0.5 0.1 1.2 - 3.4
Glycolipids 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
ASG 13.4 8.8 1.6 15.6 4.1 19.2
MGDG + MGMG 23.0 15.9 9.3 28.8 20.6 31.5
DGDG 40.3 54.1 21.0 27.8 15.5 26.0
DGMG 23.3 21.2 27.8 23.3
SG+CB - em 32.8 - 13.1 -
CB 22.0 8.6
Sulfolipid 7.0 19.7
Othersd - - 6.3 - 18.4
Phospholipids 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
APE 3.4 7.5 1.1 9.5 1.2
ALPE + DPG 0.5 1.3 3.9 1.6 2.0
PG 1.0 2.6 4.3 1.6 1.9
PE 4.8 13.4 11.7 3.2 6.1
PC 18.3 51.5 54.5 11.1 44.6
PI 6.5 16.9 18.7 9.5 3.6
PS - 0.9 - -
PA 2.1 5.2 1.2 3.2 0.7 -
LPG 1.0 - - - - 1.7
LPE 4.1 0.4 3.2 3.4 6.6
LPI, LPS 2.0 - - - 3.2
LPC 56.3 1.6 0.8 57.1 36.5 88.5
Unknown - 2.5 - 36.5
aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported.
bCalculated data for LG-11 hybrid corn from Tan and Morrison [138].
`From Ref. 137.
d Includes spots on the front and origin of thin-layer plates.
456 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 42 Fatty Acid Composition of Lipids in Corn Grain Fractions

Lipid Fatty acid (%)

Grain fractions Classa Composition (%) 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3

Germb NL 92.4 16.0 1.3 31.8 49.5 0.8

GL 2.0 24.9 1.7 28.3 42.8 2.3
PL 5.6 24.9 1.3 31.1 42.0 0.7
Endospermb NL 86.9 20.8 2.4 23.6 49.4 3.8
GL 5.4 28.1 2.8 20.0 44.6 4.5
PL 7.6 21.3 2.4 35.1 39.6 1.6
LG-11 hybrid corn'
Pericarp 24.7 5.2 21.1 45.8 3.1
Germ 11.0 1.4 24.1 62.8 0.7
Tip cap 22.1 2.6 20.0 49.2 6.0
Endosperm, Total 24.7 1.9 15.6 53.5 4.3
Endosperm, SL 31.4 1.1 11.1 53.8 2.7
Starch, SL 36.8 1.8 10.1 47.9 3.5
H-51 inbred corns
Kernel 17.7 1.2 29.9 50.0 1.2
Pericarp 31.9 4.4 21.9 39.0 2.8
Germ 17.1 0.9 31.4 50.0 0.6
Tip cap 38.2 5.7 22.0 32.5 1.6
Endosperm 20.4 1.9 24.2 50.0 3.5
Root 24.9 7.9 7.6 51.9 7.7
Leaf 15.8 0.8 1.1 13.1 69.2

aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1.

bFrom Ref. 137.
`From Ref. 138.
dFrom Ref. 42.
Cereal Lipids 457

TABLE 43 Positional Distribution of Fatty Acids in

Glycerolipid Classes from Maize Total Lipidsa
Fatty acid (%)
Lipid 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3
TG
1-position 20.9 3.5 31.2 43.4 1.0
2-position 2.5 0.7 26.8 69.1 0.9
3-position 15.9 2.4 37.7 42.3 1.7
DGDG
1-position 25.3 5.0 23.9 27.6 18.2
2-position 2.9 2.6 22.7 40.8 31.0
PC
1-position 29.3 3.3 36.9 30.0 0.5
2-position 1.2 <0.1 41.1 56.4 1.3
PE
1-position 32.1 0.7 19.4 47.2 0.6
2-position 9.6 0.3 18.8 70.4 0.9
PI
1-position 59.8 1.4 11.4 25.7 1.7
2-position 12.7 0.8 14.2 59.6 12.7
LPC 16.6 0.5 35.5 47.2 0.2
LPE 25.9 2.8 29.3 41.8 0.2
aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 150.

TABLE 44 Composition of Molecular Species in 1,2-Diacylglycerol Residues of Glycerolipid Classes in Maize Total Lipidsa
Fatty acid molecular species (%)
Lipids 16:0-18:1 18:1-18:1 16:0-18:2 18:1-18:2 16:0-18:3 18:1-18:3 18:2-18:2 18:2-18:3 18:3-18:3
TG 9 11 18 29 32 1
DGDG 7 2 7 17 5 12 16 15 19
PC 11 14 18 32 24 1
PE 6 5 23 26 39 1
P1 10 3 41 11 13 19 3
aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 150.
458 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 45 Nonpolar Lipids, Glycolipids, and Phospholipids of Starch and Starch Surface Lipids from Purified
Corn Starchy
Composition

Content (nag/100 g starch) (% of total) (% of hydrolyzed lipids)

Lipids Surface lipidsb Starch lipids' Surface lipidsb Starch lipids` Surface lipidsb Starch lipids'

NL total 30.6 440.0 77.1 58.2 3.8 55.3

FFA 0.9 348.0 2.3 46.0 0.1 43.7
MG 0.6 22.2 1.5 2.9 0.1 2.8
DG 0.7 23.2 1.8 3.1 0.1 2.9
TG 1.2 18.3 3.0 2.4 0.2 2.3
Free S 18.3 12.3 46.1 1.6 2.3 1.5
SE 8.9 16.0 22.4 2.1 1.1 2.0
GL total - 47.0 - 6.2 5.9
MGMG 18.2 2.4 2.3
MGDG 7.5 1.0 0.9
DGDG 11.3 1.5 1.4
DGMG 8.5 1.1 1.1
CE 1.5 0.2 0.2
Unknown - tr -
PL total 9.1 268.9 22.9 35.6 1.1 33.8
LPC 3.4 153.0 8.6 20.2 0.4 19.2
LPE 2.4 65.8 6.0 8.7 0.3 8.3
PC 3.3 14.3 8.3 1.9 0.4 1.8
PE tr 35.8 - 4.7 4.5
PS tr tr
PG tr tr
PA tr tr -
Total 39.7 755.9 100 100 5.0 95.0
Acid hydrolyzed 796.0 100

aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported. Composition (%) were calculated from data.
bExtracted by chloroform and methanol (2:1, v/v) at 25-27°C.
`Extracted by propanol and water (3:1, v/v) extraction at 90-100°C after chloroform-methanol extraction.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 151.
Cereal Lipids 459

TABLE 46 Fatty Acid Compositions of Nonpolar Lipids, Glycolipids, and Phospholipids of

Starch and Starch Surface Lipids from Purified Corn Starcha
Fatty acid composition (area %)
Lipids Extraction 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 20:0 Others
NL Surface lipidsb 35.5 6.7 9.8 44.3 2.1 1.3 0.3
Starch lipids' 37.3 5.3 10.3 42.7 2.8 0.7 0.9
GL Starch lipidsb 35.2 7.5 12.8 41.8 2.2 tr 0.5
PL Surface lipidsb 42.8 5.5 9.5 38.6 2.1 1.1 0.4
Starch lipids' 38.7 5.8 8.4 44.3 2.3 tr 0.5
'For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount.
bExtracted by chloroform and methanol (2:1, v/v) at 25-27°C.

`Extracted by propanol and water (3:1, v/v) extraction at 90-100°C after chloroform-methanol extraction.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 151.

TABLE 47 Composition of Nonstarch Lipids in Hull, Brown Rice, and Milling Fractionsa
Composition (% NSL)
Lipid class" Hull Brown Bran Germ Polish Milled Milled'
Total NL 64 86 89 91 87 82 83-91
SE - - - - - - 2-4
TG 71 76 79 72 58 55-83
FFA 7 4 4 5 15 3-29
MG - - - - 1-8
Total GL 25 5 4 2 5 8 2-4
SG <1 <1 <1 1 2 -
ASG 3 2 1 3 4 -
MGMG tr tr tr tr tr 1-3
DGDG <1 <1 <1 <1 1 1-2
Total PL 11 9 7 7 8 10 7-13
PE 4 3 3 3 4 -
PC 4 3 3 3 4
LPE - - 1
LPC <1 <1 <1 <1 2
Total NSL (% fraction, db) 0.4 2.7 18.3 30.2 10.8 0.8 0.3-1.0
'Average composition of three varieties.
"For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount.
`Calculated data from Azudin and Morrison [153] by subtracting SL content from TL (NSL + SL). The range shows the av-
erage of two waxy rice varieties, of six normal rice varieties grown in the Phillippines, and of six normal rice varieties
grown in Portugal. MGMG includes MGDG, and DGDG includes DGMG.
Source: Adapted from Refs. 14, 56, 152.
460 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 48 Composition of Total Lipids (Nonstarch + Starch) and Starch Lipids in Waxy and Nonwaxy Brown Rice
and Milled Rice Samples
Starch lipid composition (% SL)
TL (NSL + SL)
composition (% TL) Starch Milled rice Brown rice

Lipid classy Waxyb Nonwaxyb Waxyb Nonwaxyb Waxy` Nonwaxy` Waxy' Nonwaxy`

Total NL 91.3 51.7 100 35.3 33 25 43 23

SE 3.3 1.2 0 0.7 - -
TG 55.3 23.4 0 0.3 5 4 5 2
FFA 30.0 23.9 100 31.2 28 21 37 21
MG 2.7 3.2 0 3.1 - -
Total GL 2.2 3.2 3.2 7 5 9 6
SG - - 1 1 2 1
ASG - 3 2 3 2
MGMG 1.1 1.2 1.1 3 2 3 3
DGDG 1.1 2.0 2.1 tr tr tr tr
Total PL 6.5 45.1 61.5 41 52 32 54
PE 3 4 3 4
PC - 5 5 3 4
LPE 6.15 15 21 12 22
LPC 6.15 18 22 13 24
Others - 18 18 16 17

aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amount.
b Average composition of 2 waxy rice varieties and of 12 nonwaxy varieties using data from Azudin and Morrison [153]. MGMG contains
MGDG and DGDG contains DGMG.
`From Ref. 56.
Cereal Lipids 461

TABLE 49 Fatty Acid Compositions of Nonstarch Lipid and

Starch Lipid Classes in Brown Rice and Milled Fractions
Fatty acid (%)
Rice fraction Lipid class' 16:0 18:1 18:2
Nonstarch lipids
Brown rice TL 23-24 32-37 36-40
NL 22-24 35-37 35-39
GL 30-33 24-26 36-38
PL 25-29 30-34 34-38
Bran TL 22-25 36-37 36-37
NL 22-23 38-41 37-41
GL 25-27 30-31 35-39
PL 20-25 36-43 32-36
Germ TL 23-25 36-38 35-38
NL 23-24 34-36 37-38
GL 28-29 32-34 35-36
PL 22-24 36-37 36-37
Polish TL 23-25 36-39 37-39
NL 22-25 35-37 37-39
GL 26-30 26-28 35-39
PL 25-26 34-37 33-35
Milled rice TL 32-34 20-21 38-41
NL 21-27 17-22 45-56
GL 47-49 10-12 34-38
PL 44-51 10-12 34-40
Starch lipids
Brown rice TL 43-48 12-17 29-40
NL 23-38 20-23 30-53
GL 53-55 7-12 26-32
PL 45-54 9-14 30-39
Milled rice TL 44-46 10-18 30-42
NL 21-35 20-22 38-54
GL 53-56 7-16 23-31
PL 46-56 15-16 23-31
Tor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1.
Source: Adapted from Refs. 14, 56, 152.
462 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 50 Compositions of Nonpolar Lipids, Glycolipids, and Phospholipids of Starch and Starch Surface Lipids from
Purified Rice Starcha
Composition
Content (mg/100 g starch) (% of total) (% of hydrolyzed lipids)
Lipids Surface lipidsb Starch lipids' Surface lipidsb Starch lipids' Surface lipidsb Starch lipids'
NL total 20.0 192.0 41.3 27.0 2.6 25.3
FFA 6.4 140.0 13.2 19.7 0.8 18.4
MG 0.3 9.6 0.6 1.4 0.0 1.3
DG 0.7 19.2 1.4 2.7 0.1 2.5
TG - 6.3 - 0.9 - 0.8
Free S 12.3 11.6 25.4 1.6 1.6 1.5
SE 0.3 5.3 0.6 0.7 0.0 0.7
GL total 9.8 77.8 20.2 10.9 1.3 10.2
MGMG 2.4 39.1 5.0 5.5 0.3 5.1
MGDG - - - - -
DGDG 4.5 8.6 9.3 1.2 0.6 1.1
DGMG - 30.1 4.2 - 4.0
CE 2.9 - 6.0 - 0.4
Unknown - - - - -
PL total 8.6 437.1 17.8 61.5 1.1 57.5
LPC 5.2 311.0 10.7 43.8 0.7 40.9
LPE - 88.6 12.5 - 11.7
PC 3.4 12.8 7.0 1.8 0.4 1.7
PE - 10.4 - 1.5 1.4
PS 6.1 0.9 0.8
PG -
PA - 8.2 1.2 - 1.1
Total 48.4 710.8 100 100 6.4 93.5
Acid hydrolyzed 760.0 100
aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported. Composition (%) were calculated from data.
'Extracted by chloroform and methanol (2:1, v/v) at 25-27°C.
`Extracted by propanol and water (3:1, v/v) extraction at 90-100°C after chloroform-methanol extraction.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 151.

TABLE 51 Fatty Acid Compositions of Nonpolar Lipids, Glycolipids, and Phospholipids of Starch and
Starch Surface Lipids from Purified Rice Starcha
Fatty acid composition (area %)
Lipids Extraction 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 20:0 Others
NL Surface lipidsb 29.2 3.5 12.5 51.6 1.4 1.2 0.6
Starch lipids' 30.3 2.1 8.1 57.9 1.1 0.2 0.3
GL Starch lipidsb 33.8 7.7 7.1 48.5 0.6 1.6 0.7
Starch lipids' 41.1 4.9 9.5 43.1 0.8 tr 0.6
PL Surface lipidsb 43.6 4.9 6.9 41.5 0.8 1.6 0.7
Starch lipidsc 52.6 2.4 12.7 30.9 0.7 tr 0.7
aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported and (tr) denotes trace amounts.
'Extracted by chloroform and methanol (2:1, v/v) at 25-27°C.
`Extracted by propanol and water (3:1, v/v) extraction at 90-100°C after chloroform-methanol extraction.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 151.
Cereal Lipids 463

TABLE 52 y-Oryzanol Contents of Rice Bran Oil from

Different Manufacturers
Content (ppm) % of Total
y-Oryzanol Mean Mean
Components (n = 5) Range (n = 5) Range
Cycloartenyl ferulate 139 35-232 30.7 29.5-31.8
24-Methylene
cycloartanyl
ferulate 104.8 30-314 23.9 10.3-39.9
Campestery ferulate 163.2 39-342 36.6 19.9-47.6
3-Sitosteryl ferulate
and cycloartanyl
ferulate 47.8 0-84 8.9 0.0-12.9
Total 454.8 115-787 100.0
Source: Adapted from Ref. 154.

TABLE 53 Fatty Acid and Fatty Alcohol Compositions of Rice Bran Lipids (g/100 g Bran, db)a
Supercritical CO2 extract Hexane extract
Fatty acids Fatty acids (% wt) Fatty alcohols (% wt) Fatty acids (% wt) Fatty alcohols (% wt)
14:0 0.02 (0.4) 0.02 (0.19)
16:0 0.84 (17.0) 2.65 (25.0)
18:0 0.01 (1.1) - 0.16 (1.5)
18:1 0.95 (19.3) - 3.71 (35.0)
18:2 0.80 (16.6) 2.76 (26.0)
18:3 0.01 (0.2) 0.18 (1.7)
20:0 0.44 (8.4) - 0.12 (1.1) - -
22:0 0.52 (10.6) 0.02 (1.4) 0.21 (2.0) 0.02 (1.5)
24:0 0.94 (19.0) 0.20 (14.0) 0.42 (4.0) 0.11 (14.5)
26:0 0.09 (1.8) 0.19 (13.3) 0.13 (1.2) 0.12 (16.4)
28:0 0.03 (0.6) 0.29 (20.7) 0.06 (0.6) 0.15 (20.1)
30:0 0.15 (3.0) 0.42 (29.6) 0.18 (1.7) 0.73 (30.2)
32:0 0.05 (1.0) 0.28 (20.0) 0.23 (16.6)
34:0 0.05 (1.0) 0.01 (1.0) 0.01 (0.7)
Total 4.95 (100) 1.41 (100) 10.6 (100) 1.37 (100)
For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported and % of total fatty acids or fatty alcohols are given in
parentheses.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 154.
464 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 54 Nonstarch Lipid Composition of Rye Grain, Bran, Germ, and Endosperm Fractions and Milled
Rye Flour
Lipid composition (% lipids)
Lipid classy Grainb Grain' Branb Germb Endospermb Flour'
SE 3.2 8.1-9.2 27.7 7.4 4.0 17.3-17.6
TG 40.3 31.8-32.9 13.2 38.5 17.7 32.1-32.7
DG 2.0 8.3-10.1 20.6 5.8 2.5 8.5-12.4
MG 6.5 5.2-6.5 19.4 - 4.2 2.8-4.7
FFA 8.9 8.0-10.1d 19.1 16.6 5.8 9.3-10.0d
MGDG 6.5 - 8.2 -
DGDG 19.3 6.5-7.2 21.1 9.6-10.4
Other GL 3.3-5.0 - - 1.3-2.1
PE 0.2 2.4-3.4 1.8 25.3 3.1-5.8
PC 1.3 8.3-9.2 12.0 1.0 2.6-3.2
PI 4.8 - 17.9 -
PS - 5.0-6.8 2.8-3.1
LPC 7.0 5.9-6.8 10.2 3.5-5.1
'For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported.
bData from Zeringue and Feuge [78] were converted on 100% recovery of TLC analyses by densitometry.
`Data from Chung and Tsen [37] of FL and BL were combined and recalculated to obtain TL composition.
dlncluding MGDG.

TABLE 55 Nonstarch Lipid Composition of Free Lipids and Bound Lipids in Rye and Triticale Grains and Their
Milled Flours
Lipid composition (% lipids)
Rye Triticale
Grain Flour Grain Flour
Lipid classy FL BL FL BL FL BL FL BL
SE 4.9-6.4 11.8-13.0 10.8-11.6 23.1-25.0 4.9-6.5 7.0-16.5 6.4-8.5 7.1-16.2
TG 51.1-56.7 5.5-6.2 48.0-55.1 10.3-14.4 46.0-54.4 3.7-5.1 43.1 19.5 2.0-3.6
DG 8.6-10.8 7.9-9.1 11.3-16.4 5.7-8.0 4.6-15.2 3.4-11.4 4.9-8.3 3.3-6.5
MG 6.3-7.0 4.0-5.9 4.5-5.1 1.0 1.2 3.0-8.6 2.4-3.2 4.8-5.8 2.2-3.1
FFAb 10.8-13.8 4.8-5.2 9.5-9.7 8.9-10.5 10.4-21.6 3.6-8.1 16.2-20.9 6.2-9.9
DGDG 4.3-4.6 9.5-10.1 3.9-4.2 16.0-16.5 3.0-4.5 11.8-12.4 3.4-5.5 15.0-18.6
Other GL 0.2-0.7 7.5-10.0 2.8-4.2 1.3-2.4 5.4-13.9 4.3-12.4
PE 0.8-1.6 4.4-5.5 2.1-2.3 4.2-9.6 2.3-3.2 7.1-9.5 3.4-6.3 7.1-10.8
PC 4.1-4.5 13.2-15.4 1.4 3.8-6.3 3.3-4.8 13.9-15.8 2.6-4.2 8.8-13.5
LPC 13.6-14.5 - 7.4-10.0 11.5-14.8 - 13.5-17.8
Other PL 1.1-1.7 10.2-12.7 1.5-2.6 3.7-4.1 1.4-1.8 8.7-12.2 1.6-2.7 5.5-7.5
aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported.
bIncluding MGDG.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 37.
Cereal Lipids 465

TABLE 56 Nonstarch Lipid Composition of Triticale Grain, Bran, Germ, and Endosperm Fractions and
Milled Triticale Flour
Lipid composition (% lipids)
Lipid classy Grainb Grain' Branb Germb Endospermb Flour'
SE 3.9 6.7-11.1 42.1 10.8 3.6 7.1-12.7
TG 35.8 23.9-29.0 20.6 37.2 20.0 18.9-23.6
DG 8.7 5.6-12.7 12.2 2.8 7.8 4.4-7.1
MG 3.8 2.7-6.1 9.3 6.8 3.3-3.9
FFA 7.9 7.3-15.3d 15.8 14.3 8.1 11.1-15.3d
MGDG 3.9 - - - 6.7
DGDG 12.7 7.1-8.8 13.6 10.2-13.4
Other GL - 3.3-8.8 - - 2.5-7.8
PE 9.3 4.6-5.7 4.7 20.7 6.6-8.2
PC 6.8 8.8-9.8 11.2 5.0 6.5-9.0
PI 2.7 - 19.0 4.4
PS 5.4-6.5 -- 3.9-5.5
LPC 4.5 6.4-6.8 3.3 7.8-10.7
For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported.
bData from Zeringue and Feuge [78] were converted on 100% recovery of TLC analyses by densitometry.
'Data from Chung and Tsen [37] of FL and BL were combined and recalculated to obtain TL composition.
`'Including MGDG.
466 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 57 Total Nonstarch Lipids in Wheat Kernel Fractions

Lipid content (mg/100 g db of fraction)
Aleurone-free endosperm
Lipida Pericarp Germ Aleurone Tetraploid Hexaploid
Total NIL 1,137 15,624-22,905 6,288-8,821 365-402 354-391
SE 174 435-572 110-316 7-15 15-45
TG 205 14,306-21,958 5,245-7,978 263-272 140-222
DG 460 104-438 75-324 40-50 40-56
FFA 283 33-280 170-399 27-45 38-62
MG 15 107-198 47-83 10-36 22-75
Total GL 90 191-525 230-853 154-173 261-408
ASG 50 — 156-245 13-16 11-42
MGDG — 49-87 22-24 27-79
MGMG 191-525 11-62 3-10 10-21
DGDG 43-211 113-115 145-283
DGMG * — 27-214 2-11 15-16
Total PL 93 1,975-2,646 1,478-1,575 234-273 190-386
APE * — 0-58 33-52 71-141
ALPE * 0-47 42-61 21-84
DPG * 82 10-91 7 —
PG * 46-222 70-82 31-34b 4-8b
PE 357-378 128-152
PC * 877-2,378 783-885 18 16-67
PI * 257-1,101 245-273
LPG * 2.7' 5-17'
LPE * 7-194 —
LPC 81-359 60-206 87-96 39-95
LPI, LPS — —
PA * 70-135 6d 0-11d
Oithers * 8-74
Total NSL 1,320 17,454-25,877 8,656-10,626 772-829 848-1093
For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (—) denotes data not reported and (*) denotes those not measured.
bIncluding PE.
`Including LPE.
d lncluding others.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 24.
Cereal Lipids 467

TABLE 58 Compositions of Wheat Total Lipids (Nonstarch and Starch), Nonstarch Lipids in Wheat Fractions, and
Starch Lipidsa
Nonstarch lipids (% NSL)
Wheat lipids Starch lipids
Lipid class" (% TL) Germ Aleurone Endosperm Milled flour (% SL)
Total NL 44.4-56.9 79.3-84.8 72.3-79.5 33.2-45.7 58.2-60.9 4.4-5.9
SE 2.1-2.5 2.7-3.1 1.3-3.6 1.8-4.7 1.9-4.2 0.6-1.0
TG 29.5-47.2 72.6-79.3 60.3-71.9 13.7-26.2 39.6-49.3 0.4-0.5
DG 1.5-2.8 1.7-2.2 0.9-3.4 3.8-5.5 3.3-5.0 0-0.5
FFA 2.4-8.9 0.9-2.0 2.1-6.5 3.6-7.5 3.3-6.5 2.4-3.5
MG 1.5-2.5 0.6-0.8 0.8-1.0 4.9-7.3 2.7-3.9 0.5-0.6
Total GL 12.5-14.4 0-3.5 6.7-9.8 30.7-38.3 23.3-26.8 1.2-5.5
ASG 1.0-1.2 0-1.2 1.8-2.8 1.1-3.4 0.8-4.2 0-1.2
MGDG 0.9-2.6 0.6-1.2 3.3-7.4 5.1-5.9 0.3-0.6
MGMG 0.5-1.1 0.5-1.1 0.9-1.9 0.9-1.4 0-1.1
DGDG 5.4-9.5 0-2.4' 0.5-2.4 20.4-26.6 12.6-16.5 0-0.7
DGMG 2.7-4.5 1.5-2.5 1.5-1.7 0.6-3.4 0.6-1.8
Total PL 30.6-41.5 14.3-17.2 13.8-17.9 23.6-34.4 14.2-15.8 90.1-94.4
APE 1.0-7.9 0-0.1 — 8.4-13.4 4.2-4.9
ALPE 0.7-2.9 0-0.3 — 4.6-6.9 1.7-2.3
DPG * 0.2-0.6 0.1-1.0 —
PG 0.9-2.2d 0.1-0.9 1.1-2.7d 0.5-0.7d 0.8-1.1d
PE 1.3-2.6
PC 2.2-6.8 6.4-10.4 9.0-9.6 3.0-6.3 3.9-4.9 0.5
PI 0-2.6 2.6-2.9 1.9-3.2 0.4-0.6 —
LPG 0.7-1.9 0.2 2.8-6.6
LPE 2.1-2.5 0.4 — 0.6-0.8 0.3-0.5 10.3-12.2
LPC 16.0-21.8 0.4-1.1 0.9-2.4 4.6-7.7 1.5-2.1 60.9-76.9
LPI, LPS 0-1.4 1.3 0.1-0.4 0.5-10.4
PA 0.4-0.8 0.3-0.7 1.7-2.2
'Calculated data from Hargin and Morrison [156] for wheat lipids, nonstarch lipids in germ, aleurone, and endosperm and starch lipids in en-
dosperm and from Morrison et al. [149] for milled flour.
bFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (—) denotes data not reported and (*) denotes those not measured.
CA mixture of MGDG, MGMG, DGDG, and DGMG.
dlncluding PE.
468 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 59 Total Lipids (Nonstarch and Starch) in Whole Wheats, Nonstarch Lipids in Milled Flours,
and Starch Lipids in Wheat Starches
Lipid content (mg/100 g db of sample)
Flour nonstarch lipids'
Whole wheat Starch lipids
Lipid classy total lipidb Spring (H) Winter (H) Winter (L) in starchb
Total NL 1304-1889 1008 1136 1102 35-62
SE 55-68 73 43 35 2-8
TG 867-1566 674 909 892 2-5
DG 43-201 86 67 60 0-4
FFA 10-261 110 64 61 22-34
MG 37-72 66d 53d 54d 3-5
Total GL 265-436 453 524 422 9-54
ASG 28-45 71 18 15 0-12
MGDG 23-77 87 115 92 2-6
MGMG 13-33 23 17 21 7-15
DGDG 124-278 214 322 283 2-24
DGMG 36-114 58 52 11
Total PL 776-1219 242 293 285 729-1047
APE 24-232 72 95 85 —
ALPE 18-84 34 33 42
DPG <21
PG, PE 22-64 13 19 20
PC 57-206 66 96 84
PI <79 11' 9' 8e —
LPG 18-56 10 5 4 23-54
LPE 62-74 10 7 9 79-104
LPC 469-672 36 29 33 499-864
LPI, LPS <41
PA 11-21
Others — 5-41
Total lipids 2540-3328 1703 1953 1809 773-1171
"For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (—) denotes data not reported.
bFrom Ref. 24.
'From Ref. 149. (H) denotes high-grade and (L) low-grade wheats.
dlncluding AMGDG.
'Including PS.
Cereal Lipids 469

TABLE 60 Fatty Acid Composition of Wheat Flour Nonstarch and Starch Lipid Classes
Fatty acid (wt %)
Lipid class' 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3
Nonpolar lipids
Triglyceride, total 14-20 1-2 14-17 56-64 4-6
1-position 24 2 14 54 5
2-position 4 tr 15 76 5
3-position 21 2 12 60 5
Diglyceride, total 15-22 1-2 12-14 58-64 3-6
1-positionb 36-39 2-3 9-12 42-48 3-5
2-position` 1-4 tr 12-17 73-83 5
Monoglyceride, total 16-22 1-2 9-14 56-65 3-4
FFA 14-20 1-2 9-12 64-68 4-7
SEd 42-46 2-4 9-10 40-45 2-4
SE' 54-63 2-4 6-7 27-30 2-3
Glycolipids
ASGd 35-36 4 9-10 41-49 3-4
ASG' 52-56 2-5 6-9 28-35 2-3
AMGDG, total 24-28 1-2 6-9 59-63 2-5
6-position 44 tr 3 44 6
1+ 2 position 12 2 7 73 5
AMGMG 32 2 6 58 1
MGDG, total 5-7 tr 7-8 78-82 4-6
1-position 11 1 5 81 1
2-position tr tr 9 83 7
MGMG 7-11 1 5-8 77-79 4-5
ADGDG 17 2 13 64 2
DGDG, total 11-16 1-2 6-7 69-74 5-7
1-position 26 2 4 63 4
2-position 2 tr 7 83-84 7
DGMG 11-14 2 5-8 70-75 5-7
Phospholipids
APE, total 17-20 1 8-10 53-65 3-4
N-acyl 9-17 1-2 10-12 65-74 3-8
0-acyl 21-28 1-2 8-10 56-64 2-3
ALPE, total 16-20 1-2 6-9 52-66 2-3
N-acyl 7-12 1 12-14 68-75 3-7
0-acyl 24-29 1 6-7 60-63 2-3
PE, total 19-22 1-2 9-10 61-67 3-4
1-position 29 3 9 56 3
2-position 4 tr 11 79 5
PC, total 18-23 1-2 12-15 60-63 2-3
1-position 37-38 3 8-11 47-49 2-3
2-position 2-4 1 16-18 74-77 2-4
Nonstarch, LPE 30-35 1-2 6-8 52-57 3-4
Nonstarch, LPC 39-45 1-2 5-7 45-49 2-3
Starch, LPG 19 4 2 74 1
Starch, LPE 20 2 3 74 1
Starch, LPC 35 2 7 54 2
aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (tr) denotes trace amount.
b l-position of 1,2-diglyceride (DG) and 1,3-DG and 2-position of 2,3-DG.
°2-position of 1,2-DG and 1,3-DG and 2-position of 2,3-DG.
dMore unsaturated type.
'More saturated type.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 24.
470 Chung and Ohm

TABLE 61 Compositions of Nonpolar Lipids, Glycolipids, and Phospholipids of Starch and Starch Surface Lipids from
Purified Wheat Starcha
Composition

Content (mg/100 g starch) (% of total) (% of hydrolyzed lipids)

Lipid Surface lipidsb Starch lipids` Surface lipidsb Starch lipids` Surface lipidsb Starch lipids`

NL total 19.9 34.9 52.4 5.5 2.8 5.0

FFA 8.5 19.1 22.4 3.0 1.2 2.7
MG 0.3 1.6 0.8 0.3 0.0 0.2
DG 1.7 5.2 4.5 0.8 0.2 0.7
TG 5.8 1.7 15.3 0.3 0.8 0.2
Free S 3.2 3.4 8.4 0.5 0.5 0.5
SE 0.4 3.9 1.1 0.6 0.1 0.6
GL total 9.9 18.9 26.1 3.0 1.4 2.7
MGMG tr 3.8 - 0.6 - 0.5
MGDG tr 1.7 0.3 0.2
DGDG 6.8 5.6 17.9 0.9 1.0 0.8
DGMG tr 7.8 - 1.2 1.1
CE 1.9 tr 5.0 - 0.3
Unknown 1.2 tr 3.2 - 0.2 -
PL total 8.2 586.1 21.6 91.6 1.2 83.3
LPC tr 482.0 - 75.3 - 68.5
LPE tr 75.2 - 11.8 10.7
PC 5.1 19.9 13.4 3.1 0.7 2.8
PE 3.1 tr 8.2 0.4 -
PS tr tr -
PG tr tr -
PA tr 9.0 1.4 - 1.3
Total 38.0 639.9 100 100 5.4 90.9
Acid hydrolyzed 704.0 100

"For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1:(-) denotes data not reported. Composition (%) were calculated from data.
bExtracted by chloroform and methanol (2:1, v/v) at 25-27°C.
`Extracted by propanol and water (3:1, v/v) at 90-100°C after chloroform-methanol extraction.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 151.

TABLE 62 Fatty Acid Compositions of Nonpolar Lipids, Glycolipids, and Phospholipids of Starch and
Starch Surface Lipids from Purified Wheat Starch°
Fatty acid composition (area %)

Lipid Extraction 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 20:0 Others

NL Surface lipidsb 43.1 5.7 6.9 40.3 2.6 1.1 0.3
Starch lipids' 45.6 6.7 7.1 37.8 1.3 0.9 0.6
GL Starch lipidsb 42.2 3.9 9.8 42.6 0.1 0.9 0.5
Starch lipids' 39.6 6.1 10.1 41.5 0.5 2.1 0.1
PL Surface lipidsb 46.7 3.5 10.4 38.7 0.1 0.4 0.2
Starch lipids' 39.7 3.2 7.3 47.9 1.3 0.5 0.1

'For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1.

bExtracted by chloroform and methanol (2:1, v/v) at 25-27°C.
`Extracted by propanol and water (3:1, v/v) at 90-100°C after chloroform-methanol extraction.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 151.
Cereal Lipids 471

TABLE 63 Lipid Distribution in Starch Fractions from

Wheat Flours'
Starch fraction
Variables Fine Intermediate Coarse
Fraction (% of flour) 25.2 9.3 36.8
Lipids
(% flour) 0.29 0.09 0.32
(% starch fraction) 1.19 1.01 0.88
(% flour TL) 9.7 3.2 10.7
Phosphorous
(% starch fraction) 0.091 0.087 0.073
(% flour) 0.023 0.008 0.027
Surface lipidsb
(% starch fraction) 1.19 1.01 0.88
(% flour) 0.30 0.09 0.32
Fatty Acid
(% starch fraction) 1.51 1.20 0.97
(% flour) 0.38 0.11 0.36
PL
(% starch fraction) 1.97 1.57 2.01
(% flour) 0.50 0.15 0.74
LPL
(% starch fraction) 2.53 2.01 1.62
(% flour) 0.64 0.19 0.60
'For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1.
bLipids were extracted from each starch fraction by Soxhlet using chlo-
roform, methanol, and water (72:24:4).
Source: Adapted from Ref. 160.

TABLE 64 Free Fatty Acid and Lysophospholipid Contents of Wheat Starch Granules'
A granules B granules Total (A + B)
Wheat Mean sd Mean sd Mean sd
FFA (mg/100 g)
Bread wheat (n = 23)b 84 25 162 50 98 36
Durum wheat (n = 26)" 108 59 202 83 132 74
Low FFA starches (n = 6)1' 31 4 68 10 - -
Bread wheat (n = 1)` 29 - 59 -
Soft wheat (n = 1)c 30 79
Durum wheat (n = 3)c 33 6 69 10
LPL (mg/100 g)
Bread wheat (n = 23)6 845 65 1062 90 917 78
Durum wheat (n = 26)" 968 64 1189 96 1030 77
Low FFA starches (n = 6)1' 898 109 1197 129 -
Bread wheat (n = 1)c 949 - 1232 -
Soft wheat (n = 1)c 707 1058
Durum wheat (n = 3)c 33 6 69 10
'For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported.
bFrom Ref. 157.
'From Ref. 158.
 TABLE 65 Total Lipids (Nonstarch and Starch) in Developing Wheat Graina
Days after anthesis (Lipid, lig total fatty acids/grain)

Lipid class 14 17 23 27

Pericarp + testa fraction

NL 8.8 (32) 34.5 (48) 48.9 (57) 112.6 (76)
DGDG 1.6 (7) 7.0 (1) 10.0 (12) 6.3 (4)
PE 1.8 (8) 2.9 (4) 4.8 (6) 6.9 (5)
PG 2.2 (10) 9.3 (13) 8.4 (10) 6.0 (4)
PC 5.0 (22) 8.2 (11) 5.1 (6) 4.4 (3)
PS + PI 0.6 (3) 0.6 (1) 0.5 (1) 2.9 (2)
LPC 1.7 (7) 5.4 (7) 6.2 (7) 6.4 (4)
Others 1.0 (4) 4.5 (6) 2.1 (2) 2.8 (2)
Total 22.7 (100) 72.4 (100) 86.0 (100) 148.3 (100)
Endosperm
NL 2.6 (36) 22.2 (42) 32.4 (39) 62.8 (49)
DGDG 0.5 (7) 2.8 (5) 5.6 (7) 3.5 (3)
PE 0.5 (7) 3.6 (7) 5.5 (7) 10.3 (8)
PG 1.0 (14) 7.8 (15) 6.6 (8) 8.7 (7)
PC 0.9 (13) 5.3 (10) 8.6 (10) 12.1 (9)
PS + PI 0.4 (6) 0.9 (2) 2.6 (3) 3.8 (3)
LPC 0.2 (3) 5.5 (10) 20.3 (24) 22.4 (18)
Others 1.1 (15) 4.5 (9) 2.1 (3) 4.1 (3)
Total 7.2 (100) 52.6 (100) 83.7 (100) 127.7 (100)

aFor definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1.

% of total lipids are calculated from data and given in parentheses.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 161.

TABLE 66 Fatty Acid Composition of Total Lipid (Nonstarch and Starch) Classes in Developing Wheat Graina

Fatty acid composition (% total)

Pericarp + testa fraction Endosperm
Days after
Lipids anthesis 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3
NL 14 19 2 16 45 18 11 2 18 49 20
17 19 1 22 38 20 24 1 9 50 16
23 23 18 49 10 20 1 15 51 13
27 23 1 18 48 10 22 1 7 62 8
DGDG 14 28 10 26 36 32 2 14 36 16
17 28 14 25 33 34 5 45 16
23 26 9 27 38 34 1 6 45 14
27 39 1 6 31 23 44 1 6 44 5
PC 14 35 1 12 26 26 29 6 50 15
17 32 1 12 28 27 31 1 7 45 16
23 35 1 13 37 14 29 1 9 55 6
27 36 1 9 43 11 34 1 8 53 4
PE 14 18 1 16 30 35 23 1 6 51 19
17 19 13 27 41 21 - 8 54 17
23 20 14 39 27 22 1 4 64 9
27 29 6 47 18 28 1 6 61 4
LPC 14 41 1 18 28 12 42 1 6 39 12
17 27 1 24 35 13 40 - 4 45 11
23 35 3 18 30 14 39 2 6 47 6
27 38 1 7 42 12 44 5 47 4
For definitions of abbreviations, see Table 1. (-) denotes data not reported.
Source: Adapted from Ref. 161.
Cereal Lipids
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15

MINOR CONSTITUENTS OF CEREALS

Margaret Ann Bock

New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico

I. VITAMINS point, the tocopherols are stable to acid in the absence of

Cereal grains play an important role in meeting the nutri-
ent needs of the human population. Like any food, they are
good to excellent sources of some nutrients and low or
void in other nutrients. In a given grain, the vitamin con-
tent varies from one part of the grain to another. This ex-
plains why the removal of certain components during the
milling process results in a loss of vitamins.
A. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
When considered as a whole, cereals are naturally low in
lipids, therefore, they tend to be low in the fat soluble vita-
min A, which is present as the precursor carotenoids, and
vitamins D, E and K. The notable exception is corn. Corn
is considered to be a good source of vitamin A (100-1000
IU/100 g of grain) because of the presence of the
carotenoids [1-8]. In 1974, enrichment of wheat flour with
vitamin A at the rate of 1.3 mg/lb of flour was suggested
[9]. However, at this point such enrichment is not permit-
ted. Distribution of carotenoids in yellow dent corn frac-
tions is given in Table 1. Aside from corn, minor amounts
of carotene are found in barley (0.04 mg/100 g) and brown
rice (0.013 mg/100 g).
Oil extracted from the corn and wheat germ provides
vitamin E in the form of various tocopherols. Levels of to-
copherols found in hard red winter wheat and durum wheat
are shown in Table 2. Kutsky [1] and others [2-5,7-8]
classify corn and wheat germ oils as high (50-300 mg/100
g) contributors and whole wheat flour as a low (0.5-5
mg/100 g) source of this vitamin. From a stability stand-
oxygen and visible light. They are labile at room tempera-
ture when exposed to oxygen, alkali, and ferric salts. They
are also unstable upon exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light.
When unsaturated fatty acids, such as those in corn oil, are
oxidized, considerable amounts of tocopherols are lost
[12] (Table 3).
Although classified as low (10-100 IU/100 g) sources,
various grain oils contribute vitamin D [1-8]. In general,
this vitamin is stable to heat, acids, and oxygen. In foods
that are alkaline and exposed to air and light, vitamin D is
slowly destroyed [12] (Table 3).
Vitamin K sources categorized as modest contributors
(10-100 ps/100 g) include whole wheat and wheat germ
and bran. Corn is a low source (0-10 [tg/100 g) of vitamin
K [1-8]. When processing, this vitamin is stable to heat
and reducing agents. However, it is labile in the presence
of alcoholic alkali, oxidizing agents, strong acids, and light
[12] (Table 3).
B. Water-Soluble Vitamins
Cereal grains are important sources of B vitamins, particu-
larly thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and pyridoxine (vitamin
B6). Cereal products are good sources of B vitamins, espe-
cially when enriched with thiamine, riboflavin and, niacin.
1. Thiamine
Dietary thiamine contribution of the various cereal grains
and their components is outlined in Table 4. In the United
States, flour made from wheat can be enriched with thi-
amin at the rate of 0.44-0.55 mg thiamine 100 g flour [13].

479
480 Bock

TABLE 1 Distribution of Carotenoids in Yellow Dent est. Oat hulls are low in thiamine, while finished groats,
Corn Fractions flour, chips, and meal have the highest portions of this vita-
min (Table 8).
Fraction Variety Carotenes (ppm)
Thiamine is the most labile of the various B vitamins
Whole corn S x 20 1.8 found in or added to cereal grain products. It is stable un-
Pioneer 329 2.0 der acid conditions but is destroyed in large percentages in
Mix' 1.7 air (especially at higher pH), under autoclaving and during
Bran S x 20 0.3 exposure to sulfites and alkali [12] (Table 3). The stability
Pioneer 329 0.3 at acid pH is demonstrated by the small losses noted in fer-
Mixa 0.2
mented baked products [22-23]. Lability under alkaline
Germ S X 20 0.5
Pioneer 329 conditions is proved by the significant losses of thiamine
1.0
Mixa 1.3 in cookies made with baking soda [22] (Fig. 1).
Floury endosperm S x 20 1.1
Pioneer 329 0.3 2. Riboflavin
Mixa 1.1 Kutsky [1] and others [2-8] classify barley and rice as low
(10-100 14/100 g) dietary sources of riboflavin and corn,
a Commercial mix.
oats, rice bran and wheat germ as moderate sources
Source: Ref. 10.
(100-1000 ps/100 g) (Table 4). Like thiamine, riboflavin
enrichment of wheat flour at the rate of 0.26-0.32 mg/100
g flour is allowed in the United States [13]. When grains
TABLE 2 Tocopherol Content of Hard Red are compared on a mg/100 g basis, rice contains the lowest
and Durum Wheat amount of riboflavin while millet contains the most (Table
5). Hard red wheat and durum wheat both contain similar
Hard red Durum amounts of this vitamin (Table 6). Unlike thiamine, ri-
Tocopherols wheat (i.tg/g)' wheat boflavin content is less variable from one rice component
Total 58 58 to another (Table 7). With the exception of oat shorts, ri-
13 10 boflavin is fairly consistent among the various oat products
7 5 (Table 8).
When exposed to heat in a dry form or in an acid medi-
8 um, riboflavin is stable. However, this vitamin is very sen-
a-3 5 7 sitive to light with the rate of destruction increasing as pH
13-3 33 36 and temperature rise [12]. Maleki and Daghir [24] found
'Dry wt. basis. that the percent lost from enriched baked Arabic bread de-
Source: Ref. 11. creased from 19% when no riboflavin was added to 9%
when flour was enriched at 0.60 mg/100 g flour. Ranhotra
and Gelroth [22] found about an 8% loss in fresh baked
bread made from enriched flour (Fig. 1).
In the mid 1970s, a proposal for raising enrichment levels
to 2.9 mg/100 g flour was made [9,14]. According to Kut- 3. Niacin
sky [1], barley, corn, oats, and brown rice are classified as Niacin is found in cereal grains in bound and free forms.
moderate sources of thiamin, providing 100-1000 Rg/100 Since the bound form is poorly utilized by humans
g of grain. Rice bran and wheat germ are classified as high [25-26], the niacin added during the enrichment process
sources of thiamine providing 1000-10,000 lig/100 g of becomes an important contributor to dietary niacin. The
the grain component. amounts of niacin in wheat present in bound versus free
Thiamine content of selected cereal grains is outlined in forms are shown in Table 6. One half or less of the total
Table 5. According to this compilation, thiamine content is niacin is in the free form. Bound niacin in sorghum com-
highest in millet and lowest in rice. Toepfer et al. [11] indi- prises 40% or more of the total niacin [27]. Niacin in the
cated that durum wheat had a higher average thiamine con- form of nicotinic acid can be added to flour at the rate of
tent than hard red wheat (Table 6). Data in Tables 7 and 8 3.56-4.45 mg/100 g flour [13] according to enrichment
illustrate the differences in vitamin content of a grain ac- standards. An increase to 24 mg/lb flour was proposed in
cording to its fractions. As evident from Table 7, rice germ the mid-1970s [9]. In general, niacin is considered to be
has the highest thiamine content; milled rice has the low- stable to air, light, heat, acids, and alkali [12]. When wheat
Minor Constituents of Cereals 481

TABLE 3 Stability of Nutrients Under Selected Conditions

Neutral Acid Alkaline Air or Max. cooking
Vitamin (pH 7) (pH < 7) (pH > 7) oxygen Light Heat loss (%)
A S U S U U U 40
Carotene S U S U U U 30
D S U U U U 40
S S S U U U 55
K S U U S U S 5
Thiamine U S U U S U 80
Riboflavin S S U S U U 75
Niacin S S S S S S 75
B6 S S S S U U 40
Folic acid U U S U U U 100
Pantothenic acid S U U S S U 50
Biotin S S S S S U 60
S = Stable, U = unstable.
Source: Ref. 12.

flour enriched with niacin is baked into bread, losses of
niacin are minimal (1-2% in Arabic bread) regardless of
the level of enrichment [22-24]. Not only are losses in the
baking process minimal, but Hepburn [28] demonstrated
that the proportion of free niacin was higher in baked prod-
ucts like bread, cakes, and crackers than in the flour from
which they were made. Alkali treatment of bound niacin,
such as that seen in the process of making corn tortillas,
improves niacin absorption probably through hydrolysis of
bound niacin at the baking stage [23].
Kutsky [1] and others [2-8] indicate that barley, corn,
oats, brown rice, wheat germ, and wheat bran are moderate
dietary sources (1000-10,00014/100 g of grain) of niacin
(Table 4). Rice bran is classified as a high source of this vi-
tamin. When the niacin levels of different grains are com-
pared, rye contains the smallest amount on a mg/100 g of
grain basis while wheat and barley average the highest lev-
els (Table 5). When comparing the different rice compo-
nents, one can see that niacin is concentrated in the bran
(Table 7). In oats, niacin is lowest in the finished groats
and highest in the shorts (Table 8).
4. Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
Vitamin B6 is composed of three distinctly different com-
pounds: pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. The dis-
tribution of these three fractions in wheat is shown in Table
6. Of the three fractions, pyridoxine is the most abundant
(Table 6). Oats, on average, contain the least amount of this
vitamin; rice contains the most (Table 5). However, vitamin
B6 is highest in the dry-milled oats (Table 8). Barley, corn,
oats, rye and wheat are considered to contain moderate
amounts (100-100014/100 g); wheat germ and brown rice
contain high amounts (1000-10,000 lig/100 g) (Table 4).
Enrichment of flour with vitamin B6 at the rate of 2.0 mg/lb
flour has been proposed but never implemented [9,14].
Vitamin B6, in the form of pyridoxine, is stable when
exposed to heat, strong alkali, or acid but is sensitive to
light, especially UV light, in the presence of alkali. Pyri-
doxal and pyridoxamine are adversely affected by expo-
sure to air, heat and light. All three forms of this vitamin
are destroyed at neutral pH when exposed to UV light [12].
5. Folacin (Folic Acid)
According to Kutsky [1] and others [2-8], wheat bran is
classified as a high source (90-30014/100 g) of folic acid;
barley, corn, oats, rye, and wheat are categorized as moder-
ate sources (30-90 lag/100 g) (Table 4). In the rice frac-
tions, folic acid tends to be concentrated in the germ (Table
4). Large losses of folic acid are noted at autoclaving tem-
peratures in the presence of acids and alkali. This destruc-
tion is enhanced by oxygen and light [12].
In the mid-1970s, enrichment of flour with folic acid at
the rate of 0.3 mg/lb was suggested [9,14]. As with vita-
mins A and B6, this proposal was not implemented. How-
ever, recently, the importance of folic acid in the diet to re-
duce the risk of neural tube defect in pregnant females and
homocysteinemia, which may increase one's risk of a heart
attack, has been recognized. This recognition had led to
mandating the enrichment of cereal grains with folacin at
the rate of 140 lig PteGlu/100 g product starting in January
1998 [29-30]. Such awareness has also led to the sanction
of folate-related health claims on food products that are
good sources of this vitamin [31]. However, the mandating
of such fortification has led to concern about increased ley-
482 Bock

TABLE 4 Levels of Water-Soluble Vitamins Contributed by Cereal Grains or Grain Components

Folic Pantothenic
Grain Levels( Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin B6 acid acid Biotin

Barley Low X
Medium X X X X X
High
Buckwheat Low
Medium
High
Corn Low
Medium X X X X X X
High
Millet Low
Medium
High
Oats Low
Medium X X X X X X X
High
Rice Low X X'
Medium X' Xb X' X X
High Xb Xb X'
Rye Low
Medium X X X
High
Sorghum Low
Medium
High
Triticale Low
Medium
High
Wheat Low X' X X X X
Medium X' X' Xd'e
High
Wild rice Low
Medium
High

"Brown rice.
bRice bran.
`Wheat germ.
dWheat.
`Wheat bran.
(Denotes quantity, not quality.
Source: Refs. 1, 2-5, 7, 8.

TABLE 5 Vitamin Composition of Selected Cereal Grains (mg/100 g)

Vitamin Wheat Rye Barley Oats Rice Corn Sorghum Millet Triticale Wild rice

B1 0.55 0.44 0.57 0.77 0.33 0.44 0.58 0.73 0.65 0.45
B2 0.13 0.18 0.22 0.18 0.09 0.13 0.17 0.38 0.25 0.63
Niacin 6.40 1.50 6.4 1.8 4.9 2.6 4.8 2.3 3.5 6.2
Pantothenic acid 1.36 0.77 0.73 1.4 1.2 0.70 1.0
B6 0.53 0.33 0.33 0.13 0.79 0.57 0.60

Source: Refs. 14-19.

Minor Constituents of Cereals 483

TABLE 6 B-Vitamin Concentration in Hard ble but higher amounts of this vitamin (Table 5). In rice, a
Red Versus Durum Wheat (mg/100 g, dry significant amount of this vitamin is lost in the milling
wt. basis) process (Table 7). Oats, wheat and rice are classified as
Hard red Durum moderate sources (0.5-2.0 mg/100 g) of pantothenic acid;
Vitamin wheat wheat wheat germ and bran are both considered by Kutsky [1] as
high sources (2.0-10.0 mg/100 g) (Table 4).
Thiamine 0.57 0.67 From a dietary source standpoint, barley, corn, oats,
Riboflavin 0.12 0.11
rice, and wheat are considered to be medium sources
Niacin
(10-100 14/100 g) of biotin (Table 4) [1-8]. This vitamin
Total 7.4 11.1
Free 3.6 4.7 is relatively stable when exposed to air, oxygen and UV
Vitamin B6 0.35 0.43 light [12].
Pyridoxine 0.26 0.33 Mature, dry cereal grains contain no detectable ascorbic
Pyridoxal 0.05 0.06 acid (vitamin C). However, this vitamin can be detected in
Pyridoxamine 0.04 0.04 germinated cereal seeds.
Source: Ref. 11.
IL MINERALS
Minerals are inorganic elements found in small or trace
els of folic acid masking a vitamin B12 deficiency [32]. Be- amounts in various dietary constituents. Based on the
cause of this concern, Herbert [32] has filed a petition to amount present in the human body, minerals are classified
have the Food and Drug Administration require that 25 lig as major (macro) and trace minerals (elements) [33]. The
of crystalline vitamin B12 per 100 g of product be added to major minerals are those that are present in the body in
cereal grains. amounts greater than 5 g. Trace minerals are those present
in amounts less than 5 g.
6. Other Vitamins The average mineral content of a given grain varies sig-
Information about other vitamins found in cereals is nificantly from one part of the world to another. This is a
sparse. Corn, barley, and rye have similar but low concen- function of factors such as the type of grain, the variety,
trations of pantothenic acid; wheat and oats have compara- growing conditions, and fertilizer application.

TABLE 7 Vitamin Content of Rice and Rice Components (mg/100 g)

Brown Milled Rice Rice Rice
Vitamin rice rice bran polish germ
Thiamine 0.34 0.07 2.26 1.84 6.5
Riboflavin 0.05 0.03 0.25 0.18 0.5
Niacin 4.7 1.6 29.8 28.2 3.3
Pyridoxine 1.03 0.45 2.5 2.0 1.6
Pantothenic acid 1.5 0.75 2.8 3.3 3.0
Folic acid 0.02 0.02 0.15 0.19 0.43
Source: Refs. 16, 20.

TABLE 8 Selected B-Vitamin Content of Oats and Oat Products (mg/100 g)

Produce Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Pyridoxine
Dry milled oats 0.65 0.14 1.15 0.20
Finished groats 0.77 0.14 0.97 0.12
Hulls 0.15 0.16 1.04
Oat shorts 0.44 0.35 1.62
Oat flour, chips, and meal 0.78 0.17 1.25
aProducts from same mill fraction.
Source: Refs. 16, 21.
484 Bock

120

100

o
c 80
a) 60
cc
c 40
E
ra
> 20
SPONGE DOUGH BREAD
111 ""'"1101 ,4,•••••••••10., 14.•• •10.
0
Before After Before After Fresh 4-Week
Fermentation Fermentation Proofing Proofing Old
--e— Riboflavin —9— Niacin Thiamin

120

F 100
c
80

60
cc
E 40
cc
> 20
DOUGH COOKIES
A ►I 4111••••••••••••=monommimipp.
0
Just Cut Fresh 4-Week
Mixed Cookies Old

Riboflavin Niacin Thiamin

FIGURE 1 Retention of enrichment vitamins at different stages of bread and cookie making

A. Calcium
About 95% of all mineral matter is cereal grains consists of
phytates, phosphates, and sulfates of calcium, magnesium,
and potassium [34]. The aleurone layer contains 53% of
the calcium present in wheat. Because 87 percent of the
phytic acid also resides in this layer, calcium probably ex-
ists as a mixed salt of calcium-magnesium phytate (Ca5Mg
phytate) [34].
The mineral composition of various cereals is presented
in Tables 9 and 10. The level of calcium is lowest in
sorghum and highest in oats. Wheat germ and wheat bran
are considered to be low sources of calcium (50-100
mg/100 g); buckwheat, oats, and wheat are classified as
moderate sources (100-200 mg/100 g) [1-3,5-6,8,37] (Ta-
bles 11-16).
One should note that certain grains can be enriched with
calcium, thereby making them better sources of this miner-
al [13]. Good calcium intake throughout the lifespan is
thought to lower ones risk of osteoporosis [33]. This po-
tential is one of the bases for requiring that the calcium
content of a food be present on the label [38]. Although
done sporadically in the past, because of the recognition of
the role of good calcium intake over time, calcium enrich-
ment of some cereal grains is occurring more frequently. In
addition, grains (e.g., corn), that in some countries are tra-
ditionally soaked in lime (CaO) may show an increase in
calcium content of several hundred milligrams depending
on the concentration of the lime solution, the amount of
time the grain has been soaked, and how thoroughly the
grain has been washed following the soaking process [39].
A comparison of varietal mineral content of wheat, rye,
barley, and oats is presented in Tables 13-16. As can be
seen from the Koivistoinen et al. [40] study, calcium levels
in wheat and barley tend to vary from one variety to anoth-
er. Lorenz and Loewe [41] found variations in calcium
content in various classes of hard wheats as well as in var-
ious classes of U.S. and Canadian soft wheats. However,
no differences between hard and soft wheats from either
country were observed. According to Koivistoinen et al.
Minor Constituents of Cereals 485

TABLE 9 Mineral Composition of Rye, Wheat, Barley, Corn, Oats, and Rice (mg/100 g, dry wt.)
Barley Oats Rice
Whole Kernel Whole Kernel Whole Kernel
Rye Wheat grain only Corn grain only grain only
Phosphorus 380 410 470 400 310 340 400 285 290
Potassium 520 580 630 600 330 460 380 340 120
Calcium 70 60 90 80 30 95 66 68 67
Magnesium 130 180 140 130 140 140 120 90 47
Iron 9 6 6 - 2 7 4 - 6
Copper 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.2 4 5 0.3 0.4
Mangenese 7.5 5.5 1.8 0.6 5 4 6 2
Zinc 3.4 4.4 4.0 - 3.9 1.5-2.2 1.2-2.1
Sodium 3.1 4.6 11.8 8.6 3.1-6.9 2.2-5.1

TABLE 10 Mineral Composition of Sorghum, Triticale, barley contains the highest average levels of phosphorus
and Wild Ricea and whole grain rice the lowest (285 mg/100 g). From a di-
etary standpoint, barley, corn, and rice are considered
Sorghum Triticale Wild rice
moderate sources of phosphorus (100-200 mg/100 g);
Phosphorus 405 0.19% 0.4-0.5% buckwheat, millet, oats, brown rice, rice bran, rye, wheat,
Potassium 400 1.21% 0.4-0.6% wheat germ, wheat bran and wild rice are classified as high
Calcium 20 0.21% 0.01-0.03% sources (200-1200 mg/100 g) (Tables 13-16).
Magnesium 150 0.16% 0.1-0.2% The data in Tables 13-16 indicate that quantities of
Iron 6 12-51 ppm phosphorus vary significantly from one wheat variety to
Copper 0.5 3.9 ppm 1.8-14.5 ppm another. This variation can also be seen in barley. In con-
Manganese 1.5 37 ppm
trast, phosphorus content from one variety of rye or oats to
Zinc 0.0008% 36 ppm 40-121 ppm
Sodium 0.00008% another does not vary significantly. In the Syvalahti and
Korkman [42] study, phosphorus content of the grain was
'mg/100 g (dry wt.) unless otherwise noted. not affected by the fertilizer treatments of spring wheat,
Source: Refs. 15, 17, 35, 36. barley, and rye. Significant differences in phosphorus con-
tent were seen in winter wheat and oats when different fer-
tilizer treatments were used (Tables 17-21).
[40], calcium levels in various rye and oat varieties tend to
be reasonably consistent (Tables 13-16).
The effects of various fertilizer treatments on mineral C. Magnesium
content of spring and winter wheat, barley, oats and rye Eighty-seven percent of the magnesium in cereal grains is
grown in 10 localities in Finland are shown in Tables located in the aleurone layer [34]. Because magnesium
17-21. These data [42] show that fertilizer treatment did binds with phytic acid, much of the magnesium is probably
not result in a variation in calcium content in the grains present as Ca5Mg phytate or as potassium-magnesium
studied (Tables 17-21). phytate [34]. The remainder is likely to be present in phos-
phates and sulfates [34].
B. Phosphorus
From a dietary standpoint, brown rice is considered to
Compared to other minerals, phosphorus is found in large be a poor source of magnesium (50-100 mg/100 g). Mod-
quantities in cereal grains. It is mostly associated with erately good sources (100-200 mg/100 g) include barley,
phytic acid (myoinositol hexaphosphoric acid) and its millet, oats, rye, wheat, and wild rice. Buckwheat, wheat
salts. In wheat, rice, and maize, 80% or more of the total bran, and wheat germ are considered to be high sources of
phosphorus is accounted for by the phytate [34]. Over 80% this mineral (200-400 mg/100 g) [1-3,6,8,37,43] (Tables
of the phytate is located in the aleurone portion of wheat 13-16). In the mid-1970s the Food and Nutrition Board
and the pericarp of rice; in corn, over 80% is found in the proposed that wheat flour be enriched with magnesium at
germ [34]. In wheat, phosphorus becomes incorporated the rate of 200 mg/lb flour [9,14]. However, this proposal
into phytic acid during maturation [34]. As seen in Table 9, was never implemented.
486 Bock

TABLE 11 Levels of Minerals Contributed by Cereal Grains or Grain Components

Grain Levelsh Ca Mg Fe Zn Cu Na

Barley Low
Medium
High
Buckwheat Low
Medium X
High X X
Corn Low X'
Medium X X
High
Millet Low
Medium
High X
Oats Low
Medium X
High X
Rice Low xf X'
Medium X X' X'
High xd X
Rye Low
Medium X
High X X
Sorghum Low
Medium
High
Triticale Low
Medium
High
Wheat Low xa X
Medium xb X X X X X
xa,b
High Xa'b'g Xa'b Xa'b Xa'b Xb'g

Wild rice Low

Medium X
High X
aWheat germ.
bWheat bran.
'Brown rice.
dRice bran.

Torn oil.
(Polished rice.
gWheat.
hDenotes quantity, not quality.

According to Tables 11 and 12, magnesium content is
highest in wheat and lowest in rice. Magnesium levels vary
significantly among wheat, barley, and oat varieties (Ta-
bles 13-16). There is little variation in magnesium from
one rye variety to another (Tables 13-16). When fertilizer
treatments differ, the quantity of magnesium varies signifi-
cantly in spring wheat and barley. The different fertilizer
treatments used by Syvalahti and Korkman [42] did not af-
fect magnesium content in winter wheat, oats and rye (Ta-
bles 17-21).
Minor Constituents of Cereals 487

TABLE 12 Levels of Trace Minerals Contributed by Cereal Grains or Grain Components

Grain Levels'` Cr Co F I Mn Mo Se

Barley Low X X X
Medium
High X X X
Buckwheat Low
Medium
High X X X
Corn Low X xd
Medium X
High
Millet Low
Medium X
High
Oats Low X
Medium
High
Rice Low X' X' X
Medium X' X' X X X'
High X'
Rye Low X
Medium
High X
Sorghum Low
Medium
High X
Triticale Low Xa'b
Medium X Xa'b Xa
High xa,b Xa'b Xb'i
Wheat Low Xa'b
Medium X Xa'b Xa
High xa,b Xa'b Xa'b Xb'i Xa'b'j
Wild rice Low
Medium
High

'Wheat germ.
bWheat bran.
`Brown rice.
dCorn oil.
'Polished rice.
'Corn starch.
5Corn meal.
h Oats and bran.
'Wheat.
iWheat flour.
'Denotes quantity, not quality.

D. Iron lis [44] have identified a low molecular weight compound

In corn, iron is concentrated in the outer cells of the scutel-
lum and in the aleurone [34]. Iron in wheat is located in the
outer endosperm and bran. Patent flour contains about 5.4
lig/g compared to 124 pg/g in the bran [34]. Morris and El-
in wheat that is believed to be monoferric phytate. This
compound is thought to account for 60% of the iron in
wheat bran.
According to Kutsky [1] and others [6,39,45-47], only
rice bran, wheat germ, and wheat bran are considered to be
488 Bock

TABLE 13 Varietal Differences in Mineral Content of Wheat (mg/100 g, dry wt.)

Wheat
variety Fe Cu Mn Zn Mg K Na Ca

Apu 7.45 0.90 7.06 4.63 173 381 5.61 49.2 421
Norrona 4.76 0.63 5.56 4.03 164 363 3.72 35.6 378
Svenno 5.41 0.62 5.48 4.29 171 378 4.66 35.6 416
Timantti 6.07 0.70 6.06 4.59 162 373 5.12 40.4 434
Selkirk 5.70 0.73 6.20 5.54 200 347 4.14 43.7 465
Timanti II 6.16 0.90 5.16 4.23 176 399 5.79 80.7 464
Erli 4.36 0.57 5.01 3.59 165 371 3.67 31.7 378
Touko 5.07 0.59 5.88 4.60 192 377 3.08 37.1 470

Source: Ref. 40.

TABLE 14 Varietal Differences in Mineral Content of Rye (mg/100 g, dry wt.)

Rye variety Fe Cu Mn Zn Mg K Na Ca

Pekka 4.43 0.71 4.14 3.41 124 480 2.18 37.5 427
Maatiaisruis 4.50 0.56 3.88 3.78 125 519 2.41 35.2 406
Toivo 4.50 0.63 4.14 3.40 124 521 3.30 36.9 456
Ensi 4.58 0.58 3.75 3.65 124 485 2.96 39.8 377
Oiva 4.42 0.67 4.08 3.63 125 523 3.00 36.1 449
Sangaste 4.17 0.72 4.13 3.17 124 508 2.70 33.0 381

Source: Ref. 40.

TABLE 15 Varietal Differences in Mineral Content of Barley (mg/100 g, dry wt.)

Barley
variety Fe Cu Mn Zn Mg K Na Ca

Tamini 4.75 1.16 2.50 3.63 146 521 13.55 43.3 425
Paavo 4.92 1.00 1.83 3.40 125 566 10.00 38.4 365
Balden 5.21 1.08 1.91 3.89 135 523 8.70 34.1 411
Pirkka 5.48 1.25 2.25 4.32 148 518 12.81 38.5 449
Otra 5.04 1.13 2.23 3.80 148 530 10.93 40.5 429

Source: Ref. 40.

TABLE 16 Varietal Differences in Mineral Content of Oats (mg/100 g, dry wt.)

Oats variety Fe Cu Mn Zn Mg K Na Ca

Siste 5.00 1.61 5.79 3.82 151 421 8.47 68.6 358
Pendek 4.55 1.16 7.04 3.47 139 406 10.16 62.3 364
Sol II 4.91 1.23 7.98 3.93 142 392 7.22 65.1 357
Kyro 5.47 1.30 7.17 4.05 148 414 6.79 75.0 376
Elo 5.19 1.70 8.08 4.17 150 447 8.55 67.9 382
Jammi 4.57 1.22 7.68 4.05 144 422 7.10 66.8 392
Kultasade II 5.14 1.20 5.59 3.64 142 409 10.71 69.8 355
Nip 5.90 0.97 8.37 3.90 170 410 10.85 71.6 398
Source: Ref. 40.
Minor Constituents of Cereals 489

TABLE 17 Effects of First Year Fertilization on Mineral Content of Spring Wheata

Treatment Ca (g) Mg (g) P (g) K (g) S (g) Al (mg) B (g) Br (mg) Cr (mg)
1 0.34 1.46 4.34 5.2 1.48 36.2 1.5 4.3 0.04
2 0.34 1.48 4.33 5.2 1.53 12.4 1.2 2.1 0.03
3 0.34 1.48 1.33 5.0 1.58 12.5 1.3 2.6 0.02
4 0.34 1.44 4.35 5.1 1.55 9.1 1.8 2.5 0.03
5 0.34 1.43 4.37 5.1 1.59 16.8 1.6 2.3 0.03
Co (mg) Cu (mg) F (mg) Fe (mg) Mn (mg) Mo (mg) Ni (mg) Rb (mg) Se (mg)
1 0.03 6.2 0.92 76 50 0.09 0.3 4.9 0.01
2 0.02 6.5 0.78 64 55 0.10 0.3 4.5 0.01
3 0.02 6.7 0.68 62 55 0.10 0.3 4.2 0.01
4 0.02 6.1 0.80 62 57 0.10 0.3 3.9 0.03
5 0.02 6.2 0.77 67 54 0.07 0.3 3.8 0.01
Si (mg) Zn (mg) As (mg) Cd (mg) Pb (mg) Hgc (mg)
1 760 54 <0.05 0.05 0.07 0.004
2 150 55 <0.05 0.06 0.04 0.004
3 54 <0.05 0.06 0.04 0.004
4 55 <0.05 0.06 0.04 0.004
5 55 <0.05 0.08 0.04 0.004
Experiment conduc ted in 10 locations in Finland over 3 years.
'Per kg dry matter. Mg (95 kg/ha); Se (0.21 kg/ha);
61 = No fertilizer; B (2.1 kg/ha); 1 (0.84 kg/ha);
2= NPK (N, P, K), Ca, S, CI; Cu (12.5 kg/ha); Cr (0.13 kg/ha);
3 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Mg, B Cu, Mn; Mn (13 (kg/ha); F (0.13 kg/ha);
4 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Mg, B, Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, Co, Mo, Se, I, Cr, Sn, and F; Zn (1.75 kg/ha); Hg (0.17 kg/ha);
5 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Hg, Cd, As, and Pb. Fe (10 kg/ha); Cd (0.17 kg/ha);
'Less than 0.004. Co (0.21 kg/ha); As (0.45 kg/ha);
Mo (0.39 kg/ha); Pb (0.35 kg/ha).
Source: Ref. 42.

good sources of dietary iron (5-18 mg Fe/100 g). Corn and
rice are classified as low sources (0.1-1.0 mg Fe/100 g)
(Tables 13-16). Although barley, buckwheat, oats, brown
rice, rye, and wheat are moderately good sources, enrich-
ment of wheat flour with iron at the rate of 2.89-3.6
mg/100 g of flour has been allowed since the late 1940s
[13]. In the mid-1970s the Food and Nutrition Board sug-
gested an increase in the allowed iron enrichment to 40
mg/lb flour [9,14]. However, for various reasons related to
health and safety, this proposed increase has never become
official.
As shown in Tables 9 and 10, iron content is lowest in
corn and highest in rye. The amount of iron present in var-
ious varieties of rye, barley, and oats does not tend to vary
significantly (Tables 13-16). This is not the case with
wheat [40-41]. Iron content of barley, oats, and rye is sig-
nificantly affected by fertilizer treatments [37] (Tables
17-21).
E. Zinc
Information related to zinc content of cereal grains is
somewhat limited. Based on the information available,
zinc content is highest in wheat and lowest in rice (Tables
11 and 12). According to Koivistoinen et al. [40] and
Lorenz and Loewe [41], zinc levels vary significantly from
one wheat variety to another; similar variation has been
seen among barley varieties. In contrast, there is little dif-
ference in zinc content between rye varieties and oat vari-
eties studied by Koivistoinen et al. [40] (Tables 13-16).
With the exception of oats and, to a lesser extent, spring
wheat, differences in fertilizer treatments had little impact
on zinc in the study conducted by Syvalahti and Korkman
[42] (Tables 17-21).
From a dietary standpoint, the best source of zinc in ce-
reals is wheat germ and bran (4-10 mg/100 g). Moderate
sources (0.4-4 mg Zn/100 g) include barley, corn, oats,
490 Bock

TABLE 18 Effects of First Year Fertilization on Mineral Content of Winter Wheata

Treatmentb Ca (g) Mg (g) P (g) K (g) S (g) Al (mg) B (g) Br (mg) Cr (mg)
1 0.30 1.39 3.98 5.3 1.33 5.7 1.0 2.6 <0.02
2 0.30 1.39 3.88 5.2 1.38 6.3 1.0 3.5 <0.02
3 0.30 1.36 3.83 5.4 1.40 4.4 1.2 1.5 <0.02
4 0.30 1.35 3.80 5.2 1.45 4.3 1.3 1.6 <0.02
5 0.30 1.38 3.75 5.2 1.53 5.2 1.0 1.4 0.03
Co (mg) Cu (mg) F (mg) Fe (mg) Mn (mg) Mo (mg) Ni (mg) Rb (mg) Se (mg)
1 0.02 5.1 0.64 64 43 0.19 0.3 4.0 0.01
2 0.02 5.3 0.58 65 46 0.19 0.4 4.4 0.01
3 0.02 5.3 0.58 66 43 0.17 0.3 4.1 0.01
4 0.02 5.4 0.75 67 43 0.13 0.3 4.2 0.03
5 0.03 5.7 0.69 71 47 0.13 0.3 4.3 0.01
Si (mg) Zn (mg) As (mg) Cd (mg) Pb (mg) Hg` (mg)
1 360 41 <0.05 0.13 0.06 0.004
2 310 42 <0.05 0.12 0.08 0.004
3 41 <0.05 0.10 0.05 0.004
4 42 <0.05 0.09 0.05 0.004
5 43 <0.05 0.11 0.05 0.004
Experiment conducted in 10 locations in Finland over 3 years.
aPer kg dry matter. Mg (95 kg/ha); Se (0.21 kg/ha);
b l = No fertilizer; B (2.1 kg/ha); 1 (0.84 kg/ha);
2 = NPK (N, P, K), Ca, S, Cl; Cu (12.5 kg/ha); Cr (0.13 kg/ha);
3 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Mg, B Cu, Mn; Mn (13 (kg/ha); F (0.13 kg/ha);
4 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Mg, B, Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, Co, Mo, Se, I, Cr, Sn, and F; Zn (1.75 kg/ha); Hg (0.17 kg/ha);
5 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Hg, Cd, As, and Pb. Fe (10 kg/ha); Cd (0.17 kg/ha);
`Less than 0.004. Co (0.21 kg/ha); As (0.45 kg/ha);
Mo (0.39 kg/ha); Pb (0.35 kg/ha).
Source: Ref. 42.

brown rice, rye and wheat. Corn oil and polished rice are
poor sources of zinc [1-3,6,37,43,46-47] (Tables 13-16).
Research coming out of the Middle East has raised
some concerns about the bioavailability of zinc from plant
products. When the diet is high in cereal grains of high ex-
traction and is consumed in the form of unleavened flour
products, this concern may be very significant because
zinc deficiency affects growth. However, research on prod-
ucts that are leavened indicates that zinc becomes more
physiologically available to a degree greater than can be
accounted for by the action of yeast on the phytate. There-
fore, the issue of bioavailability appears to be complex, in-
cluding factors like the impact of yeast, the impact of pH
changes, and the phytate-to-zinc ratio [48].
F. Copper
The refining of cereals results in significant loss of copper.
However, this loss is not as extensive as are losses of iron,
manganese, and zinc [34]. Copper in cereal bran is soluble
and released at a pH of 1 but is bound at a pH of 6.8 [34].
The copper content is lowest in corn and highest in oats
(Tables 11 and 12). Wheat is the only grain with a signifi-
cant variation in copper content among the varieties [40].
The copper content of spring wheat, barley, and rye is af-
fected by different fertilizer treatments (Tables 17-21).
From a dietary standpoint, wheat germ and wheat bran
are the only cereal grains that serve as good sources of
copper (1-10 mg/100 g) (Tables 13-16). Barley, corn, oats,
rice, rye, and wheat are considered to be moderately good
sources (0.1-1 mg/100 g) of this mineral.
G. Sodium and Potassium
Sodium and potassium are minerals of concern in health
care. Therefore, the amounts of these minerals in dietary
constituents are of interest. Potassium levels are high in
most cereal grains (Tables 11 and 12). The one notable ex-
ception is milled rice (Tables 11 and 12). Sodium levels
are highest in barley and lowest in rice, especially in
Minor Constituents of Cereals 491

TABLE 19 Effects of First Year Fertilization on Mineral Content of Ryea

Treatmentb Ca (g) Mg (g) P (g) K (g) S (g) Al (mg) B (g)' Br (mg) Cr (mg)
1 0.36 1.14 3.72 6.0 1.33 9.7 1.5 1.9 0.02
2 0.35 1.13 3.62 6.0 1.30 20.5 1.5 1.8 <0.02
3 0.37 1.16 3.59 6.0 1.33 20.5 1.6 1.5 <0.02
4 0.35 1.15 3.60 6.0 1.31 10.5 1.6 1.2 <0.02
5 0.35 1.14 3.56 5.7 1.32 9.9 1.5 1.1 <0.02
Co (mg) Cu (mg) F (mg) Fe (mg) Mn (mg) Mo (mg) Ni (mg) Rb (mg) Se (mg)
1 0.03 6.4 0.62 49 41 0.15 0.2 3.9 0.01
2 0.03 6.1 0.64 51 41 0.15 0.2 3.8 0.01
3 0.03 6.5 0.63 55 39 0.15 0.2 3.9 0.01
4 0.03 6.6 0.70 52 40 0.18 0.2 3.8 0.04
5 0.03 6.6 0.91 53 39 0.13 0.2 3.9 0.01
Si (mg) Zn (mg) As (mg) Cd (mg) Pb (mg) He (mg)
1 100 41 <0.05 0.03 0.11 0.004
2 800 40 <0.05 0.02 0.12 0.004
3 39 <0.05 0.02 0.14 0.004
4 40 <0.05 0.02 0.10 0.004
5 39 <0.05 0.03 0.10 0.004
Experiment conducted in 10 locations in Finland over 3 years.
'Per kg dry matter. Mg (95 kg/ha); Se (0.21 kg/ha);
b l = No fertilizer; B (2.1 kg/ha); 1 (0.84 kg/ha);
2 = NPK (N, P, K), Ca, S, Cl; Cu (12.5 kg/ha); Cr (0.13 kg/ha);
3 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Mg, B Cu, Mn; Mn (13 (kg/ha); F (0.13 kg/ha);
4 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Mg, B, Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, Co, Mo, Se, I, Cr, Sn, and F; Zn (1.75 kg/ha); Hg (0.17 kg/ha);
5 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Hg, Cd, As, and Pb. Fe (10 kg/ha); Cd (0.17 kg/ha);
`Less than 0.004. Co (0.21 kg/ha); As (0.45 kg/ha);
Mo (0.39 kg/ha); Pb (0.35 kg/ha).
Source: Ref. 42.

milled rice (Tables 11 and 12). According to the work by
Koivistoinen et al. [40], potassium content is relatively
stable among the different varieties of wheat, rye, barley,
and oats studied (Tables 13-16). Their potassium levels
found for wheat differ from those of Lorenz and Loewe
[41].
Sodium levels vary significantly between the barley and
oat varieties but not the wheat and rye varieties studied
(Tables 13-16) [35]. When comparing hard versus soft
U.S. and Canadian wheat, Lorenz and Loewe [41] did not
find any significant differences in sodium content. They
did note significant differences of sodium quantities in soft
and hard wheat classes.
From a dietary source standpoint, no cereal grain is
considered to be a high or even moderate contributor of
sodium to the diet (Tables 13-16). Buckwheat, rye and
wheat bran are considered to be good sources (400-1000
mg/100 g) of potassium (Tables 13-16).
H. Other Minerals
As their name suggests, trace elements are required only in
very small amounts of a few micrograms to a few mil-
ligrams per day; nevertheless, they are necessary for good
health. Until 1960, nine trace elements were considered es-
sential. These included iron, iodine, copper, manganese,
zinc, cobalt, molybdenum, selenium, and chromium [34].
Because there is more information about iron, copper, and
zinc, these minerals have been discussed previously in this
chapter. Since 1960, six additional trace elements have
been recognized. These include tin, vanadium, fluorine,
silicon, nickel, and arsenic [34]. Although the most recent-
ly recognized elements are considered to be essential, nu-
tritional deficiency problems are unlikely to occur in hu-
mans because of the extremely small amounts needed [34].
Information about these trace elements in cereal grains
is sketchy. Syvalahti and Korkman [42] measured numer-
492 Bock

TABLE 20 Effects of First Year Fertilization on Mineral Content of Barley'

Treatments Ca (g) Mg (g) P (g) K (g) S (g) Al (mg) B (g) Br (mg) Cr (mg)
1 0.41 1.35 4.12 6.9 1.39 44.6 1.0 2.2 0.03
2 0.42 1.29 3.99 6.6 1.48 24.2 1.1 1.2 0.03
3 0.41 1.32 3.95 6.4 1.54 25.5 1.3 1.2 0.02
4 0.42 1.30 3.97 6.7 1.51 24.6 1.3 1.3 0.03
5 0.42 1.30 4.04 6.9 1.52 21.0 1.1 1.4 0.02
Co (mg) Cu (mg) F (mg) Fe (mg) Mn (mg) Mo (mg) Ni (mg) Rb (mg) Se (mg)
1 0.03 8.6 1.09 66 26 0.16 0.2 5.9 0.01
2 0.03 8.0 0.88 56 27 0.12 0.2 5.5 0.01
3 0.03 8.6 0.87 58 26 0.10 0.2 5.2 0.01
4 0.03 8.4 0.90 61 27 0.14 0.2 5.1 0.06
5 0.03 7.9 0.85 54 27 0.13 0.2 5.2 0.01
Si (mg) Zn (mg) As (mg) Cd (mg) Pb (mg) He (mg)
1 500 42 <0.05 0.03 0.37 0.004
2 200 43 <0.05 0.03 0.36 0.004
3 44 <0.05 0.03 0.36 0.004
4 43 <0.05 0.03 0.36 0.004
5 43 <0.05 0.04 0.36 0.004
Experiment conducted in 10 locations in Finland over 3 years.
'Per kg dry matter. Mg (95 kg/ha); Se (0.21 kg/ha);
h l = No fertilizer; B (2.1 kg/ha); 1 (0.84 kg/ha);
2 = NPK (N, P, K), Ca, S, Cl; Cu (12.5 kg/ha); Cr (0.13 kg/ha);
3 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Mg, B Cu, Mn; Mn (13 (kg/ha); F (0.13 kg/ha);
4 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Mg, B, Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, Co, Mo, Se, I, Cr, Sn, and F; Zn (1.75 kg/ha); Hg (0.17 kg/ha);
5 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Hg, Cd, As, and Pb. Fe (10 kg/ha); Cd (0.17 kg/ha);
Tess than 0.004. Co (0.21 kg/ha); As (0.45 kg/ha);
Mo (0.39 kg/ha); Pb (0.35 kg/ha).
Source: Ref. 42.

ous elements when they were investigating the impact of
different fertilizer treatments. They found that the amounts
of elements like sulfur, aluminum, boron, bromine, cobalt,
fluorine, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, cadmium,
and lead tended to vary in the grains studied when fertiliz-
er treatments were changed (Tables 17-21). In addition, in
some of their analyses, levels of elements like arsenic and
mercury were consistently below analytically detectable
levels. Lag and Steinnes [49] found that the locality where
wheat or barley was grown affected the selenium and
molybdenum content of these grains. They even observed
large variations in molybdenum level in these grains with-
in a given area. When comparing their work to others, Lag
and Steinnes [49] found some agreement with their own
findings but also found variation from their study results.
Cereal grain contributors of chromium, cobalt, fluorine, io-
dine, manganese, molybdenum, and selenium are listed in
Tables 11 and 12. Levels of trace elements not previously
discussed are shown on Tables 22 and 23. One should note
that although buckwheat, corn oil, wheat bran, and wheat
germ are considered to be high sources of cobalt, the only
known need for cobalt by humans is that associated with
the cobalt that comprises the center of the vitamin B12
compound, which is only supplied by animal products.
Therefore, there is reason to question the value of cereal
grains as a source of cobalt.
III. ENZYMES
Cereal grains are complex biological systems, involving
many enzymes, that go through several developmental
stages from the planted seed to the ripe grain.
A. General
1. Amylases
Because cereals store their excess energy as starch, they
contain two types of amylase. Alpha-amylase is an en-
doenzyme that randomly cleaves alpha-1,4 glucosidic
linkages. Such cleavage results in degradation of large
starch molecules (amylose and amylopectin) into frag-
Minor Constituents of Cereals 493

TABLE 21 Effects of First Year Fertilization on Mineral Content of Oatsa

Treatment' Ca (g) Mg (g) P (g) K (g) S (g) Al (mg) B (g) Br (mg) Cr (mg)

1 0.91 1.45 4.26 6.21 1.78 22.0 1.5 4.8 0.03

2 0.94 1.43 4.31 6.46 1.83 93.0 1.7 3.3 0.05
3 0.90 1.46 4.33 6.33 1.86 26.3 2.1 3.1 0.04
4 0.88 1.45 4.39 6.38 1.86 25.4 2.3 3.5 0.04
5 0.88 1.42 4.34 6.38 1.83 27.4 1.6 3.1 0.04
Co (mg) Cu (mg) F (mg) Fe (mg) Mn (mg) Mo (mg) Ni (mg) Rb (mg) Se (mg)

1 0.06 6.7 0.99 61 70 0.24 2.4 5.5 0.01

2 0.06 6.5 1.16 89 69 0.17 2.5 5.4 0.01
3 0.06 6.8 1.11 116 69 0.16 2.4 5.1 0.01
4 0.06 6.4 0.91 64 57 0.19 2.5 5.5 0.05
5 0.06 6.7 1.08 64 70 0.19 2.5 5.3 0.01
Si (mg) Zn (mg) As (mg) Cd (mg) Pb (mg) Hg` (mg)

1 600 53 <0.05 0.04 0.12 0.004

2 800 53 <0.05 0.04 0.16 0.004
3 52 <0.05 0.04 0.13 0.004
4 55 <0.05 0.04 0.12 0.004
5 53 <0.05 0.05 0.13 0.004

Experiment conducted in 10 locations in Finland over 3 years.

'Per kg dry matter. Mg (95 kg/ha); Se (0.21 kg/ha);
b l = No fertilizer; B (2.1 kg/ha); 1 (0.84 kg/ha);
2 = NPK (N, P, K), Ca, S, Cl; Cu (12.5 kg/ha); Cr (0.13 kg/ha);
3 = NPK, Ca, S, CI, Mg, B Cu, Mn; Mn (13 (kg/ha); F (0.13 kg/ha);
4 = NPK, Ca, S, Cl, Mg, B, Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, Co, Mo, Se, I, Cr, Sn, and F; Zn (1.75 kg/ha); Hg (0.17 kg/ha);
5 = NPK, Ca, S. Cl, Hg, Cd, As, and Pb. Fe (10 kg/ha); Cd (0.17 kg/ha);
`Less than 0.004. Co (0.21 kg/ha); As (0.45 kg/ha);
Mo (0.39 kg/ha); Pb (0.35 kg/ha).
Source: Ref. 42.

TABLE 22 Selected Trace Elements in Various Cereal Grainsa

Element Barley Corn Millet Oats Sorghum Triticale Wheat Wild rice

Aluminum 10.7-21.7 0.0004%

Boron 0.001%
Cobalt <1-2.8 0.022 <1 0.064 0.304 0.1086
Chromium 0.00004 <1
Chlorine 0.13 0.06 0.11 0.10
Iodine 0.344
Nickel <1 <1-1.74 <1 <1 <1
Sulfur 0.19 0.14 0.23 0.18 0.25"
Lead 0.001%
Silicon 0.004%
Molybdenum 0.0001%
Tin 0.00004%
Titanium 0.00004%

appm unless otherwise noted.

bWheat bran.

Source: Refs. 18, 19, 50, 51.

494 Bock

TABLE 23 Trace Element Inorganic Constituents of Brown Rice and Its Fractions (nig,
dry wt.)
Brown rice Milled rice Rice bran Rice embryo Rice polish
Aluminum n.d. 0.73-7.23 53.5-369 n.d. n.d
Chlorine 203-275 163-239 510-970 1,520 n.d.
205-372
Iron 26-46 1.8-13.6 190 130 280
15.3-35.7 3.3-3.6 140-316 110; 130 102
6.8-27.8 4.6-26.8 130-200 489
24 4.9-7.2 530
Manganese 13-42 9.9-13.6 406-877 120; 140 65
22-33 110; 110
Silicon 280-1,900 140-370 1,700 /1,400 560-1,900 560-1,200
107-180 12,200-16,300
Zinc 15-22 12-21 80 100; 300 50; 80
Source: Ref. 35.

ments with shorter and less complex glucose chains. When
the grain is intact, only low levels of this enzyme are de-
tectable. An increase in the activity of alpha-amylase is an
indicator that germination is in progress.
Beta-amylase is the second amylase commonly present
in cereal grains. It is an exoenzyme that cleaves starch
from the nonreducing end of the molecule. This enzyme
cleaves alternate alpha-1,4 glucosidic linkages, releasing
the disaccharide maltose. This enzyme is found in intact
grain and does not appear to increase during germination.
Because there are also alpha-1,6 linkages in amy-
lopectin at the branch points of the molecule, neither al-
pha- nor beta-amylase is capable of completely degrading
starch to simple sugars. When both amylases are function-
ing in combination, about 85% of the starch is degraded
[15].
Wheat, barley, and rye appear to have much higher al-
pha- and beta-amylase activities than other cereal grains.
One should note that a large number of amylase enzymes
are found in cereal grains [15]. They vary based on the
anatomical part and maturity of the grain. In addition,
these enzymes appear to be different in the sound, mature
grain compared to the grain after germination.
2. Proteases
Proteases, referred to as proteinases and peptidases, are
found in intact cereal grains. However, their levels of ac-
tivity are low.
Most assays for determining proteolytic activity are
based on the measurement of soluble nitrogen caused by
proteolysis. Cereal proteins are large and insoluble, there-
fore, even though a significant amount of enzyme activity
may be in progress, soluble nitrogen may not be produced
to any great extent [15].
3. Lipase
All cereals have lipase activity. However, this activity
varies widely from one cereal to another. Compared to li-
pase activity observed in wheat and barley, oats and pearl
millet have a relatively high activity level. Interest in li-
pase activity is related to the fact that free fatty acids are
more susceptible to oxidative rancidity. In addition, free
fatty acids in sufficient quantity can give a product a soapy
taste [15].
4. Lipoxygenase
Peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids by oxygen is
catalyzed by lipoxygenase. This enzyme is widespread,
working preferentially on fatty acids and lipids, which
contain a cis, cis-penta-1,4-diene unit (—CH=CH—
CH2—CH=CH—). A large number of isoenzymes having
different activities are thought to exist.
With the exception of pearl millet, where lipoxygenase
is thought to be absent, this enzyme is found in most other
cereal grains. The reason that lipoxygenase is of concern
centers around the fact that this enzyme promotes the ox-
idative deterioration of many products [15].
5. Phytase
Phytase is an esterase that is responsible for the hydrolysis
of phytic acid (myoinositol hexaphosphoric acid), convert-
ing it to inositol and free phosphoric acid. Because phytic
acid is thought to bind calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc,
keeping them from being absorbed from food, the activity
of this enzyme is very important [15].
6. Other Enzymes
Cereals either contain or produce, during sprouting, en-
zymes that are involved in oxidizing o-phenylene-diamine.
Minor Constituents of Cereals 495

Most of that activity appears to be associated with the TABLE 24 Distribution of Protease and Phytase
bran, but the significance of the enzyme in cereal grains is Activity in Soluble and Insoluble Protein Fractions of
unclear. Peroxidase and catalase are also found in cereals. Protein Body Preparations of Sorghum, Pearl Millet,
Their role is not clear [15]. and Finger Millet
Protease (jimol Phytase
B. Cereal-Based Enzymes glycine equivalent P
released/h/mL) released/h/mL)
1. Enzymes in Barley
Sorghum
In barley, hydrolysis of endosperm components during
Soluble 0.38 0
germination is catalyzed by enzymes like alpha-amylase. Insoluble 2.72 0.10
The embryo controls the release of the endosperm compo- Pearl millet
nents. Activity of these hydrolytic enzymes is stimulated Soluble 2.68 0
by gibberellic acid from the embryo, which moves to the Insoluble 5.12 0.12
aleurone inducing de novo synthesis of alpha-amylase. Finger millet
Gibberellic acid appears to promote de novo synthesis Soluble 1.72 0
and/or release of other enzymes that function in the en- Insoluble 3.04 0
dosperm.
Source: Ref. 56.
Barley contains protease inhibitors including two main
trypsin inhibitors and two main chymotrypsin inhibitors.
The levels of trypsin inhibitors are relatively constant from
one genotype to another; levels of chymotrypsin inhibitors 3. Enzymes in Millet and Sorghum
vary with the cultivar. The two main chymotrypsin in- Sorghum protein bodies contain protease, phytase, beta-
hibitors and one of the main trypsin inhibitors are degrad- and alpha-glucosidase, beta-galactosidase, and several
ed by pepsin and, therefore, are not considered to have ad- acid phosphatases. Activity of the protease and phytase is
verse nutritional effects. However, the other trypsin outlined in Table 24. In these cereals, phytase and phytic
inhibitor is resistent to the action of pepsin, resulting in acid are unequally distributed throughout the grain. Phy-
lower protein digestibility in cultivars where it is present tase activity of sorghum is lower than that in rye and
[52]. Research reviewed by Newman and McGuire [52] in- wheat.
dicated that the level of this inhibitor is so low that it is un- As in other grains, amylase activity increases rapidly
likely to have a negative impact on the nutritive value of with germination. Some malted cultivars of finger millet
proteins. show higher alpha-amylase activity than comparable
wheat and barley malts. In contrast to barley malt where
2. Enzymes in Corn beta-amylase is the major amylase, in sorghum alpha-amy-
Mature corn (dry) has a low level of alpha-amylase activi- lase predominates; ratios of alpha-amylase to beta-amylase
ty. Activity increases during germination in the scutellum are 2-3:1 [27].
as well as in the kernel with the embryo removed.
Lipase from scutella of corn seedlings has been isolated 4. Enzymes in Rice
and characterized by Lin et al. [53] and Lin and Huang Akazuwa [57] has presented an extensive review of the en-
[54]. Corn lipase is present in the lipid bodies of germinat- zymes of rice in Rice Chemistry and Technology. The in-
ed seeds and is active only on triglycerides containing ole- formation in Fig. 2 summarizes the proposed activities in-
ic or linoleic acids. This lipase hydrolyzes triglycerides to volved in starch synthesis and degradation in rice seeds.
three fatty acids for beta oxidation in the glyoxysomes. Sucrose metabolism in rice appears to be under the con-
The role of lipoxygenase in corn is unclear. Lipoxyge- trol of two enzymes: sucrose synthetase and sucrose-6-
nase activity results in fatty acid hydroperoxides formed phosphate synthetase. Questions have arisen regarding
by oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. These hy- which of the enzyme reactions is most important in su-
droperoxides are highly reactive and potentially damaging crose synthesis and whether reversal of the sucrose syn-
to the cellular components. Regulation of plant growth is thetase reaction is involved in utilization of sucrose for
one of the proposed roles of lipoxygenase [55]. The starch synthesis. Another set of enzymes thought to be in-
metabolites resulting from lipoxygenase activity resemble volved in the production of UDP-glucose and ADP-glu-
prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are synthesized in cose are UDP-glucose and ADP-glucose pyrophosphory-
mammals from oxygenated fatty acids. These metabolites lases. Although no such enzymes have been isolated,
may also act as metabolic regulators. enzymes like hexokinase, phosphogluco somerase, and
496
Sucrose + ADP, UDP
Fructose
Glucose
..41P/-0102 ".S.,,
FIGURE 2 Enzymatic activity during starch synthesis and breakdown in rice seeds. (From Ref. 57.)
phosphoglucomutase are thought to be involved in the
overall transformation system of sucrose to starch. As can
be seen from Figure 2, questions exist about the presence
and/or role of phosphorylase in the formation and degrada-
tion of starch. An enzyme (amylo-1,4-1,6-transglucosi-
dase/Q enzyme/branching enzyme) which is thought to
play a role in the branching of amylopectin is also thought
to be present in the developing rice seed.
From Figure 2, one can see that alpha-amylase may be
involved in the breakdown of starch to glucose. Research
into the stimulating effect of gibberellic acid on de novo
synthesis of alpha-amylase in aleurone cells has led to the
hypothesis that a similar mechanism is operative in germi-
nating rice seeds.
As in other cereals, phytin is also present in rice. How-
ever, there is only limited information related to the forma-
tion of this compound. Phytase isolated from rice has been
used for investigations of plant phosphatase. However, lit-
tle investigation related to the role of phytase in the physi-
ology of rice seed gelin]nation has been conducted.
During storage of polished rice seeds, an increase in
free fatty acids occurs. Studies by Funatsu et al. [58] have
detected two major isozymes of lipase in rice bran.
5. Enzymes in Rye
When rye kernels are dissected into pericarp, aleurone, and
endosperm, at least three different alpha-amylase activities
can be noted at various points of development. Activity in
the pericarp declines as the grain matures. Alpha-amylase
activity fluctuates in the aleurone during development but
Bock
RIPENING (Synthesis)
Starch Synthetase
>ADPG UDPG
I +ATP I +UTP
>Glucose-l-P >Starch
Phosphorylase (?)
115111117012111111111E412111
a - Amylase , Maltase
GERMINATION (Breakdown)
diminishes at or close to maturity. This activity increases
in the endosperm, and at maturity this is the major activity
associated with this enzyme in the grain. As in other
grains, beta-amylase activity is present in low concentra-
tions at maturity. There has been little investigation of this
enzyme in rye [59].
Proteolytic enzymes, similar to those observed in
wheat, are present in rye. Concentrations of these enzymes
tend to be higher in the bran layers. Protease activities ob-
served in some rye samples appear to be comparable with
those observed in triticale but higher than those of wheat
[59].
6. Enzymes of Wheat
Two alpha-amylases can be detected in ungerminated
wheat. One fraction is heat and inhibitor sensitive; the sec-
ond resembles the alpha-amylase of germinated wheat
[48]. As in other cereals, alpha-amylase of wheat acts on
amylose in a random manner.
Beta-amylase has also been identified. It consists of
three fractions, differing in electrophoretic behavior. Beta-
amylase splits maltose from the starch molecule starting at
the nonreducing end. Almost complete hydrolysis to malt-
ose is observed when amylose is the substrate. In amy-
lopectin, the action stops short of the branch points. A
comparison of total amylase activity in selected varieties
of cereal grains is outlined in Table 25. The impact of pH,
temperature, substrate and inhibitors on the amylase of
wheat is discussed by Kruger and Reed in Wheat Chem-
istry and Technology [60].
Minor Constituents of Cereals 497

TABLE 25 Comparison of Saccharifying Activity in Selected The phenol and aromatic amine oxidases catalyze the
Cereal Grains oxidation of a variety of aromatic substances using molec-
Ungerminateda Germinateda ular oxygen. Oxidases that include a compound capable of
Cereal oxidizing o-phenylenediamine have been detected in
species Total Free Total Free wheat and barley homogenates but not in corn or rice. Py-
rogallo oxidase and catechol oxidase activity have also
Barley 49.6-77.2 20.1-43.0 58.8-92.9 48.1-83.0
Wheat 90.1-116.2 44.8-59.2 93.0-170.9 77.8-138.9 been reported in wheat [60].
Rye 85.0-110.5 65.8-89.7 104.2-137.9 99.0-129.0 Catalase, a hemoprotein that catalyzes the degradation
Oats 0.7-3.7 0.7-4.5 16.6-24.2 18.1-25.6 of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, is present in
wheat. Its physiological function is not well understood.
aActivity expressed in Lintner. Higher activity of the enzyme was found in rust-suscepti-
Source: Ref. 60.
ble compared to rust-resistant wheat varieties [60].
Peroxidase is also a hemoprotein. It is involved in the
degradation of a number of aromatic amines and phenols
Proteinases and peptidases occur in wheat. The hull and by hydrogen peroxide. The activity of this enzyme is great-
endosperm have little or no proteolytic activity even after est in wheat followed by barley, corn, and rice [60].
germination. Both proteinase and dipeptidase activities are
observed in the scutellum and embryo; rapid increases in
activity of these enzymes are observed on germination IV. PIGMENTS
[60]. The color of a given plant is most likely due to the pig-
Lipases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of es- ments that are present. Most pigments are located in plas-
ters, regardless of the compound hydrolyzed. Low grade tids, which are specialized bodies in the protoplasm of the
flours have higher lipase activity than clear or patent cell. The chief plant pigments are classified as the carot-
flours, bran, or wheat germ. The scutellum of the wheat enoids, the chlorophylls, the anthoxanthins, and the antho-
berry has 31/2-4 times as much lipase activity as the cyanins
cotyledon and endosperm, 4-5 times as much as the hull
and 15 times as much as the radicles. As in other grains,
the possible deleterious effects of fatty acids released dur- A. Pigments in Barley
ing lipolytic activity may have on storage and baking qual- Anthocyanins of the cyanidin type can be found in the
ity are of concern [60]. green organs of barley cultivars; catechins are located in
Phosphatases like phytase also occur in wheat and other the seed coat and mature kernel. These are phenolic com-
cereal grains. Phytase activity increases six-fold on germi- pounds; they form insoluble complexes with protein that
nation in soft wheat and is about 20% greater on germina- are thought to cause the haze in beer. There is also some
tion in hard wheat. When bread products using high ex- possibility that these complexes reduce the digestibility of
traction flours constitute a significant part of the diet, the the proteins in animals. In addition, tannins, which are
activity of phytase may be important in releasing minerals polyphenolic compounds, complex with proteins and often
like calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc which have com- account for off-colors that are noted especially during pro-
plexed with phytic acid [60]. cessing. Tannins also are present in barley. Their content
Aside from phytase, other phosphatases also occur in varies depending on the variety [52].
wheat (e.g., hexosediphosphatase and pyrophosphatase).
Adenosine-triphosphatase, glycerophosphatase and thi-
B. Pigments in Corn
amine pyrophosphatase have been detected histochemical-
ly from wheat and sprouts [60]. Corn is one of the few cereal grains that contains
Oxidases present in wheat include lipoxidase, phenol carotenoids to any degree. The carotenoids in corn are
and aromatic amine oxidases, catalase, and peroxidase. classified as carotenes and xanthophylls. Carotenes are im-
Lipoxidase activity, which is responsible for catalyzing portant constituents of corn because they are the precur-
peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, is only one- sors of vitamin A. Xanthophylls are responsible for the
fourth that in soybeans; activity of this enzyme is highest yellow of egg yolk and the skin color of broiler chickens
in red wheats and lowest in white and durum wheats. In the fed corn-based diets [61]. Corn kernels can differ in color.
milled fractions its activity is highest in the germ and low- Colors range from white to yellow, orange, red, purple, and
est in the patent flour (germ > shorts > clear flour > bran > brown. Differences in color may be due to genetic differ-
patent flour) [60]. ences in the pericarp, aleurone, germ, and endosperm [62].
498
In addition, carotenoids also function as antioxidants. The
predominant xanthophylls in corn are lutein and zeaxan-
thin; beta-carotene is the principal carotene. One should
note that these pigments are subject to oxidation and,
therefore, can be destroyed during storage if not handled
properly.
C. Pigments in Rice
Anthocyanin pigments have been found in the red and pur-
ple cultivars of rice. Presence of phenolic compounds have
been reported in the hulls. It is thought that the seed coats
and pericarp contain the same phenolic compounds ob-
served in other tissues of the rice plant. The anthocyanin
pigments account for the yellowing in rice observed during
cooking in softened water (alkaline) [35].
Chlorophyll is responsible for the greenish color of
crude oil extracted from rice bran. However, this color is
easily bleached during conventional refining of rice [35].
D. Pigments in Sorghum and Millet
The presence of tannins in some genotypes of sorghum is
very important. These polyphenols are thought to cause the
deep red-to-brown colors seen in some grains as they
ripen. They also may be responsible for the off-colors not-
ed in some products made from sorghum. Seed color, tan-
nin content, and protein content tend to be correlated. Bird
damage appears to be negatively correlated with the
amount of tannin and the seed color [27].
Although of questionable nutritional significance, beta-
carotene is present in sorghum. Content is higher in yellow
than in white endosperm sorghums [27].
In sorghum hulls, research indicates that the pigments
consist of apigenin, phlobaphene, and duarasantalin. Color
in the seed coat is attributed to durasantalin and
phlobaphene. Various other pigments have been observed
with selected extracting procedures [27].
The major pigments in pearl millet are flavonoids,
which are pH sensitive. Glucosylvietexin is the major c-
glycosyl flavonoid in millet. Alkaline-labile phenolic acid,
in the form of ferulic acid, also has been detected in the
flour from millet. These phenolics are concentrated in the
peripheral endosperm and their content is, therefore, re-
duced upon dehulling [27].
E. Pigments in Wheat
In wheat, origin, growing conditions, and variety influence
the degree and/or content of yellow pigment. This presents
a real problem because flours for bread and cakes need to
have minimal yellow color while flours for pasta products
need to retain yellowness. Research indicates that the prin-
cipal pigments in wheat associated with yellowness are
Bock
free xanthophyll and xanthophyll esters. Aside from xan-
thophyll and its esters, other pigments reported in flours in-
clude carotene, flavones (aricin), kryptoxanthin, and
degradation products of chlorophyll [60]. One should note
that xanthophyll has no potential to form vitamin A and
that carotene is probably of no nutritional importance. This
is likely a function of the low amounts present and high
susceptibility of carotene to oxidation.
V. NUTRITION-RELATED COMPONENTS
A. Phytate
1. Chemistry and Applications
Phytic acid (myoinositol hexaphosphoric acid) con-
stituents 1-3% of all nuts, cereals, legumes, oil seeds,
spores, and pollen [63]. About 60-90% of the total seed
phosphorus is associated with this plant constituent [64].
X-ray analyses have revealed that phytin (potassium and
magnesium salt of phytic acid) can be found as globoid
crystals associated with the protein bodies of seeds in re-
gions such as the aleurone layer of wheat and rice [65-66].
Phytic acid has several important physiological functions.
It provides antioxidant protection during dormancy [67]. It
also serves as the storage site of phosphorus, cations, and
cell wall precursors [68-70]. Figure 3 shows the structure
of phytate in dilute solution. This structure suggests that
this compound would have tremendous potential for
chelating [71]. Research has documented such chelation,
which results in complexes with all polyvalent metals
[72-73]. Under most circumstances, these complexes are
insoluble [24]. Such properties are of concern to nutrition-
related health professionals since these properties may de-
crease the bioavailability of minerals. However, the de-
crease in bioavailability is controversial because phytate
positively correlates with the fiber content of most foods.
The controversy stems from the demonstration of binding
P
2
P
0
P = -0 - P OH
OH
FIGURE 3 Phytic acid structure under dilute solution condi-
tions.
Minor Constituents of Cereals
and precipitation of polyvalent cations. Graf [75] indicates
that the health benefits of dietary phytate outweigh the po-
tential risks associated with lower bioavailability of miner-
als.
Aside from forming complexes with polyvalent cations,
phytic acid also interacts with a number of other com-
pounds. Such interactions have been poorly characterized.
Graf [75] has divided these interactions into the following
categories:
Metal chelation
Iron inactivation
Electrostatic interaction with proteins
Binding to hemoglobin
Adsorption to hydroxyapatite
Other
As Graf [75] points out, these interactions have application
in chemistry, medicine, dentistry, and food and other in-
dustries. The binding and precipitation noted with all poly-
valent cations are the foundation for most methods of phy-
tate determination [76]. Industrial applications include the
elimination of iron and other unwanted minerals from bev-
erages and foods [77-78]. An inverse correlation between
dietary phytate content and the blood concentration of lead
and mercury has been noted in laboratory monkeys [79].
The myoinositol associated with phytate is the most
common naturally occurring inositol isomer. Free or com-
bined forms of this isomer appear to be present in all living
tissue [80]. The majority of myoinositol is present as inos-
itol phospholipids, which are components of cell mem-
branes. This isomer is prepared commercially from corn
steep liquor [80].
2. Metabolism in Plants
Complex salts of phytic acid, which are known as phytin,
are the major stored reserves of phosphate and myoinositol
in seeds. The myoinositol is a product of D-glucose. The
conversion of D-glucose-6-P to myoinositol(MI)-1-P seems
to be the only mechanism for such synthesis [81].
3. Deposition
Phytate is typically deposited as phytin in morphologically
discrete particles. These particles are referred to a globoids
or globoid crystals. They are within subcellular structures
called protein bodies [82-85]. Phytate biosynthesis seems
to take place in the tissue in which it accumulates. In seeds,
these tissues include the embryo, the aleurone layer, the
scutellum, and/or the cotyledon or endosperm. Where the
biosynthesis occurs in the seed is species dependent
[82,86-90]. In actively growing plants, phytate is noted in
sexual reproduction organs [91-93], pod walls [94] or spe-
cialized plant parts associated with vegetative propagation
[82,95,96].
499
4. Hydrolysis
To provide for biosynthetic needs in growing tissue, phy-
tate is hydrolyzed by one or more phytases during seed
germination. This results in the release of Pi and free MI.
This degradation appears to be under the hormonal regula-
tion for gibberellic acid—stimulating phytate hydrolysis in
the aleurone cells of germinating wheat [97] and barley
[98].
Two phytases are noted. One is 3-phytase (EC 3.1.3.8),
which starts the dephosphorylation of phytate at the 3-po-
sition. The second is 6-phytase (EC 3.1.8.26), which acts
first on the 6-position of phytate. The action of both of
these phytases results in the dephosphorylation of phytic
acid fully. Phytases are derived from plants (especially the
seeds), certain animal tissues and microorganisms. Phy-
tases are noted in the seeds of wheat [99], corn [100-101],
rye [75], sorghum [102] and barley [103-108].
Wheat phytase is distributed fairly evenly among the
aleurone, the endosperm, and the scutellum. However, the
phytate is mostly concentrated in the aleurone [109]. Phy-
tase in rice is mostly associated with the aleurone
[110-111]. In barley, it is around the protein bodies noted
in the aleurone [107]. Phytase in grains of sorghum is lo-
cated in the spherosomes of the aleurone protein bodies
[102].
5. Impact on Mineral Bioavailability
Although the most common minerals found bound to phy-
tate in plants are potassium and magnesium, the interaction
of phytate with several nutritionally important minerals
is of interest to the nutrition-related health professional.
One of these minerals is iron. As Morris [112] points out,
assessing the impact of phytate on iron use in the body is
complicated by the well-known lower bioavailability of
plant food iron in opposition to iron derived from animal
meats. The binding of iron by phytate may have at least
one beneficial effect in that such binding may suppress
iron-dependent oxidative reactions. Such oxidative reac-
tions can cause lipid peroxidation, metabolic activation of
procarcinogens and biological membrane, and intracellular
component damage [113]. Such processes may cause
changes in the epithelial cells of the colon, potentially re-
sulting in neoplastic cells [114].
Calcium and magnesium are two other minerals of in-
terest. As pointed out previously, magnesium is one of the
more common minerals bound to phytate which adds an-
other dimension to research projects that may not be con-
sidered. However, as Morris [112] indicates, the body may
compensate for decreased uptake by lowering the urinary
excretion of these minerals.
Still another mineral affected by phytate is zinc. The in-
teraction of zinc and phytate from the diet has been known
500
for some time, especially in animals. These studies have
revealed that phytate: zinc molar ratios of 12-15 or more
depress rat growth if dietary zinc is at the lower end of the
level recommended for the rat (12 mg/kg) [112]. Another
factor that must be considered related to zinc and phytate is
the level of calcium or magnesium in the diet. Research
has demonstrated that both of these minerals may accentu-
ate the effect of phytate on zinc [115-116]. In addition, one
must be aware that the effect of calcium will be greater
than that of magnesium. In humans, Prasad [117] noted
that people consuming diets that were principally com-
posed of high-extraction cereal grains had sufficient zinc in
the diet but had zinc deficiency symptomology character-
ized by problems with growth and delays in development
of secondary sexual characteristics.
B. Enzyme Inhibitors
Enzyme inhibitors are common in foods, especially stor-
age organs such as seeds, cereal grains, and beans. Such
inhibitors are not typically considered to be a problem in
human nutrition because they are destroyed during the ap-
plication of heat used in most cooking techniques. Howev-
er, the presence of inhibitors is of concern when these stor-
age organs are used in animal feeds.
Although these inhibitors have not been considered to
be a problem in human nutrition, purified versions of these
inhibitors are being used in research to modify the uptake
of a nutrient that requires the enzyme on which they work
for hydrolysis and absorption. For instance, an alpha-amy-
lase inhibitor isolated from wheat has been shown to re-
duce the rate of starch hydrolysis and, therefore, the
glycemic response to a starch-based meal in several
species, including humans [33]. This inhibition has rele-
vance in diabetes and possibly dumping syndrome. In dia-
betes, the failure to hydrolyze starch to simple sugars
should help to prevent a rapid rise in blood glucose which
is undesirable. In persons with dumping syndrome, the
prevention of starch degradation to simple sugars should
help to prevent the consequences of a hyperosmolar load
in the gut. These consequences include, bloating, disten-
tion and pain and an influx of fluid from the gut cells which
results in diarrhea. Thus, it appears that there is a pharma-
cological need to research these inhibitors and see if there
are applications in nutrient related disease conditions not-
ed in humans.
C. Tannins
Tannins were discussed earlier in this chapter because they
can be considered a pigment. As indicated at that point, ce-
real grains, especially sorghum and millet, are sources of
tannins. Tannins are considered to be condensed polyphe-
Bock
nols. They are also considered to be powerful reducing
agents. According to Meyer [118], the tannins of food ap-
pear to be made up of the catechins, the leucoanthocyanins,
and some hydroxy acids. Derivatives of ortho- and para-di-
hydroxy benzene can easily be oxidized by permanganate.
In contrast, the mono hydroxy and meta dihydroxy deriva-
tives do not participate in such reactions. Catechin and epi-
catechin are considered to be reduced flavone derivatives.
They appear to be isomers in which the ring and hydroxyl
are most likely trans in catechin and cis in epicatechin. Cat-
echins and leucoanthocyanins are found in plants such as
apples, some pears, peaches, grapes, and almonds. They
seem to be absent in herbaceous plants. Although the
amounts vary, they are also found in cereals.
Tannins are stable when treated with heat, therefore,
they are not affected by cooking to any extent. Research
has shown that they will form complexes with proteins. In
the process, such complexes reduce protein digestibility
[33]. Because they are known to affect both trypsin and
amylase, tannins may negatively alter the rate and/or total
absorption of both starch and protein from the human diet.
Tannins in foods are thought to be responsible for giv-
ing some foods body and fullness of flavor. Research has
indicated that both hops and malt used to make beer con-
tribute tannin. Meyer [118] pointed out that in 14 samples
of beer, the quantity of tannins ranged from 25 to 55 ppm.
D. Effects of Processing and Storage
In developed countries, most of the nutrition-related com-
ponents discussed in this section are of little concern. Most
of this is a function of factors such as the low use of some
of the grains that have high levels of these components
and/or the milling of the grains, thereby removing a signif-
icant amount of the compound of concern or the part of the
grain containing the compound in developed countries.
Also the use of heat treatments in developed countries con-
tributes to the lowering of these compounds. However, in
developing countries where food for the masses is in short
supply, grains, as well as other foods, are consumed with
little or no milling. In addition, some types of processing
are not possible because of the high costs of fuel for cook-
ing. Such factors (limitations) have been the bases for a
great deal of research in these countries and/or limitations
in cooking utensils. Two of the processes that do not re-
quire milling and/or use of cooking fuel or special cooking
equipment are fermentation and germination. Sharma and
Kapoor [119] found that germination was an effective
means of reducing the phytic acid, amylase inhibitors, and
polyphenols of pearl millet. In their study, they found that
fermentation completely eliminated phytic acid and amy-
lase inhibitors in this grain. However, they noted that fer-
Minor Constituents of Cereals
mentation resulted in a significant increase in polyphenols.
Ikemefuna et al. [120] noted that sprouting of sorghum re-
sulted in a decrease in tannins as the length of time the
grain was allowed to sprout increased. Obizoba and Atii
[121] noted that germination of pearl millet increased the
protein content. They hypothesized that this may have
been a function of the lowering of tannin and starch caused
by the treatment. Mulimani and Vadiraj [122] found that
germination for five days brought about a complete reduc-
tion in proteinase activity in sorghum.
Soaking is another methodology used in developing
countries to help in the reduction of nutrition-related com-
ponents that may have adverse effects. Mulimani and
Vadiraj [122] found that soaking sorghum in a mixed salt
solution resulted in a reduction of trypsin and chy-
motrypsin inhibitory activity. Obizoba and Atii [121]
found that soaking resulted in a slight increase in protein in
millet.
Another problem common in developing countries is
insect infestation. This problem is not nearly as common
or as extensive in industrialized countries. Jood et al. [123]
found that two insect species reduced the available carbo-
hydrate of cereal grains. Jood and Kapoor [124] noted that
infested grains had higher amounts of nonprotein nitrogen
and uric acid. Recent work by Jood et al. [125] indicated
that T. granarium and R. dominica infestation in wheat,
maize, and sorghum resulted in increased levels of
polyphenols and phytic acid as the level of grain infesta-
tion increased.
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16
QUALITY EVALUATION OF CEREALS AND
CEREAL PRODUCTS
Vladimir F. Rasper
University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
Charles E. Walker*
BRI—Australia Ltd., North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
The quality of cereals and various cereal products is deter-
mined by a variety of characteristics that may be assigned
different significance levels, depending upon the desired
end product. These characteristics can be divided into
chemical, enzymatic, and physical. Likewise, individual
quality testing methodologies can be classified into those
concerned with the chemical components of the tested ma-
terial, assays for estimating enzymatic activity, and tests
dealing with various physical or physicochemical proper-
ties. Procedures based on small-scale product preparation,
e.g., laboratory milling and experimental baking tests, are
also parts of the methodology. Tables 1 and 2 contain a list
of the procedures most commonly employed as part of the
Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal
Chemists [1] or Standards of the International Association
for Cereal Chemistry and Technology [18-23]. The ex-
pected ranges of values measured by these procedures for
different types of wheat flour are given in Tables 3-5.
*This work was co-authored by Dr. Walker while on leave from
Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.
Disclaimer: It is common practice in the Cereal Technology field
to refer to equipment by manufacturer and/or by brand names.
Where company names have been used in this article, it is for
clarity and identification only. No endorsement of any particular
company or its products in preference to other similarly suited
equipment is implied.
505
I. CHEMICAL TESTS
A. Moisture
Moisture determination is an essential step in evaluating
the quality of cereal grains and their products. The behav-
ior of the grains in both storage and milling depends to a
great extent on their moisture content. Moisture content
also influences the keeping quality of flour and bakery
products. The knowledge of moisture content is required
for comparing production data at a uniform level of dry
solids and for compliance with government regulations.
Similarly, since compositional percentages are inversely
related to moisture content in the analyzed material, results
of chemical analyses have to be reported on a fixed-mois-
ture basis. In North America, it has become a common
practice to report the results on the 14% basis, whereas in
Europe the dry solids basis is often preferred, and 12% is
used in other countries for some products.
There are many methods for testing moisture content,
and their results may vary considerably. It is therefore im-
portant that all tests are made by the same method when
the results are intended for the same purpose or different
laboratories are involved. In reporting the results, the
method used should be indicated so that in comparing re-
sults of different methods, a proper correction factor can
be applied.
506 Rasper and Walker

TABLE 1 Some of the Most Commonly Used AACC Approved Methods and ICC Official Standards for Testing Grains
and Flours

Tested property Principle AACC Methods' ICC Standardb

Chemical constituent
Moisture Oven-drying 44-15A 109/1
44-16 110/1
44-18
44-19
44-20
Dielectric meter 44-11
Vacuum drying 44 40
Distillation with toluene 44-51
Protein Automated Kjel-Foss method 46-08
Automated colorimetric method 46-09
Improved Kjeldahl method 46-10 105/1
46-11
46-12
Micro-Kjeldahl method 46-13
Udy-dye method 46-14A
Biuret method 46-15
Combustion method 46-30
Gluten Hand washing 38-10
Machine washing 38-11 137
Mineral matter (ash) Incineration 08-01 104
08-02
08-03
Crude fiber Chemical digestion 32-10 105/1
Dietary fiber (insoluble) Enzymatic and chemical digestion 32-20
Crude fat Solvent extraction 30-10 30-25 136
Fat acidity Titration 02-01A
02-02A
02-03A
Starch Enzymatic 76-11 128
Polarimetric 76-20 122
Starch damage Enzymatic 76-30A
Enzymatic activity
a-Amylase Colorimetric 22-01 108
22-06
Nephelometric 22-07
Viscometric
Amylography 22-10 126
Falling number 56-81B 107
Pressuremetric 22-11
Volumetric 22-14
Chemical (incubation in situ) 22-15
22-16
Rapid Viscometric 22-08
61-02
Proteases Chemical 22-60
22-61
Spectrophotometric 22-62
Colorimetric 22-63
46-11
46-12
Quality Evaluation 507

TABLE 1 Continued
Tested property Principle AACC Methodsa ICC Standardb
Physical properties
Farinography Dough mixing 54-21 115
Mixography Dough mixing 54-40
Extensigraphy Dough stretching 54-10 114
Alveography Dough stretching 54-30 121
Particle size Centrifugation 50-10
Sedimentation 127
Physicochemical properties
Sedimentation value Swelling and sedimentation 56-60 116
Oxidizing, bleaching, and maturing agents
Oxidizing agents Chemical 48-02
Acetone peroxides Chemical 48-05
Ascorbic acid Chemical 86-10
Benzoyl peroxide Chemical 46-06B
Chemical 48-07
Chlorine dioxide Chemical 48-30
Azodicarbonamide Chemical 48-42
Potassium bromate Chemical 50-10
'Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, 9th ed., St. Paul, MN 1995.
bStandard Methods of the International Association for Cereal Science and Technology,

When moisture is determined by drying, the measured
value is defined as the percent loss in weight under the con-
ditions of the specific procedure. The loss includes both wa-
ter and other volatiles. If the original moisture content in the
sample exceeds 16%, drying is usually carried out in two
stages. The moisture content is first reduced to 16% or less
(13% for rice) by keeping the sample in a well-ventilated
and warm place. Then the sample is dried at an elevated
temperature: 103°C for 72 hours [1] (AACC Method 44-
15A) or at 135°C for 2 hours (AACC Method 44-19). An al-
ternate procedure uses a partial vacuum equivalent to 25
mm mercury or less at 98-100°C for approximately 5 hours
(AACC Method 44-32). Other techniques such as measur-
ing the dielectric constant (AACC Method 44-11),
azeotropic distillation with toluene (AACC Method 44-51),
and near-infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy are also
used. According to the ICC Basic Reference Method [22],
sample moisture content is defined as the loss in weight sus-
tained by the material when equilibrated in an anhydrous at-
mosphere at a temperature between 45 and 56°C and a pres-
sure of 1.3-2.7 kPa (10-20 mmHg).
B. Protein
The protein quantity has historically been determined by
the classical Kjeldahl analysis or one of its more recent
modifications [1] (AACC Methods 46-10, 46-1 1, 46-12,
46-13). Protein nitrogen is reduced and transformed to am-
monium sulfate by hot digestion of the dry sample with
concentrated sulfuric acid in the presence of a catalyst.
Ammonia is then liberated from the sulfate by distillation
in the presence of sodium hydroxide and driven into a
known volume of standard acid solution. From the quanti-
ty of unreacted acid determined by titration, the quantity of
released nitrogen is established and converted to protein
by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen with the appro-
priate conversion factor (5.7 for wheat and wheat flour,
6.25 for most foods and feeds). Another method is based
on the dye-binding capacity of specific groups of amino
acids in protein [1,47] (AACC Method 46-14A).
More recently, methods have been developed to deter-
mine protein by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy
[1,31,54] (AACC Method 39-10) and near-infrared trans-
mission. NIR is a somewhat empirical method, however,
and requires a set of previously analyzed reference sam-
ples to calibrate the instrument. As a result of the expense,
hazards, and environmental pollution characterizing the
Kjeldahl procedure, many laboratories now use methods
that measure the nitrogen as a gas left after exhaustively
combusting the sample in a 99.9% pure oxygen atmos-
phere at 950°C [1] (AACC Method 46-30).
Protein determination is particularly significant when
testing wheat or flour. Wheat protein quantity and quality
have long been recognized to have a decisive effect on the
physicochemical properties of wheat flour dough and con-
sequently on its handling properties and baking potential.
508 Rasper and Walker

TABLE 2 Procedures for Testing Baking Quality of Wheat Flour and Ingredients

Tested property Principle Source

Standard procedures
Bread flour quality Straight-dough baking test with long fermentation; size: pup loaf 10-09'
Bread flour quality Straight-dough baking test with optimized conditions; also suitable for 10-10Ba
evaluation of effects of environment, variety, dough ingredients, protein
content, flour components; used for 10-100 g flour and on 1-lb loaves;
also used for blends of wheat and nonwheat flours
Bread flour quality Sponge and dough baking tests; 800 g flour, 1-lb loaves 10-11'
Baking test of flour quality for sweet yeast
products Preparation of coffee cakes using 100 g of mix 10-20a
Baking property of self-rising biscuit flour Preparation of biscuits 10-31'
Baking quality of cookie flour Baking sugar snap cookies and measuring cookie spread; 225 g flour 10-50D°
Baking quality of cookie flour Same as above; 40 g flour 10-52a
Baking quality of cake flour Preparation of white layer cakes; 200 g flour 10-90a
Baking quality of angel food cake flour Preparation of angel food cakes 10-15a
Baking quality of pie flour Preparation of pie shells; 1000 g flour 10-60'
Baking quality of rye flour Straight-dough process for rye bread; 100 g wheat (clear) and 100 g rye 10-70a
flour
Baking quality of nonfat dry milk (NFDM) Straight-dough bread process with 6% NFDM 10-85a
Nonstandardized procedures
Bread flour quality Sponge dough method under optimized conditions, see Table 6 AIB b
Cake flour quality Yellow layer cake, see Table 7 AIB b

aApproved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, 8th Edition, St. Paul, MN, 1983.
bAmerican Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS.

Since these relevant functions of wheat protein have been
attributed primarily to gluten-forming proteins, protein de-
termination in wheat or wheat flour is very often supple-
mented by a quantitative estimation of wet and dry gluten,
especially in Europe. Gluten is prepared by washing out
most of the starch and solubles from a piece of dough de-
veloped from flour and water [1] (AACC Method 38-10).
This tedious and poorly reproducible procedure has been
made easier by the introduction of automatic gluten wash-
ers (Fig. 1) [1] (AACC Method 38-11). The wet gluten can
be examined visually for its color and elasticity. The differ-
ence between gluten weight before and after drying can be
taken as a rough estimate of its hydration capacity. Some
other tests used for evaluating gluten quality are men-
tioned in Section IV.
C. Mineral Content
Mineral content, more commonly known as ash, has al-
ways been considered an important criterion in flour quali-
ty. Although not directly related to the baking performance
of flour, it serves as an indicator of the degree of separation
of starchy endosperm from the bran during the milling
process because the aleurone and bran layers are higher in
mineral matter than the endosperm. Thus, ash content de-
termination not only provides a useful criterion for classi-
fying flours, but is a tool for controlling the entire milling
operation. Ash content may vary from less than 0.4% for
high-quality, low-extraction flours to more than 2.0% for
whole wheat flours. The conditions of the determination
may vary with the type of the tested material and proce-
dure used. According to AACC Method 08-01, ash is de-
termined as a residue after incinerating the sample at
550°C (for soft wheat flour) or 575-590°C (for hard wheat
flour) until a light gray ash is obtained [1]. Using an accel-
erated method, applicable only to flour, the sample is wet-
ted with magnesium oxalate solution and incinerated for
30-45 minutes at 700°C [1] (AACC Method 08-02). The
ICC Standard No. 104 (18) for ash determination in cereal
materials prescribes incineration at —900°C until the
residue is white or nearly white.
For a rapid determination of ash without any incinera-
tion involved, NIR spectroscopy can be applied [53]. Most
NIR instruments now used in mills can have this calibra-
tion included.
D. Fiber
Mineral content correlates very closely to fiber content.
They are both related to the amount of bran in the kernel or
in the flour. In cereal testing, fiber was traditionally deter-
mined as crude fiber in the form of a residue remaining af-
TABLE 3 Generally Used Criteria for Measuring Quality of Flour for Yeast Breads
Pan bread
Variety breads,
Wholesale, Continuous cracked wheat
Quality criterion conventional dough Hearth breads bread, rye bread Soft rolls Sweet goods

Wheat class' HS, HW, or blend HS, HW, or blend HS HS HS, HW, or blend HS, HW, or blend
Flour absorption (% by farinograph) Medium to high 60-64 Medium 59-64 High 63-68 High 65-75 High 59-64 Medium to high 60-64
Ash (%) 0.44-0.50 0.44-0.50 0.44-0.55 0.45-0.55 0.44-0.5 0.45-0.50
Alk. water retention NSb NS NS NS NS NS
Baking test Pan; straight or sponge Pan; sponge Hearth; straight Pan; straight Pan; sponge Pan; straight
Color Creamy white Creamy white Creamy white NS Creamy white to white Creamy white
Enzyme activity
Amylase
Amylograph (BU) 475-625 525-600 400-600 350-550 475-625 475-625
Maltose (mg) 290-350 280-330 300-360 300-375 290-350 290-350
Pressuremeter 5th-hour (mm) 500-550 475-550 500-550 500-550 500-550 500-550
Falling number 200-300 200-300 175-275 200-300 200-300 200-300
Amylase analyzer 300-600 300-600 350-600 300-600 300-600 300-600
Lipase NS NS NS NS NS Low for prepared mixes
Protease NS NS NS NS NS NS
Particle size
Range (SED)c = (pm) 0-150 0-150 0-150 0-150 0-150 0-150
Protein
Quantity (%) 11.0-13.0 11.0-13.0 13.5-14.5
Quality (Farinograph recording
mixer values)
Hydration Medium Short to medium Medium to long Medium to long Medium Short to medium
Peak development (min) 6-8 5-7 7-9 7-9 6-8 5-8
Stability (min) 7 5 minimum 8 minimum 10 minimum 10 minimum 8 minimum 8 minimum
Extensibilityd Medium Medium Medium to long Medium to long Medium to long Long
Resistance to extension Medium Medium Maximum Maximum Medium to low Medium to low
Starch damage (%) 5.5-7.7 5.5-7.8 7.0-8.5 Low as possible 5.5-7.8 5.5-7.8
'HS = Hard spring, HW = hard winter.
bNS = Not significant at present, or significance not known.
`Stokes equivalent diameter.
dDescriptive terms in each instance refer to relative values for wheat variety involved.
Source: Ref. 15.
TABLE 4 Generally Used Criteria for Measuring Quality of Flour for Chemically Leavened Breads and Biscuits
Crackers
Quality criterion Home baking Biscuits Sponge Dough Pastry
Wheat classy HW or HW-SW blend HW-SW blend or SW SW or SW-HW SW SW
Flour absorption Medium low Low Low Low Low 48-52
(% by farinograph) 52-58 50-54 48-52 48-52
Ash (%) 0.44-0.48 0.44-0.40 0.40-0.48 0.40-0.48 0.40-0.48
Alk. water retention NSb NS 58-68 58-68 50-56
Baking test Biscuits; kitchen layer cakes Biscuits AACC cookie; AACC cookie; AACC cookie;
W/T 6.0-7.5 W/T 7.5-8.5 W/T 7.5-8.5
Color Creamy white White Creamy Creamy Creamy
Enzyme activity
Amylase
Amylograph (BU) 450-600 NS 700-800 NS NS
Maltose (mg) 290-320 NS 200-250 NS NS
Pressuremeter 5th-hr (mm) 400-450 NS 300-350 NS NS
Falling number 200-300 250 minimum 250 minimum 250 minimum 250 minimum
Lipase NS NS NS NS NS
Protease NS NS NS NS NS
Particle size
Range (SED)° = (p.m) 0-125 0-90 0-125 0-125 0-125
Protein
Quantity (%) 9.5-11.0 9.0-10.0 9.0-10.0 8.0-9.0 8.0-9.0
Quality (recording mixer values)
Hydration Short Short Short Short Short
Peak development (min) 3-5 2-3 1-3 1-3 1-3
Stability 3-6 1-3 1-3 1-2 1-2
Extensibilityd Medium Medium short Medium Medium Medium
Resistance to extensions Medium to low Low Low Low Low
Starch damage Low as possible Low as possible Moderate Low as possible Low as possible
Viscosity
MacMichael 90-120° 60-90° 65-90° 45-60° 45-60°
aHW = Hard winter, SW = soft winter.
bNS = Not significant at present, or significance not known.
`Stokes equivalent diameter.
dDescriptive terms in each instance refer to relative values for wheat variety involved.
Source: Ref. 15.
Iamum puu Jadsull
Quality Evaluation 511

TABLE 5 Criteria for Evaluating Flours for Cookies, Cakes, Soups, and Gravies
Cakes
Soups and gravies
Quality criterion Cookies Layer Foam (thickeners)
Wheat classy SW SW SW SW
Flour absorption
(% by farinograph) Low; 48-52 Low; 48-52 Very low; 44-48 NSb
Ash (%) 0.42-0.50 0.34-0.40 0.29-0.33 0.40-0.58
Alk. water retention 50-54 54-62 52-56 48-55
Baking test AACC cookie; White layer cake Angel food cake None
W/T 8.0-9.5
Color Creamy White White NS
Enzyme activity
Amylase
Amylograph (BU) NSb NS NS 700+, high as possible
Maltose (mg) NS NS NS 200, low as possible
Pressuremeter 5th-hr (mm) NS NS NS NS
Falling number 250 minimum 250 minimum 250 minimum 250 minimum
Lipase NS Low for prepared mixes Low for prepared mixes NS
Protease NS NS NS NS
Particle size
Range (SED)° = (i.tm) 0-125 0-125 20-60 0-150
Protein
Quantity (%) 7.0-9.5 7.0-9.5 5.5-7.5 9.0-10.5
Quality (recording mixer
values)
Hydration Short Short Short NS
Peak development (min) 1-3 1-2 1-1.5 NS
Stability (min) 1-2 1-1.5 1-1.5 NS
Extensibility" Medium Short Short NS
Starch damaged Low as possible High Low Low as possible
Viscosity
MacMichael 40-65° 35-65° 30-45° NS
'SW = Soft winter.
hNS = Not significant at present, or significance not known.
`Stokes equivalent diameter.
dDescriptive terms in each instance refer to relative values for wheat variety involved.
Source: Ref. 15.

ter treating the sample successively with hot concentrated
acid and hot concentrated alkali [1] (AACC Method 32-
10). In wheat grain, the crude fiber content ranges from 2
to 2.5% (14% m.b.). Flour crude fiber is directly related to
the milling extraction and averages around 0.5% (14%
m.b.) in white flour. Recently, fiber content in cereals and
cereal products has more frequently been reported as "di-
etary fiber." This term designates a residue indigestible by
human digestive enzymes. A method based on a combined
action of amylase and neutral detergent was designed to
simulate the digestive process in vitro for the determina-
tion of insoluble dietary fiber [1] (AACC Method 32-20).
For the determination of total dietary fiber, consisting of
both soluble and insoluble fractions, the enzymatic method
uses amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes as proposed by
Prosky et al. [36]. Like crude fiber, total dietary fiber in
flour will increase with higher milling extraction rates. It
may range from approximately 3% in white wheat flour to
over 9% in whole meal. In wheat bran, it accounts for more
than 40% of the solids.
E. Starch
Starch constitutes the main chemical component of the ce-
real grains and their products. However, when quality test-
ing wheat flours, more attention is usually given to the
physical condition of the starch granule rather than the ac-
tual quantity of this component. It is the degree of physical
512
(A)
(B)
FIGURE 1 Gluten washers: (A) Glutomatic 2200. (Courtesy
of Falling Number A.B. Stockholm, Sweden.) (B) Glutinex MLI
500. (Courtesy of Biihler Brothers Ltd. Uzwil, Switzerland.)
damage to the granule inflicted by milling that is more im-
portant. Some positive contribution to the quality of some
types of wheat flour can be expected from a limited
amount of damaged granules. Cake flours often benefit by
a high batter viscosity resulting from high starch damage.
However, distinctly adverse effects will be noticed if the
amount becomes excessive. The first attempt to measure
the extent of starch damage involved microscopic exami-
nation of wheat flour after staining with Congo red. Physi-
cal damage enhances the absorption of dyes by the starch
granule. Congo red was later replaced with 0.2% solution
of crystal violet or chlorzinciodide [56]. Several methods
exploit the higher susceptibility of damaged starch gran-
Rasper and Walker
ules to amylolytic degradation and quantitatively estimate
the level of products of this degradation [1,11] (AACC
Method 76-30A). Other methods depend upon the devel-
opment of color formed when iodine reagent is added to an
extract of flour that contains amylose leached out from the
damaged granules by a solution of ammonium sulfate, for-
mamide, and sulfosalicylic acid [16,55].
An amperometric technique [29] measures the rate of
iodine absorption by starch granules. The rate increases
with higher degrees of damage. This principle is now used
by the Chopin Starch Damage Analyzer (Fig. 2).
Specific methods are used in analyzing flours for added
bleaching and maturing agents. The Approved Methods of
the AACC [1] include procedures for the determination of
acetone peroxide (Method 48-05), benzoyl peroxide
(Method 48-07), chlorine dioxide (Method 48-30), potassi-
um bromate (Method 48-42), ammonium persulfate
(Method 48-62), and azodicarbonamide (Method 48-71A).
II. ENZYME ACTIVITY
In testing cereal grains and their milling products for enzy-
matic activity, amylolytic activity, i.e., the activity of
starch-hydrolyzing enzymes, is considered of primary im-
portance. While only small amounts of a-amylase are
present in sound grain, the activity of this enzyme increas-
es markedly during pre- or postharvest germination
(sprouting). Some level of this activity is needed for suffi-
cient gas development during fermentation in the early
stages of baking yeasted doughs such as pan breads. If the
a-amylase concentration is insufficient, the flour can be
supplemented with preparations from wheat or barley
malt, fungi, or bacteria. Excessively high levels, however,
impair the quality of both the dough and the final baked
product because a-amylase cleaves the starch molecules,
reducing the paste viscosity, and can lead to sticky doughs.
Unlike a-amylase, 13-amylase is present even in sound (not
field-sprouted) grain, but the quantity remains practically
unchanged during germination. For that reason, the assays
for amylolytic activity deal primarily with a-amylase.
The AACC Method 22-07 [1] is a colorimetric assay
based on the reaction of a-amylase with a buffered solu-
tion of potato amylose dyed with Cibachrom blue F3GA.
Another AACC method (Method 22-07) measures the rate
of decrease in light-scattering ability of a dilute suspension
of a 13-limit dextrin substrate treated with enzyme extract-
ed from the tested flour. The ICC Standard No. 108 [19] is
a similar colorimetric method. Other chemical procedures
are based on quantitatively estimating the reducing sugars
produced in situ in a buffered flour suspension after a stan-
dard incubation period [1] (AACC Method 22-15). Such
methods measure the effects of the combined activity of a-
Quality Evaluation
FIGURE 2 Chopin Rapid FT starch damage analyzer. (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)
and (3-amylase, as well as the damaged starch granules'
susceptibility to amylolytic activity. In that respect, the re-
sults are more a reflection of the total gas production abili-
ty of the tested flour than the actual amylolytic activity. A
number of methods evaluate this combined effect by meas-
uring the quantity of gas produced by the flour under the
specific test conditions (see Section IV). Methods for indi-
rectly estimating amylolytic activity from viscometric
measurements on starch pastes are found in Section III.
Some amylase preparations used for adjusting wheat
flour's amylolytic activity contain appreciable quantities
of proteolytic enzymes. In flour unsupplemented with such
preparations, higher levels of proteolytic activity indicate
sprouted grain. In order to assay this activity, the nitrogen
released from a buffered hemoglobin substrate when it is
incubating with the enzyme-containing flour extract is esti-
mated quantitatively by Kjeldahl analysis [1] (AACC
Method 22-60). Solubilized hemoglobin can also be mea-
sured spectrophotometrically (Method 22-62) or colori-
metrically (Method 62-63).
Unfavorable storage conditions may enhance the lipase
action, especially in materials high in fat. Since higher li-
pase activity leads to an increase in fat acidity, the extent
513
of the lipase action can be expressed in terms of milligrams
of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the free fatty
acids extracted from a 100-g sample [1] (AACC Methods
62-01A, 62-02A, and 62-03A). Fat acidity may range from
about 20 for sound wheat to over 100 if the grain was
stored under adverse conditions.
III. PHYSICAL TESTING
A. Physical Grain Testing
1. Test Weight
Test weight, measured as weight of grain per unit volume,
is the simplest and most widely used predictor for a grain's
milling quality. Although many factors may influence the
relationship between test weight and milling yield, the lat-
ter usually increases with increasing test weight unless the
weight value exceeds 75 lb per bushel (96 kg/h1) [15].
In countries using Imperial units, test weight is ex-
pressed in terms of lb per bu. In the United States, the Win-
chester bushel (2150.42 in3) is used, which differs slightly
from the Imperial bushel (2219.36 in3). In countries using
the metric system, test weight is defined in terms of kilo-
514 Rasper and Walker

grams per hectoliter. For conversion, the following factors Prior to any experimental milling, the grain must be
can be used: cleaned and conditioned (tempered) [1] (AACC Method
26-10). Numerous milling devices exist for the actual
From To Multiply by
lb/Winchester bu lb/Imperial bu 1.032 milling operation. They all work on the principle of grind-
lb/Winchester bu kg/hectoliter 1.282 ing and sifting and differ only in the extent of these opera-
lb/Imperial bu kg/hectoliter 1.247 tions. The Bilhler Laboratory Mill (Bilhler Bros, Inc.,
Uzwil, Switzerland) is a continuous automatic mill with
2. Hardness pneumatic conveying and a milling system consisting of
Grain hardness constitutes a comparative measure for dis- three breaks and three reductions (Fig. 3). It can produce
tinguishing between soft and hard wheats. The criterion is straight-grade flour comparable in quality to commercially
widely used in testing corn (maize) for hardness and milled flour. Some modifications such as the addition of a
breakage susceptibility [33]. Methods used for testing bran finisher are required to achieve typical commercial
hardness employ either a single grain or a bulk sample extraction rates, however [5].
[34]. The single grain tests involve abrasion, cutting, Another automatic mill is the Brabender Quadrumat
crushing, or penetration. In bulk tests hardness is estimated Senior (Fig. 4) with two four-roll system units, one for
from the power or time required to grind a given quantity breaking and one for reduction, and a two-section plan-
of grain, from the quantity of abraded material, or from the sifter. The Brabender Quadrumat Junior (Fig. 5), a com-
particle size of the ground material. The latter is deter- pact unit with four 3-inch-diameter corrugated rolls, is
mined by sieving [59], sedimentation [23] (ICC Standard well suited for milling small quantities of wheat, down to
No. 127), centrifugation [1] (AACC Method 50-10), light- about 20 g. It is often used in early-generation testing
diffraction technique [2], Coulter counter, or NIR spec-
troscopy [54]. Many laboratories now use a single kernel
characterization system to simultaneously measure several
factors including hardness [32].
When grading wheat, other physical criteria are consid-
ered. Kernel weight, which is usually expressed in g per
1000 kernels, is a function of kernel size and density. It
may be a reliable predictor of milling yields, because large,
dense kernels usually have a higher ratio of endosperm to
nonendosperm components than smaller, less dense ker-
nels. U.S. hard red winter and spring wheats range in ker-
nel weight from 20 to 32 g/1000 kernels. Soft red winter,
white, and durum wheats average approximately 35
g/1000 kernels [15].
Milling yield can also be predicted from kernel size and
shape [43]. Based on bran pigmentation, wheats are
classed as either red or white. These two colors are varietal
characteristics but may be influenced by environmental
factors. Inspection of grain for damaged kernels and impu-
rities is also part of the grading procedure. The ICC system
adopted for the evaluation of wheat intended for milling
includes testing for extraneous material referred to as "Be-
satz" [20]. "Besatz" includes dockage, foreign material,
damaged kernels, shrunken and broken kernels, and wheat
of other classes.

3. Experimental Milling
Experimental milling provides the miller with advance in-
formation on the probable performance of a grain in a
commercial scale process. In breeding programs, it serves
as a useful tool to evaluate the milling potential of the test- FIGURE 3 The Balder experimental mill MLU 202. (Courtesy
ed lines and helps to predict their end-use quality. of Biihler Brothers Ltd., Uzwil, Switzerland.)
Quality Evaluation
when only limited sample sizes are available from the
plant breeder.
Some millers prefer batch-operated experimental mills
such as the Allis-Chalmers or Ross Mill Stands because
the milling procedure can be adjusted at each stage on the
basis of a visual examination, the yields, and stock quality
throughout the mill flow. When evaluating the results of
experimental milling, two factors are usually considered:
flour extraction (the percentage of the wheat recovered as
flour) and flour ash. The lower the flour ash and the
brighter the flour color, the more desirable the wheat for
milling. The following two formulas are used to evaluate
wheat milling quality from experimental milling data [40]:
Milling rating = % extraction of straight grade flour
— (ash x 100)
FIGURE 4 The Brabender Quadrumat Senior laboratory mill.
(Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hacken-
sack, NJ.)
515
FIGURE 5 The Brabender Quadrumat Junior laboratory mill.
(Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hacken-
sack, NJ.)
Milling value = % extraction of straight grade flour
— Kent Jones flour color
Higher milling ratings and milling values are preferred.
The milling quality of different wheats can also be judged
by comparing their cumulative ash curves [28]. Cumula-
tive ash curves are constructed by arranging mill streams
in ascending order of ash on a constant moisture basis and
by plotting cumulative ash against cumulative extraction
for each successive blend of millstreams. Wheats that ex-
hibit the lowest initial flour ash and the slowest rate of ash
increase with increasing flour extraction are preferred. The
results of this comparison can be expressed in terms of a
single numerical score, the curve index. A line is drawn
from the 30% extraction point on the cumulative curve to
the 70% extraction point (Fig. 6). The distance on the 50%
extraction level from the curve to the drawn line, when
measured at right angle to the line, is called depth, D. It is
used in the calculation of the curve index:
Curve index = L — 2D
where L is the length of the line between the 30% and 70%
 516
extraction points. A lower curve index indicates better
milling quality.
B. Flour Color Testing
Flour is tested for color for evaluating either its whiteness,
which primarily determines the extent of the oxidation of
carotenoid pigments by bleaching compounds, or the pres-
ence of bran particles, indicating milling performance.
Testing flour for whiteness may be based on measuring
light reflectance of the sample within the blue range of the
light spectrum. Since improvement in flour color results
from the oxidation of the pigments by the bleaching agents
as well as natural oxidation during storage, the measured
values vary not only with the extent of bleaching but the
age of the flour. Correlation between color measured in the
blue range of light spectrum and ash content in flour is
rather limited. If color is to be taken as a measure of con-
tamination with bran particles, reflectance meters with a
light source in the green band of the light spectrum should
be used. Among them, the Kent-Jones Grader [25] and the
Agtron Color Meter set on "green mode" [1,12,44]
(AACC Method 14-30) are the most common. NIR ana-
lyzers have also been employed for this purpose, though
tri-stimulus reflected color instruments such as the Minolta
or Hunter devices using the L*a*b* system are now more
routinely used.
Color must be used rather than ash content when the
flour is fortified with calcium because the calcium salt con-
tributes more ash than does the naturally occurring miner-
al material.
0.60
CUMULATIVE FLOUR ASH, %
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
CUMULATIVE FLOUR EXTRACTION, %
FIGURE 6 Measurement of the curve index. (From Ref. 28.)
Rasper and Walker
The "slick" (Pekar) test is a rough but simple guide for
assessing flour color visually [1] (AACC Method 14-10).
Flour is placed on a flat piece of wood or metal, pressed
down, trimmed, and immersed in water. The color may be
judged at several stages: (1) before immersion in water
(dry), (2) shortly after immersion, and (3) after the flour
has been dried. Bran shows up as fine brown flecks more
obviously when it is wet. It is common to "slick" several
flours immediately beside each other.
More recently, image analysis has been used, in which
computer software examines the brightness of the pixels in
a digitized image. The more sophisticated instruments use
a low-power microscope and illuminate the sample with
UV light. Since bran and aleurone fragments fluoresce dif-
ferently under UV light, producing different colors, it is
possible to obtain rather accurate estimates of the fraction
of each component in the flour sample [51].
Simple systems can also be based on a small TV camera
using visible light or on an inexpensive flatbed scanner.
The Branscan equipment (Fig. 7) is an example of such an
application. It can measure "speckyness" directly rather
than mineral ash content. Models are available for use in
either a laboratory situation or for on-line quality monitor-
ing and control purposes. An automatic sampler compress-
es a flour sample against a flat glass window and a series of
fields are digitally analyzed. Visible range light is used,
and the gray scale threshold can be set to select the size
and darkness of the pixels that are to be denoted as
"specs." The number and total area of the specs can be de-
termined and used as indicators of milling efficiency or
flour baking quality [52].
The procedure can also be used to identify flour specks
in noodles, for example.
C. Physical Dough Testing
Dough physical properties not only determine perfor-
mance at the various stages in the manufacturing process
but also have a pronounced effect on finished product qual-
ities. Since the physical condition of dough depends to a
large extent on the quality of the flour used, testing doughs
for their physical properties has become an essential part
of the quality evaluation of wheats and their flours. The
methodology can be considered in three phases that reflect
the relevance of the individual physical qualities of dough
at different stages in the baking process (Fig. 8).
1. Recording Mixers
The first phase is concerned with the behavior of dough
when it is developed from flour and water and subsequent-
ly subjected to overmixing. Recording mixers are used to
measure and record the changes in the resistance to mixing
Quality Evaluation
FIGURE 7 The Branscan image analysis system for determin-
ing bran specks in flour. (Courtesy of Parascan Technologies,
Ltd., Redditch, Worc., UK.)
with time. The mixing curves are characterized by an as-
cending part that indicates changes during the dough-de-
velopment process, while the subsequent decline in resis-
tance is taken as a sign of a steady breakdown of the dough
structure upon mixing beyond the point of optimum devel-
opment. Optimum development from the standpoint of
bread quality may occur slightly past the "mixing peak,"
depending upon what equipment follows.
(a) Farinograph. The Brabender farinograph (Fig. 9)
is one of the most widely used recording dough mixers [7].
The two Z-shaped blades of the farinograph mixer rotate at
constant but different speeds and subject the dough to a
relatively gentle mixing at constant temperature. A repre-
sentative farinograph record, or farinogram, with the com-
monly measured indices as defined by ICC method [21] is
shown in Figure 10. Dough-development time and stabili-
ty increase with increasing strength of flour, whereas mix-
ing tolerance index and degree of softening are inversely
related to increasing strength. The AACC method [1]
(AACC Method 54-21) uses additional indices. Arrival
time is defined as the elapsed time required for the top of
the curve to reach the 500 FU (farinograph units) line on
the recording chart and serves as a measurement of the rate
at which water is taken up by the flour. Departure time
equals the sum of the arrival time plus the stability. Longer
517
arrival and departure times indicate stronger flour. The 20-
minute drop is measured as the difference between the
height of the center of the curve at its peak and 20 minutes
after the first addition of water. The larger the value, the
weaker the flour. To express the strength of the tested flour
as a single score, the valorimeter value may be determined
from the dough-development time and the descending
slope of the curve by means of a special nomograph known
as the valorimeter. The higher the value, the stronger the
flour.
Water absorption by flour is another relevant property
that can be determined by means of a farinograph. It is de-
fined as the amount of water required for dough to reach a
definite consistency (normally 500 FU) at the point of op-
timum development. Stronger flours with higher protein
content and better gluten quality are characterized by high-
er absorptions. Figure 11 presents an example of how the
farinograms and water absorption values change with in-
creasing flour strength.
More information about the dough-mixing characteris-
tics may be obtained if the standard farinograph mixing
bowl is replaced with the resistograph mixer. The resisto-
graph combines mixing with stretching, pressing, and
kneading, thus imparting high shear and high work input to
the dough. The resistograms have two maxima, which be-
come more pronounced with medium and weak flours
(Fig. 12). The first maximum is related to binding water;
the second one measures the stickiness and extensibility at
breakdown of the dough. Another variant of the farino-
graph, the Brabender Do-Corder mixer (Fig. 13), was de-
signed to simulate conditions of mechanical dough devel-
opment [30]. It has a nearly closed mixer in which dough
can be subjected to mixing at variable speeds and with
work-input levels higher than in an ordinary farinograph
mixer (Fig. 14). This variant was developed in response to
the implementation of short-time, high-speed bread
processes and the new mixer designs they required.
(b) Mixograph. The mixograph (TMCO, Lincoln, Ne-
braska), originally designed by Swanson and Working
[46], is another widely used recording mixer (Fig. 15). The
mixing action is provided by four planetary pins revolving
about three stationary pins attached to the bottom of the
mixing bowl. The mixing can be described as a pull, fold,
and repull action, which is more severe than that produced
by the farinograph. As a result, the main advantage of the
mixograph is the speed with which a test can be conducted
[26]. The mixograph is especially popular with hard wheat
plant breeders and in mill and bakery quality-control labo-
ratories, and in laboratories doing research on the proteins
that control mixing quality. It is available in several sizes,
including 35 g, 10 g, and a computerized model requiring
518 Rasper and Walker

PHASE I PHASE II PHASE III

Structural transformation
FUNCTION Dough Mixing of dough by fermentation Gelatinization of crumb
and maturing in oven

MEASURING FARINOGRAPH EXTENSOGRAPH AMYLOGRAPH

METHOD

K R B.U.
TYPE OF
?immalia.
DIAGRAM

T E [
4C.
Farinogrom Extensogrom Amylogram

FLOUR Water Absorption Relation Strain/Stress Gelatinization

SPECIFICATION Mixing Time indicating degree of characteristics
DATA Mixing Tolerance maturing action present in oven
OBTAINED General Strength (dynamic, or needed.
under machining abuse) General Strength (static)

CORRECTION Change of Wheat Mix Aging by storage Diastatic Molt

POSSIBILITIES Chemical Oxidizers
and Heat Conditioning

FIGURE 8 Three-phase system of physical flour testing. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

only 2 g of flour. However, in comparison with the farino-
graph, the mixograph is more difficult to standardize and
requires more operator skill to determine the "proper"
flour water absorption [49].
The shape of a mixogram (Fig. 16) can be characterized
by indices similar to those defined for the farinogram [1]
(AACC Method 54-40). Peak time is similar to farinograph
dough development time. Peak height provides information
about flour strength and absorption. Height of curve at a
specified time past the peak is similar to the farinograph tol-
erance index. Higher values indicate a greater tolerance to
overmixing. The same applies to the values of the angle be-
tween the ascending and descending portions of the curve at
the peak. A higher tolerance to overmixing and overall flour
strength can also be judged from the area under the curve.
Examples of mixograms milled from different classes of
wheat are shown in Figure 17.
Like other empirical dough-testing instruments, the
mixograph has been modernized by redesigning it and by
incorporating computerized data acquisition and interpre-
tation. A particularly challenging feature was the develop-
ment and introduction of the 2-g model [17,38].
(c) Consistograph. The Chopin Consistograph is a new
recording dough mixer (Fig. 18). It consists of two parts: a
mixer equipped with a pressure sensor in the mixing bowl,
along with a special double arm mixing blade, and the
Alveolink NG recorder-calculator, fitted with a color print-
er and dedicated software for data collection, graphing,
and analysis. The consistograph can (1) record in real time
the pressure in the mixing bowl during mixing, (2) deter-
mine the water-absorption capacity of a flour with a mix-
ing test at constant absorption, and (3) characterize the be-
havior of a dough with a mixing test at varying absorption.
A consistograph testing method achieved AACC First Ap-
proval status in September 1998.
(d) Commercial Implementation. Unlike many of the
procedures used in cereal quality evaluations, mixing
properties can be easily related to commercial practice,
and the principles have been directly transported. Equip-
ment is available from several sources to monitor the elec-
trical power demand by large-scale mixers [37]. A power
draw transducer produces a signal that may be interpreted
by appropriate software, often producing a mixing curve
resembling that from a farinograph or a mixograph. Fur-
thermore, some systems are sufficiently automated that
they can actually stop the mixer at the appropriate time,
usually shortly after the dough has reached maximum re-
sistance to mixing (just past the peak on the mixing curve)
and direct it to automatically empty and to begin the next
mixing cycle. An example of the graphical output from
such sensing equipment and software is shown from the
Easy Mix system available from BRI-Australia (Fig. 19).
Quality Evaluation 519

2. Stress-Strain Instruments
Techniques constituting the second phase of the three-
phase testing system provide information on the potential
behavior of dough during its rise due to the development
and expansion of gas during the fermentation and early
baking stages. Load-extension instruments are applied to
measure the resistance of dough to extension.
(a) Extensograph. The Brabender extensigraph (Fig.
20) stretches a cylindrically shaped dough piece until it
ruptures while the resulting force on the test piece is trans-
mitted through a balanced lever system to a recorder. The
dough (with 2% salt based on flour weight) is prepared in a
farinograph mixer, usually at 2% less than its optimum ab-
sorption to compensate for the salt addition. According to
the AACC procedure 111 (AACC Method 54-10), the
dough is developed until its consistency reaches its maxi-
mum, whereas the ICC method (ICC Standard No. 114)
uses mixing for a fixed 5-minutes period. When the dough
test piece is stretched, a curve of force versus time, an ex-
tensigram, is recorded (Fig. 21). Several extensigram in-
dices provide a practical guide to general dough strength.
They include:

1. The maximum resistance, Rm, or the resistance at a

fixed extension usually corresponding to 50 mm trans-
FIGURE 9 The Brabender Farinograph/Resistograph. (Cour- position on the chart paper, R5. The latter has the ad-
tesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack,
vantage of measuring the resistance at the same exten-
NJ.)
sion for all tested doughs.
2. The dough extensibility, E, which is the distance it
stretched before rupture.

mixing
stability tolerance
index
(5 min after peak)
CO
, 500

U
C
-,

dough
C degree of
development
0 softening
U time
(12 min after peak)

0 5 10 15 20
time , minutes

FIGURE 10 Representative farinogram showing some commonly measured indices. (From Ref. 3.)
520 Rasper and Walker

500

B 6 10 14
MINUTES MINUTES

500

VERY STRONG

6 10 14
MINUTES MINUTES

FIGURE 11 Farinograms of flours with different strengths. Farinograph absorptions: flour A-54%, flour B-57%, flour C-64.5%,
flour D-62.7%. (From Ref. 35.)

emallialosar dos out•OURal aaaa. z,--- •

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lft:5741"=Fir rilzrffsiciszEfileadr" I
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gf 117111117117A 111 Rift /

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if 11111111111121111
2-.22 .......
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FIGURE 12 Comparison of farinograms and resistograms for identical flours: (B) farinogram of soft flour, (C) farinogram of strong
flour, (D) resistogram of soft flour, (E) resistogram of strong flour. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

3. The ratio of resistance to extensibility.
4. The area under the curve, which is proportional to the
energy required to stretch the test piece to its rupture
point. This index is a convenient single figure for
characterizing flour strength. The stronger the flour,
the more energy is required to stretch the dough.
The extensigraph response by different flours and the ways
in which the extensigram shape may relate to the dough's
behavior can be seen from Figure 22.
Apart from differentiating among flours, the extensi-
graph is also used to evaluate the effects of oxidizing
agents on dough's physical qualities. For example, Figure
Quality Evaluation

FIGURE 13 The Brabender Do-Corder. (Courtesy of C. W.

Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

23 shows how the extensigram changes after the addition

of ascorbic acid to the dough, when it is allowed to react
for different times. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is often
added to commercial bread dough to produce a finer crumb
grain and larger loaf volume.
(b) Extensometer. The Halton (or Simon "Research")
extensometer of the Association of British Flour Millers
[14] is similar to the Brabender extensigraph. The exten-
someter is part of a three-unit device that also includes a
water absorption meter and a mixer-shaper unit. The ab-
sorption meter determines the optimum absorption of the FIGURE 14 Two views of the developer head for the Braben-
dough (generally yeasted) from the extrusion time values der Do-Corder. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co.,
South Hackensack, NJ.)
measured on several doughs prepared from the same flour
sample with varying amounts of water. Optimum absorp-
tion has been empirically linked to an extrusion time of 50 alveograph subjects dough to extension in two dimensions
seconds. After the doughs are shaped in the mixer-shaper by blowing a molded and rested sheet into a bubble
unit, they are stretched between two pegs. The force exert- [1,10,24] (AACC Method 54-30). From the physical view-
ed on the stationary peg is transmitted and recorded in the point, such an extension mode is well linked with the gas
form of a curve that resembles the Brabender extensigram. cell expansion in rising dough. The instrument records the
(c) Alveograph. Another load-extension apparatus, un- air pressure in the bubble as a function of inflation time. A
til recently more popular in several European countries typical alveograph record, an alveogram, is shown in Fig-
than in North America, is the Chopin alveograph. Unlike ure 24. Its interpretation is similar to that of the extensi-
the Brabender extensigraph or Halton extensometer, which gram. The maximum height of the curve is taken as a mea-
both stretch the test dough piece in only one direction, the sure of resistance to extension, and its length as a measure
522
FIGURE 15 The National Mixograph. (Courtesy TMCO, Lin-
coln, NE)
of extensibility. The area under the curve is usually con-
verted into a W value, referred to as deformation energy,
which represents the total work input in blowing up the test
piece into a bubble. The W value is the most commonly
used alveogram index, much like the area under the exten-
sigram. Alveograms for flours with distinctly different
properties are shown in Figure 25.
Alveograph flour tests have traditionally been conduct-
ed on doughs prepared with a constant water addition to
the flour (51.4%). Now it is possible to carry out Alveo-
graph tests at varying absorptions, better reflecting actual
baking absorptions. This is done by utilizing water absorp-
tions previously determined with the recently developed
recording dough mixer, the Chopin Consistograph (see
above).
A new alveograph modification is the Alveograph NG
(Fig. 26). This unit has three components: a mixer for
dough preparation, the alveograph for deformation of the
dough sample, and a recorder-calculator for data acquisi-
tion, visualization, analysis, and printout of data functions.
Yet another alveograph version is the Alveo-Consisto-
graph, which combines capabilities of the Alveograph NG
and the Consistograph.
(d) Dobraszczyk/Roberts Attachment. Many instru-
ments can be modified to provide a stress-strain type
record. For example, a recent attachment developed for the
Stable Microsystems TA-XT2 Texture Analyzer mimics
the bubble-blowing action of the alveograph (Fig. 27). The
crosshead movement is proportional to the bubble volume,
and the resisting force encountered is related to the pres-
sure in the bubble. The area under the resulting curve that
is produced is a measure of the total work input [9].
Rasper and Walker
FIGURE 16 Representative mixogram showing the commonly
measured indices: peak time = line CD; maximum height = line
CH. Angle between ascending and descending portion of curve at
peak (lines BC and CE, angle 1). Alternately, angles formed by
lines with horizontal lines (angles 2 and 3) have been used to de-
scribe curves. (From Ref. 26.)
(e) Dynamic Rheometry. Conventional applied dough-
stressing systems are destructive. They extend the struc-
ture to failure, and the extension is usually far greater than
occurs during normal dough rising and oven spring. Such
instruments cannot be easily characterized in terms of fun-
damental rheological properties. An alternative approach
is to apply a much smaller strain of the order of a few per-
cent, repeating the strain several times per second in a reg-
ular vibratory or oscillatory manner. By measuring the
stress transmitted through the dough piece and its phase
angle lag, it is possible to measure both the elastic and vis-
cous components. Unfortunately, though this approach is
important to someone studying fundamental rheological
properties, the results are often difficult to relate to the
dough's actual behavior in practical situations [27] (Fig.
28).
 r
Quality Evaluation
ilmetg
ARS HRW
TT!
rata
mitiNatit
SWW SRW
Durum
FIGURE 17 Mixograms of flours milled from different wheat
classes (using farinograph optimimum absorption). (From Ref.
26.)
3. Pasting Tests
The third phase of the three-phase testing system concen-
trates on changes in physical properties taking place dur-
ing the baking stage, the most striking of which result from
the gelatinizing of starch and its degradation by amylolytic
enzymes either inherent in or added to flour. Continuously
measuring the sample's viscosity while it is being heated
in a controlled manner is well suited for this purpose.
(a) Amylograph. The Brabender amylograph (Fig. 29)
is a torsion viscometer, which provides a continuous
record of the changes in the viscosity of a buffered flour
suspension during a uniform temperature increase (fixed at
1.5°C/min) under constant stirring [1,45] (AACC Method
22-10). The starch granules swell upon reaching the gela-
tinization temperature and, together with the increased sol-
ubles concentration in the surrounding liquid due to the
amylose starch molecules leaching out from the swollen
granules, cause the suspension viscosity to rise.
Gelatinized (pasted) starch becomes highly susceptible
to the action of thermostable amylases that are activated by
the higher temperatures. They hydrolyze and liquefy part
of the total starch, thus reducing its viscosity. The recorded
maximum viscosity is therefore a result of two simultane-
ous processes (Fig. 30). Since there is little variability in
the viscosity of gelatinizing wheat starch in the absence of
amylases, the height of the viscosity curve is primarily a
reflection of the amylolytic activity in the flour being test-
523
ed. The higher the activity of the starch-liquefying en-
zymic system, the lower is the peak viscosity. Although
both a-amylase and f3-amylase contribute to this reduction
in viscosity, the a-amylase is predominantly responsible
for the final viscosity. Because it is more heat sensitive, (3-
amylase is largely inactivated before the starch substrate
becomes sufficiently susceptible to its action. Similarly,
the lower heat stability of fungal a-amylases renders the
test unsuitable for testing flours supplemented with such
enzymes. A modified amylographic procedure had to be
designed for these flours. Using a pregelatinized substrate
eliminates the need for test temperatures above the opti-
mum performance range of the enzyme [1] (AACC
Method 22-12).
The classical amylograph typically requires about
40-60 g to conduct a test. Brabender has recently intro-
duced a new model, the visco-amylo-graph R, which re-
quires only about one-tenth that amount, and it can be pro-
grammed to heat at different rates (Fig. 31).
(b) Falling Number. The principle of viscometry in de-
termining the amylolytic activity of wheat flour is applied
in the Falling Number test [1] (AACC Method 56-81B)
(Fig. 32). The test is based on measuring the time required
to stir and to allow a specified viscometer-stirrer to fall a
standard distance. Only a single value is obtained, not a
complete pasting curve as provided by the amylograph or
the RVA (below). It is intended to rapidly screen small-
sized wheat samples for sprout damage. Whole grain sam-
ples that have lower than 250 s FN are generally consid-
ered to be damaged, with too much a-amylase present. On
the other hand, samples above 400 s FN may need malt or
some other a-amylase preparation added to them for satis-
factory bread fermentation (Fig. 33).
(c) Rapid Visco Analyzer. The Newport Scientific
Rapid Visco Analyser is a stiffing, temperature-controlled
viscometer. It was originally developed to be a fast and ro-
bust field-use replacement for the Falling Number test,
yielding a single number to indicate the extent of a-amy-
lase activity induced by preharvest sprouting in wheats. It
still serves that purpose but has rapidly developed into a
versatile instrument that can perform complete heating and
cooling pasting curves as well. The device typically uses
3-5 g of starch, flour, or whole meal, suspended in 25 mL
of water, held in a thin aluminum cup that is clamped in a
temperature-controlled split copper block. The solution is
stirred with a plastic paddle and heated at a programmable
rate while its viscosity is being measured as the torque re-
quired to maintain the paddle's speed at a constant 160
rpm. The data is collected and analyzed by the computer
that controls the instrument. Its uses now extend beyond
wheat meal to modified starches, rice, maize, breakfast ce-
524
FIGURE 18 The Chopin Consistograph. (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)
real manufacture, etc. (AACC Methods 22-08, 61-02)
[1,8,48,50,57] (Fig. 34).
IV. PHYSICOCHEMICAL TESTS
A number of tests were designed for predicting a flour's
potential bread-baking strength from its gluten behavior.
The Berliner and Koopman method [4] measures the
swelling ability of wet gluten when immersed in a 0.1 N
lactic acid solution. Higher "specific swelling factors" can
be obtained with stronger glutens. A modification to this
method measures the turbidity of the suspension, which is
inversely related to gluten strength.
The Pelschenke test (or dough-ball test) uses a small
ball of yeasted dough that is prepared from whole wheat
meal and then immersed in water at constant temperature
[1] (AACC Method 56-50). The length of time before it
starts to disintegrate is called the "test number." It is a
measure of both gluten quantity and quality. It varies from
less than 30 minutes for soft wheats to more than 6 hours
for very strong wheats. By dividing the "test number" by
the wheat protein content, an index to gluten quality, sepa-
Rasper and NValker
rated from quantity, may be obtained. The higher the in-
dex, the higher is the gluten strength.
The sedimentation test [1] (AACC Methods 56-60, 56-
61A, 56-63) originally developed by Zeleny [60], mea-
sures the volume of sediment (predominantly swollen pro-
tein and occluded starch) from a crude white flour
suspended in dilute acetic acid. Like the "test number," the
"sedimentation value" is a reflection of both gluten quanti-
ty and quality but can be turned into an index of gluten
quality alone if divided by sample protein content. It is
then referred to as "specific sedimentation value."
The alkaline water-retention test [58] has been useful in
predicting performance of wheat flours in cookie (biscuit)
manufacture. Another widely used test to evaluate soft
wheat flour quality is the MacMichael viscosity test. The
special MacMichael viscometer measures the increase in
viscosity of acidulated soft flour—water suspensions due to
swelling of gluten proteins and, to some extent, of starch
[1] (AACC Method 56-80). Starch swelling becomes more
pronounced if the granules are damaged. Thus, if the range
in protein content is relatively narrow, the measurements
reflect primarily the condition of the starch. On the other
Quality Evaluation 525

Typical Spiral Mixer

1000 800
- • _

•.• . • . .••

• _•- -•- ..•._

-. • . -.• •. • _ •- ..•.
•• •• •••
_ •. . .•- • .

Bandwidth
•
. _ _ . . ...._..._ _

400 0
0 Time (seconds) 800

FIGURE 19 Mixing curve obtained from a spiral mixer by the Easy-Mix system. (Courtesy of BRI-Australia Ltd., North Ryde, NSW,
Australia.)

ufactured and the torsion wires are no longer available.) A

FIGURE 20 The Brabender Extensigraph. (Courtesy of C. W.
Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)
hand, if the changes in viscosity due to starch are more or
less constant, the increase in viscosity is in direct relation
to the swelling properties and quantity of gluten present.
(The Brookfield viscometer is now often used for a similar
test because the MacMichael viscometer is no longer man-
rapid lactic acid swelling procedure has also been devel-
oped, using the RVA [6].
Physicochemical testing also includes tests evaluating
a dough's gas production and retention capacity. The Na-
tional pressuremeter method [1] (AACC Method 22-11)
measures the pressure of gas produced by a yeasted
suspension of flour in an airtight and pressure gauge—
equipped container after a 5-hour fermentation at 30°C.
National has computerized the instrument so that up to
eight pressure cells can be monitored simultaneously and
the pressure changes are continuously graphed (Fig. 35).
Other methods for measuring gas production and/or gas re-
tention use special instruments such as the Demaray gaso-
graph [39] or the Chopin rheofermentometer (Fig. 36). The
latter, apart from measuring the total and retained gas, also
monitors the changes in dough volume during fermenta-
tion (Fig. 37). The Brabender maturograph (Fig. 38) mea-
sures the net results of gas production and gas loss by
recording the changes in height of fermenting dough sub-
jected to periodic punching at 2-minute intervals (Fig. 39).
From the shape of the curve, optimum proofing conditions
and fermentation tolerance can be established. The differ-
ence between top and bottom envelopes of the curve band
reflects the changes in the height of the dough due to peri-
526 Rasper and Walker

m 500
resistance corrected maximum
J I R's resistance
R 5
resistance
R,,,
0

extensibility E

time

FIGURE 21 Representative extensigram with the most commonly measured indices. (From Ref. 3.)

odic punching and recovery and is often referred to as elas-
ticity [41].
V. BAKING—THE ULTIMATE TEST
Flour and ingredient qualities are generally determined in
industrial practice by experimental baking tests. The stan-
dard procedures developed by the American Association of
Cereal Chemists are listed in Table 2. They are used to
evaluate flour quality and may be adopted for determining
the influence on quality of other bread ingredients and
treatments. The same approach is used to evaluate soft
wheat flours for cookies, cakes, pies, etc. The standard
methods do not always produce results that correlate with
industrial practice in a particular application. Therefore,
many modifications to the formulas and procedures have
been made in various laboratories. The baking methods for
bread and cake testing used at the American Institute of
Baking are given as examples in Tables 6 and 7. The baked
products are scored for various quality parameters as spec-
ified by the respective methods (see Table 2).
Test baking can be done on several scales. For example,
routine flour mill and plant bakery quality-control labora-
tories often bake one-pound bread loaves, whereas new
wheat variety screening laboratories often bake "pup"
loaves requiring 100 g of flour each. When the flour is even
more limited, a mini-pup size can be baked, requiring only
35 g of flour. Even smaller 10-g loaves have been devel-
oped to help the plant breeder make decisions at an even
earlier generation [42].
An especially interesting system has been developed to
evaluate the bread-baking quality of individual gluten pro-
tein components following their extraction and recombina-
tion. Two grams of flour are mixed in a 2-g mixograph,
then baked in small metal thimbles [13] (Fig. 40).
Quality Evaluation 527

plastic - short TABLE 6 White Pan Bread Control Formulaa

Weight
Ingredients (g)
Sponge:
Bread flour 700
Compressed yeast 20
Yeast Food (no oxidants) 5
Short and stiff
Water 420
Dough:
Bread flour 300
Granulated sugar 70
Bread shortening (plastic, no emulsifier) 30
Salt 20
Calcium Propionate 1.2
Elastic - extensible Water or ice (variable) 180
Total 1746.2
Procedure
10.011
di ‘kkt►1h
%1 4‘111R1 Sponge—Mixing:" 1 minute at low speed; 1 minute at
‘6,t k‘\\‘‘‘‘‘‘ 1St
medium speed
\INK Temperature: 25-26°C
Fermentation: 4 hours at 29°C in covered container
Extensible Dough—Mixing: 1/2 minute at low speed; 4-5 minutes at
medium speed. (To full gluten development.)
Temperature: 25-26°C.
Floor time: 20 minutes at 29°C (covered).
Scaling weight-525 g of dough per loaf.
Intermediate proof-10 min at room temperature.
Moulder—Straight grain. Head roll 0.87 cm, sheeter roll 0.67
cm. Pressure plate 3.1 cm, width 22.9 cm.
Pan size-10.8 cm x 25.4 top inside, 9.5 cm x 24.1 bottom
outside dimensions; 7.0 cm depth.
Proof—To 1.6 cm above pan top at 43.0°C ± 0.5°C and 81.5%
relative humidity.
Bake-22 minutes at 216°C.
Cool—One hour at ambient temperature.
Measure—Weight and volume by rapeseed displacement.
Score—Package loaves in polyethylene bags for evaluation of
FIGURE 22 Extensigrams of different types of flour and their internal and external characteristics on following morning.
relation to the baking behavior of their doughs. (Courtesy of C.
W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.) 'Procedure of the American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS.
bHobart A-200 or A-120 mixer with McDuffee bowl and 2-prong fork ag-
itator.
528 Rasper and Walker

untreated I .ur
_ with 0.5 g/-130 kg ascorbic acid
" 1 g/1D0 kg ' " 1
m6 — - — " 2 g/100 kg ' wig
~S- E ' di
p IsiiiiiiinguillimEINWIIIIIIIIIMI
--vsermaiiimmxiimmteammumsmistosmomil
ganwiliiHERIVELTE1111111213= Ina ... , - r
ip. 911...leii
magib 2 wanutralpha
R 11 ---11:1=21211p Illiffan
Satii'
45A20
' ''- ...14
alr.
1 WM Irlikird WEI %%Ma WI MAIM l'ara 1 kr.A
VIDSIAMSI S YI i't
tiNGIESVAIL
%WV &Vara , . . VatkrAVIVIIMMVAMP 1 nea. .1 k
WATit A 1 :MAW grra EM MILL MAWS% AU* AIWA' IX

FIGURE 23 The effect of ascorbic acid on extensigrams recorded after different resting periods. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instru-
ments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

P= h.1.1
G= \FA7pt
W=1.32x \i
—xS

(A)

W =141
P= 65 P/L = 0.81
G = 20

Vrupt

III
FIGURE 24 Representative alveogram showing the common-
ly used indices, where P is overpressure (mm), L is abscise at rup- (B)
ture (mm), G is swelling index (ml), V is volume of air (ml), and
W is deformation energy (10') (J). (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Vil-
leneuve la Garenne, France.) W =148
P = 43 P/L = 0.26
G = 27

(C)

FIGURE 25 Alveograms of different flour types. (A) Normal

dough, (B) short dough with little stretching properties, and (C)
soft dough with excess stretching properties. (Courtesy of Chopin
SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)
Quality Evaluation 529

FIGURE 26 The Chopin Alveograph NG. (Courtesy of Chopin

SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)

FIGURE 27 The Dobraszczyk/Roberts Dough Inflation sys-

tem for the stable Microsystem TA-XT2. (Courtesy Texture Tech-
nologies, Scarsdale, NY)

FIGURE 28 A dynamic stress rheometer. (Courtesy Rheomet-

ric Scientific, Piscataway, NJ.)
530 Rasper and Walker

FIGURE 29 The Brabender Viscograph-E. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

TABLE 7 Yellow Layer Cake Formula°

Ingredient Weight (g) Mixing methodb
A. Cake flour 400 Blend dry ingredients for 1 minute at low speed.
Granulated sugar 480
Egg solids, whole 80
Nonfat dry milk 10
Salt 12
Baking powder 23
Shortening, plastic, emulsified 160 Add shortening, emulsifier, and water 1 and incorporate.
Mix 1 minute at low speed and scrape. Mix 3 minutes
at medium speed and scrape.
Emulsifier 10
Water 1 230
Flavor 2
Egg color liquid 1
B. Water 2 120 Add water 2. Mix 1 minute at low speed and scrape, then
1 minute at medium speed.
C. Water 3 150 Add water 3 on low speed and scrape bowl. Mix 1 minute
at low speed and scrape. Mix 1 minute at speed 1 and
scrape.
Record—Specific gravity and temperature of batter. Desired temperature 24 ± 1°C.
Scale-400 g of batter per 8-inch (20 cm) round layer cake pan.
Bake-28 min at 185°C until fully baked. Drop pans from 10 cm immediately out of oven.
Cool—One hour on wire rack at ambient temperature. Depan cakes after 10 min.
Measure—Weight and volume of baked cakes.
Score—Internal and external characteristics of cakes 1 day after baking.
'Procedure of the American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS.
bHobart N-50 mixer with 5-qt bowl and paddle beater.
Quality Evaluation 531

FIGURE 30 Regular amylogram of malted wheat flour by AACC method. Peak viscosity is 600 A.U. (amylograph units). (From Ref.
45.)
532 Rasper and Walker

FIGURE 33 The falling number procedure: (1) sample prepa-

ration; (2) weighing; (3) dispensing; (4) shaking; (5) stirring; (6)
measuring; (7) result. (Courtesy of Falling Number A.B., Stock-
holm, Sweden.)

FIGURE 31 Brabender Visco-Amylograph-R. (Courtesy of

C.W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

FIGURE 32 The Hagberg Falling Number apparatus. (Cour-

tesy of Falling Number A.B., Stockholm, Sweden.)
Quality Evaluation 533

FIGURE 34 The Rapid Visco Analyzer. (Courtesy of Newport Scientific, Warriewood, NSW, Australia.)

4111A
NAitr1..41.

FIGURE 35 National Pressuremeter for AACC Method 22-11.

(Courtesy of National Manufacturing Div., TMCO, Lincoln, NE.) FIGURE 36 The Chopin Rheofermentometer. (Courtesy of
Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)
534 Rasper and Walker

DOUGH VOLUME GAS VOLUME

.111
MIIIIIIIM-111111111111-11•11
I0

1=111EMIIIMINIIII
irg1=1111111=M11111•11
11111•1111111111111111--111Mill"'m
11111•1111-1111111-1111M—M111 IMINEMPEEMILM=1
IIIIIMININIIIM=M1111111111M=1
IIIIMINIIIIIMM11111001111=111111 11111=1-11111111111-11111M
118111111111=M1111=INIIIIIMIN
1111111/%11•1111111111.111M1=11111.1 =MIENII=MIN
0aMinII 1=11=1111111•1111112h

100 10

B B Ti

5,
1 50
1
-T2

Ih 2h OQ 211 3h

10 100

C C'
5 T2
1

1 2 3 2 3
HOURS
FIGURE 37 Standard rheofermentograms indicating the changes in dough volume and gas production (line 1) and retention (line 2). (A
and A') Dough with good fermentation power and good tolerance. (B and B') Dough with good fermentation power but poor tolerance. (C
and C') Dough with poor fermentation power and poor tolerance. (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)
Quality Evaluation 535

FIGURE 40 Thimble-sized bread loaves being checked for

volume. (Courtesy Dr. Peter Gras, CSIRO Grain Quality Lab.,
North Ryde, NSW, Australia.)

REFERENCES

AACC, Approved Methods of the American Association of

FIGURE 38 The Brabender Maturograph. (Courtesy of C. W.
Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)
Time minutes
FIGURE 39 A maturogram. (From Ref. 3.)
Cereal Chemists, 8th ed. The Association, St. Paul, MN,
1983.
Faster, better size distribution analysis of dry flour particles
achieved in Microtrac instrument, Food Proc., 10:88
(1978).
Bloksma, A. H., and Bushuk, W., Rheology and chemistry
of dough, in: Wheat: Chemistry and Technology (Y. Pomer-
anz, ed.), Am. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St. Paul, MN, 1988,
pp. 131-217.
Berliner, I., and Koopman, J., Determination of gluten in
wheat flours, Z. Ges. Muhlenwesen, 6:57 (1929).
Black, H. C., Preston, K. R., and Dexter, J. E., Modifica-
tions to the Buhler laboratory mill to produce flour compa-
rable in yield and quality to the Allis-Chalmers mill, Can.
Inst. Food, Sci. Technol. J., 16:191 (1983).
Blakeney, A. B., Allen, H. M., Bason, M. L., and Welsh,
L. A., Rapid viscoanalysis of wheat flour suspensions for
gluten properties, Gluten '96: Proc., Sixth International
Gluten Workshop, Sydney, September 1996, pp. 370-374.
D'Appolonia, B. L., and Kunerth, W. H., eds., The Farino-
graph Handbook, Am. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St. Paul, MN,
1984.
Deffenbaugh, L. B., and Walker, C. E., Comparison of
starch pasting properties measured in the rapid visco-ana-
lyzer and the Brabender visco-amylograph, Cereal Chem.,
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17
BREADS AND YEAST-LEAVENED BAKERY FOODS
Karel Kulp*
American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas
Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.*
Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
I. BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY
A. Profile of Baking Industry
A major portion of wheat flour in the United States is uti-
lized in commercial bakeries for production of breads and
similar yeast-raised bakery foods. The latest published
data indicated that this sector of the industry consumed in
1992 almost 22 billion lb of flour. As evident from Figure
1, the need for flour tends to increase at an approximate
rate of about 1 billion lb/year. This sector also uses about
58% of total flour shipped, for baking (Fig. 2).
B. Industry Trends
The traditional white pan bread, manufactured from bakers
white wheat flour, remains the leading type of baked good
produced in the United States, but other bread types have
gained an appreciable fraction of the market. Additionally,
nonbread bakery items account for a substantive portion
the industry production (e.g., hamburger buns, dinner rolls
sweet goods, bagels). Pizza production is also an important
part of the industry. Production and relative importance of
different types of bread varieties are given in Table 1, and
the growth of yeast-leavened nonbread items is evident
from Table 2. This trend supports the contention that U.S.
customers are becoming more selective, and demanding
more variety and better quality. Another emerging factor of
*Retired.
539
the U.S. market is the emphasis of the public on freshness
as a quality factor of bakery foods. This demand is being
satisfied by growing distribution of freshly baked products
in retail outlets (e.g., supermarkets and delicatessen-type
operations). The products in these operations are baked
from frozen dough prepared in central baking plants or
purchased from plants dedicated to preparation of frozen
dough products. This type of baking is termed "in-store
baking." A minor but potentially significant factor is home
baking, made easier by the introduction of bread machines,
which permit automatic and scheduled bakery product
preparation from prepared mixes or from individual ingre-
dients (scratch procedure).
C. Bread Consumption
The U.S. per capita consumption of breads (white and va-
rieties) as well as various yeast-leavened bakery products
for the period of 1988-1993 is presented in Table 3. Note-
worthy changes include consistent rise in yeast-leavened
product consumption, preference for products manufac-
tured from wheat in preference to other grains, and emer-
gence of various nonbread bakery items.
II. MANUFACTURING OF BAKERY FOODS
Although the ratio of large-scale commercial production
(wholesale industry) to smaller-scale operations (retail
baking) has stabilized, the consolidation within the whole-
540
500
450 - - • - Total wheat flour
Million cwts 400 - -All—Bakers' and institutional
white bread flour
350 - 327.3
282.1 287.6
300 - • -
• 260
250 -
200 -
145 139.9
150 r
100
1977 1982
FIGURE 1 Shipments of bakers' and institutional white bread—type flour and total wheat flour shipments, 1977-1997. (From Ref. 1.)
sale industry still continues (Fig. 3). Further, in addition to
the sales of fully baked products, frozen dough operations
have become an important fraction of bakery sales (Fig. 4).
The major production methods used in wholesale bread
production are the sponge and dough process, the liquid
fermentation method, the straight dough method, the no-
time dough method, the frozen dough method combined
with in-store baking, continuous bread-manufacturing
processes, and the Chorleywood bread process.
A. Sponge and Dough Process
This method is the most common manufacturing commer-
cial process used in United States. It is a two-stage proce-
dure, as evident from the formula given in Table 4. Bread
preparation according to this process is described by the
process production line shown in Figure 5. In the first
stage, a portion of flour is mixed with water and yeast and
fermented for a certain period of time to produce a sponge.
Subsequently, the balance of water and flour is added
along with other formula ingredients to the fermented
sponge, mixed to a fully developed dough, which is divid-
ed into pieces to yield bread loaves of desired weights (1 or
1.5 lb) after baking. The dough pieces are then rounded,
given a relaxation period by passing them on a belt, sheet-
ed and shaped into elongated dough pieces, placed into
baking pans, and transferred for proofing, where they are
proofed to desired heights, baked, cooled, sliced, and
wrapped.
Kulp and Ponte
420
375.9
216.8
173
1987 1992 1997
Yea r
The packaged breads are distributed through retail out-
lets and stores. Their expected shelf life is about 4 days af-
ter baking in stores and an additional 5 days in the home.
Although the bread is still edible and safe even after that
storage time, it becomes stale and thus loses its customer
acceptance due to organoleptic and physicochemical
crumb changes.
The typical wholesale production variables for white
bread, which is a standardized product subject to U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations, are giv-
en in Table 4. The sponge and dough process is also appli-
cable for other types of breads and related yeast-raised
products.
The advantages of the sponge and dough process over
other bakery production methods include greater flexibility
in production scheduling, better product uniformity in
quality, and easier plant design.
B. Liquid Fermentation Process
The principle of this process is essentially the same as that
of the sponge and dough method, except that it uses a liq-
uid instead of plastic sponge. The production line is shown
in Figure 6 and the typical formula is included in Table 4.
The consistency of the liquid sponge permits its transfer by
pumping, which is a distinct production advantage. The
liquid sponges are formulated to contain all formula water
without flour (water sponge) and about 40-60% of total
formula flour. Breads and products (e.g., hamburger buns,
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 541

Shipped to
blenders 4%

FIGURE 2 Wheat flour shipments by type, 1992. (From Ref. 1.)

TABLE 1 Product Shipments of Bread and Related Products (in millions of dollars)
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
Breads 5,562.9 6,138.7 6,543.7 6,890.9 7,306.7
White pan 2,886.5 3,185.3 3,368.7 3,504.8 3,678.4
Variety types 2,581.4 2,848.6 3,064.1 3,268.8 3,506.1
Unspecified kinds 94.9 104.8 110.9 117.3 122.2
Total 13,469.9 13,846.7 14,663.4 15,436.7 16,312.3
Source: Ref. 3.

rolls, etc.) manufactured by this process are generally of
similar quality as those from the conventional sponge and
dough process. The liquid sponge can be prepared by ei-
ther batch or continuous method.
C. Straight Dough Method
Breads made using this method are generally produced in
retail operations. The doughs for breads and various small
bakery products are prepared in a single step by incorpo-
rating all formula ingredients at the mixer. The dough is
mixed to a full gluten development and then fermented to
maturity without or with degassing by punching during the
fermentation step. Then the fully fermented dough is di-
vided and machined in the same manner as in the sponge
and dough process.
D. No-Time Dough Process
This method is essentially a straight dough method where
the dough mixing is effected mainly mechanically by the
action of high-energy input of special mixers. The mixing
step can be further enhanced by addition of reducing
agents (L-cysteine, inactive dry yeast preparations contain-
ing glutathione) or various proteolytic enzymes. The reac-
tion of reducing agents has to be controlled by the addition
of suitable levels of oxidants. The fully mixed doughs are
given short or no fermentation, then are divided, rounded,
542 Kulp and Ponte

TABLE 2 Production of Various Yeast-Leavened Bakery F. Continuous Bread Process

Products in 1987 and 1992 (million lb)
This production method refers to a system whereby the
Product 1987 1992 dough is manufactured continuously and automatically in
A. Rolls, bread type an enclosed chamber. This process, introduced in the Unit-
Hamburger and wiener type (except ed States in the 1950s was represented by two systems: (1)
frozen) 3125.1 3147.6 the Do-Maker process based on patents granted to John C.
Frozen N/A 202.7 Baker and (2) the Amflow process introduced by American
Brown and serve 320.7 317.8 Machine and Foundry Co. Typical production lines repre-
Frozen, brown and serve N/A 7.1 senting the principle of continuous production are shown
Total 3445.8 3675.2 in Figures 7 (Amflow fermentation system) and 8 Do-
English muffins, except frozen 416.8 365.9 Maker system). Bread formulation requires higher levels
Frozen English muffins N/A 9.7 of oxidants due to high mechanical dough abuse during the
Hearth rolls, except frozen 319.3 257.3
mixing and extrusion operations. Originally combinations
Frozen hearth rolls (S)*
of potassium bromate and potassium iodate were used, but
Bagels, except frozen 522.1 109.2
Frozen bagels 347.4 the iodate was later partially or totally replaced by azodi-
Croissants, except frozen 86.1 9.2 carbonamide (ADA) and ascorbic acid. Use of continuous
Frozen croissants 121.4 operations increased rapidly to about 45% of total bread
B. Other bread-type rolls production in the 1950s and 1960s, but it lost its populari-
Kaiser, except hearth-type, Parkerhouse, ty due to low consumer acceptance and was replaced in
except frozen 461.2 467.3 most plants by the conventional sponge and dough
Kaiser, frozen 55.8 103.5 processes and partly by introduction of the liquid fermen-
Bread stuffing, and bread crumbs (plain tation procedure. There are, however, still plants utilizing
and seasoned) 400.8 565.2 the continuous processes for other yeasted dough products
Rolls, bread type, w.p.k. no quantity
(e.g., pizza doughs). The formulas for production of con-
given, about 26.1 mil. value
tinuous white pan breads are illustrated in Table 6.
C. Sweet yeast goods 1987 1997
Yeast-raised doughnuts, except frozen 277.5 195.7
All other sweet yeast goods, except G. The Chorleywood Process
frozen (incl. sweet rolls and
coffeecake) 602.4 488.4 This process originated in the United Kingdom and is used
Sweet yeast goods, n.s.k. only value extensively throughout the world. It is not suitable for
given, $ mil. 0.8 1.9 bread production in the United States because it was de-
signed for weak flours rather than the strong ones needed
*(S) = withheld because estimate did not meet publication standards. for production of high-loaf-volume U.S. bread types. The
Source: Refs. 3 and 4.
process is mostly a batch process but can be used in con-
tinuous applications. The basic principle is a closed high-
molded, proofed, and baked. This method is especially speed mixer with special mixer configuration blades. The
suited for frozen dough manufacturing and retail bakeries. mixing is generally conducted under vacuum and the
Preparation of breads by straight dough is described in dough is transferred mechanically for further processing
Table 4. conducted similarly as in a conventional straight dough
process. Two types of mixers are commonly used: Tweedy
E. Frozen Dough Method and Stephan. The production principles of the Chorley-
wood process are listed in Table 7. The oxidants used is
Frozen doughs are generally manufactured by a straight this process are ascorbic acid and ADA. The use of bro-
dough method with certain modifications given in Table 5 mates and iodates is not permitted in the United Kingdom
along with the basic white pan formula for bread. The or most other countries.
main problem with such doughs is the stability of yeast in
frozen dough systems, especially when the yeast is frozen
H. Production Steps of Bread Processes
in the fermenting stage. To minimize the initiation of yeast
activity during dough preparation, the mixing is conducted The production variables of the described processes are
at lower temperatures than conventionally, subsequent fer- given in the respective bread formulas and in Figure 9,
mentation is omitted, and doughs are quickly frozen. which depicts the duration of the main production steps for
Frozen doughs are used for baking in in-store bakeries. each of the processes.
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 543

TABLE 3 Per Capita Consumption of Breads and Related Products in United States, 1989-1993
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
A. Breads
White (a) 46.68 49.28 49.87 50.50 51.19 52.01
(b) 20.08 22.35 22.60 22.90 23.21 23.58
Variety types (a) 20.91 21.48 21.95 22.31 22.78 23.28
(b) 9.48 9.74 9.94 10.11 10.34 10.55
Hearth, incl. French and Italian (a) 6.06 6.29 6.49 6.06 6.85 7.08
(b) 2.75 2.85 2.94 3.02 3.11 3.21
Whole wheat (a) 9.55 9.70 9.80 9.88 10.01 10.13
(b) 4.33 4.40 4.44 4.48 4.54 4.59
Rye and like (a) 2.03 2.08 2.12 2.14 2.18 2.21
(b) 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.99 1.00
All other (a) 3.27 3.41 3.54 3.63 3.74 3.86
(b) 1.48 1.55 1.60 1.64 1.70 1.75
B. Various bakery products
Hamburger and hot dog rolls (a) 13.06 13.20 13.30 13.33 13.40 13.46
(b) 5.92 5.99 6.03 6.05 6.08 6.10
Bagels, all types (a) 2.47 2.75 2.99 3.15 3.33 3.56
(b) 1.12 1.25 1.36 1.43 1.51 1.61
Brown and serve (a) 1.32 1.34 1.35 1.35 1.36 1.37
(b) 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.62 0.62
Hearth items (a) 1.34 1.36 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41
(b) 0.61 0.62 0.62 0.62 0.63 0.64
English muffins (a) 1.70 1.69 1.68 1.65 1.64 1.63
(b) 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.74 0.74
Croissants (a) 0.41 0.45 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.57
(b) 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.26
Other bread-type rolls (a) 1.41 1.52 1.63 1.71 1.81 1.91
(b) 0.64 0.69 0.74 0.78 0.82 0.87
Sweet yeast goods (a) 3.78 3.90 3.99 4.04 4.11 4.11
(b) 2.71 1.77 1.81 1.83 1.86 1.87
Doughnuts (a) 1.29 1.41 1.50 1.56 1.63 1.71
(b) 0.58 0.64 0.68 0.71 0.74 0.78

(a) denotes lb and (b) kg per person.

Source: Ref. 5.

Ill. OTHER YEAST-LEAVENED PRODUCTS B. Sweet Dough Production

The per capita consumption of these types of products is
shown in Table 3. Second to breads are hamburger and hot
dog buns, followed by pizza and sweet yeast goods.
A. Production of Buns and Rolls
Production steps are similar to those of breads. They in-
clude dough preparation by mixing, fermentation, divid-
ing, rounding, and proofing. These operations are general-
ly performed by integrated units that incorporate the
various equipment sections needed to produce the panned
dough pieces. Baking is conducted in the same type of
ovens as for breads. A typical automatic production unit
for hamburger buns is illustrated in Figure 10 and a typical
formula is given in Table 8.
The production of sweet dough products (e.g., Danish pas-
try, sweet rolls, coffeecakes) is done either manually or by
mechanical devices in an automatic production line, which
performs most of the basic operations. The arrangement of
this type of commercial line is evident from Figure 11.
Formulas and production variables for this type of bakery
product are given in Tables 9 and 10.
C. Pizzas
Pizza production has become an important part of the bak-
ing industry. These items are prepared either in retail opera-
tions for direct consumption of freshly baked pizzas in spe-
cial restaurants or are produced in commercial wholesale
plants and marketed as frozen units. There are no reliable
544 Kulp and Ponte

Total industry sales, by segment ($ millions)

1993 53,110

1994 54,338

1995 56,222

1996 58,231

1997 60,641

Relative market share (°a)

1993 57.8%

1994 58.3%

1995 58.1%

1996 57.5%

1997 57.1%

n Retail r,2 In-store E] Foodservice q Wholesale

FIGURE 3 Shipments of bakers' and institutional white bread—type flour and total wheat flour shipments, 1993-1997 (million cwt).
(From Ref. 4.)

1977 1988 (estimate) 1997 (projection)

al Bread and Rolls & Cookies and Crackers U Sweet Goods Frozen Bakery Foods

FIGURE 4 Wholesale bakery product mix. (From Ref. 5.)

statistical data reported to estimate the extent of pizza pro-
duction. Based on the reported commercial production of
pizza units in 1996 [151, the total amount of pizza produced
was 652 million pounds, which corresponded to production
of 379 million pounds of dough. An additional 40% were
produced in retail operations. The most common variables
in pizza formulations are the types of pizza crust and top-
pings. Pizza crust can be either thin or thick. Both types of
formulation and production methods are essentially identi-
cal, as illustrated by the typical formula given in Table 11.
The main pizza crust production methods are pressing
(stamping) and sheet/die cutting methods. The essential
steps of these operations are also described in Table 11.
Both methods are commonly used in wholesale operations.
D. Croissants
Formula and the basic production method used are given
in Table 12. Croissants became popular in the United
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 545

TABLE 4 White Pan Bread

Sponge/Dough

Sponge Dough Straight dough Straight no-time Brew bread

Ingredient (%) (%) (%) dough (%) (%)
Floura 70.0 30.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Brew 35.0
Water 40.0 24.0 64.0 65.0 32.0
Yeast, compressed 3.0 2.5 3.5
Salt 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.4
Sugar or sweetener solids 8.5 8.0 6.0 7.0
Shortening 3.0 2.75 2.75 2.75
Yeast food 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5
Nonfat dry milk or milk replacer 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Fungal protease 0.5 0.25 0.5
L-Cysteine, ppm 40.0
Potassium bromate, ppm 15.0 30.0 30.0
Ascorbic acid, ppm 60.0
Vinegar (100 grain) 0.5
Monocalcium phosphate 0.25
Mono-and diglycerides, hydrate 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.5
Dough strengtheners 0.2
Calcium propionate 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

'About 11.2-11.7% protein, 0.44-0.46 ash, enriched according to U.S. standards (14% m.b.). All ingredients are given in bakers
% (flour = 100%).
Procedures
(1) Sponge and Dough: Sponge: Sponge/dough ratio: 70/30; mixing; 1 min low, 3 min high speeds (77°F/25°C); fermentation:
3-5 hr (86°F/30°C). Dough: Mixing: 1 min low, 10-12 min high (80°F/27°C); rest period: 15-20 min. Divide into 18oz (515 g)
pieces for 1 lb (454 g) loaves. Round and give 7 min rest period, sheet, shape, and pan; proof: 55 min. [(107°F/42°C)/85% rel. hu-
midity]; bake: 18 min at 445°F (230°C).
(2) Straight Dough: One-step process. Mixing: 1 min at low and 15-20 min at high speeds (78-82°F/26.5-27.5°C). Fermentation
time 2 hr at 86-95°F (30-35°C)/85% relative humidity. This procedure is used by retailers or for specialty breads.
(3) Straight Dough-No-time: Mix 1 min at low and 10-15 min (80-84°F/27-29°C). Proof for 55 min [(107°F/42°C)/85% rd.
humidity].
(4) Brew Procedure: Brew: Disperse ingredients by high speed agitation (5 min, 80°F/28°C). Ferment (low agitation) for 1.5 hr
(88-92°F/31-33°C). Add to dough ingredients and proceed as in sponge and dough process. Brew consists of 80.95% water,
7.75% sweetener solids, 8.0% compressed yeast, 3.8% salt, and 0.2-0.5% buffer (calcium carbonate plus ammonium sulfate);
35% of this brew is added to the dough.
Source: Ref. 6.

States during the last two decades and are produced in var-
ious sizes and shapes, plain or filled with sweet or meat
fillings. Plain croissants are also popular in the preparation
of sandwiches.
E. Bagels
Another relative newcomer that has become popular and is
supplied in substantial volume by the industry are bagels.
Originally a Jewish ethnic bakery food, bagels are pro-
duced wholesale in various formula modifications. The ba-
sic typical U.S. formula and preparation procedure are de-
scribed in Table 13. The most frequent variations include
addition of sugar or sweeteners (Jewish bagels do not con-
tain added sugar and shortening), shortening, emulsifiers,
flavors, and raisins or other dried fruits. Bagels are eaten as
such or used in sandwiches in the same manner as breads
or croissants.
F. Pretzels
Two types of pretzels are manufactured, soft and hard.
Both are considered snack items and are discussed in
Chapter 16.
G. English Muffins
Formula and production procedure of English muffins are
detailed in Table 14. An automatic production line of the
muffins is illustrated in Figure 12.
546 Kulp and Ponte

Dividing, Rounding, Intermediate Proofing 0

Mixing (D

Sheeting & Moulding ®

Fermentation
Panning >- Proofing 0

Depanning

Bagging 0

CASENSAVO:Oikk•

FIGURE 5 Flow chart of bread production by the sponge and dough process. (From Ref. 7.)

IV. PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
The commercial production line detailing the equipment
used in the sponge and dough process is shown in Figure 5.
The mixer is generally a high-speed horizontal, which is ap-
plied for both sponge and dough mixing. The proofing
room is a chamber with temperature and humidity controls.
The divider is a device that divides the fermented dough
into dough pieces of desired weight. The divided dough
pieces are then rounded in a rounder. The rounded dough is
briefly relaxed in a overhead proofer, then sheeted and
molded by means of a molder into elongated dough pieces,
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 547

Yeast & Dry Water

Ingredients;
II
Water Flour
1s
I
Dry
Ingredients

j
r.L.
1 Qaaid uu
Ingredient Blending Heat Ref. Holding
Mixer Tank Fermentation Exchanger Tank
Tank

Control Panel

Batch Weigh Tank

1
Mixer

FIGURE 6 Flow chart of bread production by liquid-ferment process. (From Ref. 8.)

which are deposited into pans and transferred into a proof
box. The fully expanded (proofed) doughs are baked in a
tunnel oven, depanned, cooled, sliced, and packaged. An al-
ternative to the plastic sponge a dough system is the liquid
fermentation process, which is shown in Figure 6.
Generally most commercial processes are tend to be
highly mechanized. Examples of this trend are production
lines of sweet dough, illustrated in Figure 11, and of En-
glish muffins, given in Figure 12.
Other commonly used devices are laminators for fold-
ing of doughs (e.g., Danish pastries, crackers), depositors
of fillings, icings, and coatings.
V. TYPES OF BREADS AND
TYPICAL FORMULAS
A. White Pan Bread
The major type of bread manufactured in the United States
is white pan bread. This type of bread is a standardized
product and is federally regulated in respect to its moisture
content (38% maximum) and enrichment (see Chapter 23).
A typical formula and basic procedure for bread produc-
tion is shown in Table 4; the formula for continuously pro-
duced white pan bread is given in Table 6.
B. White Specialty Breads
Breads of this group are referred to as homestyle, farm,
country, or range breads. They generally differ from the
conventional white pan bread in internal grain and texture
characteristics, the grain being more open and the texture
more coarse. These properties, reminiscent of home-made
breads, are achieved mostly by not fully developing the
doughs (undermixing). A typical formula is shown in Table
15. Flour used in these breads is unbleached to obtain an
off-white natural crumb color. Also, relatively low sugar is
the formula is common for these breads.
Premium white bread (Table 16) is a dense bread usual-
ly produced by the straight dough process, described in
Table 4.
White hearth breads are produced with or without lac-
tic acid fermentation, called sour by the trade (Table 17).
The main difference between pan and hearth bread is in
the baking step: hearth breads are baked on an open
hearth, the other types in baking pans. The type of heat
548 Kulp and Ponte

TABLE 5 Frozen Bread Dough Formula and Procedure' D. Rye and Pumpernickel Bread
Ingredients Percent flour basis Rye breads are produced by different formulas (Table 19)
responding to local ethnic preferences (e.g., American,
Patent flour (11.5% protein) 100.00
Jewish, Swedish, Black Forest, Bohemian). The basic flour
Water 59.00
Yeast (compressed) 4.50 is a blend of rye flour (white and/or medium) and strong
Acid type yeast food 0.50 wheat patent or clear wheat flour. Addition of gluten is
Salt 2.00 generally necessary to strengthen the dough.
Sucrose 6.00
Milk replacer 3.00 E. Mixed Grain Breads
Shortening, nonemulsified 4.00
Potassium bromateb (50 ppm) These types of breads are made with wheat flour and other
Ascorbic acidb (120 ppm) grains as well as vegetable materials. The grains and veg-
Procedure etables used include corn, flax, millet, triticale, buckwheat,
Mix to development at dough barley, oats, alfalfa, rye, rice, and sauerkraut; some of
temperature 65-70°F (18-21°C) these materials are used as flours, grits, or as whole grains.
Fermentation None Two examples of this type of bread are given in Table 20.
Floor time 0-10 min A special method, detailed in the same table, is required for
"Freezing procedure: The made-up dough units are immediately frozen the production of these breads.
using fast-freezing to core temperature 20°F (-7°C), then stored at 0°F
(-15°C). Expected shelf life 8-12 weeks. In in-store bakeries they are de- F. Fiber Breads
posited in a retarder at 33-40°F (1-4°C), then proofed at 90-110°F
(32-43°C) for 75-90 minutes and baked. For ingredients used to increase the fiber content of bread,
'Quantities based on 100 pounds of flour. see Chapter 27.
Source: Ref. 9.
G. Fruit Breads
Raisin breads (Table 21) are standardized products. Bread
standards require an addition of 50% raisins (flour basis).
transfer during hearth-baking leads to formation of a sol- Other fruit breads contain currants, dates, and bananas.
id, crisp, flavorful crust and other attributes associated
with this type of bread. The use of oven steam also en- H. Hamburger Buns
hances this type of crust formation. Sour hearth breads are
a variation of hearth breads. Sour that is used in this type The formula and procedure for hamburger buns are shown
of breads is flour (rye or wheat) fermented by lactic acid in Table 8. A mechanical production unit for the buns is il-
bacteria prepared by natural fermentation or purchased lustrated in Figure 10.
from commercial sources in liquid or dry form. Many
commercial sours are nonfermented blends of lactic and I. Sweet Doughs
other acids. Sourdough breads are becoming popular and Formulas for cinnamon rolls and Danish pastry are given
are marketed as specialty French breads. San Francisco
in Tables 9 and 10, respectively, prepared using manual
hearth bread is a specialty bread in which the sour consists
methods. A mechanical line is show in Figure 11.
of a mixture of a special strain of yeast (Torulopsis holmii)
and a special strain of lactobacilli (Lactobacillus sanfran-
J. Flour Evaluation
ciscus).
In the evaluation of flour and resulting bakery products,
certain quality characteristics are determined by experi-
C. Wheat Breads
mental baking tests. An evaluation chart used by the Re-
Typical formulas of wheat breads are given in Table 18. search Department of the American Institute of Baking for
The common variety of this group is "wheat" bread made the determination of performance parameters of flours is
from a blend of 20-30% whole wheat flour and 80-70% shown in Figure 13. A two-stage bread-baking process
patent flour. Whole wheat bread is a standardized product, (sponge and dough method) is used. Dough characteristics
and breads with this designation have to be produced from are judged at various stages: at the sponge stage after mix-
whole wheat flour only. ing, the dough-mixing time and dough tolerance are judged.
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 549

FERMENTATION SYSTEM
WATER

DRY
INGREDIENTS IF
LIQUID
SUGAR
; 1 (
I LIQUID SUGAR TANK

BLENDING TANK LIQUID SPONGE TROUGH

ti

.44- LIQUID SPONGE FEED BACK FOR SEEDING SUBSEQUENT BREW -.44-

MIXING SYSTEM

CONSTANT LEVEL OXIDANT SHORTENING FLOUR

DEVELOPER

METERING DIVIDER-
PUMP PANNER

HEAT EXCHANGER

REJECT DOUGH INCORPORATOR

RECOVERY UNIT

FIGURE 7 Amflow continuous bread process. (From Ref. 10.)

The machining characteristic of doughs is followed and VI. INGREDIENT LIMITS OF BREADS
judged during the dividing and molding of doughs. These AND ROLLS
judgments are made by experienced bakers. The breads
Certain ingredients used in the formulation of these prod-
produced from these doughs are scored after cooling for ex-
ucts are regulated. A summary of these regulations is given
ternal and internal characteristics. These evaluations are
in Table 22.
done again by trained bakers and are mostly subjective. Ex-
ternal parameters include loaf volume, crust color, break,
and shred of the loaf. Internal parameters are crumb grain,
VII. FUNCTIONS OF BREAD INGREDIENTS
color, textural crumb character (crumb strength and tex-
ture), and sensory characteristics (flavor, aroma). Both Table 23 summarizes the functions of individual bread in-
dough and bread scores are added for evaluation when flour gredients in the bread-making process [12] (see also Table
baking quality is tested. 28 for the function of dough strengtheners and improvers).
550 Kulp and Ponte

1) Broth fermentation tank

2) Broth reservoir tank
3) Broth heat exchanger
4) Broth feeder
5) Oxidation solution tank
6) Oxidation solution feeder
7) Shortening blending kettle
8) Shortening holding kettle
9) Shortening feeder
10) Automatic flour hopper
11) Flour feeder
12) Flour sifter
13) Premixer
14) Dough pump
15) Developer
16) Divider
17) Penner
18) Control center

FIGURE 8 Do-Maker "60" continuous bread process. (From Ref. 14.)

VIII. INDIVIDUAL INGREDIENTS IN FLOUR

A. General
The flour characteristics generally used in flour specifica-
tions are protein, ash, and amylolytic activity (indicated by
Falling Number or amylograph values; Table 24). The rhe-
TABLE 6 Continuous Bread-Making Formula— ological values, indicating the required four strength, mix-
Nonflour Brew ing time, and dough stability, are determined by rheologi-
cal methods (farinography, alveography) and are also part
Brew
of commercial flour specifications. These methods are de-
ingredients Dough composition
scribed in Chapter 16.
Water 60.32 Flour, % 100
Sugar 7.61 Brew, % 74 B. Sweeteners and Sugars
Yeast 2.67 Shortening blend, % 3
Yeast food 0.50 Water, % 2
The most commonly used sugar in bread and bun baking is
Salt 2.10 KBrO3, ppm 60 high-fructose corn syrup (See Chapter 16).
Milk powder 0.33 KI03, ppm 12
Mold inhibitorb 0.10 C. Relative Sweetness of Sugars

aTotal flour basis. In estimating the sweetness of sugars in formulations of

bCalcium propionate. yeast-leavened products, it should be considered that the
Source: Ref. 13. disaccharides (sucrose and maltose) are hydrolyzed into
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods
TABLE 7 Chorleywood Bread Process
The basic principles involved in the production of bread and
fermented goods by the Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP)
remain the same as those first published by the Chorleywood
team in 1961, although the practices have changed with changes
in ingredients and mixing equipment. The essential features of
the CBP are:
Mixing and dough development in a single operation lasting
between 2 and 5 min at a fixed energy input
The addition of an oxidizing improver above that added in the
flour mill
The inclusion of a high-melting-point fat, emulsifier, or fat and
emulsifier combination
The addition of extra water to adjust dough consistency to be
comparable with that from bulk fermentation
The addition of extra yeast to maintain final proof times
comparable with those obtained with bulk fermentation
The control of mixer headspace atmosphere to achieve given
bread cell structures
Source: Ref. 14.
monosaccharides by the action of enzymes present in
yeast. Sucrose yields glucose and fructose by the action of
invertase, and maltose is cleaved by maltase into two mol-
ecules of glucose. (See Chapter 16 for further discussion.)
D. Dairy Ingredients
According to Stahel [29] dairy ingredients are classified
into two groups: dairy blends and milk replacers. Since
dairy ingredients are not regulated, a great number of for-
mulations are marketed and a clear distinction between
these two ingredients is not made. Generally, these ingre-
dients are referred to as dairy blends on bread labels. The
protein content of the blend components is given in Table
25.
E. Yeast
Compressed yeast and other forms are given in Table 26.
F. Mineral Yeast Food
The composition of mineral yeast foods is given in Table
27 and their functionality in Table 23.
G. Fiber
The list of fiber ingredients for food manufacturing is
growing, as discussed in Chapter 27. The most common
fiber ingredients in baking include corn bran, soy fiber, pea
fiber, cottonseed fiber, and a-cellulose.
551
H. Dough Improvers
Dough improvers are classified as dough strengtheners and
crumb softeners (Table 28). The agents that improve
dough stability and strength interact with gluten proteins.
The action of crumb softeners is explained by their com-
plexation of amylose. The most commonly used surfac-
tants are lactylates and mono- and diglycerides, which are
marketed singly or in blends.
I. Enzymes
Enzymes used in flours include amylases, proteases, and,
more recently, pentosanases (Table 29). Amylases added at
the mill are generally supplied in the form of barley malt or
fungal amylases; additional fungal amylases may be added
at bakeries. Proteases for the reduction of dough mixing
time are added at bakeries when long-mixing strong flours
are encountered. Fungal enzymes are also part of bromate
replacers. New intermediate heat-stability bacterial and
fungal amylases are used to extend the shelf life of baked
products [30].
IX. STABILITY OF BAKERY FOODS
A. Staling
Bakery foods are perishable—they undergo physicochem-
ical, sensory, and microbial changes as indicated in Table
30. The generic term for this is "staling." The methods for
measuring staling are summarized in Table 31. Of the
methods given the determination of crumb compressibility,
Baker's compressimeter or Instron are mostly used in in-
dustrial quality control and research practice. It is advis-
able to follow the staling process with sensory tests, since
flavor changes unrelated to firming often occur during
storage.
The mechanism of staling is not completely elucidated.
The main theories of this process are shown in Table 32,
with that of Schoch and French and its modifications be-
ing generally most accepted. According to this concept the
staling process is mostly attributed to changes in the
starch component of cereal foods. The most recent revi-
sion of this theory by Zobel and Kulp incorporating
physicochemical changes of the starch granule states is
presented in Figure 14. Essentially the depicted changes
support the theory that retrogradation is the underlying re-
action of staling. In a simplified manner, starch gelatinizes
during baking and amylose is leached out. Upon cooling
the amylose component crystalizes and determines the
fresh firmness of bread; amylopectin retrogradation pro-
ceeds slowly and causes firming during storage. The
process is heat-reversible because retrograded amy-
552 Kulp and Ponte

SPONGE & STRAIGHT LIQUID SPONGE CONTINUOUS NO-TIME CHORLEYWOOD

DOUGH DOUGH (BREW) MIX DOUGH PROCESS

0
Mixing INGREDIENT SCALING Mixing Mixing

Sponge Mixing Sponge Mixing Sponge Mixing Make-up Make-up

1
Fermentation Fermentation Fermentation Proof Proof
(1st Rise) (Flour Ferment) (Flour Ferment)

Fermentation Oven
Oven 2
(Sponge)
(2nd Rise) Dough Mixing
Floor Time Mixer Developer
Cooling
Make-Up Cooling
Make-Up
Proof 3

cc Proof Oven Slicing &

cc Proof Slicing &
Wrapping
Wrapping
0 0
Oven 4
Oven Cooling u)
Dough Mixing
Floor Time
Cooling
Make-up Cooling
Slicing & 5
Wrapping

Proof Slicing &

Wrapping Slicing &
Wrapping
6
Oven

Cooling
7

Slicing &
Wrapping

FIGURE 9 Comparison of bread-processing systems. (From Ref. 7.)

lopectin can be reverted to its amorphous state, which re- B. Microbial Spoilage
duces firmness. A new theory based on protein-starch in-
Retardation of microbial growth is effected by various
teraction was proposed by Martin et al. [35]. Although
chemical agents, as given in Tables 33 and 34. The effects
tested by other researchers, its validity lacks objective
of these agents on the growth of the rope-forming organ-
basis.
ism (Bacillus subtilis) are summarized in Table 35.
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 553

FIGURE 10 Model K unit for production of hamburger rolls. (Courtesy of AMF, Inc., Richmond, VA.)

TABLE 8 Hamburger (Soft) Buns

Ingredient Sponge (%) Dough (%)
Flour, enriched 70.0 30.0
Yeast 3.5
Water 40.0 22.0
Sugar 12.0
Salt 2.0
Shortening (oil) 5.0
Mineral yeast food, bromate type 0.5
Protease 0.5
Dough strengtheners emulsifier, hydrated mono-diglycerides 0.5
Ca-propionate 0.2
Procedures:
1. Sponge/dough process (hamburger buns):
Sponge: Mixing-1 min at low and 3 min at high speeds (75°F/24°C). Fermentation time-3 hr
(86°F/30°C).
Dough: Mixing—develop dough to very extensible stage (10 to 14 min at high speed); divide,
round, and relax (2 min); flatten and place on bun pans; proof 50 min at 104-107°F (40-42°C)/
80-85% relative humidity; bake at 445-465°F (230-240°C).
2. Other uses of the formula: same formula is used for production of hot dog buns. Soft rolls of
various shapes and sizes are prepared similarly. The formulas for latter products may be lower in
sweetness and/or shortening.
3. Also, brew process is used, similar to that for white pan bread (cf., Table 4).
Source: Ref. 6.
554 Kulp and Ponte

L, 11

SKEETER HEAD

t FLOUR BRUSH CINNAMON

DEPOSITOR
DIE CUT UNIT

FLOUR DUSTER CROSS ROLLER PASTE ROLL WINDER

DOUGH OILER
SPREADER

FIGURE 11 Arrangement of processing devices of an automatic sweet goods machine. (Courtesy of American Institute of Baking,
Manhattan, KS.)

TABLE 9 Sweet Dough (Cinnamon Rolls) TABLE 10 Danish Sweet Goods

Ingredient Ingredient
Bread flour, enriched 100.0
Sucrose, granulated 15.0 Hydrated shortening 15.0
Dextrose (corn sugar) 2.0 Hydrated mono- and diglycerides 3.0
Defatted soy flour 5.0 Salt 2.0
Shortening 12.0 Sucrose, granulated 20.0
Mono- and diglycerides, hydrated 2.0 Nonfat dry milk 2.0
Nonfat dry milk or replacer 2.0 High fat soy flour 3.0
Salt 1.5 II
Mineral yeast food, bromate type 0.5 Water 35.0
Yeast, compressed 8.0 Yeast, compressed 8.0
Dough strengthener 0.25 Whole eggs, liquid 20.0
Flavor Variable III
Water 54.0 Flour: 40% pastry, 60% bread enriched 100.0
Procedure: Mix (horizontal mixer) all ingredients Procedure: Cream (I) in upright mixer equipped with dough
14-20 min (80°F/27°C); ferment 30 min, sheet, sprin- hook; add (II) to (I) and blend 1 min at low and then 2 min at
kle with cinnamon/sugar blend, roll, cut into units; high speeds; add (III) and mix at low speed until incorporated;
pan; proof 30-45 min (104°F/40°C)/85% relative hu- divide and place on floured trays; retard 3-4 hr (36-39°F/
midity; bake 12-15 min (400°F/205°C). 2-4°C); sheet and spot roll in margarine on 2/3 of sheet (use 1/3
wt. margarine per 1 wt. of dough). Fold, and retard (3 hr). Sheet
Source: Ref. 6. dough, give 3-fold and retard overnight. Sheet, add cinnamon,
and/or other fillings, roll, cut, pan, proof, and bake. Both sweet
dough and Danish pastry products are prepared in various sizes
and shapes. They are filled with fruit, almond, nuts, etc., fill-
ings, iced, glazed, and crunch or streusel topped.
Source: Ref. 6.
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 555

TABLE 11 Pizza Formulaa

Ingredient Amount

Flourb 100.0%
Salt 1.5%
Sugar 2.0%
Yeast, compressed 3.0%
Oil' 5.0-16.0%
L-Cysteine 60 ppm
Water 57.0%
Chemical leavenings 2.0%
Procedures:
A. Pressing (Stamping) Method
1. Mixing (horizontal mixer): Suspend yeast in a portion of the water; add
remaining water and ingredients; mix 2 minutes at low, then 4 minutes at
high speeds. Desired finished dough temperature 90-100°F.
2. Divide using a conventional bakery divider.
3. Round divided dough pieces with a conventional rounder.
4. Spray with oil or leave dry if screen-type intermediate proof trays are
used.
5. Give dough pieces 5-minute rest period.
6. Deposit dough pieces onto baking pans or press conveyor and press to
size.
7. Pressing may be conducted in a single stage (cold or hot) or in two steps
(in two-step operation give 1-2 minute rest period between presses).
8. Give 10-30 minutes proof time at 95°F/80% RH for thick crust; omit
proof time for thin crust.
9. Bake: (a) tunnel impingement oven 2.5-3.0 minutes at 400°F or tunnel
convection oven 3.5-4.5 minutes at 425°F.
B. Sheet and Die-Cut Method
1. Mixing as sub A above, except for lower temperature adjustment (final
dough temperature = 78-86°F).
2. Produce dough pieces in dough chunker.
3. Pass through a triple-roll extruder onto a belt.
4. Adjust dough to desired thickness by means of reducing and cross rolls,
then pass it through a docker, die cutter (return dough to mixer or ex-
truder).
5. Pass cut dough pieces by conveyer to oven.
6. Baking as above (10 sub A).
After-Oven Operations (same for A and B)
1. Depan baked pizza shells by vacuum depanner.
2. Cool on belt by means of overhead cooler.
3. Apply topping in following order: sauce, cheese, vegetables/meat.
4. Freeze (mechanical [-20 to -35°F] or cryogenic freezer [-60 to -85°F]).
5. Package (clear film overwrap) and store at -10°F up to 6 months, mak-
ing provision to prevent topping exposure to UV light, which causes
rapid color fading of meat and vegetable toppings. Use (a) UV barrier
built in the clear packaging film, or (b) paper panel (cover) applied over
the pizza top before wrapping, or (c) place wrapped pizzas in individual
paperboard boxes.

'Thin or thick crust, wholesale, produced by pressed (stamped) and sheet die-cut
methods.
bBread type, protein = 11.2-12.7% (14.0% moisture basis).
`Partially hydrogenated vegetable oil.
dBlend of 50% sodium aluminum phosphate (SALP) and 50% sodium bicarbonate
(baking soda) is used to replace yeast in production of self-rising type of crust.
Source: Ref. 16.
556 Kulp and Ponte

TABLE 12 Croissant Dough Formula TABLE 13 Bagel Production: Formula and Methods
Ingredient A. Formula
A. Dough ingredients: Ingredient
Flour (bread 11.5-13.0% protein) 100.0
Granulated sugar 6.0 Flour (bread. 11.2% protein) 95.2
Nonfat dry milk 6.0 Vital wheat gluten 4.3
Salt 1.25 Sugar, granulated 3.0
Unsalted butter 4.0 Salt 2.0
Liquid egg color (3.05% solution) 0.1 Shortening, all-purpose 3.0
Yeast, compressed 4.0 Yeast, compressed 2.0
Ice water, variable 55.0 Water 50.0 (var.)
Total dough 176.35 B. Procedure:
B. Roll-in-fat: 1. Mix dough to full gluten development in Hobart mixer.
Unsalted butter roll-in-fat 44.1 2. Divide mixed dough immediately without fermentation.
Total amount of laminated dough 220.45 3. Shape bagels either manually or with fully automated bagel
Procedure: machine (machine shaping produces products at rates ex-
1. Mixing: Dough ingredients are mixed for 3-5 minutes only ceeding 360 dozen per hour).
until a cohesive mass is formed, maintaining temperature 4. Proof immediately (104-110°F) or after retarding for 12-18
within 59-68°F (15-20°C). hours at 35-42°F at low relative humidity (65-75%). Retard-
2. Let dough relax for 20-30 minutes. ed bagel proof at 59-90°F. Proof times about 20 minutes.
3. Sheet, apply roll-in-fat, and laminate. Generally the dough is 5. Boil proofed bagels in 200°F water for 2 minutes to produce
given several three-time foldings with rest periods of 30 min- starch gelatinization in the surface and internal structure set-
utes between foldings. Laminated dough is then retarded ting of the product and dry for 5 minutes on screen.
overnight in refrigerator. 6. Bake at 450°F for about 17 minutes.
4. Make-up for croissants: Sheet, cut into triangles, and curl into Note: During "boiling," water is actually kept below boiling point
croissants. For filled croissants, add filling to dough triangles in order to avoid waste of energy. Alternatively, this treatment
prior to curling. can be accomplished without the boiling step in a large amount
5. Proofing: Butter croissants are proofed at 86°F (30°C); those of wet steam.
with margarine at 95°F (35°C) to full expansion (about 70
Source: Ref. 18.
minutes).
6. Bake at 380°F (193°C) for 19-21 minutes (gas-fired reel
oven).

Source: Ref. 17.

Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 557

TABLE 14 English Muffin Formula

Ingredient % (Flour Basis)
Basic
Flour 100.0
Water 83.0-87.0
Vital wheat gluten 0.0-2.0
Yeast 5.0-8.0
Sugar 0.0-2.0
Salt 1.0-1.5
Shortening 0.0-1.0
Calcium propionate 0.5-0.7
Supplementary
Protease enzyme 1.0-3.0
Baking powder 0.0-0.5
Vinegar (100 grain) 0.5-1.0
Sour 1.0 1.0
Procedure:
1. Place all ingredients except salt and 10% of water in mixer
(total absorption 85%; 75% first addition).
2. Mix 30 second low speed, then on high speed until dough
cleans from back of mixer.
3. Add remaining water (10%).
4. Mix 15 seconds low speed, 2 minutes high speed.
5. Add salt.
6. Mix 15 seconds low speed, then on high speed until properly
developed.
7. Dough temperature, 68°F.
8. Rest dough for 10-15 minutes.
9. Scale 2V4-21/2 ounces per dough piece, round, dust, and con-
vey to proofer.
10. Proof 28-31 minutes at 115-125°F and 50-55% relative hu-
midity.
11. Deposit dough piece in griddle, bake 2% minutes in preheat
zone, 4 minutes in cup with lid, invert dough piece and bake
3 minutes without cup or lid.
12. Cool 30-45 minutes.
13. Slice or split and package.
Source: Ref. 19.
 AUTOMATIC PROOFER

MULTI-TIER
MUFFIN COOLER SYSTEM ELECTRIC CONTROL
PANEL

GRIDDLE COMBUSTION BLOWER

EXHAUST BLOWER

AIR CONDITIONER
GRIDDLE EXHAUST HOOD

AUTOMATIC PROOFER-GRIDDLE
DIVIDER ROUNDER POWER UNIT
CONTINUOUS LOADER
CORNMEAL DEPOSITOR
360° ROTARY TRANSFER
CORNMEAL ENROBING CONVEYOR
Abe

GRIDDLE DISCHARGE
CONVEYOR
1024
INCLINE CONVEYOR
(CLEATED IF NEEDED)
1 111 MUFFIN BAGGER
SPLITTER AND TYER

GRIDDLE PACKING CONVEYOR

COOLER DISCHARGE
CONVEYOR
SPLITTER FEED CONVEYOR

FIGURE 12 Automatic English muffin production system. (Courtesy of International Multifoods.)

alum pun din);
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 559

TABLE 15 Home-Style Bread Formulaa TABLE 16 White Premium Bread Formulaa

Ingredients Total (%) Sponge (%) Dough (%) Ingredients

Flour, unbleached 100 65 35 Flour 100

Water (variable) 65 40 25 Sugar 4
Corn syrup 3 3 Salt 2
Salt 2 2 Shortening 4
Shortening 3 3 Butter 4
Yeast 2 2 Honey 3
Yeast food 0.375 0.375 Milk, condensed or evaporated 28
Rolled wheat 2 2 Water (variable) 30
Mold inhibitor As needed As needed Yeast 3
Yeast food 0.375
'Ingredients based on 100 parts flour. Sponge temperature, 76°F. Sponge
Mold inhibitor As needed
fermentation, 4 hr. Dough temperature, 82°F. Floor time, 15-20 min.
Give medium proof. Bake 420-430°F, 30 min. 'Ingredients based on 100 parts flour. Dough temperature,
Source: Ref. 20. 80°F. Ferment 1.5 hr; punch. Rest approximately 20 min.
Divide, round, rest 15 min, mold. Give full proof, bake
400°F.
Source: Ref. 20.

TABLE 17 White Hearth Bread Formulas'

White hearthb Sour French'

Ingredients Total (%) Sponge (%) Dough (%) Total (%) Sponge (%) Dough (%)

Flour 100 60 40 100 60 40

Water (variable) 55 33 22 59 35 24
White sour 4 4
Yeast 2 2 1.75 1.75
Yeast food 0.375 0.375 0.5 0.5
Salt 2 2 1.5 1.5
Sugar 2 2 2 2
Shortening 2 2 1.5 1.5
Malt (nondiastatic) 1 1
Vital wheat gluten 2 2

'Ingredients based on 100 parts flour.

bSponge temperature, 76°F, ferment 4.5 hr. Dough temperature, 80°F. Floor time, 15-20 min. Bake 400-430°F.

`Sponge temperature, 76°F, ferment 4 hr. Dough temperature, 80°F. Floor time, 20 min. Bake 400-430°F.
Source: Ref. 20.
560 Kulp and Ponte

TABLE 18 Wheat Bread Formulas'

Wheat breadb 100% Whole wheat' Honey bran loaf d
Total Sponge Dough Total Sponge Dough Total Sponge Dough
Ingredients (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Flour 60 60 — 60 60
Whole wheat flour 40 15 25 100 65 35 40 40
Wheat bran — 10 10
Water (variable) 59 45 14 68 43 25 63 35 28
Yeast 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3
Yeast food 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.5
Salt 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25
Shortening 3 3 3 3 3 3
Dextrose 5 5 —
Sugar — 6
Honey 2 2 8 8
Molasses 10 10 — 3 3
Nonfat dry milk 3 3 2 2
Vital wheat gluten 2 2 2 2 2 2

'Ingredients based on 100 parts flour.

bSponge temperature, 76°F, ferment 4 hr. Dough temperature, 80°F. Floor time, 15 min. Bake approximately 420°F.
`Sponge temperature, 78°F, ferment 3 hr. Dough temperature, 80°F. Floor time, 15 min. Bake approximately 450°F.
dSponge temperature, 76°F, ferment 4 hr. Dough temperature, 78°F. Floor time, 15 min. Bake approximately 420°F.
Source: Ref. 20.

TABLE 19 Rye and Pumpernickel Bread Formulas'

Standard rye breadb Pumpernickel`
Ingredients Total (%) Sponge (%) Dough (%) Total (%) Sponge (%) Dough (%)
Flour, clear 80-60 80-60 24 24
Patent white rye flour —
Medium rye flour 20-40 20-40
Dark rye flour 38 38 —
Rye meal — 38 38
Water (variable) 64 36 30 71 32 39
Yeast 2 2 2 2
Salt 2 2 2.5 2.5
Rye sour, commercial 0-5 0-5
Sour dough — 10 10
Malt, nondiastatic or other sweetener 0-4 0-4 1 1
Shortening 2 2 1 1
'Ingredients based on 100 parts flour.
bSponge temperature, 76°F, ferment 3.5-4 hr. Dough temperature, 78-80°F. Floor time, 20 min. Bake approximately 430°F with steam.
`Sponge temperature, 76°F, ferment 3 hr. Dough temperature, 80°F, scale, round, rest 15 min, mold. Bake approximately 430°F with steam.
Source: Ref. 20.
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 561

TABLE 20 Mixed Grain Bread Formulas'

Mixed grain bread 1b

Base Sponge % Dough

Crushed wheat 70 Flour 60 Flour 40

Soy grits 10 Base 15 Water 20
Rolled oats 10 Yeast 3 Salt 2
Corn meal 10 Water 45 Brown sugar 8
Shortening 4
Mixed grain bread 2'
Soaker Stage % Dough Stage %

Whole wheat kernels 14 Mash (from soaker stage)

Coarse rye meal 14 Water 13
Buckwheat flour 12 Clear flour (16% protein) 36
Ground barley 3 Salt 2.5
Ground millet 7 Soy flour, low fat 4
Ground oats 7 Blackstrap molasses 4
Ground alfalfa 1 Buckwheat honey 4
Toasted wheat germ 3 Potato flour 3
Wheat gluten 3 Margarine 3
Water 55 Yeast 3
Lecithin 0.375

'Ingredients based on 100 parts flour.

bSponge temperature, 74-76°F, ferment 4.5 hr. Dough temperature, 80°F.
`Mix soaker stage 5 min at low speed, soak 8 hr. Dough temperature, 80°F Floor time, 30 min. Bake 400°F,
30 min.
Source: Ref. 20.

TABLE 21 Raisin Bread Formulas'

Raisin breadb Raisin oatmeal bread' Raisin yogurt breads

Ingredients Total (%) Sponge (%) Dough (%) Total (%) Total (%)

Flour 100 65 35 100 100

Oatmeal 15
Wheat bran — 5 —
Water (variable) 64 40 24 62 64
Yeast 4 2 2 3 4
Yeast food 0.5 0.5 As needed As needed
Salt 2.25 2.25 2 2
Shortening 3 3 2 2
Honey or brown sugar — 6 6
Sugar 8 8 —
Vital wheat gluten 4 4 — 3 3
Cinnamon 0.4 0.4 —
Nonfat dried milk 4 4 2
Yogurt solids — 5
Raisins 63 63 50 50

'Ingredients based on 100 parts flour.

bSponge temperature, 78°F, ferment 3.5 hr. Dough temperature, 80°F Floor time, 30 min. Bake approximately 400°F.
`Dough temperature, 80°F Floor time, 30 min.
dDough temperature, 80°F. Floor time, 30 min.
Source: Ref. 20.
562 Kulp and Ponte

Project

Date Mixed Date Scored

SAMPLE:
DOUGH
Penalized For:
Dough Characteristics:

Sponge (2) A. Bold B. Flat C. Sticky

Dough Mixing Characteristics
Mix Time (5) A. Too High B. Too low

Mixing Tolerance (10) A. Critical B. Two Minutes C. One Minute

Machinability (10) A. Torn B. Sticky C. Bucky D. Slack

E. Elastic F. Does not Seal G. Equipment
Prob.
Subtotal 27
External: BREAD

Volume Score (10) A. Small B. Large

Avg. Volume, cc
So. Volume, cc/g
Uniformity of Shape (5) A. lack of Boldness B. Uneven Top
C.Shrunken Sides D. Low Side E. Low
Middle F. Flat Top G. Small End
Crust Characteristic (2) A. Light B. Dark C. Uneven D. Dull
E. Thick F. Tough G. Brittle
Break and Shred (3) A. Wild B. None C. Shelled
D.Insufficient
Subtotal 20
Internal:

Grain (20) A. Open Coarse B. Thick Cell Walls

C. Boles D. Non—uniform
Crumb Color (10) A. Dull Gray B. Creamy

Crumb Strength (10) A. Tough B. Weak

Texture (13) A. Bough B. Core C. Crumbly D. Firm

E.Gummy
Flavor and Aroma (0) A. Satisfactory B. Unsatisfactory
Subtotal 53
Total Score 100
Comments:

Evaluated By:

FIGURE 13 Flour quality evaluation program score sheet. (Courtesy of American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS.)
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 563

TABLE 22 Ingredient Limits for Bread and Rolls

Standardized Nonstandardized
product product
Ingredient (% flour weight) (% flour weight)

Flour No limit No limit

Water 38 maximum No limit
Shortening No limit No limit
Salt No limit No limit
Milk No limit No limit
Sweetener No limit No limit
Yeast nutrientsa 0.25 maximum No limit
Nonwheat flours 3 maximum No limit
Oxidants
Azodicarbonamide 45 ppm 45 ppm
Potassium bromate
Potassium iodate
Calcium iodate 75 ppm, total 75 ppm, total
Calcium peroxide
Ascorbic acid No limit No limit
Monocalcium phosphate 0.75 maximum No limit
Enzyme active soy 0.5 maximum No limit
Calcium propionate No limit No limit
Spices No coloring spiceb No limit
Color Not permitted No limit
Emulsifers and dough conditioners
Calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate 0.5 maximum' 0.5 maximum'
Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate 0.5 maximum' No limit
Mono- and diglycerides No limit No limit
Succinylated monoglyceride 0.5 maximum' 0.5 maximum'
Polysorbate 0.5 maximum' 0.5 maximum'
Ethoxylated monoglyceride 0.5 maximum' 0.5 maximum'
Diacetyl tartaric acid esters No limit No limit
Other safe and suitable ingredients

aDoes not include monocalcium phosphate.

bOnly spices that do not impart egglike color.

`Total not to exceed 0.5%.

Source: Ref. 21.
564 Kulp and Ponte

TABLE 23 Functions of Bread Ingredients

Ingredient Function

Structure
1. Protein (gliadin and glutenin) and water form viscoelastic material, called gluten. Gluten retains gas
Flour formed by sugar fermentation and contributes to structure of dough and bread.
2. Starch + water + heat forms a viscous paste that sets to a gel after baking. During bread storage the starch
crystallizes (retrogrades and contributes to firming (major part of staling) of breads.
3. Protein content for bread flour: 11-13%, 14% moisture basis.
Hydration
Water 1. Combines (hydrates) protein to form gluten.
2. Hydrates flour gums (pentosans) and mill-damaged starch granules.
3. Solvent, dispersing agent, and medium for chemical and biochemical reactions.
4. Aids dough mobility.
Leavening
Yeast 1. Produces carbon dioxide, ethanol by fermentation of fermentable sugars.
2. Conditions dough biochemically.
3. Forms flavor precursors (by-products of alcoholic fermentation).
4. Rate of fermentation is controlled by temperature, nutrient supply, water level, pH, sugar concentration,
salt, and level and type of yeast.
Flavor Enhancer
Salt 1. Helps control fermentation.
2. Toughens dough by interaction with gluten.
3. Extends required dough development (delayed addition in dough mixing decreases mixing time by
10-20%).
Controls Fermentation
Mineral yeast food 1. Water condition-calcium salts.
2. Yeast conditioners-ammonium salts.
3. Dough conditioners-oxidizing agents.
Energy Source for Yeast
Sugar 1. Fermentable carbohydrates (fermentation).
2. Flavor-residual sugars (sweeteners), fermentation by-products, Maillard-type compounds during baking.
3. Crust color-results of caramelization (sugars and heat) and nonenzymatic browning (reducing sugar plus
amino group of proteins, amino acids, etc.).
4. Extends shelf life by increasing hygroscopicity due to presence of residual sugars and tenderizing the
crumb.
Lubrication
Shortening 1. Ease of gas cell expansion in doughs.
2. Lubricates slicing blades during bread slicing.
3. Extends shelf life.
4. Tenderizes crust.
Nutrition and Crust Color Enhancement
Dairy products 1. Protein (high in lysine) and calcium.
2. Flavor enhancement.
3. Crust color (browning reaction and caramelization).
4. Buffering effect in doughs and liquid ferments.
Nutrition
Enrichment 1. Standards of Identity require the following levels per lb of bread:
Fe = 12.5 mg
Niacin = 15.0 mg
Ca (optional ingredient) = 600 mg
Riboflavin - 1.1 mg
Thiamine = 1.8 mg
Retardation of Microbial Spoilage
Mold inhibitors 1. Retard mold growth and extend spoilage free life.
2. Also retard formation of "rope" by B. subtilis.
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 565

TABLE 23 Continued

Ingredient Function
Enhancement of Flour Strength
Wheat gluten 1. Increases dough strength (1% gluten increases protein content by 0.6%).
2. Increases water absorption [1% added gluten (flour basis) enhances absorption by 1.5% (flour basis)].
3. Improves dough mixing of fermentation tolerance.
4. Increases bread loaf volume.
5. Especially used in formulation of specialty breads.
Diastatic malt 1. Contributes fermentable sugar maltose.
2. Contains amylases, which convert starches to sugars.
3. Enhances flavor.
4. Improves crust color.
5. Improves dough handling.
6. Extends shelf life.
Nondiastatic malt 1. Contributes sugar (maltose).
2. Enhances flavor.
3. Improves crust color.
Enzymes
A. Amylases:
1. Convert starches to sugars.
2. Aid crust color.
3. Improve dough handling.
4. Extend shelf life.
5. Less heat stable than cereal amylases (they are inactivated before starch gelatinizes in the oven).
6. Heat stable, bacterial, and intermediate heat-stable bacterial/fungal amylases are available and used to
retard staling.
B. Proteases:
1. Weaken doughs due to cleavage of peptide bonds in wheat proteins.
2. Reduce dough-mixing time.
3. Increase pan flow.
C. Enzyme active soy flour
1. Contains lipoxygenase enzyme, which acts as:
a. Bread crumb whitener.
b. Shelf-life improver.
c. Dough strength and mixing dough tolerance enhancer.
Soy flour
1. Improves nutrition of product by increasing lysine.
2. Extends shelf life.
3. Enhances dough strength and dough-mixing tolerance.

Source: Ref. 12.

566 Kulp and Ponte

TABLE 24 Analytical Indices of Bread Floursa

Protein Falling no. Amylograph

Flour type (N x 5.7) (%) Ash (%) (sec) value (B.U.)
Hard Red
Spring Wheat (HRS)
Patent 12.0-13.5 0.42-0.48 215-240 400-500
Clear 12.5-14.0 0.65-0.80 215-240 400-500
Whole wheat 13.5-15.5 1.70-1.80 215-240 400-500
Hard Red
Winter Wheat (HRW)
Patent 10.5-11.8 0.42-0.48 220-245 400-500
Clear 11.8-12.6 0.65-0.75 220-245 400-500
Whole wheat 11.6-12.5 1.70-1.80 220-245 400-500
aAll values reported on 14% moisture basis.
Source: Ref. 22.

TABLE 25 Protein Content (dry basis)

of Dairy and Nondairy Ingredients of
Dairy Blends
Ingredient
Nonfat 36.5
Sweet cream buttermilk 34.0
Sweet dairy whey 12.0
Caseinates and whey protein 34-90
Soy flour 50.0
Soy (further processed) 50-70
Corn flour 10
Source: Ref. 23.
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 567

TABLE 26 Yeast
Storage
temperature Moisture Conversion
Form (°F/°C) Storage time (%) Method of addition factor'
Fresh, compressed
Cake Crumbled 34 45/2-7 3-4 weeks 67-72 Weigh and add with other
34 45/2-7 3-4 weeks 67-72 ingredients or disperse
in water before mixing.
Fresh, cream (liquid) 35-39.1-4 10-14 days 80-84 Meter and add with other 1.5-1.8
ingredients.
Dry
Active dry yeast (ADY) Room temperature 1-12 months 6-8 Must hydrate at 105- 0.4-0.5
110°F (40-43°C) for
10-15 min, then use.
Instant dry Room temperature 1 year plus 4-6 Blend dry with other dry 0.33-0.4
(depending on ingredients or delay
packaging) addition in mixer.
aConversion factor relates the amount of other forms of yeast to compressed yeast.
Source: Compiled from various sources.

TABLE 27 Composition of Representative

Yeast Foods and a Dough Conditioner
Type I
Calcium acid phosphate 50.0%
Sodium chloride 19.35
Ammonium sulfate 7.0
Potassium bromate 0.12
Potassium iodate 0.10
Starch (filler) 23.43
Type II
Calcium sulfate 25.0%
Ammonium chloride 9.7
Potassium bromate 0.3
Sodium chloride 25.0
Starch 40.0
Type III
Calcium peroxide 0.65%
Ammonium phosphate 9.0
Dicalcium phosphate 9.0
Starch or flour 90.35
Source: Ref. 24.
568 Kulp and Ponte

TABLE 28 FDA Regulations for Dough Strengtheners/Crumb Softeners Standardized Products

Product Limitation Reference' Function

Calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate 0.5% max.a CFR21, 136.110 Dough strengthener (excellent)

Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate
DATA Esters
Mono- and diglycerides
Succinylated monoglycerides
Polysorbate 60
Ethoxylated monoglycerides
Sucrose esters
Crumb softener (good)
0.5% max. CFR21, 136.110 Dough strengthener (excellent)
Crumb softener (very good)
No limit CFR21, 136.110 Dough strengthener (excellent)
Crumb softener (fair)
No limit CFR21, 136.110 Dough strengthener (none)
Crumb softener (excellent)
0.5% max.a CFR21, 136.110 Dough strengthener (good)
Crumb softener (good)
0.5% max.a CFR21, 136.110 Dough strengthener (fair)
Crumb softener (good)
0.5% max." CFR21, 136.110 Dough strengthener (very good)
Crumb softener (poor)
GMPb CFR 170.3 Dough strengthener (very good)
Crumb softener (good)

'Total alone or in combination cannot exceed 0.5% based on flour.

bUse in accordance with good manufacturing practices.

`Code of Federal Regulations.

Source: Ref. 25.

TABLE 29 Enzymes in Baking

Enzyme Source Commercial form

Cereal amylases Barley malt Barley malt flour

Barley malt Malt extract and syrup
Barley malt/fungal amylase Malt syrups with non-cereal amylase
Bacterial amylase Bacterial (B. subtilis) Powder, tablets, for retardation of staling
Fungal amylases Fungi (Aspergillius spp.) Powder, tablets, pouches
Proteases Fungi (Aspergillus spp.) Tablets, powders, malt syrup with fungal protease
Bacterial (B. subtilis) Tablets of powder
Bromelain (protease) Fruits Tablets or powders
Lipoxygenase Soy Active soy flour used for blending and dough oxidation

Source: Ref. 26.

Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 569

TABLE 30 Definitions of Changes Affecting Freshness of Bread During Storage

Term describing
loss of freshness Definition
Staling A series of changes that cause a
decrease in consumer acceptance
other than that resulting from the
action of spoilage organisms.
Microbial spoilage Growth of microorganisms in crust
or crumb during storage.
Flavor deterioration Part of staling (see Staling above).
Characteristics
Crust staling: loss of crispness.
Crumb staling: firming,
development of crumbliness,
loss of flavor, and emergence
of stale flavor.
Molds (various Aspergilli,
Penicillia) wild yeasts, spore
formers.
Loss of fresh bread flavor and
aroma. Development of stale
bread flavor.
Cause
Moisture migration from crumb
to crust.
Retrogradation, complexation of
flavorants with amylose and
oxidative changes.
Contaminated ingredients, air,
and equipment during
processing.
Complexation of flavorants with
amylose.
Oxidative changes in flavorants,
migration of flavorants from
crust to crumb.

Source: Refs. 27, 37.

TABLE 31 Methods of Determination of Freshness of Breads

Method Principle Reference/use

Compressibility
Capacitance/Conductance
Cell-wall firmness measurements Determines compressibility of a bread crumb
Differential thermal analysis
X-ray diffraction
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Rate of starch crystallization
Iodine absorption
Panel test evaluation of staling
I. Physical Methods
A uniform square of crumb is compressed to AACC Method 74-10, most common
constant deformation using Baker's research and control method [41].
Compressimeter or Instron. The required
compression force increases with bread age.
Both properties increase with the age of bread. Kay and Willhoft, research method [42].
Guy and Wren research method [43].
pellet; eliminates effect of loaf volume.
Emergence of an endothermic peak indicative of Axford and Collwell, Russell [44].
starch crystallization
Change of x-ray diffraction pattern from A to B/V. Zobel, research. NOTE: not usable in bread
with bacterial a-amylase [23].
Measures decrease of water mobility which Leung et al. [45].
decreases with age of bread.
Avrami Equation [0 = EL — Et)/(EL — E0) = exp Comford et al. widely used in research [46].
(—kt")] is used to estimate the rate constant k; 1/k
= time constant of crystallization of the system
is generally reported (the higher the value, the
slower the rate); 0 is noncrystalline portion, EL
is limiting modulus and Et, E0 moduli at times t
and 0, respectively
II. Chemical Methods
This value decreases with bread aging; it may be Pelshenke and Hampel, research [47].
determined colorimetrically, iodometrically, or
potentiometrically.
III. Sensory Methods
Bread samples rating by panel for degree of AACC 77-30, widely used in control and
staleness. research work [41].

Source: Ref. 28.

570 Kulp and Ponte

TABLE 32 Theories of Bread Staling

Theory according to: Basis

Schoch and French [30] Retrogradation of starch polymers.

Amylose crystallizes rapidly
and produces initial firmness.
Firming during storage is
attributed to crystallization of
amylopectin.
Lineback [31] Essentially same as Schoch's
except it emphasizes
intergranular interaction.
Knyaginichev [32] Formation of structured gel,
consisting of starch, protein,
and water.
Erlander and Erlander [33] Interaction of gliadin and glutenin
with starch chains.
Willhoft [34] Implicated gluten in addition to
starch.
Martin et al. [35] Protein-starch interactions.

Source: Refs. 27, 23.

Amorphous Amylose Crystalline Amylopectin

Retrograded Amylose v Gelled Amylopectin

*:
—0 Polar Lipid '"'""^"`' Gluten

Amylose Helix Potential site for gluten

V carbohydrate interaction.

ViV Amylose Complex, 'V'

Crystal

Fresh Bread Reheating Stale Bread

FIGURE 14 Mechanism of bread staling. (From Ref. 23.)

Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods 571

TABLE 33 Effect of Sorbates and Propionates on Mold-Free Shelf Life of

Baking Foods

% Flour basis % Product weight Average days

Additive in dough on surface without mold

Variety bread
None 0 0 3
Ca propionate 0.16 0 5
K sorbate 0 0.016 9
K sorbate 0.02 0.016 11+
Hamburger buns
None 0 0 7
Ca propionate 0.3 0 16
K sorbate 0 0.02 23
K sorbate 0.02 0.02 28+
English muffins
None 0 0 5
Ca propionate 1.0 0.1a 9
K sorbate 0.12 0.1 12
K sorbate 0.12 0.2 26+
Brown and serve rolls
None 0 0 4
Ca propionate 0.4 0 9
K sorbate 0.05 0.06 14
K sorbate 0.05 0.12 27+
Flour tortillas
None 0 0 2
Ca propionate 0.25 0 2
K sorbate 0.05 0.1 9
K sorbate 0.05 0.2 36+

aln dusting flour.

Source: Ref. 38.
572 Kulp and Ponte

TABLE 34 Effect of Antimicrobial Agents on Mold-Free TABLE 35 Effect of Antimicrobial Agents on

Shelf Life of Bread Rope-Free Shelf Life in Bread
Mold-free shelf %, Flour Days of rope-
life (days)' Antimicrobial agent basis free shelf life
Usage Sponge/ No-time Acetic acid 0.1 3-6
Antimicrobial agent (oz/CWT) Dough dough 0.2 >21
Calcium acetate 0.3 3-6
Single agents 0.4 6-10
Ca propionate 6 7 5 0.5 >21
5 6 4 Sodium diacetate 0.2 3-6
4 6 4 0.3 17-21
3 4 4 Propionic acid 0.1 3-6
0 3 3 0.2 >21
Sodium diacetate 6 7 5 Calcium propionate 0.18 3-6
5 6 4 0.23 6-10
4 6 4 0.35 >21
3 4 4 Sodium propionate 0.2 3-6
0 3 3 None-control 0.0 0-3
200 Grain vinegar 16 5 5
8 3 3 Source: Ref. 40.
6 3 3
4 3 3
0 3 3 REFERENCES
Potassium sorbate 2.5 3 4
1.5 3 3 1. Milling census reports, Milling Baking News, 24(4):19-21,
0 3 3 25-30 (1995).
Combination of agents 2. U.S. Industrial Outlook-Food and Beverages, Table 34,
Ca propionate: Na U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C., 1992.
diacetate 6:0 6 5 3. Census of Manufacturers. Bakery Products, sic 2051 and
6:1 5 4 2052, U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Sta-
4.5:1.5 5 4 tistics, Bureau of Census, Washington, D.C., 1992.
3:3 4 3 4. 1977 Industry Outlook, Bakery production and Marketing
0:0 3 3 46:50-54, 1977.
Ca propionate: 200 grain 5. Trends-Baking industry, Wholesalers pitch new products.
vinegar 6:4 8 5 Bakery, Nay 1988, pp. 34-38.
5:4 6 5 6. Kulp, K., and Dubois, D. K., Breads and sweet goods in the
4:4 6 5 United States, American Institute of Baking Research De-
3:4 6 4 partment Technical Bulletin, 4 (6), 1982.
0:4 3 3 7. Zelch, R., American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS,
Ca propionate/mono- personal communication, 1999.
calcium phosphate 6:4 8 5 8. Kulp, K., Technology of brew systems in bread production,
5:4 8 5 Bakers Dig., 57(3):20, 22-23 (1983).
4:4 7 5 9. Lorenz, K., and Kulp, K. Freezing of doughs for production
4:5 6 5 of breads and rolls in the United States, in: Frozen and Re-
0:4 4 4 frigerated Doughs and Batters, (K. Kulp, K. Lorenz, and J.
Bruemmer, eds.), American Association of Cereal
'Slices of bread inoculated with mold spores. Chemists, St Paul, MN, 1995, pp. 136-153.
Source: Ref. 39. 10. Selling, S., Equipment demands of changing production re-
quirements, Bakers Dig., 43(5):54-56, 58, 59 (1969).
11. Snyder, E., Continuous baking, process: its success and fu-
ture, Bakers Dig., 37(4):50-52, 54-56 (1963).
12. Doerry, W. T., Breadmaking Technology, chapters 4, 5, and
6. American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS, 1995, pp.
62-162.
13. Redfern, S., Brachfeld, B. A., and Maselli, J. A., Continuous
mix temperatures, Cereal Sci. Today, 9:190, 191 (1964).
Breads and Yeast-Leavened Bakery Foods
14. Cauvain, S. P., Bread making processes, in: Technology of
breadmaking (S. P. Cauvain and L. S. Young, eds.), Blackie
Academic Prof, London, 1998, p. 35.
15. Friedman, M., Pizza raise more dough, Frozen Food Age,
48(6):1, 26-28 (1997).
16. Lehmann, T., American Institute of Baking, private commu-
nication, 1998.
17. Doerry, W. T., and Meloan E., Croissant technology, Ameri-
can Institute of Baking, Research Department, Technical
Bulletin 7(10), 1986.
18. Meloan, E., and Doerry, W. T., Update on bagel technology,
American Institute of Baking, Research Department, Bul-
letin 10(4), 1986.
19. Dubois, D. K., English muffin production technology,
American Institute of Baking Research Bulletin 1(1), 1979.
20. Ponte, J. G., Jr., Production technology of various breads,
in: Variety Breads in United States (B. S. Miller, ed.), Amer-
ican Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1981,
pp. 9-26.
21. Dubois, D. K., Labeling aspects of variety breads, in:
Variety Breads in United States, St Paul, MN, 1981, pp.
27-35.
22. Bennett, R., American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS,
personal communication, 1988.
23. Zobel, H. F., A review of bread staling, Bakers Dig.,
47(4):52-53, 56-61 (1973).
24. Pyler, E. J., Baking Science and Technology, Vol. I, Siebel
Publishing Company, Chicago, IL, 1983, pp. 68-73.
25. Dubois, D. K., Dough strengtheners and crumb softeners. I.
Definition and classification, American Institute of Baking
Research Department Technical Bulletin 1(4), 1979.
26. Dubois, D. K., Enzymes in baking: Classification, Ameri-
can Institute of Baking Research Department Technical
Bulletin, 2(10), 1980.
27. Kulp, K., and Ponte, J. G., Jr., Staling of white pan bread.
Fundamental causes, CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.,
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28. Kulp, K., and Vetter, J., Effect of aging on freshness of
white pan bread, in: Handbook of Food and Beverage Sta-
bility (G. Charailanibous, ed.), Academic Press, Inc., New
York, 1986, pp. 1-31.
29. Stahel, N. G., Milk replacers, Proceedings of the 58th An-
nual Meeting of Bakery Engineers, Chicago, IL, 1982, pp.
68-73.
30. Schoch, T. J., Mechanism of bread firming. I. Role of starch
firming, Cereal Chem., 24:231-249 (1947).
31. Lineback, D. R., The role of starch in bread staling, in: In-
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32. Knyginichev, The nature of staleness of bread and preserva-
tion of freshness, 2nd Vses. Khim. 0-va, 10:277 (1965).
33. Erlander, S. R., and Erlander, L. G., Explanation of ionic se-
quences in various phenomena. X. Protein-carbohydrate in-
teractions on mechanism of staling of breads, Staerke,
2/:305-315 (1968).
34. Willhoft, E. M. A., Breadstaling. I. Experimental study. II.
Theoretical study, J. Sci. Food Agric., 22:176-180 (1971).
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nism of bread firming. I. Role of starch firming, Cereal
Chem., 68:498 (1991).
36. Bowles, L. K., Amylolytic enzymes, in Baked Foods Fresh-
ness (R. E. Habeda and H. F., Zobel, eds.), Marcel Dekker,
New York, 1996, pp. 105-129.
37. Zobel, H. F., and Kulp, K., The staling mechanism, in:
Baked Foods Freshness (R. E. Habeda and H. F. Zobel,
eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996, pp. 1-64.
38. Monsanto Company, Potassium sorbate surface treatment
for yeast-raised products, Monsanto Co, St. Louis, MO,
1977, p. 3.
39. Brisco, R. Mould control in baked goods, Bakers J.,
39(20):12-13, 31-32 (1978).
40. Ingram, M., Ottaway, F. L. M., and Coppock, J. B. M., The
preservative action of acid substance in food, Chem. Ind.
(London), 1154-1163 (1978).
41. American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC), Ap-
proved Methods of the AACC, AACC, St. Paul, MN, 1983.
42. Kay, M., and Willhoft, E. M. A. Bread staling IV. Electrical
properties of the crumb during staling. J. Sci. Food Agric.,
23:321-331 (1972).
43. Guy, R. C. E., and Wren, J. J., A method for measuring the
firmness of the cell-wall material of bread, Chem. Ind.
(London):1727-1728 (1968).
44. Axford, D. M. E., and Colwell, K. H. Thermal investigation
of bread staling. Chem. Ind. (London):467-468 (1967).
45. Leung, H. K., Magnuson, J. A., and Bruisma, B. L., Water
binding of wheat flour doughs and breads as studied by
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46. Comford, S. J., Axford, J. A., and Elton, G. A. H., The elas-
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18
SOFT WHEAT PRODUCTS
Hamed Faridi
McCormick & Company, Inc., Hunt Valley, Maryland
Charles S. Gaines
Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Wooster, Ohio
Brian L. Strouts
American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas
I. INTRODUCTION
The terms "soft" and "hard" as applied to wheats are de-
scriptions of the texture of the wheat kernel. Their textures
are also appropriate to their wheat class designation.
Wheats in the soft wheat class are softer than those of the
hard wheat class. Additionally, soft and hard wheats pro-
duce flour with very different and easily measurable prop-
erties. Flour obtained from soft wheat kernels has a small-
er average particle size than does flour from hard wheat
kernels. Soft wheats normally have lower protein content
than hard wheats. Low-protein (7-10%) flour milled from
soft wheat is most suitable for making cakes, cookies, pas-
tries, and breakfast biscuits [1]. The number and types of
products made from soft wheat are large compared to hard
wheat and are partially listed in Table 1. All of those prod-
ucts have better appearance and eating quality when made
from soft rather than hard wheat flour. Soft wheat pro-
duces better volume and more tender texture in those
products than does hard wheat. Soft wheat products re-
main very popular worldwide. The U.S. per capita con-
sumption of a number of soft wheat products is shown in
Table 2.
575
II. INGREDIENTS
A. Flour
Soft wheats differ from hard wheats in kernel softness, a
basic genetic characteristic that is directly inherited. When
ground or milled, soft wheat fractures into significantly
smaller particles than hard wheat, which is reflected in the
greater amount of "break flour" produced during milling.
Break flour is the portion of the kernel endosperm that is
released at the beginning of the milling process. It is pro-
duced with the least crushing or particle reduction energy.
Break flour has the smallest particle size and lowest pro-
tein content of flour produced from the soft wheat kernel.
To achieve greater uniformity and consistency in pro-
cessing, specifications are adopted by miller and baker that
vary among companies as well as from one baking plant to
another. However, the specifications have some common
features. Modernization and automation of the bakeries ne-
cessitate exact and demanding specifications for incoming
flour. Although the specifications change depending on the
particular product baked, the following are overall specifi-
cations for soft wheat and soft wheat flour [3].
576 Faridi et al.

TABLE 1 Products Made from Soft Wheat For flour:

Biscuits Pancakes Bright and creamy color and relatively low ash content
Cookies Doughnuts Low to medium flour protein content (7-10% on 14%
Crackers' Oriental noodles moisture basis)
Wafers Thickening agent for soups and Low water absorption
soup mixes
Low damaged-starch content
Pretzels' Crumbs for coating fish and
Fine flour granulation
meat products'
Cakes Breakfast cereals
Medium mixing requirement and satisfactory dough-han-
Pastry products from pie crust dling properties
to sweet Danish pastry Flat breads' High volume in cakes with satisfactory texture
Waffles Ice cream cones Tender bite in cookies and crackers
Amylograph
'Soft wheat flour or blend of soft and hard wheat flour.
Cookie spread
pH
Proper chlorination
For wheat:
There are so many different types of baked products in-
High test weight or 1000-kernel weight; uniformity of ker- volved that no one criterion can meet all of the require-
nel size ments of the numerous soft wheat products. Flour consti-
Ease of milling and high flour yield tutes the primary raw material to which all soft wheat
Low to medium protein content (8-11% on 14% moisture product formulations are related. It provides a matrix
basis) around which other ingredients in varying proportions are
Moisture content not exceeding 13% mixed to form dough or batter systems.
Kernel softness (particle size index > 55s) Cookie, cracker, and pastry flours (Table 3) normally
Low amylase activity; no sprout damage receive no special treatment or additives, i.e., they are not

TABLE 2 Per Capita Consumption of Soft Wheat Bakery Products in the United States (lb/person)

Product 1988 1989 1990 199P 1992b 1993b

Sweet yeast goods 3.78 3.90 3.99 4.04 4.11 4.11

Doughnuts 1.29 1.41 1.50 1.56 1.63 1.71
All other (coffee cakes, etc.) 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.48 2.48 2.40
Soft cakes 7.21 7.52 7.73 7.90 8.13 8.34
Snack cakes 6.05 6.38 6.64 6.86 7.13 7.36
All other 1.16 1.14 1.09 1.04 1.00 0.98
Pies 1.74 1.71 1.69 1.68 1.66 1.64
Snack pies 1.41 1.43 1.44 1.46 1.47 1.48
All other 0.33 0.28 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.16
Cake-type doughnuts 1.14 1.31 1.22 1.09 0.99 0.92
Cookies 12.23 12.91 12.58 12.15 12.18 12.29
Sandwich 2.96 3.14 3.15 2.99 3.02 3.06
Marshmallow 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23
Wafers for ice cream sandwiches 0.29 0.31 0.31 0.30 0.31 0.31
All other 8.71 9.20 8.86 8.51 8.62 8.69
Crackers 7.97 7.96 8.08 8.11 8.15 8.23
Graham 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66
Saltines 2.10 2.02 1.98 1.93 1.88 1.85
Cracker sandwiches 0.52 0.54 0.59 0.57 0.73 0.76
All other 4.65 4.71 4.83 4.84 4.87 4.96
Pretzels 1.11 1.15 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.22

'Estimate.
bForecast.
Source: Ref. 2.
Soft Wheat Products 577

TABLE 3 Characteristics of Flour Used for Cookies/Crackers Production

Typical ranges

Ash Viscosity Spread factor

Product type Wheat blend' Protein (%) (ow (W/T)c
(%)
Cookies
Wire cut SWW-SRW 7.0-8.0 .38—.42 20-40 8.5-10.0
Rotary SWW-SRW 8.0-9.0 .38—.42 30-50 7.5-9.0
Deposit SWW-SRW 7.5-8.5 .38—.42 25-45 8.0-9.5
Crackers
Soda-sponge SRW-HRW 9.0-10.0 .41—.45 55-70 6.5-8.0
Soda-dough SRW 8.5-9.5 .39—.43 40-55 7.5-9.0
Snack SRW 8.5-9.5 .40—.44 40-55 7.5-9.0

"SRW = Soft Red Winter; SWW = Soft White Winter; HRW = Hard Red Winter.
bMacMichael value.

`Width/Thickness.
Source: Ref. 4.

normally chlorinated or chemically matured and have no TABLE 5 Attributes of a Good Cake Flour
chemical leavening additives such as phosphates or self-
Ability to carry the high amounts of sugar in the formula.
rising ingredients. However, cookie flours and breakfast
Ability to develop a strong network structure without making
biscuit flours are at times bleached very lightly as a means
the product tough.
of reducing or controlling the "spread" of the product. Fine particle size.
Breakfast biscuit flour often contains self-rising leavening Chlorination (1100-239 ppm), pH range 4.5-5.2.
ingredients. Low-protein-content (7-8%) soft red or white flour.
Cake flour is treated with chlorine to pH values of
4.5-5.2. Table 4 shows the levels of chlorine gas required
to lower the pH of flour (an indicator of the level of chlo-
rine treatment). A distinguishing characteristic of cake B. Water
flour is that often it receives additional postmilling treat-
The function of water is the least understood factor in
ment to reduce its particle size, which is relatively fine
baked products [5]. Water acts as a plasticizer, and the
compared to cookie flour. Small flour particles tend to pro- amount of water added is adjusted to produce a batter or
duce larger cake volume. The characteristics of flour suit-
dough of acceptable consistency for processing. The quali-
able for the production of cakes are shown on Table 5.
ty of water used as an ingredient can have greater effects
on bakery products than is generally recognized. The
amount and type of dissolved minerals and organic sub-
TABLE 4 Chlorination Level for Production of stances present in water can affect the flavor, color, and
Bleached Floura physical attributes of finished baked goods as well as the
machining of doughs, marshmallows, icings, etc. [6,7]. For
Oz. chlorine/
example, some trace metals, particularly copper, may have
100 lb flour pH
catalytic effects on the development of rancidity in fats and
None 5.87 oils [8]. Table 6 shows some characteristics of water relat-
1.00 5.28 ed to baking. Table 7 shows the baking industry's water
1.25 5.15 hardness classification.
1.50 5.03
1.75 1.70b 4.94 C. Chemical Leavenings
2.00 4.86
Four major gases are used in the leavening of soft wheat
'Values are valid for flours with 0.36% ash content. The products: air, water vapor, ammonia, and carbon dioxide
higher the ash content of a flour, the greater the resis-
(Table 8). Most soft wheat products are chemically leav-
tance to pH change.
bRecommended treatment for optimum baking results.
ened. Yeast rarely is used for leavening soft wheat prod-
Source: Courtesy of M. C. Harris. ucts, except for some crackers. Leavening gives volume
578 Faridi et al.

TABLE 6 Characteristics of Water as an Ingredient for reduces the amount of control that can be exercised over its
Production of Soft Wheat Products leavening action [9].
Normal pH range 6.5-6.8 Specifications for purchasing baking soda should in-
Variable composition dissolved solids range 150-500 ppm clude a purity requirement and particle size limitations.
Water hardness' The latter are determined by the desired use for the soda.
Soft water Table 9 shows the particle size distributions of six com-
Dough stickiness mercial types of sodium bicarbonate. Powdered grade is
Lower absorption mostly used for breakfast biscuits, cookies, and most
Lower gas retention cakes. Powdered grade is used when substantial leavening
Hard water is needed before baking. It dissolves rapidly and complete-
Dough buckiness ly to assure complete availability for reaction with acid in-
Increase in the mixing time gredients [10]. Fine powdered grade is recommended for
'Water hardness = quantity of calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate in a angel food cakes, where long baking time requires a long
given sample. gas-release period, and in refrigerated and frozen doughs,
Source: Ref. 5. which need only minimal leavening before packaging and
during storage. It is also used in pancake mixes and baking
powders when uniformity and stability of the dry blend are
essential. Coarse granulation soda is useful in refrigerated
TABLE 7 Baking Industry's Water Hardness Classification doughs and some doughnut mixes.
Hardness (ppm of To produce baking powder, sodium bicarbonate is com-
Classification CaCO3 or CaSOa )' bined with leavening acids. Table 10 shows the most com-
mon leavening acids used in baking powder. The function
Very soft 0-15 of a leavening acid is to promote a controlled and nearly
Soft 15-50
complete evolution of carbon dioxide gas from a dough in
Medium hard 50-100
Hard 100-200 which the latter compound exists in its dissolved or bound
Very hard Over 200 form. The acid should not have any deleterious effects on
other dough constituents (e.g., it should not weaken the
"50-100 ppm considered best for baking. gluten) [8]. By law, a baking powder must produce at least
Source: Ref. 6.
12% carbon dioxide upon complete reaction. That regula-
tion establishes the level of soda in the baking powder [1].
The choice of which leavening acid to use is based on a
number of factors, the most important of which is the rate
and a more tender bite to the finished product. Carbon of reaction. Kickline and Conn [9] have published the rela-
dioxide mainly is generated by added sodium bicarbonate, tive reaction rates of the common leavening acids (Fig. 1).
which reacts with leavening acids, generating the gas. The Since sodium bicarbonate dissolves almost immediately, it
popularity of sodium bicarbonate as a gas source is based is the leavener's rate of dissolution that determines the rate
on its low cost, lack of toxicity, ease of handling, very of carbon dioxide release. This characteristic is useful in
small contribution to the taste of the end product, and high selecting the best leaveners for a specific use.
purity of commercial supplies. Sodium bicarbonate has a Baking powders are classified as "fast acting," "slow
rapid rate of dissolution at room temperature, a feature that acting," and "double acting" (Table 11). Fast-acting pow-

TABLE 8 Major Leavening Gases Used in Leavening of Soft Wheat Products

Gas Source Comments
Air Mixing process Nitrogen solubility in water is low. Forms nucleation sites during mixing.
Water vapor Water as an ingredient Because of high boiling point has a limited effect.
Ammonia Ammonium bicarbonate Decomposes completely. No residual salts. Used in products that are baked
to near dryness such as cookies and crackers.
Carbon dioxide Bicarbonates, mainly sodium Needs an acid for appropriate leavening activity (see Table 10).
Source: Ref. 1.
Soft Wheat Products 579

TABLE 9 Physical Characteristics of Commercial Sodium Bicarbonate

Extra coarse
Cumulative percentage Powdered Fine powdered Fine powdered Granular Granular granular
retained by No. 1 (%) No. 3 (%) No. 3DF (%) No. 4 (%) No. 5 (%) No. 6 (%)

29 meshy
42 mesh Trace Trace 13.00
65 mesh NAb 27.00 91.00
100 mesh 0.50 0.01 1.50 92.50 99.32
170 mesh 17.50 3.50 Trace 80.50 99.00 99.60
200 mesh 30.00 9.00 0.5 91.00 99.70 99.65
325 mesh 63.00 30.00 15.0 97.50 99.80 99.76
400 mesh 76.00 36.00 45.00 98.50 99.90 99.86
Apparent density (1b/cu ft) 55.6 47.0 52.5 56.25 45.2 42.8

aThe various screens are given by mesh number. In cases where mesh does not correspond with screen number, the comparison is as fol-
lows: 29 mesh is equal to U.S. Standard No. 30; 42 is equal to U.S. No. 45; and 65 to U.S. to No. 70. In all others the mesh designation
and the U.S. Standard numbers are identical.
NA = Not available.
Source: Ref. 10.

ders release most of their gas at room temperature. Slow-
acting powders release a portion of the available carbon
dioxide during mixing but generate most of it by reactions
occurring at elevated temperatures. Double-acting pow-
ders are a version of the slow-acting type that have some-
what more gas-producing potential during mixing. Most
bulk powders for bakery use are of the double-acting type.
The reactivity of baking powders is determined by their
neutralization value (NV), which is defined as the number
of grams of soda that 100 g of acidic salt will neutralize
[10]. The neutralizing values of major chemical leaveners
are shown in Table 10. The acidic salt and soda are gener-
ally used in such proportions that after baking there re-
mains little, if any, unchanged soda or acidic salt in the fin-
ished product. There are some exceptions to this balancing
of acidic salt and soda when particular effects related to the
pH of the final product are desired (i.e., color, taste), e.g.,
the high pH of devil's-food cake. In average cases, howev-
er, the amount of soda has been fixed:
Amount of acidic salt = 100/acidic salt NV
x amount of soda
If two acidic salts of different NV's are desired in a given
application, two calculations are necessary after deciding
what fraction of the total soda will be neutralized by each
acidic salt [10,11]. Figure 2 shows the typical rate of reac-
tion curves for several leavening acids in a cookie dough
medium at 25°C. During baking, the product increases in
temperature (Fig. 3), which profoundly affects the reactiv-
ity of leavening agents.
Additionally, leaveners can contribute to the internal
structure of baked goods by means other than gas produc-
tion. This is due to the leaveners' cationic or anionic effect
on the other ingredients [9]. Of the cations present in phos-
phate leaveners-sodium, calcium, and aluminum ions-
the latter two can contribute markedly to structure in terms
of forming fine grain and generally thin cell wall size. Ad-
ditionally, calcium and aluminum types of leavener imptart
much more resiliency to baked goods than does the sodium
ion. Of the anions present in phosphate leaveners-ortho
and pyro ions-the latter will sometimes react with pro-
teins. The more moist texture of a pyrophosphate-leavened
product versus an orthophosphate one is attributed to this
interaction [9].
D. Fats and Emulsifiers
Fats (shortenings, oils, and emulsifiers) have many uses in
the bakery. They are used in dough and batters, in surface
sprays, and in cream fillings and coatings such as choco-
lates. The types and amounts of shortenings and emulsi-
fiers affect both the machining of doughs and the eating
quality of finished products. Coatings and fillings are de-
pendent upon fats to furnish the structural part of the sub-
stance as well as good flavor release when eaten.
In cake making, during mixing fat functions to contain
air as minute bubbles that form the nuclei for expansion
and texture during baking. In puff doughs fat is used to cre-
ate distinct horizontal layers of discontinuity that separate
and expand during baking. In cookie creams and chocolate
the physical properties of the fat must give a firm consis-
tency at ambient temperatures but rapid melting character-
istics in the mouth so that the sugar and other flavors re-
lease quickly. Fats used as surface coatings, applied as a
580 Faridi et al.

TABLE 10 Some Common Leavening Acids

Common name Rate at room Neutralizing

Chemical name Chemical formula or abbreviation temperature values Other characteristics

Monocalcium phosphate CaH4(PO4)2H20 MCP.H20 Very fast 80 Used in combination with

monohydrate slow acids to aid
nucleation
Monocalcium phosphate CaH4(PO4)2 MCP Slow 83 Slow reacting at room
anhydrous temperature, reacts in
oven
Dicalcium phosphate CaHPO42H2O DCP None 33 Slightly alkaline at room
dihydrate temperature. Trigger too
late for most products.
Used in frozen cake
batters.
Sodium acid pyrophosphate Na2H2P207 SAPP Slow to fast 72 Wide range of reactivity,
release CO2 in the oven,
used in production of cake
doughnuts
Sodium aluminum sulfate Na2SO4•Al2(SO4)3 SAS Slow 100 Little reaction until heated,
too slow to be used alone.
Used in double acting
household baking powder.
May accelerate fat
rancidity.
Sodium aluminum NaH14A13(F04)8 SALP Slow 100 Temperature triggered
phosphate hydrate 41420
Sodium aluminum NaH14A13(1)04)8 SALP Medium 110 Primarily temperature
phosphate anhydrous triggered
Potassium acid tartrate KHC4H406 Cream of tartar Medium fast 50 First leavening acid
developed, relatively
expensive
Glucono-delta-lactone C6H1006 GDL Slow 55 Very expensive. Some uses
in cake doughnuts.

'Parts by weight of sodium bicarbonate which will be neutralized by 100 parts of the baking acid under standardized conditions. Neutralizing values may
vary greatly as dough composition is changed.
Source: Refs. 7, 9.

spray of warm oil, for savory crackers are best if they have
limited absorption into the cookie and remain as a glossy
film [8].
In evaluating the suitability of a fat for baking use, its
organoleptic characteristics and its plastic range generally
receive primary consideration. Flavor and odor are of great
importance. Plastic range—consistency at different tem-
peratures—is also very important. Fats usually consist of a
mass of tiny individual solid crystals enmeshed in liquid
oil. Thus, the consistency of a fat is influenced by temper-
ature, the size of solid particles, the shape of the crystalline
material, crystal rigidity, and the solid-liquid ratio [13].
Table 12 describes the factors affecting the quality of fat
used in the formulation of soft wheat products.
Table 13 shows most of the fats available for production
of various soft wheat products. Fats must be sufficiently
plastic to enable good distribution during mixing and must
have little if any solid fat present at temperatures above
body temperature (37°C). Otherwise, the product will
leave a greasy or waxy feel in the mouth. The percentages
of solid fat from 50 to 110°F for several bakery shorten-
ings are shown in Table 14.
Bakery fats are often premixed with or used in con-
junction with emulsifiers. Emulsifiers are surface-active
agents whose function is to promote the formation and
stabilization of water/fat/air emulsions. They are used at
low (<1%) levels, and so are classified as minor ingredi-
ents or food additives. The most common emulsifier used
in soft wheat products is lecithin, principally derived from
soybeans [8].
Soft Wheat Products 581

400
•
300 •
\ DICALCIUM
• SALP \ PHOSPHATE
200 • DIHYDRATE
SAPP-28
•
•
• •
100 - • •
80 -
60 -

40 - •
•
•
MINUTES TO 60%REACTION

20 - •
•
\ SAPP RD-1

10 .- •
8- •

6- AMCP •
•
4- •
MONOCALCIUM
PHOSPHATE
MONOHYDRATE
• •
2 *.
•
•
•
•
1
20 30 40 50 60 70
BATTER TEMPERATURE, °C

FIGURE 1 Reaction rate versus batter temperature for various leavening acids. SAPP, sodium acid pyrophosphate; SALP, sodium alu-
minum phosphate; AMCP, anhydrous monocalcium phosphate; RD-1 is a grade of SAPP. (From Ref. 9.)

E. Fat Replacers
Increasingly, more bakery items are produced using sub-
stances that reduce the amount of fat in the bakery formula-
tion. Those products help consumers reduce their intake of
total fat. They allow some consumers who cannot eat high-
fat foods to enjoy fat-reduced baked items that they normal-
ly would not consume. Fat provides a kcal per gram, com-
pared with 4 kcal per gram for protein and carbohydrates.
Depending on the percentage of fat in the product—and
many products baked from soft wheat can be high in fat—a
reduction in calories from fat can have a large impact on the
total calories provided by the product. A low-fat bakery
food is defined as having 3 g of fat or less per serving.
Fat replacers and synergistic combinations of ingredi-
ents that function as fat replacers have a primary purpose.
They must contribute to baked items all of the normal func-
tions that normal fats contribute. However, they must not
contribute the calories, and certainly not the cholesterol or
saturated fat contributed by some traditional fats. Tradition-
al fats provide a rich taste and smooth, tender, moist mouth-
feel to baked products. Besides taste, texture, and mouth-
feel, fats help retard staling and provide longer shelf
stability [16]. Also, when traditional fats are removed or re-
placed, product browning characteristics often change [17].
The multifunctional roles of fat in baked products are
difficult to replace. That makes reduced fat baked products
a particular challenge to formulate and produce. It is un-
likely that a single fat replacer will fully replace traditional
fat in bakery products. Most reduced-fat formulations uti-
582 Faridi et al.

TABLE 11 Types of Baking Powder lize a synergistic blend of substitutes [18]. Product devel-
opment costs can be high, but fortunately health-conscious
Type Ingredient
consumers are curious about reduced-fat products and ap-
Fast acting parently will tolerate them with repeat purchases if they
Formula No. 1 provide the expected level of quality taste and enjoyment
Tartaric acid 5.97 they find in traditional products.
Cream of tartar 44.90 There are three main categories of fat replacers. In the
Sodium bicarbonate 26.73 order of their introduction to the marketplace, they are car-
Starch 22.40
bohydrate-, protein-, and fat-based replacers. In principle,
Formula No. 2
Monocalcium phosphate 33.43 carbohydrate- and protein-based fat replacers have more
Sodium bicarbonate 26.73 utility replacing fat in higher-moisture foods where fat
Starch 39.84 plays less of a functional role. In lower-moisture foods,
Slow acting like most baked goods, fat has critical functional and struc-
Formula No. 1 tural roles. Replacing fat in those baked products often has
Sodium acid pyrophosphate 40.38 a pronounced tendency to reduce product quality [19].
Sodium bicarbonate 30.59 Some of the commercially available fat replacers are listed
Starch 29.03 in Table 15.
Double acting
Formula No. 1 1. Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers
Monocalcium phosphate 13.28 Fat replacers and general thickeners based on carbohy-
Sodium aluminum sulfate 19.92 drates are fiber (cellulose, grain, legume), gums, modified
Sodium bicarbonate 26.73
starch, dextrins, maltodextrins, polydextrins, corn syrups,
Starch 40.07
Formula No. 2 and sugars and sugar alcohols. Most of these substances
Monocalcium phosphate 6.68 were not designed as fat replacers per se, but their unique
Sodium aluminum sulfate 21.38 functions and properties often allow for a reduction in for-
Sodium bicarbonate 26.73 mulation fat, especially when used together and in con-
Starch 45.21 junction with protein- and fat-based replacers [18].
Avicel is an example of a cellulose gel that acts as a
Source: Ref. 10.
food stabilizer. Fibers other than cellulose are useful fat re-
placers. Wheat, oat, and legume insoluble fiber can be iso-
lated from cells and seed coats to produce fat replacers that
absorb high amounts of water. Examples are Oatrim,

-J
a 70 CREAM 01 TARTAR
MCP H2O

2 60 AMCP

O
I
z 50 SAPP-3
C-3 GDL
CC
I 40
11±L! .
— SAS

LIJ SAPP-1
30,
O - SALP
UJ ........ sop 1/4 — SODA BLANK
20 DCP 2Hall
cr)
U
I—
L., 10.
(-)
CC
UJ
CL 0.
I I 1 I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
TIME—MINUTES

FIGURE 2 Typical rate of reaction curves for several leavening acids in a cookie dough medium at 25°C. (From Ref. 11.)
Soft Wheat Products 583

BISCUIT MUFFIN CAKE

210
190
170
u.:
0 150
w
CC
130
CC
110
CL
2
LU 90
I-
70
T T T
5 10 15 20 25
TIME—MINUTES

FIGURE 3 Internal temperature of baked products during baking. (From Ref. 12.)

TABLE 12 Factors Affecting Quality of Shortening
Keeping quality (resistance to the development of rancidity)
Flavor (readily absorbs foreign odor)
Shortening value
Creaming properties (ability to incorporate air during mixing)
Range of plasticity (fat should be soft and workable, but not
liquid, over the range of temperature at which is likely to be
used)
Texture
Color
Sensitivity to light (causes off-flavor and rancidity)
Source: Ref. 14.
which is made from modified oat starch (1 kcal/g), and Z-
trim (0 kcal), which is produced from fiber of oat hulls,
soybeans, peas, rice, corn, or wheat [18].
Litesse is a polydextrose that functions as a humectant
and texturizer, providing moisture retention in formula-
tions. Polydextrose is produced by polymerizing glucose,
sorbitol, and citric acid. It is often combined with other fat
reducers, such as Salatrim, to produce a synergistic combi-
nation that mimics some functions of traditional fats. Poly-
dextrose also can be used to reduce sugar in baking formu-
lations [16].
Some carbohydrate and fiber-based fat replacers are
used to replace fat in fillings and icings. They can be added
as dry ingredients and mixed in at high speed to produce a
filling or icing that looks and feels much like the tradition-
al items. Microparticles of methylcellulose fiber have film-
forming properties that create fat barriers when used as
coatings [18].
Carrageenan is a gum produced from seaweed that per-
forms variously as an emulsifier, stabilizer, and thickener.
Other gel-forming substances that contribute to a creamy
texture are processed pectin, guar gum, and xanthan gum.
Importantly, gums help control additional free water in fill-
ings that may be necessary when fats are replaced. Using a
patented process, microcrystalline cellulose is processed
with guar gum, which produces spherical particles that
have the physical properties of an oil water emulsion.
These are useful in formulating ready-to-spread icings
[18].
Various other carbohydrates are used to compensate for
the removal of traditional fat from baked products. Corn
syrups, molasses, dextrins, and maltodextrins are used as
texture modifiers and bulking agents, giving body and
humectancy to baked products [18]. Maltodextrins, partial
hydrolysates of potato starch, are combined with emulsi-
fiers to replace fat in cake shortening [20]. Also, modified
starches are combined in proprietary blends with gums,
emulsifiers, and proteins to produce reduced-fat bakery
products [18].
Dried fruit purees contain pectin, sorbitol, malic acid,
and other sugars that can be tailored to function as fat re-
placers in baked goods [18]. When fat is reduced in a for-
mulation, the desirability of its taste often is diminished. In
sweet baked products, fruit purees and/or higher levels of
sugars, polydextrose, or mannitol are sometimes added to
improve the taste of fat-reduced products [21].
Higher water activity can complicate the (re)formula-
tion of reduced- or low-fat baked products. When fibers
and gums are used to replace fat in formulations, there of-
ten is an accompanying increase in formulation water,
TABLE 13 Classification of Shortening Used in Production of Soft Wheat Products
Type
I. Animal Fats
Butter
Neutral lard
Open kettle rendered lard
Dry rendered lard
Prime steam lard
Hydrogenated lard
Modified lard
Hydrogenated modified lard
Stabilized lard
Oleo oil
Rendered pork fat
II. Vegetable Fats and Oils
Coconut oil,
Hydrogenated coconut oil
Plasticized coconut oil
Palm kernel oil
Refined corn oil
Refined cottonseed oil
Refined soya oil
Refined peanut oil
III. Hydrogenated Shortening
All vegetable hydrogeneated
shortenings
All animal hydrogenated
shortenings
Mixed vegetable and animal
hydrogenated shortenings
IV. Compound Shortenings
All vegetable compounds
Mixed animal and vegetable
compounds
V. Other Fats
Margarine
Mixed fish oil
Source: Ref. 14.
Source
Contains > 80% buffer fat
Leaf and kidney fat from hog
Back and leaf fat from hog
Back and leaf fat from hog
Back and leaf fat from hog
Hydrogenated and
deodorization of hog fat
Ester intercharge of hog fat
Hydrogenation of modified lard
Addition of stabilizers such as BHT
to hog fat
Fresh beef and/or mutton fat
Intestinal and trimmed hog fat
Copra or dried coconut kernel
Hydrogenation of whole coconut oil,
with melting points of 84, 92, and
110°F
Chilling and whipping of hydrogenat-
ed coconut oil (10% air incorporated)
Oil from kernel of palm fruit
Germ portion of common corn
Cotton seed
Soybean seeds
Peanuts
A blend of refined vegetable oils
especially cottonseed and soya oils
A blend of animal fats, hydrogenated
and modified by inter esterification
Mixtures of animal fats and vegetable
oils
A mixture of oils and hard fats,
hydrogenated
A mixture of animal fats and refined
vegetable oils
Oleo or coconut oil, hydrogenated
soya or cottonseed oil
A mixture of refined, deodorized and
hydrogenated fish oil with lard or
vegetable oil
Advantage Disadvantage
Distinct and intense flavor— High cost, relatively short
image of quality shelf life
Light color, bland flavor short High cost, relatively short
shelf life shelf life
Distinct flavor
Mild flavor, good
Resistance to rancidity, grainy
texture
Firm, white fat, odorless and
tasteless
Good creaming property
Wide temperature range of
plasticity, improved stability
Excellent stability
Mild flavor
Good stability due to natural
antioxidants
Light color, bland, very stable
Improved creaming properties Melting destroys
creaminess
Very similar to native coconut
oil
Light color, mild flavor Low storage stability
Pale color, pleasant flavor Light sensitive with time,
develops beany odor
Bland flavor, very stable against
rancidity
Bland flavor, excellent stability
Bland flavor, white, smooth
texture, good creaming
quality and stability
Bland flavor, white, smooth
texture, good creaming
quality and stability
Low stability
Low stability
Butter like flavor, good stability
Bland flavor Low stability
Soft Wheat Products 585

TABLE 14 Solid Fat Indices of Some Bakery Shortenings at Different Temperature

S.F.I. S.F.I. S.F.I. S.F.I. S.F.I. S.F.I.
Type of shortening 50°F (%) 70°F (%) 80°F (%) 92°F (%) 100°F (%) 110°F (%)
Lard 24-26 18-20 12-14 4-5 2.5-3 None
Plastic animal and vegetable shortening 31-35 22-26 20-25 15-19 13-15 8-10
Plastic emulsified animal and vegetable shortening 30-34 22-26 21-25 17-19 13-15 7-9
Plastic vegetable shortening 26-32 17-23 15-21 10-16 9-11 6-8
Plastic emulsified vegetable shortening 26-32 17-23 16-21 11-16 9-11 5-7
Fluid aerating shortening 4-8 3-5 2-4 0.5-2.5 None None
Source: Ref. 15.

TABLE 15 Fat Replacers

Supplier Brand name Composition
Carbohydrate-Based Substitutes
A. E. Staley Mfg. Co. Sta-Slim Modified potato starch
A. E. Staley Mfg. Co. Stellar Acid-modified corn starch
American Maize Products Co. Amalean I Modified high-amylose corn starch
Avebe American, Inc. Paselli SA2 Potato maltodextrin
ConAgraa Oatrim Oat maltodextrin
Cultor Food Science Litesse Polydextrose
FMC Corp. Novagel NC200 Microcrystalline cellulose
Grain Processing Corp. Maltrin Corn maltodextrin
Hercules, Inc. Slendid Citrus pectin
National Starch & Chem. Co. N-Oil Tapioca dextrin
Quaker Oatsa Oatrim Oat maltodextrin
Rhone Poulenca Oatrim Oat maltodextrin
Zumbroa RiceTrin 3 Whole-rice maltodextrin
Protein-Based, Mixed Substitutes
NutraSweet Co. Simplesse Milk, egg white protein gel
NutraSweet Co. Simplesse 100 Whey protein gel
National Starch N-Flate Modified starch, gums, emulsifiers, nonfat milk
Low-Calorie And Noncaloric Lipids
Nabisco/Cultor Food Science B enefat Salatrim (monostearin esterified with C2:0, C3:0, and C4:0 acids)
Procter & Gamble Caprenin Monobehenin esterified with C8:0 and C10:0 acids
Procter & Gamble Olean Olestra (sucrose hexa-, hepta-, and octaesters)
'Licensees of USDA patented technology.
Source: Ref. 46.

which can result in higher water activity that contributes to
the growth of spoilage bacteria and must be controlled.
High-fructose and high-dextrose equivalent corn syrups
can be used for some of the formula water to help reduce
water activity [18].
2. Protein-Based Fat Replacers
Protein-based fat replacers were specifically produced to
replace fat in foods. An example is Simplesse, a micropar-
ticulated whey protein concentrate [16]. Simplesse is in the
form of stable microscopic spheres about 1 .tm in diameter
that mimic the creaminess and lubricity of fat [18]. The
small particles help to distribute water evenly through the
product, creating a dispersed phase and function like emul-
sified fat. Simplesse is also formulated with emulsifiers for
use in the baking industry. It is used in cakes, brownies,
muffins, and sweet rolls, which are higher-moisture soft
wheat type products. It also is used in fillings and icings.
Simplesse provides 4 kcal. Other protein-based fat replac-
ers are blends of protein, gums, modified food starch, and
water [16].
3. Fat-Based Fat Replacers
Fat-based fat replacers have also been developed. Exam-
ples are olestra, salatrim, and caprenin. Olestra (brand
name Olean) contains no calories as it is not digestible. It
586 Faridi et

is a sucrose polyester, having a central sucrose sugar mole- TABLE 16 Oatmeal Cookie Control Formula
cule with six, seven, or eight fatty acids attached [18]. The Percent of
fatty acids are those commonly found in cottonseed oil or Ingredient formula
soybean oil, depending on which is utilized in manufac-
ture, each imparting the flavor of the source oil. It with- Flour 29.82
stands the high temperatures achieved during frying [16]. Sugar 25.94
Olestra is approved for use in salty snacks and crackers. Shortening 17.89
Oats 13.42
Salatrim (brand name Benefat) is partially absorbed by
Water 8.93
the body. It consists of a balance between short-chain and Eggs, whole 2.98
long-chain acyl triglyceride molecules [16,19]. Salatrim Color 0.30
has a glycerol backbone with three short-chain fatty acids Salt 0.30
attached. They may be stearic, acetic, propionic, and/or bu- Lecithin 0.18
tyric acids [22]. The shorter-chain fatty acids supply fewer Soda 0.24
calories, giving salatrim about the same caloric energy as Total 100.00
carbohydrates. The balance between the short and long
Source: Ref. 24.
chains determines if the fat replacer is liquid or solid. Liq-
uid salatrim has found use as a substitute for cocoa butter
and is formulated into cakes, brownies, cookies, bread-
sticks, and muffins [21]. In those products, it replaces TABLE 17 Sample Test Formula for Crisp Oatmeal Cookie
highly saturated palm and coconut oils. Salatrim provided
only 5 kcal/g rather than the 9 kcal/g of normal fats. In Percent of sample
Ingredient test formula
Japan, salatrim is used in combination with Litesse poly-
dextrose to produce brownies, cookies, breadsticks, and Shortening 10.00
bar items [23]. Mono- and diglycerides 2.70
Similar to salatrim is the fat replacer caprenin. It also is Water 2.70
formulated from glycerol, but it has behenic, capric, and Polydextrose 1.60
caprylic fatty acids. Chocolate and cocoa-based compound DATEM 1.00
coatings have been formulated with alternative sweeteners Total 18.00
and Caprenin. Caprenin also has also been formulated in Flour 19.00
cookies. As a reduced calorie triglyceride, caprenin pro- Powdered cellulose 8.00
vides 5 kcal/g. Neither salatrim nor caprenin are highly re- Oat fiber 3.00
sistant to heat, and they are not used in frying [21].
Total 30.00
4. Formulations Sugar 6.50
Isomalt 6.50
In today's marketplace, when reformulating products or Polydextrose 13.00
producing new products, one must carefully consider
caloric content, total fat content, cholesterol content, salt Total 26.00
content, fiber content, etc. Often, the approach will care- Oats, ground 13.00
Water 9.00
fully consider all possible choices. Table 16 shows a typi-
Eggs, whole 3.00
cal formula for oatmeal cookies [24]. Three ingredients
Other 1.00
categories (shortening, flour, and sugar) are common can-
didates for substitution. There are available possible reduc- Total 26.00
tions in fat and sugar contents and calories and increases in Total 100.00
fiber content. The authors chose the formulation shown in Source: Ref. 24.
Table 17 to reduce calories from fat and sugar and to in-
crease oat fiber content. Shortening was reduced with
emulsifiers, water, and polydextrose (Litesse). Sugar (su-
crose) and calories were reduced using a sugar derivative lower fat, simple directions for consumer-prepared mixes
(Isomalt) and polydextrose. Fiber was increased and calo- can be designed for a regular or a low-fat version of the
ries were decreased by substituting powdered cellulose product. At least one cake mix offers the option of adding
and oat fiber for 36% of the flour. applesauce in place of oil and some of the water in the
In addition to reformulating products and mixes for recipe directions [17]. Such recipe options place a greater
Soft Wheat Products 587

burden on the overall strength and flexibility of the ingre-
dients.
As long as a large segment of consumers wish to con-
trol their fat intake but continue to desire foods traditional-
ly high in fat, there will be market potential for low-fat and
reduced-fat products. Such products must offer no com-
promise in expected quality characteristics. Fat replace-
ment in baked goods requires innovation and careful exe-
cution based on fundamental principles of food science.
F. Sweeteners
After flour, sweeteners are the most important ingredient
in the soft wheat products formulation. In addition to pro-
viding sweetness, most sweeteners provide one or more of
the following functions: tenderizing, texture, yeast nutrient
and fermentation control, stabilizing, bulking agent-body,
humectancy, flavor, crust color, and shelf-life extension.
Selection of the proper sweetener mostly is determined
by the desired functions the sweetener is to provide. The
principal sweetener used in soft wheat products is sucrose
(granulated sugar). Corn syrup, high-fructose corn syrup,
invert sugar, honey, glucose syrups, and molasses are used
to a lesser extent except in soft cookies.
Granulated sugar is highly refined sugar and is available
in many grades, as defined by particle size ranging from
coarse sanding sugar to very fine granulated sugar [43].
For example, sanding sugars are used for topping some
products. Fine granulated sugar is used for fillings where
sugar is not completely dissolved and produces a unique
"gritty" taste. A medium particle size "baker's special"
granulated sugar is the most common type used in the bak-
ery. Powdered sugars are divided into general categories
ranging from 2X to 12X, with the higher numbers indicat-
ing increasingly fine particle size. The most common pow-
dered sugars are the 6X and 10X types, the 6X sugar being
used for dusting of cake doughnuts, and 6X or 10X sugar
is used in fillings and icings where a coarser particle would
produce a gritty mouthfeel (Table 18). Fondant, the pre-
dominant form of filling, is prepared by heating a concen-
trated sucrose solution to boiling then cooking gradually
with controlled mixing. During this controlled cooling
process, the sugar crystallizes as very fine particles. This
produces a very smooth mouthfeel.
Sugar particle size is critical to the production of cook-
ies that have the desired texture, size, and shape. Adjusting
the particle size of granulated sugar is an important
method for controlling the spread of cookie dough during
baking.
Another important bakery sweetener is invert sugar. In-
vert sugar is made by treating a solution of sucrose with
acid and/or enzymes in order to split the sucrose molecule
into its two components, glucose and fructose. Several
types of invert sugar are available, with the type being de-
termined by the degree of inversion or conversion to the
monosaccharides. Invert sugar has moisture-retention

TABLE 18 Typical Screen Analysis of Granulated Sucrose

Tyler U.S. Confectioners Bakers Dehydrated

screen screen AA or special or Standard Extrafine fondant
mesh mesh medium Fine Extrafine fruit powdered powdered Fondant drivert or
(% on) (% on) granulated Sanding granulated granulated granulated or 6X or 10X and icing dri-fond

8 8
10 10 5.6
14 16 59.0
20 20 72.4 9.3 trace
28 30 7.4 49.2 4.3 0.1 trace
35 40 0.4 37.6 74.5 13.8 0.4
48 50 3.3 18.6 40.2 1.7
80 80 0.3 2.3 40.6 24.8
100 100 32.2 0.3 0.1
150 140 31.6 1.8 1.4
200 200 6.6 2.4
270 270 8.2 3.0
325 325 10.8 7.0
Through last sieve 0.2 0.3 0.3 5.0 9.2 72.3 86.1 99.0a 99.0a

aThe extremely fine grain size of fondant and icing sugar makes the regular screen analysis impractical. However, practically all particles will pass
through a 325 mesh standard sieve having 0.0043 cm openings. The average particle size of fondant and icing sugar is about 20 pm, i.e., 0.0020 cm.
Source: Ref. 26.
588 Faridi et al.

(humectant) properties that make it useful in prolonging TABLE 20 Relative Sweetness of Various Sweeteners'
the shelf life of many bakery products. It is particularly ef-
Sweetener Relative sweetness
fective in preserving softness in soft cookies and brownies.
When used at a rate of 3-5%, based on powdered sugar Sucrose 100
weight, in icings and glazes, invert sugar improves the Dextrose 75
gloss and "shine" on the surface of the icing. It also im- Fructose 130
proves pliability [43]. Maltose 30
Brown sugar is a blend of sucrose and molasses and is Lactose 15
Galactose 60
made up of fine crystals covered with a film of highly re-
Honey 100
fined molasses flavored syrup. As many as 13 grades of High-fructose corn syrup
brown sugar are available, ranging from light to dark color. 42% 100
Generally, as color intensity increases, flavor intensity also 55% 100-110
increases. 90% 120-160
Corn syrups are produced from corn starch, a natural Molasses 70-90
polymer whose molecular structure consists of glucose Invert 110
polymers in linear or in branched chains. When hy- Brown sugar 85-90
drolyzed, either by enzymes, acid, or a combination of Malt syrup 30
both, the long chains are split into smaller segments. The Corn syrup
longer segments (higher saccharides) are not fermentable 42 DEb 50-55
62 DE 70
and do not contribute sweetness to a finished bakery food.
70 DE 75
The term commonly used to indicate the degree of hydrol- 95 DE 80
ysis (conversion) is "dextrose equivalent" (DE). The car-
bohydrate composition of various corn syrups is shown in aRelationship may vary depending on concentration and formulation.
bDE = Dextrose equivalent.
Table 19. In cake products, a 42 DE syrup may be used.
Source: Refs. 13, 27.
Higher DE syrups may cause dark crumb color. In cookies
and icings, a 42 DE corn syrup is also recommended.
High-fructose corn syrup is replacing the invert syrups
in many applications. It is made by enzymatically isomer- relative sweetness of various sweeteners is shown in Table
izing some of the glucose to the sweeter sugar fructose. 20. Sweeteners vary in solubility. Table 21 demonstrates
Adding high-fructose corn syrup as a replacement for sug- the effect of temperature on the extent of solubility (satura-
ar means there is less sucrose in the finished product that tion) of some sugars. Various sugars also have a tendency to
requires formula adjustments for production of satisfactory absorb moisture from the air (humectancy) depending on
products [43,44]. the air's relative humidity (Table 22). That may cause man-
One of the primary functions of sweeteners in bakery ufacturing problems in the bakery due to caking. Table 23
foods obviously is to provide sweetness to the product. The compares the properties of some widely used sweeteners.

TABLE 19 Carbohydrate Composition (glucose and glucose polymers) of Commercially Available

Corn Syrups
Type of conversion DE Mono- Di- Tri- Tetra- Penta- Hexa- Hepta- Higher
Acid 30 10.4 9.3 8.6 8.2 7.2 6.0 5.2 45.1
Acid 42 18.5 13.9 11.6 9.9 8.4 6.6 5.7 25.4
Acid-enzymes' 43 5.5 46.2 12.3 3.2 1.8 1.5 - 29.56
Acid 54 29.7 17.8 13.2 9.6 7.3 5.3 4.3 12.8
Acid 60 36.2 19.5 13.2 8.7 6.3 4.4 3.2 8.5
Acid-enzymes' 63 38.8 28.1 13.7 4.1 4.5 2.6 - 8.2
Acid-enzymes' 71 43.7 36.7 3.7 3.2 0.8 4.3 7.66
'Carbohydrate composition of acid-enzyme syrups will vary as a result of different processes used. The values given here
are to be considered only as examples of ranges of values available commercially.
bIncludes heptasaccharides.
Source: Ref. 27.
Soft Wheat Products 589

TABLE 21 Effect of Temperature on Sweetener Solubility ucts such as soft cookies. Table 24 shows characteristics of
different types of molasses.
Temp. (°F) Invert (%) Sucrose (%) Glucose (%)
68 63 67 48 G. Chocolate
77 66 68 51
Chocolate and cocoa powder in the formula provide a dis-
86 75 69 55
tinct flavor that is very popular with the consumer. The
104 79 71 62
120 82 73 71 common source of both cocoa and chocolate is the cacao
140 87 74 75 bean, which consists of a shell (14%) and the nib or interi-
or kernel (86%). The shell is removed by roasting and dry-
Source: Courtesy of American Institute of Baking. ing. The roasted nib is then ground into a homogeneous
mass called chocolate liquor, or bitter or baking chocolate.
During the grinding operation the temperature is increased
TABLE 22 Water Absorbed by Sweeteners at Various to over 104°F (40°C), and because the nibs have a fat con-
Relative Humidities tent of over 50%, the ground mass becomes fluid and can
be run into molds. It is this molded chocolate that is princi-
Corn syrup
pally used by bakers for the production of chocolate cakes
% RH Invert Glucose 64DE Sucrose
and cookies. The composition of chocolate liquor is given
91 56 57 45 44 in Table 25 [13].
80 34 33 27 27 Cocoa results when the chocolate liquor is passed
70 26 24 19 19 through hydraulic presses, where most of the fat, or cacao
10 3 5 3 0 butter, is expelled. The press cake remaining after the ex-
Source: Courtesy of American Institute of Baking. traction of the cacao butter has a fat content of 8-25%, de-
pending upon the duration and degree of pressure applied.
The press cake is ground to a fine powder in micropulver-
izers to yield the powdered cocoa of commerce. Since ca-
Molasses is another commonly used bakery sweetener. cao butter is relatively neutral in flavor, its extraction re-
It is a concentrated, brown to black, highly flavored, rela- sults in an intensification of flavor in the remaining cocoa,
tively impure syrup obtained during sugar processing. It is which has a flavor about 1.6 times more intense than choco-
used in some soft wheat products for its characteristic fla- late. Cocoas are differentiated into natural and "Dutch"
vor, sweetness, and coloring properties [7]. Molasses con- process, or alkalized cocoas (Table 26). The process of
tains a substantial amount of invert sugar, which functions "Dutching" (treatment with alkaline solution) darkens the
as a humectant, improving moisture retention in such prod- cocoa color and improves solubility. Because of their

TABLE 23 Sweeteners and Sugars

High-fructose Liquid invert 42 DEa 62 DE 70 DE 95 DE
Sucrose corn syrup (medium) corn syrup corn syrup corn syrup corn syrup Glucose
Solids (%) 100 71 77 80.3 82.0 82.5 71 91
Moisture (%) 29 23 19.7 18 17.5 29 8.5
Composition (dry
basis, %)
Glucose 50 50 50 19 39 50 93 100
Fructose 50 42 50
Maltose 3 14 28 29 3
Higher saccharides 5 67 33 21 4
DE 42 62 70 95
Fermentables (%) 100 95 100 33 67 82 97 100
Minimum storage
temperature (°F) 29 32 35-38 35-38 35-38 57-66 60

aDE = Dextrose equivalent.

Source: Ref. 28.
590 Faridi et al.

TABLE 24 Characteristics of Different Types of Molasses

Type Total sugars (%) Sucrose (%) Invert sugar (%) Ash (%) Color
Open-kettle 68-70 43-45 24-26 1-2 Reddish-yellow
First centrifugal 60-66 48-50 13-15 14-15 Light yellow
Second centrifugal 56-60 36-38 20-22 20-22 Reddish
Blackstrap 52-55 25-27 27-29 27-29 Dark brown
Source: Ref. 7.

TABLE 25 Composition of Chocolate Liquor The pH of the cocoa is of importance in determining the
color, flavor, density, and texture of cakes. It also governs
Composition Percent
the amount and type of leavening agent to be used in the
Moisture 1.70 cake formula. Table 27 shows the various types of choco-
Fat 54.00 late used in production of soft wheat products [10].
Theobromine 1.08 Many types of cakes and cookies are enrobed with
Caffeine 0.42 chocolate and other compound coatings. The advantages
Other nitrogen substances 0.42
of enrobing are shown in Table 28. Compound coatings are
Starch 8.21
formulated with stable fats and maintain their flavor,
Crude fiber 2.65
Other carbohydrates 17.32 mouthfeel, and richness for many months. There are four
Total ash 3.04 main types of coatings (Table 29). To enrobe a cookie or
Water-soluble ash 0.72 cake, the baked item should be cooled to a temperature of
Water-insoluble ash 2.32 75-85°F. The enrobing process of baked products is
Acid-insoluble ash 0.02 demonstrated in Figure 4.
Source: Ref. 29.
H. Salt
Two types of salts are commonly used in baking: granulat-
TABLE 26 Composition of Cocoa Powder (moisture and ed or common salt and fine flake salt. Salt is used for its
fat-free basis) flavor and flavor-enhancing properties in many of the soft
Composition Natural process (%) Dutch process (%) wheat product formulations at the 1-1.5% (on flour basis)
concentration. Salt is obtained from natural deposits in the
Ash 6.3 10.3 sea and is usually purified and then vacuum-dried to a de-
Theobromine 1.9 2.8 sired crystal size.
Caffeine 0.5 0.5
Salt used in the production of cookies should be of a
Tannins 14.6 14.0
Protein 28.1 27.0 fine particle size with a rapid solubility rate. For cracker
Sugar 2.4 2.3 doughs the salt can be somewhat coarser in size. Topping
Starch 14.6 14.0 salt for crackers is of the flake type, having some coarse-
Cellulose 22.0 21.2 ness. Topping salt should be uniform in size, with a mini-
Pentosans 3.7 3.4 mum of "fines," which may cause uneven feeding and poor
Acids 3.7 3.4 appearance of the finished cracker. Icings need about 1%
Other substances 1.2 1.1 salt to reduce the cloying sweetness of the high sugar con-
Source: Ref. 30.
tent. A fast solubility rate should be the outstanding physi-
cal characteristic of salt used for icings [42].

lighter color and milder flavor, natural process cocoas are
used primarily in the production of icings, fudges, sauces,
and drinks. Dutched cocoas are more suitable as ingredients
for cakes and cookies. Cocoa products may vary in their pH
values from 5.2 to as high as 8.8 in heavily alkalized cocoa.
I. Dairy Products
In baked goods, dairy products are used for flavor, color
improvement, water sorption, and spread control proper-
ties [44]. It is impractical for bakers to use fresh milk be-
cause of storage and sanitation problems and cost of ship-
Soft Wheat Products 591

TABLE 27 Various Types of Chocolate Used in Production of Soft Wheat Products

Type Characteristics Application

Natural cocoa powder Powder ground from the press cake remaining after Icings, compound coatings
chocolate liquor is removed. Fat content varies
8-25%. More intense flavor than chocolate.
Dutched (alkalized) cocoa powder Dutching darkens the color and improves solubility of
chocolate. The process involves addition of
alkaline solutions to partially roasted beans. The
roasting continues until desired color level is
obtained.
Lightly alkalized Cake mixes, bakery ingredients
Moderately alkalized Icings, coatings
Heavily alkalized
Chocolate, chocolate liquor, chocolate paste Obtained by grinding cocoa nibs. Contains not less Baking chocolate
than 50% cocoa butter.
Sweet chocolate Mixture of chocolate with sugar and/or dextrose with
or without addition of cocoa butter.
Milk chocolate Mixture of chocolate, sugar, and milk solids (no less
than 12%).

Source: Ref. 31.

TABLE 28 Advantages of Enrobing of Soft
Wheat Products
Improves appearance
Enhances flavor
Improves eating quality
Improves shelf life
Good moisture barrier
Prevents drying out
Maintains crispness
Nonsticky surface
Structural strength
Source: Ref. 32.
ping. It also is more economical to substitute other fats for
butterfat. Therefore, the form of choice is nonfat dry milk
solids, with the added use of minor quantities of evaporat-
ed milk (from whole or skim milk) or sweetened con-
densed milk.
Nonfat dried milk may be spray-dried or roller-dried,
the former process being more popular. Where reconstitu-
tion is anticipated, dried milk is usually supplied in instant
form. The amount of milk in a cake batter is usually based
on all the liquid in the formula being in the milk and eggs.
When nonfat dry milk and dried eggs are used, cake for-
mulas tend to maintain about these same levels of milk and
egg solids. Nonfat milk solids function as a structure build-
er and a dryer, contribute significantly to nutrition, and
help develop crust color, by the contribution of lactose,
which caramelizes in the oven, and by the Maillard brown-
ing reaction. A typical composition of dairy-based ingredi-
ents used in soft wheat products is shown in Table 30.
Whey can be regarded as skim milk from which the ca-
sein has been removed. It is the liquid residue remaining
from the cheese-making process. Examples of the utiliza-
tion of whey in soft wheat products are shown in Table 31.
J. Egg Products
Eggs affect the texture of bakery products in several ways.
They perform emulsifying, leavening, tenderizing, and
binding functions. Eggs also contribute color, nutritional
value, desirable flavor. They are essential for obtaining the
characteristic organoleptic qualities of most cakes, some
cookies, and many other soft wheat products [7]. Eggs are
available in various forms including fresh shell eggs, re-
frigerated bulk eggs, frozen whole eggs, separated egg
whites and yolks, and dried egg products. The baking in-
dustry uses more frozen eggs than any other form, but
dried products and chilled bulk eggs also are used. Eggs
contribute the golden yellow color to pound cakes, layer
cakes, sponge cakes, and donuts that is the traditional sign
of richness and wholesomeness.
In the classifications of the toughening or tenderizing
effect of ingredients (see Table 40), eggs play a perceived
dual role. Egg whites are a toughener and structure builder,
and the high fat content of yolks functions as a tenderizer.
592 Faridi et al.

TABLE 29 Formulation of Various Coatings Used on Soft Wheat Products

Chocolate type Cocoa White and
Chocolate compound compound pastel color
Ingredients coating (%) coating (%) coating (%) coating (%)
Chocolate liquor (50% cocoa butter) 15 15
Cocoa powder (11% cocoa butter) 8
Cocoa butter (90°F melting point) 29
Domestic hard butter (derived from soybean
or cottonseed oil, melting point of 100°F) 29
Lauric hard butter (derived from palm kernel
and coconut oil, melting point range 92-
109°F) 36 35
Sugar 44 44 44 53
Nonfat dry milk 12 12 12 12
Lecithin >1 >1 >1 >1
Color and flavor Some
Source: Ref. 32.

Composition and type of egg products available to bakers

d 6 F are shown in Tables 32 and 33, respectively [10].
TO COOLINC
FEED TUNNEL
K. Spices, Flavors, and Colors
.01. Am. 411k

I illAt0 I ,i'
IN.'
Fresh high-quality spices and flavors offer innumerable
1.I ways for a baker to introduce variety into baked products.
C
: -
D Both artificial and natural coloring agents are used in the
E bakery industry to enhance the visual appeal of products.
Flavoring materials that have been added to bakery prod-
ucts include natural products such as spices, chocolate,
FIGURE 4 Schematic of an enrober used for coating cakes and
vanilla, and essential oils, artificial flavors such as vanillin,
cookies. (A) Baked items at 75-85°F temperature proceed from a
conveyor belt onto a wire mesh belt. (B) The tank that discharges and modified flavors such as cultured butter, starter distil-
a curtain of liquid coating. (C) A roller under the belt for coating lates, and hydrolyzed vegetable protein. Characteristics of
the bottom of items. (D) Holding tank for coating. (E) Circulating different spices and flavors used in the production of soft
pump. (F) Air blower to intensify the gloss and leave some rip- wheat products are shown in Table 34.
ples on the coating. (G) The enrober. (From Ref. 32.) All food colors must be selected from the compounds

TABLE 30 Typical Composition of Dairy-Based Ingredients

Ingredient Moisture (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Lactose (%) Ash (%) Calcium (%) Phosphorus (%)
Nonfat dry milk (NFDM) 3.0 35.9 0.8 52.3 8.0 1.31 1.02
Dried buttermilk 2.8 34.3 5.3 50.0 7.6 1.25 0.97
Casein 7 88 1 4 -
Caseinate 3-5 90-94 0.7-1.0 - 6-7
Dried whey 4.5 12.9 1.1 73.5 8.0 0.65 0.59
Whey protein concentrate 2 20-60 2-9 18-60 3-18
Lactose 0.5 0.1 0.1 99.0 0.2
Source: Ref. 34.
Soft Wheat Products 593

TABLE 31 Utilization of Whey in Foods color of butter and eggs. Table 35 includes all of the cur-
rently permitted uncertified additives, while Table 36 lists
Quantity
of whey Contributions of whey the certified pigments.
Food solids (%) components
L. Icings
Baked goods-sweet 3.0 Flavor, texture, shorter
goods, crackers dough time, Icings may be defined as "glazings or coatings of sugar and
(percent of flour improved keeping various other ingredients blended together and pleasingly
weight) quality flavored to suit individual tastes" [13,45]. Lachmann and
Dry mixes 10.0 Tenderizing, color, Voll [37] summarized the quality features of a good icing
flavor as follows:
Confections 10.0 Flavor, body, moisture
retention 1. It should spread easily and handle satisfactorily at reg-
Icings, frostings 6.0 ular working temperatures when applied either by ma-
Batter mix (for frying) 5.0 Color, flavor
chine or by hand.
Whey-soy blends for 40.0 Masks soy flavor, high
food manufacture (use protein 2. It should adhere to the baked product without thinning
fat-free soy flour) out and running off.
3. It should set firmly within the desired time limit.
Source: Ref. 35. 4. It should not dry out too rapidly or crack after pro-
longed periods of storage; neither should it pick up
too much moisture, become sticky, or melt.
5. It should maintain its glossy appearance and its true
approved by government agencies, principally the FDA. color.
There are two categories of acceptable color additives: cer- 6. It should not become gritty or separate during storage.
tified colors and uncertified colors. Certified colors include 7. An aerated icing should maintain its shape and not
chemically synthesized dyes and their lakes. Lakes are bleed or dry out.
made by absorbing or chemically combining water-soluble
dyes with certain insoluble materials (usually aluminum A good icing will enhance the quality and appearance of
compounds). The chemical compounds making up the list finished products. It will neither dry out a product's crust
of certified color additives have been subjected to a thor- nor make it soggy. In general, icings are divided into three
ough program of toxicity tests. Uncertified color additives categories: (1) flat icings that are not subject to whipping
include pigments extracted from organic sources such as and, therefore, do not contain air cells; (2) highly aerated
fruits, vegetables, etc., and from some inorganic sub- and fluffy icings (often called foam-type icings) and imita-
stances. Some uncertified color additives are synthesized tion whipped cream frostings that are extremely light; and
materials that are more or less similar to natural products. (3) partially aerated products that comprise butter-cream
Among the last group, carotenoids are particularly useful icings and their modifications. The formulas for produc-
as colorants of bakery products because they simulate the tion of some popular icings are shown in Table 37.

TABLE 32 Composition of Egg Products

Liquid whole Dried whole Liquid egg Dried egg Liquid egg Dried egg
Component egg (%) egg (%) white (%) white (%) yolk (%) yolk (%)
Solids 27 96 14 95 51 96
Protein 13.3 47.2 11.6 78.6 16.7 31.4
Fat 11.5 40.8 31.6 59.4
Nitrogen-free extract 1.10 3.90 0.80 5.42 1.2 2.25
Glucose 0.32 1.07 0.40 2.71 0.21 0.40
Ash 1.00 3.55 0.80 5.42 1.50 2.82
Lecithin 1.52 5.41 4.18 7.84
Source: Ref. 7.
594 Faridi et al.

TABLE 33 Types of Egg Products Available to Bakers

Conversion
Type Container factory
Shell eggs, fresh or storage 30-doz case 0.84
Bulk liquid eggs Tank truck 1.00
Whites 1.00
Yolks 1.00
Whole eggs 1.00
Frozen egg products Friction-lid metal cans
Whites 1.00
Whole eggs 1.00
Whole eggs plus extra yolk 1.00
Yolks 1.00
Whole eggs plus corn syrupb 1.11
Egg yolks plus saltb 1.11
Egg yolks plus sugarb 1.11
Whole eggs plus saltb 1.11
Dried egg products' Bags, boxes, and drums
Whites, spray-dried 7.24
Whites, pan-dried (flake albumen) 7.00
Whole eggs, standard 3.70
Whole eggs, glucose-free 3.70
Yolk solids, standard 2.72
Yolk solids, glucose-free 2.72
Whole egg solids, plus sugar' 2.33
Whole egg solids, plus corn syrup solids' 2.33
Yolks plus sugar' 1.49
Yolks plus corn syrup" 1.49
'Multiply kg of product by this factor to obtain equivalent kg of bulk liquid egg, white, or yolk.
bBased on frozen product containing 10% (dried weight) of carbohydrate, this will vary depend-
ing on supplier.
'In addition, dried whole eggs and dried yolks (any style) can be procured in free-flowing form.
"Based on dried products containing 33% carbohydrate. May vary among different suppliers.
Source: Ref. 7.

III. PRODUCTS
A. Crackers
Crackers have high sales volume worldwide. In general,
crackers contain little or no sugar and moderate levels of
fat [1,7,8,38]. Cracker doughs generally contain low levels
of water so baking proceeds quickly. There are three major
types of crackers: saltine, chemically leavened, and savory
crackers. Saltines are unique in that they are produced
from fermented dough. The process is lengthy and com-
plex and the significant changes occurring during fermen-
tation are just now being understood in detail [1,38].
Saltine crackers are made by a sponge dough process that
takes up to 24 hours, much of which is the fermentation
period (Fig. 5). Cracker sponges are mixed just long
enough to wet the flour, thus gluten development occurs
only to a limited extent during mixing. During sponge fer-
mentation (up to 19 hours), both yeast and beneficial bac-
teria grow causing the consistency of the sponge to change
drastically. The sponge becomes more acidic and less elas-
tic. Figure 6 demonstrates the relationship of dough pH
and cracker fermentation. After fermentation, the sponge is
mixed with other dough ingredients and the dough-up
flour. The dough is allowed to relax for 4-6 hours. After
the relaxation/resting period is over, the dough is taken to
the hopper of the sheeter.
Cracker doughs are laminated after leaving the sheeting
rolls. The purpose of laminating the sheeted dough (into
six to eight layers) is fourfold. First, it constitutes a method
of repairing a dough sheet with holes or tears. Second, by
turning the folded dough through 90°, stresses in the dough
are made more uniform in two directions. Third, the repet-
Soft Wheat Products 595

TABLE 34 Natural Spices and Flavorings Most Commonly Used in Soft Wheat Products
Type Plant source Origin Compatibility Application
Cinnamon Cinnamomum cassia China, Indochina, Sugar, chocolate, coffee, Cookies and cakes, rolls,
Indonesia apple, peach, pear danish pastry
Nutmeg Seed of a peachlike fruit tree Tropics, Indonesia, East Sugar, apple, cherry, Cookies, cakes, pies,
and West Indies peach, pear, coffee doughnuts
Vanilla Fruit of an orchid Tropics and semi-tropics Sugar, fruity flavors Cakes, cookies
Mace Skin of nutmeg As nutmeg Sugar, custard, cherry Cookies, cakes, pies,
fillings, eclairs
Cloves Unopened bud of clove tree Indonesia, Zanzibar, Sugar, various stewed Cakes, fillings
Madagascar fruits
Ginger Root of a tuberous perennial Tropics, Jamaica, India Sugar pies Fillings, cookies, cakes,
plant wafers,
Allspice Pea-size fruits Jamaica, Mexico, Sugar, blueberry, pineapple Cookies, cakes, pies, tarts,
Guatemala fruit cakes, doughnuts
Cardamom Fruit of a plant from the India, Sri Lanka, Sugar, blueberry, grape, Danish pastry, fillings, pies
ginger family Guatemala apple, pumpkin
Poppy Tiny seeds of a plant from Netherlands, Poland, Toppings for rolls,
the poppy family Argentina crackers, pastries, cakes,
doughnuts
Caraway seed Fruit of a plant from the Netherlands, Poland Sugar, apple, peach, Corn muffins, cheese rolls,
parsley family apricot, rye cakes, cookies
Aniseed Fruit of a plant from the Egypt, Spain, Mexico, Sugar, most stewed flavor Icings and fillings, coffee
parsley family Turkey sweet rolls cakes
Source: Ref. 7.

TABLE 35 Uncertified Color Additivesa TABLE 36 Certified Color Additivesa

Colorant Restrictions Permanent listing Provisional listing

Annatto extract FD&C Red No. 3 FD&C Yellow No. 6 Lake

f3-apo-W-Carotenal 15 mg per lb or pt FD&C Blue No. 2 FD&C Red No. 3 Lake
I3-Carotene FD&C Yellow No. 5 FD&C Blue No. 1 Lake
Beet powder FD&C Green No. 3 Pll&C Blue No. 2 Lake
Canthaxanthin 30 mg per lb or pt FD&C Blue No. 1 FD&C Green No. 3 Lake
Caramel FD&C Red No. 40 FD&C Yellow No. 5 Lake
Carrot oil FD&C Red No. 40 Lake
Cochineal extract (carmine) FD&C Yellow No. 6
Cottonseed flour (toasted, etc.) aMay be used for coloring soft wheat products generally in amounts
Fruit juice consistent with good manufacturing practices.
Grape color extract Source: Ref. 10.
Paprika and its oleoresin
Riboflavin
Saffron
Titanium dioxide Maximum of 1% itive rolling and folding of the dough accomplish a signifi-
Turmeric and its oleoresin cant amount of work on the gluten. That work makes the
Vegetable juice dough more suitable for baking into a delicate and layered
structure that is characteristic of saltine crackers. Fourth,
'Uncertified colors are derived from plant or mineral raw materials by introducing another material, like fat, between layers of
by various processing techniques and have been approved for food
use in many cases because of a long history of satisfactory prior dough, a characteristic flaky structure will be produced af-
usage. ter baking [8].
Source: Ref. 10. Multiple pairs of heavy steel rolls (called gauge rolls)
596 Faridi et al.

TABLE 37 Formulas for Production of Icings

Vanilla Chocolate-
Chocolate butter Vanilla flavored Topping
Flat type fudge creme fudge butter creme marshmallow
Powdered sugar 82 63 59 73 50 51
Invert sugar 4 4 5 3 5 25
Corn syrup 4 4 3
Water 10 10' 8 8' 8 22
Flavoring As desired Vanilla Vanilla Vanilla As desired
Chocolate fudge base 15
Shortening (emulsified type) 4 20 9 22
Salt As desired 1
Butter 8 3 8
Nonfat dry milk 3 2
Dutched cocoa 5
Gelatin 2
Toiling water.
Source: Ref. 37.

gradually reduce the dough sheet thickness to that desired B. Cookies

for cutting. As a rule of thumb, the reduction in thickness
Cookies have great commercial appeal because they are
should be about 2:1 for each pass through a roll pair, al-
characterized by a formula high in sugar and shortening
though ratios of up to 4:1 are used. Obviously, the greater
and low in water. In general, cookies are produced using
the ratio, the more work and stress is put into the dough
soft wheat flour that has a relatively weak gluten strength.
and the more its physical properties change [7,8].
The weak gluten and the relatively high quantities of fat
Chemically leavened crackers are not fermented. They
and sugar in the dough allow plasticity and cohesiveness
do not contain added yeast, but are leavened by chemical
without the formation of a strong gluten network [1]. Min-
baking leaveners. They are called snack crackers and have
imal gluten development is also controlled by carrying out
a final pH of about 6.5. After mixing and 2- to 4-hour rest
the mixing process in two or even three stages. The mixing
period, the dough is sheeted to form a continuous ribbon
step is critical to obtaining a dough of correct consistency
that is laminated with a light application of dusting flour
at the end of mixing. Depending of the formulation, cook-
between the layers. Figure 7 outlines the process for the
ie dough tends to become larger and wider as it bakes
production of chemically leavened crackers. Graham
rather than shrinking like cracker dough. Control of this in-
crackers are a type of chemically leavened and semi-sweet
crease in size, known as spread, is a continuous problem in
cracker from which part of the white flour (10-40%) is re-
process control [7,8].
placed by whole wheat flour.
A common way to classify cookies is by the way the
Flavored or savory crackers are well accepted in the
dough is placed on the baking band. Rotary molded, wire-
U.S. market. The intense savory flavors are produced by
cut, and cutting machine type cookies differ in their con-
adding the appropriate flavoring agents directly to the
centration of fat and sugar (Fig. 8). Dough moisture con-
dough or to the surface of the crackers after baking. Savory
tents range up to 15% (f.b.) for rotary molded doughs, up
or cheese crackers are generally produced from fermented
to 25% for cutting machine doughs, and up to 40% (f.b.)
doughs. The yeast products and the lower pH improve the
for wire-cut doughs.
cheese flavor. The formulation and process is basically
similar to that of soda crackers, with adjustments to com- 1. Rotary Molded Cookies
pensate for the fat and moisture content of the cheese [38]. Rotary molded cookies are produced by forcing a dough
Typical formulas for various types of crackers (saltine, into molds on a rotating roll. As the roll completes a half
snack, and graham) are shown in Table 38. turn, the dough is extracted from the cavity and positioned
Soft Wheat Products 597

Ingredient Scaling 8.0

V
Sponge Mixing - 25 C 7.0
final dough
V o,
,
6.0 ml
Sponge Fermentation - 19 hr.
2
6
,
V 5.0 0,
Dough Mixing - Spindle Mixer [100 Rev.]

sponge dough
V 4.0
Dough Proof - 4 hr.

3.0
V 2 6 10 14 18 22 26
Dough Laminating
Time in hours

V FIGURE 6 Relationship of dough pH with time during fer-

Dough Sheeting mentation of Saltine cracker sponge and dough. (From Ref. 8.)

V
Dough Cutting [12 pc = 48.6 91

2. Wire-Cut Cookies
V Examples of wire-cut cookies are the chocolate chip type.
Salt Application They are made by extruding a relatively soft dough
through an orifice. The extruded dough is cut to size by a
V reciprocating wire (Fig. 9B). Being relatively high in fat,
Baking sugar, and water, wire-cut cookies spread during baking.
The spread is desirable but it must be closely controlled to
have the desired geometry after baking. Another type of
V
extruded dough (fruit bars) is similar to wire-cut except
Oil Spray and Conditioning
that the dough extrusion is continuous, it is not wire-cut,
and the orifices are usually designed to produce strips
V rather than round shapes. For example, fig bars are made
Packaging [1.5 - 2.8% Moisture] by extruding a fig paste within a tube of dough of similar
consistency (Fig. 9C).
FIGURE 5 Production flow chart—Saltine crackers. (From
Ref. 38.) 3. Cutting Machine Cookies
Another method for cookie production that is slowly being
discontinued is the cutting machine. The process and for-
on the baking oven band (Fig. 9A). The mold produces a mulation of cutting machine cookies produce the familiar
molded pattern on the surface of the dough. Rotary molded Christmas cookie. A dough with slightly less fat and sugar
doughs are often high in sugar and shortening but low in but more water than rotary molded dough is sent through
moisture. The development of gluten during mixing is pre- multiple sheeting rolls and made into a continuous sheet.
vented by formulation [38]. The typical dough is crumbly, The dough has little elasticity, so shrinkage before cutting
lumpy, and stiff, with virtually no elasticity. Much of the is not a problem. Docking and imprinting of a name or a
cohesiveness of this type of dough comes from the plastic pattern is performed before the outline is cut. Typical for-
shortening used [1]. During baking, dough spread and rise mulas for production of various types of cookies are
is minimized shown in Tables 39 and 40.
598 Faridi et al.

Ingredit Scaling manufacturers. Interest in trolley biscuits was renewed

with the increase in low-and no-fat cookies. They are made
by hanging base cakes on hooks attached to a metal bar.
Mixng - Upright Mixer [30 C] The bars are attached to chains that run around sprockets
on a multilevel framework. The biscuits are pulled through
V pans of icing followed by a drying period. Layers of icing
Dough Profing [2 - 3 hr] are built up on the base cakes in this manner followed by a
final high-sheen glaze coating. See Figure 10 for a diagram
V of a trolley goods line.
Dough Lamintg
C. Cakes
V
Dough Sheting Likely, the most characteristic and unique product made
from soft wheat is cake. Cake is a traditional centerpiece of
festive and joyous celebrations [39]. Cakes are relatively
Dough Cuting high in both sugar and shortening. A typical cake formula
(Table 41) contains quite a lot of water and depends on air
incorporated during mixing for much of its leavening. An
V
Salt Aplicaton important step in cake production is to incorporate air as
small bubbles into the batter. These small bubbles act as
nucleation sites for the gas produced during leavening.
V
Baking 4 min. Double-stage leavening systems are commonly used in
cakes. The first stage acid reacts during mixing, and as a
result the air cells entrapped during mixing are enlarged in
V
Spray or Seasond Oil Aplicaton size. The second leavening acid becomes active as the in-
ternal temperature of the cake increases during baking.
Coughlin [40] has categorized cake ingredients (Table 42)
Post Con itong as follows: toughener, tenderizer, moistener, drier, and fla-
vorer. Five common methods for cake production are
shown in Figure 11.
V
Packing [1.0 - 3.0% moisture]
D. Pie Crusts
FIGURE 7 Outline of process for production of chemically
leavened crackers. (From Ref. 38.) Pies are pastries that consist of two distinct components: a
relatively thin crust portion that serves to contain the sec-
ond component, the filling [13]. Pie crusts are low in mois-
ture and high in fat. A good pie crust is both flaky and ten-
4. Soft Cookies der. Ideally, the ratio of ingredients (Table 43), together
The current use of the term "soft cookie" refers to the de- with the method of preparation (Fig. 12) prevents the for-
velopment of the dual textured product developed by Proc- mation of a gluten network and results in baked crusts that
ter & Gamble in the early 1980s. Specialized equipment have a friable texture and flaky structure. That texture and
extrudes one dough formulation within another before di- structure is largely a function of the critical mixing step
viding it into individual cookie portions. This unique pro- during which fat is incorporated as small, but discrete par-
duction method produces a cookie with a crisp shell on the ticles.
outside and a soft center. Selection of ingredients and for-
mulation is a critical component in delivering a soft, E. Pretzels
chewy texture. The "inner" dough formula is characterized
by a high quantity of sugar syrups to retain moisture in the Hard pretzels are a baked food that is unique both in shape
baked cookie. and in having a hard and shiny outer surface [1]. Pretzels
are made from a straight or sponge dough system (Table
5. Trolley Goods 44) that is similar to a cracker formula, although pretzel
Once a popular cookie type produced by many bakeries, dough is somewhat drier and more stiff. Doughs are
trolley goods are now produced by a limited number of formed and shaped, generally through extrusion, then
Soft Wheat Products 599

TABLE 38 Typical Formulas for Production of Various Types of Crackers

Saltine Cheese snacks
Cheese cracker
Ingredients Graham straight dough Lunch biscuit Sponge Dough Sponge Dough
Flour 80 100 100 65 35 75 25
Graham flour 20
Shortening 12 12 15 12
Lard 11
Sugar 25 3
Molasses 5
Invert syrup 5
Cheese 25 25
Salt 1 1 1 2 1
Soda Variable 0.5 Variable 0.5
Calcium phosphate 2.5 0.5 0.25
Ammonium bicarbonate 0.5 0.25
Water 20 30 30 29 25 5
Sponge 10 10
Milk powder 4
Yeast 0.25 0.25 —
Paprika
Source: Ref. 14.

"cooked" in a lye bath, after which they are salted with
coarse salt and baked. This unusual treatment, and drying
to a low level (2-4% moisture content), gives a unique col-
or, sheen, flavor, and texture. Packaging must hold mois-
ture at this low level, and well-protected pretzels retain
their flavor and crispness for a year or more [1,13,38]. The
production scheme for hard pretzels is shown in Figure 13.
Soft pretzels are similar to hard pretzels in general for-
mulation and processing parameters. Most soft pretzels are
rested or fermented for a short period after make-up to en-
hance flavor and texture characteristics. Because some soft
pretzels are flavored with other ingredients such as butter
or cinnamon sugar, a less caustic "bath" solution is used.
Instead of lye (sodium hydroxide) a solution of sodium bi-
carbonate is generally used in the "bath." A less caustic so-
lution gives a lighter straw color and more tender texture to
the crust as well as a milder flavor.
F. Puff Pastries
Puff pastries are laminated, flaky products with an open
structure and a typical flavor of fried goods such as donuts
[13]. A puff pastry dough consists of many thin layers of
dough separated by fine laminations of fat. A piece of
properly made puff pastry, one quarter of an inch thick, is
likely to expand on baking to a height of over 2 inches, an
eightfold increase in height. The light flaky structure gives
the product good eating properties. The gas responsible for
the volume increase in puff pastry is the water vapor pro-
duced from the dough water. The fat layers in the structure
are somewhat impervious to water vapor and act as barri-
ers against which the water vapor exerts a pressure. In this
way, the dough layers expand and separate, giving the lift
required. During baking, the fat in the layers eventually
melts and becomes absorbed by the dough.
The "lift" and the delicate structure of baked puff pastry
is a result of lamination by lapping a sheet of puff pastry
upon itself a number of times. Up to a point, the greater
number of laps the greater the lift [41]. After that point, ad-
ditional lamination may decrease the "lift" and lower the
eating quality of the pastry (Fig. 14). The ingredients for
production of puff pastry dough are shown in Table 45.
The production scheme for puffed pastry is shown in Fig-
ure 15.
G. Donuts
Donuts differ from other sweet goods in that they are deep
fat fried rather than baked. There are two types of donuts:
cake and yeast-raised. Cake donuts are chemically leav-
ened. Bakers normally use commercially prepared mixes
(Table 46) for the production of cake donuts. Those mixes
require only the addition of liquid during the mixing
process to transform them into batters ready for depositing
into the frying fat. The basic flour for making cake donut
mixes may be obtained through wheat selection or by
600 Faridi et al.

70

60

50
L

0
• 40
0
a)
a)
,s 30
a)
1-
o . 20
0

ca

10 20 30 40 50 60
Sugar (percentage of flour, w/w)

FIGURE 8 Sugar and fat concentrations (flour weight basis) of cutting machine, rotary-molded, and wire-cut commercial cookies.

A
B C

E
4-)
Int VII ne IP2

FIGURE 9 Three common methods for cookie production. (From Ref. 38.)

blending hard with soft wheat flour to the desired strength
and performance level. Selection of leavening is impor-
tant; a slow-acting acid leavening agent is used so that gas
evolution is not completed before the second side has ex-
panded and been cooked to its final shape. Sodium acid py-
rophosphate with a controlled reaction rate is usually em-
ployed, although others such as sodium aluminum
phosphate, monocalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate,
and glucono-delta-lactone are also used in cake donut for-
mulations [39,42].
The use of commercially prepared mixes for yeast-
raised donut production is also common. A representative
formulation of a yeast-raised donut mix is given in Table
47. The extrusion process for yeast-raised donuts requires
a dough that will extrude readily through the die and yet
will retain its shape during proofing. This type of dough is
most readily obtained by a sponge dough method in which
the sponge is fermented at 80°F (27°C) with 6% yeast for
1-2 hours [13].
Proofing conditions should be relatively dry and warm,
with a temperature range of 118-122°F and a relative hu-
midity of 35-45% to accelerate skin formation on the
TABLE 39 Typical Formulas for Various Types of Cookies
Vanilla Chocolate Semi-
Vanilla Chocolate sugar Oatmeal Lemon Lemon Chocolate Short- chip Chocolate Ginger hard Social Petit
spnpoid leattisk mos

Ingredients wafer wafer cookies cookie crisp snap snap bread cookie nut cookie snap sweet tea buerre
Flour 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Powdered sugar 70 70 45 70 60 45 35 60 45 55 19 25 20 28
Shortening 30 30 35 35 25 15 - 18 50 50 22 15 15
Lard - - - - - - 20
Butter 5 10 - 12 20
Invert syrup 10 8 7 3 0.8 10 15
Corn syrup 6
Molasses - 50
Honey - - - - - - 4 -
Milk powder 5 6 3 5 2 - 6 1 2.5 2.5 1.5 -
Eggs (frozen or powdered) 0.5 2 5 7 4 1.5 - 6 - 10 - - 1 -
Water 45 - 30 30 35 45 25 15 15 25 5 16 10 23
Soda 1 1 0.8 0.8 1.2 1.5 2 - 0.5 2 0.75 0.8 0.5
Calcium Phosphate 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.5 - 0.25 0.25 - - - 0.2
Ammonium Bicarbonate 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.2 0.5 - 0.25 0.6 0.2 0.2
Lecithin - - - - 0.2
Bisulfite 0.05 0.1
Corn starch 7 5 2.5
Potato flour - - 14
Salt 2 1.5 2.5 1.5 0.8 1 1 1.2 1 1.25 2 1.5 1 0.6
Cocoa powder 10 - 10 - 10 -
Chocolate chip 50 -
Chopped nuts - 12.5 10
Raisin 25 -
Rolled oats 45
Ginger - - - - - - 1 -
Flavor Butter Lemon Lemon Vanilla Vanilla Butter Butter Butter Butter
Vanilla oil oil Vanilla Vanilla Lemon Vanilla
Color - Yellow - - Butter
Spice Cinnamon -
Nutmeg
Source: Ref. 14.
602 Faridi et al.

TABLE 40 Typical Formula for Production of a solute content (water activity (aw) = 0.8). Thus, it requires
Co-extruded Fig Bar little preservation besides refrigeration. The other type rep-
resents the majority of all other refrigerated dough prod-
Ingredient Dough Jam
ucts and is packaged in fiber cans. Refrigerated doughs in
Flour 100 cans include a variety of breakfast biscuits, cookies, sweet
Fig 100 rolls, and dinner rolls. Refrigerated dough is unique be-
Sugar 40 50 cause preservation of dough against both microbial
Invert syrup 5 20 spoilage and loss of leavening action is required.
Shortening 20
All refrigerated dough products are leavened chemical-
Eggs 8
ly. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is used as the source
Milk powder 3
Water 20 of leavening gas CO2. The leavening acid most commonly
Soda 0.5 used to liberate the gas is sodium acid pyrophosphate
Calcium phosphate 0.5 0.25 (SAPP). SAPP is rather unique and particularly useful for
Ammonium bicarbonate 0.5 refrigerated dough. It reacts slowly with the soda prevent-
Salt 0.1 0.75 ing the dough from becoming so puffy it is difficult to fill
Glucose 30 the cans. The reaction of SAPP with soda is temperature
sensitive so leavening is triggered by heating. Once the can
Source: Ref. 14.
is filled with dough and closed, it is warmed to about 90°F
to accelerate the leavening reaction and generate a positive
can pressure that is essential for preservation of dough
quality [44]. Figure 17 outlines the production scheme for
proofing dough pieces. Proofing time will normally be
refrigerated cookies and rolls.
20-25 minutes. Frying temperatures should be about
Consumer frozen dough products, made from soft
400°F, and frying times are normally 45-60 seconds per
wheat, are largely restricted to puff dough items, pies and
side, depending on donut size. A recent innovation in
pie shells, and a variety of frozen cookies, many of them
donut proofing is the application of microwave, or ultra-
made as institutional products. Figures 18 and 19 detail the
high-frequency energy to heat the product. Microwave en-
production of frozen unbaked puff pastry.
ergy causes an instant, relatively uniform rise in tempera-
ture throughout the dough piece instead of a temperature
gradient from the external surface into the dough interior IV. SCORING
as is the case in conventional proofing. As a result, normal
The making of uniform baked products requires adequate
proofing times of 20-25 minutes are reduced to about four
control over the raw materials used in production and strict
minutes [13]. Three methods for the production of yeast-
raised donuts are shown in Figure 16. control and assessment of finished product quality attrib-
utes. Bakeries establish quality specification ranges for
various attributes of their baked products. For example,
H. Refrigerated/Frozen Doughs
cakes obtained in experimental baking tests or produced in
Refrigerated dough is an unbaked, flour-based product that commercial bakeries are subjected to regular evaluation or
is stored between 32-45°F [43]. The original refrigerated scoring to determine their physical characteristics on a
dough was a chemically leavened breakfast biscuit with an comparative basis. Scoring products is based largely upon
approximate shelf life of 3 weeks. Today, the refrigerated personal judgment, and preferably upon extensive experi-
dough industry encompasses a wide range of products ence, in which the scorer visualizes an ideal product with
packaged in cans or plastic films. They require full baking which he compares the product under evaluation. Subjec-
before consumption [44]. tive scoring can be very reproducible, but it is obvious that
There are two types of refrigerated doughs available. no absolute values can be obtained [13]. A typical cake
One is cookie dough packaged in plastic film. It requires score data sheet and a cake score report are shown in Fig-
only a small amount of leavening action and has a high ures 20 and 21, respectively.
Soft Wheat Products 603

U U U U
0 U U 0, U U IM 8 J 0 J0 U

nn n n C

C). C 0

Glaze 3rd Di i p
12nd 1st Dip
Put On
Take Off
Roller Chain

Swiveling "Bar" with Hooks and Product.

FIGURE 10 Trolley goods line. (From Ref. 47.)

TABLE 41 Formula for Production of Four Popular Cakesa

White layer Yellow layer Chocolate Devil's food

cake cake cake cake
Flour (low protein and
chlorinated) 100 100 100 100
Sugar 100 140 150 155
Shortening (hydrogenated) 45 50 60 55
Egg white 60 — — 15
Whole egg — 60 70 60
Evaporated milk 40 — —
Whole milk — 110 — —
Nonfat dry milk — — 15 22
Baking powder 6 6 6 4
Salt 2.5 4 4 5
Chocolate liquor — — 20 —
Cocoa powder — 20
Water 100 130

aOn flour basis.

Source: Ref. 13.
 604 Faridi et al.

TABLE 42 Functional Categories of Ingredients Used in Cake Production

Ingredient Toughener Tenderizer Moistener Dryer Flavorer

Flour X X
Crystalline sugar X X
Liquid sugar or syrup X X
Shortenings X X
Milk solids X X X
Egg white X X
Egg yolk X X
Whole egg X X X
Dried egg X X
Cocoa powder X X
Chocolate X X X
Leavening agents X
Salt X

Source: Ref. 40.

Single Stage Two Stage Creaming Blending Sugar-Water

Place all the ingredients Place all the dry and part Whip sugar and shortening Blend flour and shortening Place all the sugar and 1/2
in the mixer of the liquid ingredients until creamed thoroughly of its weight in water
1 in the mixer 1 1
1 1 Add eggs while mixing V
1 Add remainder of the dry Whip for 30 seconds
1 1 V dry ingredients. Mix well
V V Add other ingredients alternately 1 Add other ingredients
Whip them with batter beater Mix until creamy in small portions Add remainder of the liquid
until homogenous (10 min) 1 ingredients. Mix well Whip to optimum
1 V
Add remainder of the liquid
1 1
1 V
1 Complete the mixing stage
1 1 1
V V V
1

V
Deposit in cake pans
1
V
Bake at 360-400'F to optimum

FIGURE 11 Production flow chart—cake baking.

Soft Wheat Products 605

TABLE 43 Typical Formula for Production of Pie Crust

Ingredient %a

Flour (low protein) 100

Shortening 65
Salt 2-4
(dissolve in water)
Sugar 3-8
NFMS 2-6
Water (chilled) 25-35

'On flour basis.

Mix flour with shortenig (35-40°F)

V
Ad other ingredts

V
Refrigat (2-3 hours)

V
Rol to desir thicknes

V
Cut to size

FIGURE 12 Production flow chart—pie crust.

TABLE 44 Typical Hard Pretzel Formula

Ingredient %a

Sponge
Flour 20
Water 10
Yeast 0.63-1.25
Dough
Flour 80
Water 25
Salt 1.2
Shortening 3

aOn flour basis.

606 Faridi et al.

Mix the sponge

V
Fermnt 6-10 hours

V
Dough-p

V V
Extrude into a desir shape Extrude into strand

V
Clip and twis the strand

V
Make a knot

V
Pas uicklyq (25 sec) throug a causti
athb 1.25%( odiums ydroxieh olutins at 85-90°C)

V
Sprinkle large crystal salt

V
Bake at 246°C for 5 min. to 15% moisture

V
Dry 20 to 09 in.m ta 05-13°C
to inalf oisturem fo 2-4%

FIGURE 13 Production flow chart—hard pretzels.

3 600

Pastry
2 • 400
Height
Baked Theoretical
pastry number of
height dough layers
(inches)
1 200

Dough Layers --
2 3 4 5 6 7
—Number of (three fold) turns-

FIGURE 14 Effect of number of turns on the baked pastry height using a low-melting-point fat. (From Ref. 41.)
Soft Wheat Products 607

TABLE 45 A Typical Formula for Production of Puff Pastry TABLE 46 Donut Mix Composition
Ingredient %a Ingredient
Flour 100 Bread flour 35.00
Salt 2 Cake flour 65.00
Shortening (including that added during rolling) 100 Fine granulated sugar 35.00
Water 20 Dextrose 3.5
Salt 1.5
'On flour basis. Mace 0.7
Egg yolk solids 3-5
Nonfat dry milk 5-8
Blend ingredients (60°F) Shortening 6
Sodium bicarbonate 1.5
Sodium acid 2
V Pyrophosphate 1
Roll the dough Defatted soy flour 0-6
Vanilla To suit
V I Source: Ref. 13.
Spread additional shortening I
I \ Three
V / Times
Fold 1 X 4 1
1 1
TABLE 47 Yeast-Raised Doughnut
I Mix Formula
V
%a
Refrigerate Ingredient
I Flour 100
V Sugar 8-12
Cut to desired shapes Shortening 8-14
Nonfat dry milk 2-6
I
Egg solids 2-4
V
Salt 2-3
Bake at 350°F for 30-40 min.
aOn flour basis.
FIGURE 15 Production flow chart—puff pastry. Source: Ref. 13.
608 Faridi et al.

Table Air resuP Vacum Extrusion

Cuting Extrusion (batch) (contius)

Mix ingredts Mix ingredts Mix ingredts

V V V
Fermnt (1-2 hrs) Fermnt (1-2 hrs) Fermnt (1-2 hrs)

V V V
Cut 15-20 lb piecs Cut large piecs Fed to extrud
V
V V
Rest (15-20 min) Fed to extrud Extrude

V V V
Shet to desir Extrude
thicknes

V
Cut to size

Prof (20-5 min.)

Fry (1 min, 40°F)

V
Glaze

V
Col

V
Packge

FIGURE 16 Three common flow charts for production of yeast-raised donuts. (From Ref. 42.)
Soft Wheat Products 609

Mix the ingredts

V
Rest

V
Shet

V
Cut

V
Wrap in alumin foil

V
Stack in a "can

V
Seal the can

V
Prof ta a aisedr empratu (90°F)
ot genrat interal presu fo 51 sip

V
Refrigat

FIGURE 17 Production flow chart for refrigerated breakfast

biscuits.

Mix the ingredts

1
Store in refigato (4-6 hrs)

Remix

Extrude laminted dough with plastic shortenig

se Fig. /
19 \
Shetr
(two layers of dough with a layer of shortenig in betwn)

Folder

Shetr

The final dough has over 10 alternig layers of dough and shortenig

v
Cuter, filer

Frezing tunel (-20°F)

v
Packgin

FIGURE 18 Production flow chart—frozen unbaked puff pastry.

610 Faridi et al.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 19 (a) Detailed schematic view of dough as it leaves

extruder. The cylinder of dough is internally coated with butter or
margarine. (b) Immediately upon leaving extruder, the cylinder
of dough passes through a flattening roller, from which it exits as
a single layer of butter or margarine sandwiched between two
layers of dough. (From Ref. 45.)
Soft Wheat Products 611

Perfect Sample Penalized for: Perfect Sample Penalized for:

score score (check faults) score score (check faults)

EXTERNAL INTERNAL

Volume 15 oToo small Grain 15 ClOpen coarse

oToo large 0Non-uniform
OThick cell walls
Color of crust 5 ONot uniform Holes
CLight spotty
0Dark Color of crum 10 CGray
ODull CDark
CSugar ring CStreaky
°Grease ring °Dull
CNon-uniform
Symmetry 10 CHigh center :light
of form CLow center
cHigh side Aroma 10 CStrong
CLow side CLack of
E Peaked CForeign
OUneven CMusty
0 Burst CSharp

Character of 5 OThick blistery Taste 20 OFIat

crust Clough OForeign
CRubbery CSalty
C Flaky CSoda
C Moist E:Sour
EDry :2Unpleasant aftertaste

Texture 10 :::Rough-harsh
=lumpy
=Too compact
:1-Too loose
1 -Crumbly
EXTERNAL 35
SUBTOTAL INTERNAL 65
SUBTOTAL

Total Score 100

FIGURE 20 Cake score data sheet. (Courtesy of American Institute of Baking.)

612 Faridi et al.

Cato typo DeteltItna baked

Sample numb" Oat,ROTS ,.calved

Balmy ammo Oaten n. .cared

Plant gonad*. (antnana)

Magni as recohrod (unwrapped) Check"

Clannatew (Inch.) Examine,

EXPLANATION OF SCORE

EXTERNAL INTERNAL

Volume
The desired volume varies in different sections of the coun-
try, and according to different types of cakes. Nevertheless,
in order to render an unbiased value for volume on the en-
closed score, standards for yellow layer have been estab-
lished.
Color of Crust
A good live color is desired. It should be uniform and free
from spots or streaks.
Symmetry of Form
The ideal layer should be symmetrical without low edges,
high or low centers.
Character of Crust
A good crust is thin and tender. It should not be thick or
rubbery; neither should it be too tender so that it breaks
easily.
Grain
The grain is the structure formed by the strands of gluten,
including the area they surround. The cell structure varies
considerably with the different types of cake. Uniformity of size
with thin walled cells is desirable. Coarseness, thick cell
walls, uneven cell size, and large holes are indicative of poor
grain.
Color of Crumb
No definite tint can be established for the color of crumb.
However, it should be bright with some luster. The surface
should present a uniform shade without streaks or dark patch-
es.
Aroma
Aroma as here used is recognized by the organs of smell.
The aroma may be noted as sweet, rich. fresh. musty or flat.
The ideal layer has a pleasant, rich, fresh. sweet, natural
aroma.
Taste
The most important attribute of good cake is that it has a
pleasant and satisfying sweet taste.
Texture
Texture is determined by the sense of touch. It depends on
the physical condition of the crumb and is influenced by the
grain. It is an expression of the pliability and smoothness of the
crumb. The ideal texture is soh and velvety, without weak-
ness, and should not crumble.

FIGURE 21 Cake score report. (Courtesy of American Institute of Baking.)

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Kickline, T. P., and Conn, J. F., Some functional aspects of
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LaBaw, G. D., Chemical leavening agents defined, in: Pro-
Soft Wheat Products
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the 58th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Bakery
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15. Eellinger, R. H., The development and uses of fluid short-
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19. Kosmark, R., Salatrim: Properties and applications, Food
Technol. 50(3):98-101.
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cookies with calorie-sparing ingredients, Cereal Foods
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19

READY-TO-EAT BREAKFAST CEREALS

Paul J. Whalen
Whalen Consulting, Inc., Elk River, Minnesota
Julia L. DesRochers
Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
Charles E. Walker*
BRI—Australia Ltd., North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia

I. INTRODUCTION
Ready-to-eat cereals (RTEs) originated from early attempts
at managing health through diet. In the late 1800s and early
1900s, health clinics called sanitariums sprang up in which
principals such as Dr. John K. Kellogg and C. W. Post pre-
pared and advertised their dietary concoctions for improv-
ing health. This time in American history was fairly ram-
pant with unsubstantiated health claims, and many fortunes
were made based on wild advertising claims for basic prod-
ucts [19]. RTEs evolved from a rather dubious foundation
in the name of health, commonly the result of clever adver-
tising rather than based on science. For example, when
C. W. Post's coffee substitute failed, he repositioned it as a
cold cereal called Grape-NutsTM and claimed it as "brain
food" that could cure appendicitis, make blood redder,
steady nerves, etc. Dr. Kellogg was not much milder with
his focus on bran and its effects on the bowel. His first flake
product was of wheat, not the more famous corn flakes—
which bears the signature of his business-oriented brother
on the box. Nonetheless, RTEs are a good source of fiber
and complex carbohydrates and are generally low in fat.
Claims relative to fiber's effect on colon cancer (insoluble
fiber) and the more recent allowance for a claim that soluble
fiber can help reduce cholesterol levels are interestingly
*This work was co-authored by Dr. Walker while on leave from
Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.
coming full circle. RTEs are also a good food vehicle for
delivering vitamins and minerals to the general public, not
unlike bread fortification.
The early ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals were wheat flakes,
shredded wheat, Grape-Nuts, corn flakes, wheat/flax
flakes, followed by puffed products like KixTM, which pre-
ceded the oat-based CheeriosTM [19,39,80]. Of course,
many hot cereals like oatmeal and Cream of Wheat were
introduced well before these products but required prepa-
ration, whereas RTEs are consumable out of the box—thus
the term ready-to-eat. RTEs now span a wide range of cat-
egories defined by the targeted age group and other demo-
graphics fairly inherent in the terms such as:
Adult—high fiber, vitamin, and mineral fortification
All Family—moderate sugar level, fiber, etc.
Child—presweetened.
Even teenage and college consumers are accounted for with
products eaten as an "other event" meal besides breakfast or
as a snack (i.e., Cap' n CrunchTM or Frosted FlakesTM)
RTE breakfast cereals in the United States averaged
sales of $8 billion for 1995 and 1996 [99]. The U.S. market
is shared largely by three companies: Kellogg (32%), Gen-
eral Mills (24%), and Post-Kraft (20%). Quaker garners
approximately an 8% share. The numbers shifted some-
what in 1998, but the main players remain stable—Kel-
logg's at 32%, General Mills at 28.9% and Post-Kraft at

615
616
16.3% [86]. Recently, growth in the United States has been
flat for RTEs, with companies looking to developing mar-
kets in Europe and Asia. Of the remaining 16%, about
6-8% is private label, of which Ralston (RalCorp) claims
about 60% of the market—less with the acquisition by
General Mills (GMI) of the Chex brand. Other companies
like Malt-O-Meal produce both name brand and private la-
bel products. The top-selling cereal brand is Cheerios
(GMI) followed by Kellogg's Frosted Flakes. Kellogg has
7 of the top 10 selling cereals in the United States, with
General Mills having the remaining three [98]. A break-
down of the retail price of cereals is shown in Table 1.
Clearly, the major cost is in marketing and advertising.
Marketing accounts for a full one third of the cost, fol-
lowed by grocer stocking costs. Recently, the top three
companies in the United States have moved to reduce the
price [99]. Various strategies have focused on reducing the
cost of marketing. This cost factor allows about 40 compa-
nies producing RTEs in the United States to find a niche in
lower-cost "knock-offs" and private label products since
they do not bear the cost of advertising and marketing.
Profits have been cited as low as a modest 13% but are
more likely greater than 25% and up to 40%.
Although Kellogg is currently reducing its domestic
workforce, it dominates the international market in devel-
oped countries. Abroad, consumer tastes vary from those
in the United States, with shredded wheat, corn flakes, and
rice crisps (or bubbles) comprising the core types of prod-
ucts. Per capita consumption of breakfast cereal products
per annum ranks Ireland first at 17.4 lb per person, fol-
lowed by Great Britain, Australia, Canada, and the United
States (at 11.4 lb/person) [74].
RTE cereals may be divided into the categories of
flaked, shredded, directly expanded, oven puffed, gun
puffed, microwave puff [131], and baked [92]. Within
these categories, the products may be made from whole
TABLE 1 Cost Breakdown for Box of RTE Cereal
Grocery store (stock costs) $0.68a
Grainb $0.09
Other ingredients' $0.05
Packaging $0.10
Labor $0.18a
Manufacturing $0.34a
Advertising $1.02a
Profits $0.93
Total $3.39
aFrom Ref. 48.
bCalculated from grain costs.
`Calculated from ingredient costs—cost of salt, sugar, malt
syrup, buffer at vendor-recommended rates.
Whalen et al.
grain, grain parts, or flours and cooked whole or extruded.
For some RTEs, the same product can be made by more
than one process. Table 2 lists some examples of products
in each category.
II. INGREDIENTS: GRAIN SELECTION
AND FORMULATION
A. Sources
The primary functional ingredient used in RTE breakfast
cereal formulations is the grain or a grain-derived compo-
nent such as flour or starch. Historically, some of the first
grains used to make RTEs were wheat, corn, and barley.
Gun puffed wheat and rice made early debuts in the late
1800s. Dr. Kellogg's early products were wheat flakes in
1916 [71] and corn flakes. General Mills followed Kel-
logg's lead with Wheaties in 1924. Henry Perky invented
shredded wheat (1895), and Post's Grape-Nuts (1898) was
made from malted barley. Puffed oat—based products like
Cheerios were introduced in 1941.
Wheat used in RTEs is usually soft white wheat
[39,63,73,80], although red wheat is used in Europe and
the United Kingdom [74]. Soft white wheat is noted for its
"sweet flavor" or lack of the heavy, bitter bran notes found
in red wheat. Soft white wheat comes from Michigan, the
Ohio River Valley, Canada, and the northwestern United
States. It notably suffers from a dormancy factor that
makes it particularly susceptible to sprout damage—the
generation of alpha- and beta-amylase in the field during
wet conditions [128]. This can be a major quality issue de-
pending on the process used for wheat-based RTEs. Large
particle size protects the enzyme from denaturation as the
material is cooked. Since amylases can react in millisec-
onds, processes that quickly heat-deactivate the amylases
are less likely to show enzymatic thinning and subsequent
excessive browning.
TABLE 2 Retail Examples by Category of RTE Cereals
Product category Commercial examples
Flaked cereals Corn flakes, bran flakes,
Wheaties, Grape-Nuts
Gun puffed, whole grain Puffed wheat, puffed rice,
Smacks, Golden Crisp
Gun puffed, extruded pellet Cheerios, Kix
Extruded, direct expansion Cap' n Crunch
Shredded, whole grain Shredded wheat
Extruded, shredded/sheeted Life, Crispix, Chex
Oven puffed Rice Krispies, Pebbles
Baked Grape-Nuts, granola
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals 617

All the major cereals for RTEs are hulled. Hull material then removed in a series of pearling mills. The reduction in
is considered a defect in most cereal ingredients. Dry- bran decreases the strong flavor of the barley.
milled yellow dent corn (U.S. No. 1 or 2) is normally em-
ployed in cereal formulation [22,80,110]. It is selected B. Grain Composition
against criteria for both yield in dry milling and ingredient
The grain components—starch, protein, fiber, fat, ash—af-
quality. Corn is usually degermed in a dry-mill process
fect the qualities and the processing of RTE cereals (Table
[73] that also removes the husk or "bees wings," which is
3). The two primary factors are structural organization and
part of the bran. Degerming removes the oil-containing
functionality. For example, the horny endosperm of corn
portion and effectively increases the stability of the result-
and the starch-protein matrix of degermed corn products
ing grits, meal, or flour. Whole ground corn is used in some
uniquely affect the properties and processing behavior.
RTE products but must be stabilized or it quickly becomes
The component effects must be considered within the con-
rancid, which adversely affects processing and product
text of RTE cereal processes, which are generally harsh
quality.
and energy intense relative to bread and baking technolo-
Medium- and long-grain rices are used in breakfast ce-
gy. As a result, functional aspects are dominated mostly by
real formulation [22,69]. In rice, hulling is a requirement
starch and the effect of the other components on starch.
for stabilizing the product since the oil resides largely in
Protein functionality such as the formation of gluten de-
the bran [63,70]. Rice is pearled to the common form of
pends strongly upon whether the key components are de-
white rice and its milled products. Brown rice is hulled but
natured in the process. The contribution of the components
to a lesser extent, thus preserving some of the fiber content
to the nutrition profile of cereals is also important. The ef-
and obtaining the classification for labeling purposes of
fects of dietary fiber on health, the general low fat content
"whole brown rice." Rice bran is a by-product that is stabi-
of RTEs, their contribution of complex carbohydrates as
lized by heat treatment, extrusion, or other means and used
well as the opportunity to fortify RTEs with vitamins at the
as a fiber supplement [84].
breakfast meal, along with milk, are important factors in
White oats are the primary oat cultivar used in cereal
the diet.
formulation [22,33]. Oats must be heat stabilized by
steaming in a kiln process, after which they are hulled to
C. Quality
produce a groat [33]. Heat stabilization is necessary be-
cause of the high lipid content of the grain and the effect of Grains for cereal production must adhere to standards for
exposure to lipolytic rancidity upon milling, cutting, or Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and meet U.S. De-
rolling. Oat groats have an extensive layer of trichomes partment of Agriculture (USDA) requirements for field
under the hull that make the groat appear hairy. The tri- and storage issues such as infestation and mycotoxins. The
chomes are abraded away in the hulling process to produce definitions, terms, grades, and specifications for the specif-
a finished, clean groat for rolled oats or flour. Remnants of ic grains used in foods are defined by the U.S. Food and
trichomes and slivers of the husk or hull are defects in oat Drug Administration (FDA) in the Code of Federal Regu-
flour [33]. lations [26] under the U.S. standards for the individual
Barley is usually used in the pearled form [63,78]. Sim- grains. Beyond these basic considerations, quality factors
ilar to oats, the husk and a significant portion of the bran affecting final product include field damage such as sprout
are abraded away via an impact mill. Layers of the bran are damage in wheat, oats, and barley or storage damage such

TABLE 3 General Composition of Principal Whole Grains (%)

Grain Moist. Starch Protein Fat Fiber' Ash
Corn (whole) 12-14 65-68 8-10 3.5 7-9 1-1.5
Wheat (whole) 12 68-72 9-12 2.0 12 1.5-2
Oats (groat) 10-12 62-65 10-14 5-7 10-13 2
Rice, white 12 72-80 7 1.0 1-2 0.7
(brown) (3-5)
Barley (pearled) 12 62-65 8.5-10.5 1.0 10 1.0
'Fiber as total dietary fiber or TDF.
Source: USDA Handbook No. 8; supplier specifications.
618
as heat damage in corn due to postharvest drying or bin
conditions [63]. Besides general aging, grains are suscepti-
ble to significant performance changes associated with the
crop year. These are environmental issues and vary with
the source and geographic location of the crop. For exam-
ple, wheat grown by irrigation in the western United States
may have a significantly different pentosan content and
hardness from that grown in Michigan, New York, or
Canada [139]. A corn hybrid for dry milling may perform
better in one geographic location than another due to
growing conditions. Over the course of a crop year, grain
may show subtle changes in milling characteristics and
performance in cook processes, which are generally most
obvious as the old crop is depleted and the new crop enters
into production [63]. Many of these changes are poorly un-
derstood but can generally be related to the slow but con-
tinuous physiochemical maturing of the grain over the
course of the year [63] (i.e., changes in the endosperm
starch-protein matrix) and the lipids in the germ or
throughout the kernel (as in oats). Most of these changes
manifest themselves as processing aspects and are not
linked to compositional changes [50]. An example is the
elusive assessment of "starch quality" in sprout-damaged
wheat where the starch may be damaged or of a different
functionality as a result of factors associated with sprout-
ing but there is no consistent means of assessing it or relat-
ing it to sprouting factors such as amylase activity [128].
D. Form
Natural variability in grain is a fact of life in cereal process-
ing. However, a great majority of the RTE products are
made from grain that is milled. The form—as pieces, rolled,
cut, grits, flour, etc.—affects product quality and process-
ing to a high degree. The Appendix lists the various forms
of the major grains used in RTES. The grain form is usually
related to a processing factor or a product quality or desired
characteristic such as whole grain appearance (larger, more
intact material) versus rapid water uptake by finer grinds in
extrusion cooks. Both wheat and oats are sold in bran-en-
riched forms in which some of the floury endosperm is re-
duced, boosting the dietary fiber content. Further size re-
ductions in the form of grits or mids are available mainly
for corn, wheat (farina), and rice. Meal is a finer series of
grits that are still coarse ground. The purpose of larger
pieces is generally to preserve the structure and control the
rate of water absorption, because granulation directly af-
fects cook characteristics and performance as well as the fi-
nal product attributes. Size reduction below meal is called
cones (for corn or rice), which is still coarser than flour. A
meal or flour is common for most of the grains. "Graham
flour" is simply flour made from whole white wheat. Unless
Whalen et al.
the process segregates or fractionates the grain, the compo-
sition remains very similar among granulations, the excep-
tion being the enrichments noted above.
These grain forms apply to some of the production
methods discussed in a later section on cook processes. For
example, it is well known that the whole wheat kernel is
employed in the cook process for traditional shredded
wheat. However, shreds can be made using heavy bran
wheat or a host of different grains [119] by different
processes. Similarly, wheat starch, which is very fine, is
typically added to enhance puffing in direct expansion ex-
trusion as well as gun puffed RTE product formulations.
The level of cook and type of cook process can be dramat-
ically different, and therefore it is presumptuous to link
granulation to a specific cook. Generally, extrusion
processes utilize meal, cones, and flours, but these can also
be used in all of the main RTE cook processes to form
doughs. Extrusion dough cooking can utilize whole or cut
grains as well as crushed, rolled, or flaked grain. Larger
particle size is commonly associated with batch pressure
cooking, due to its substantial thermal capability, but flours
can also be used.
The particle size distribution for a material is important
to performance and material handling. Build-up of fines
followed by the sudden release into the process can cause
product quality fluctuations. Often this is a mechanical or
process design issue. However, it is important to note that
particle size distribution will affect the rheological perfor-
mance and transformation of the raw materials during
cooking. Clearly, the amount of heat and shear present in a
system will affect the response of the material. Thus, size
distribution specifications are important for the raw mate-
rials and must be strongly adhered to once product quality
standards are established. Defects related to particle size
include larger particles, which are not fully cooked and re-
main raw in the center, and gummy mouthfeel associated
with over-cooking fines or small particle sizes.
III. KEY PROCESSING STAGES
A. Cooking
RTE cereal products can be produced in numerous and
imaginative ways using a broad-based technology from
that originating in the pasta industry (1930s) to systems
similar to baked products [39,44,54,80,92]. Thus, flaked
products can be made using batch pressure cook of the
whole kernel or flaking grits or by extrusion cooking of
flour followed by forming to make pellets. Some of the
early reviews on RTEs are the most revealing regarding
identification and origination of brand name products and
the processes used to produce them. Matz [80] identifies
processes for brand name products such as Shredded
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals 619

Wheat, Kellogg's Corn Flakes, Grape-Nuts, Kix, TrixTM, pheric, high-moisture cooking with steam injection such as
Cheerios, and, Special KTM. Table 4 relates the primary the shredded wheat process and atmospheric cooking in
cook process with associated product types. Figure 1 offers steam jacketed mixing vessels as in the Collatz process are
an overall flow diagram of RTE cereal production steps. also batch cooks [28,135]. Whole grain, large (flaking)
grits, rolled, cut, or crushed grain generally of larger parti-
1. Batch Cooking cle size are used in pressure cookers and the shred process
Batch cook processes are those that operate on a noncon- [25]. However, grits, meal, and flour are successfully em-
tinuous cycle of loading, cooking, and emptying. Exam- ployed as well [76]. As with many batch processes, ad-
ples are traditional corn flakes and wheat or bran flakes as vancements in technology eventually moved to the more
well as the traditional shredded wheat [25,59,71,80,100, efficient continuous processes. This was the case for the
135]. For RTEs, the main process is the batch pressure Collatz process [28], which will be discussed in the atmos-
cooker with steam injection [39,80,92]. However, atmos- pheric cook section. However, batch pressure cooking is
still the mainstay of the industry for many products, espe-
cially flakes.
Batch cooking usually refers to pressure cookers oper-
TABLE 4
ating with steam injection under slow rotation and venting
Type of cook Products to bring the material up to temperature [59]. Such cookers
Shreds, granola, gun-puffed are commercially available from sources such as Buhler
Batch, atmospheric
(old method) Inc. (Minneapolis, MN) or Lauhoff Corp. (Detroit, MI)
Atmospheric, continuous Gun puffed, oven puffed, (Fig. 2). The steam-injected, pressurized batch cook is a
flakes, shreds thermal process involving virtually no mechanical conver-
Batch, pressure Flakes, shreds, gun puffed, sion. Factors that affect the thermal transformation of the
oven puffed material are particle size, moisture, time, and temperature.
Extrusion Flakes, gun puffed, oven Thermal cooking generates a specific starch transforma-
puffed, direct expansion tion consisting of melting the intact crystal structure. In the

Tender
Formulation
Dryer &
Half Products Temper
-- pellets
-- sheets
-- dough

•
Flake 1 Shred

Bake / Toast
Puff - - oven, air, gun,
microwave

Flavor/ Sugar Coating

& Vitamins

(FINAL PRODUCT

FIGURE 1 General RTE process flowchart. (From Ref. 133.)

620
FIGURE 2 Batch pressure cookers in series. (Courtesy Lauhoff Corp., Detroit, MI.)
absence of mechanical input, these materials will retain
rheological properties that define the final product charac-
teristics of appearance, texture, bowl life, etc. [134]. Batch
processes are usually arranged as a series of cookers oper-
ated in a timed sequence, which results in a continuous
stream of cooked material. The cooked product feeds a
surge or holding vessel from which continuous down-
stream processing ensues.
Upon discharging from the batch pressure cook, the
product forms lumps or individual grits, which are broken
up as the material cools [25,39]. The dough is usually con-
veyed on a belt and encouraged to cool, stiffen, and lose
tackiness [59]. This allows the dough or grits to break
apart or be delumped before the next step, which is drying.
The initial cooling upon discharge allows retrogradation to
begin. Indeed, the reduction of surface tackiness is indica-
tive of retrogradation, which is accelerated at cooler tem-
peratures. Retrogradation is most common in large starch
polymers [117], and the lack of shear in the process results
in higher molecular weight material inclined to this reac-
Whalen et al.
tion. Dough material is usually 30-32% moisture out of
the cooker, and target moistures for flaking are 18-22%
[90]. Drying is required in order to flake corn grits [76,82].
Dough material intended for forming pellets or half-prod-
ucts via extrusion or sheeting must be reduced in moisture
for this step, then dried further for flaking.
2. Atmospheric Cooking
Atmospheric cooks are processes that are performed at
ambient pressure, therefore, the temperature of the materi-
al is limited to 212°F. The heat source may be injected
steam, steam jackets, or mechanical energy, but it is gov-
erned by the lack of pressure. There is a virtual plethora of
equipment available to perform this basic function, from
sigma mixer/cookers to steam injected bins. An atmos-
pheric cooker can be described as a covered but vented vat
or bin with agitation and steam. Atmospheric cooking is
often used in the production of shreds and in the Collatz
process [28] for gun puffed products. The traditional
shredded wheat process involves a high-moisture batch
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals
cook of whole wheat kernels with steam injection but not
under pressure [135]. The Collatz process was also initial-
ly performed in a batch process, and part of its purpose
was to allow finer grinds of corn, wheat, oats, rice, etc. to
be cooked.
Early on, Lippen [76] described how to produced a
dough using grits, meal, cones, or flour via pressure cook-
ing followed by production of pellets for RTE flakes. Later
Collatz [28] produced a dough from corn cones in a steam-
jacketed atmospheric cooker with continuous mixing. The
dough was then pressed through a die to produce "cylindri-
cal" pellets. The pellets were dried and then subjected to
gun puffing. Thus, the Collatz process is noted for the fol-
lowing improvements at the time: (1) the use of flours or
meal of any cereal origin or mixture, (2) an atmospheric
cook, (3) use of phosphate buffers, and (4) pellets pro-
duced for gun puffing. The Collatz process was followed
by the James cooker in 1941 [66], shown in Figure 3,
which is a continuous version of the Collatz process for
producing pellets intended for gun puffing. Prior to the de-
velopment of these cookers, only whole grains such as rice
and wheat were used for gun puffing.
Because atmospheric cookers are open or otherwise
vented to the air, the temperature of the cook is limited.
Provision for condensate may be made or accounted for in
the water-to-feed ratio (absorption). The Collatz formula
reported 43 lb of water per 100 lb of solids or 30% water
addition, and Matz [80] reports an absorption of 38-40%.
In standing bins, such as for shredded wheat, the cook is
clearly dependent upon conductive heat transfer and pene-
tration of the water into the wheat kernels. The criteria for
completing the cook is established by the condition of the
interior of the kernel, a completely cooked endosperm be-
ing desired if not essential [63,80,100]. No mechanical en-
ergy is imparted, rather the kernel is converted to a rubbery
state and the starch polymers remain in a largely intact
state. This condition encourages retrogradation to occur,
which is critical for processing shreds.
When flours and other non—whole grains are cooked,
essentially a dough is produced wherein the material is
worked much like in a heated Farinograph. Because these
cookers cannot be pressurized, pasting of the starch and
subsequent formation of the dough relies upon the thermal
input of the steam jacket and the limited mechanical ener-
gy of the mixing elements. Pasting implies water absorp-
tion, gelatinization, and swelling of the starchy material
[63], rendering the swollen starch granules extremely sus-
ceptible to shear forces. However, the kneading elements
in atmospheric cookers are not severe enough to impart a
high degree of mechanical input like that found in extru-
sion cookers, partly because in order to form a dough, a
high amount of water must be available, which is not con-
621
ducive for high shear conditions. High shear is character-
ized at the extreme by direct expansion wherein the mois-
ture level is low, (i.e., 15%). As demonstrated by the Rapid
Visco-Analyser (RVA) profile in Figure 4, the starchy ma-
terial from a batch or atmospheric cooked product will not
be as severely cooked or degraded relative to extrusion
cookers. The RVA is an updated version of the Brabender
Amylograph capable of fast (10-20 min), sensitive, highly
reproducible viscosity profiles of aqueous starch-contain-
ing samples. As with all cook processes, the cook level is
affected by many factors such as the residence time, heat
source, shaft rpm, and evaporative moisture loss, nonethe-
less, generally, the degree of cook in an atmospheric mix-
ing vessel is lower than in a high-shear extruder.
In the James cooker [66], the mixer elements are stag-
gered bars with T heads on twin shafts placed to effect a
forward-conveying pitch into the pellet auger. Progressing
from the input section forward, the grain formulation ge-
latinizes and is subjected to mechanical work or shear
forming a "mass of plastic material." The design of the
James cooker is intended to "permit escape of any excess
steam," thus moisture loss is allowed, which would in-
crease the shear in a developed dough. Material is directed
forward along the cylindrical cook section, then forced
downward into a single screw auger or extruder placed at a
90° angle to the kneading section. The James design in-
cludes continuous pellet formation by a unique tangential
die at the end of the extruder (see Fig. 3).
3. Extruders for Cooking and Forming
An extrusion cooked dough is a high-moisture, primary
product from which half-products or intermediates are an-
ticipated prior to downstream puffing or flaking. These can
be single screw, twin screw, or kneading-type extruders
[92]. The 1941 James cooker design was actually an at-
mospheric twin screw cooking chamber with a single
screw—forming extruder incorporated [66]. Vollink [127]
used a similar general design of an L-shaped extrusion
cooker in which the cook was accomplished in a primary
jacketed single screw extruder, which was perpendicular to
a forming screw, thus solving some of the issues of pel-
letizing independent of the cooking extruder shaft speed.
Moisture levels are dependent upon the type of extruder
employed and the ingredients. Generally, a single screw
extruder will experience slippage of the screw due to the
lubricating qualities at high moisture content (>30%).
Twin screws can be operated at a high moisture (-50%)
[41] because the co-rotating shafts result in a positive dis-
placement towards the die, which reduces slip. Steam in-
jection can be made in both twin screw and single screw
extruders wherein a lock is configured in the injection sec-
tion [92]. Thermal input and retention time are important
622
FIGURE 3 Side and cross-sectional views of an atmospheric cereal cooker commonly known as the James Cooker. (From Ref. 66.)
factors in the cook. A trade-off between mechanical versus
thermal input is often the solution for making half-prod-
ucts for flaking or puffing. This requires the equipment to
be operated within a fairly narrow margin to achieve ap-
propriate downstream results. Product defects originating
in the cook are usually not salvaged by adjustments in unit
operations downstream in the production process. Ingredi-
ent quality, especially grain based, can have a dramatic im-
pact on extrusion operations. This includes such common
issues as sprout damage in wheat, rancidity in oat flour,
Whalen et al.
heat-damaged corn, excessive fines or flour, and new crop
year variations.
Doughs are usually subjected to forming via a second
extrusion step, dough conditioning or sheeting. Materials
are usually face cut off a forming extruder or dried slightly
to allow sizing and cutting. Extruded doughs may be pro-
duced in strands or strips directly off the extruder to elimi-
nate the need for a separate forming extruder or sheeting
operation [11,92]. In twin screw extruders, this necessi-
tates matching the cook section with the requirements for
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals
840
720
600
Viscosity, cP 480
•
ti
ti
360
Direct Expanded
240
Corn Product
120
0.0 4.6
Time, minutes
FIGURE 4 RVA analysis of gun puffed corn product versus direct expanded. (From Ref. 132.)
forming in the later section since all are driven by the same
shaft and speed. Clearly, longer residence times [higher
length-to-depth (L/D) ratio] would be useful in accom-
plishing this cooking/forming step.
Extrusion cooking of RTE cereals is performed in both
single and twin screw type extruders [53,85]. The distin-
guishing characteristic of these cooker units is the high-
temperature, short-time cook (i.e., 0.5-5 min), which is
both an advantage and a disadvantage in RTE cereal pro-
duction. Mechanical energy input is the primary mecha-
nism for cooking, although intensive thermal input via bar-
rel heating and steam injection is also employed.
Preferably, the barrel temperature is controlled with both
heating and cooling. Some versions of single screw extrud-
ers do not have barrel temperature control, while others
have elaborate control systems (i.e., the Sprout Bauer ex-
truders). Generally, the mechanical input of a single screw
extruder is controlled by the flight design and the back
pressure of the die and die openings [53]. In twin screw ex-
truders, some autonomy from the die effect is achieved by
controlling the screw configuration [79]. Twin screw ex-
truders used in cereal production are co-rotating with a
wide variety of screw elements available [92]. Examples
of twin screw configurations for dough cooks and direct
expansion are shown in Figure 5. Modules can be added in
sections, thereby increasing the length and possible varia-
tions in the cook. Usually the L/D ratio is a minimum of
10:1, going up to 30:1. Although very adept in producing
direct expanded and dough products, both single and twin
screw extruders suffer from a lack of residence time need-
623
Gun Puffed
Corn Product
Extrusion Puff
13.8 18. 5 23. 1
ed for flavor development and also tend to overshear the
product. Nonetheless, these units are increasingly being
employed in RTE production [43,92]. Single screw extrud-
ers function more off the die effect or the effect of back
pressure as a result of the die impacting the material in the
screw. Shear and pressure are created due to the converg-
ing effects of the die or back pressure plate preceding the
die [12,53]. As a result of the frictional forces the material
transforms relative to the moisture, shear rate (screw
geometry, shaft rpm), temperature, and pressure [54,92,
137].
The die effect in a single screw extruder causes some
backmixing of the material at the die. This effect results in
a heterogeneous mix of material at or just prior to the die,
some material being exposed less to the cook forces. This
can be a highly desired condition with the proper balance
of cooked material. Residence time distribution (RTD) al-
ludes to some of the dynamics at work in extrusion [1,137]
but since it does not give information about the reaction
rates of the chemical conversions occurring, it yields only
limited information about operation and effects. Particle
size of the grain formula is important to assure proper cook
by preserving structure in these products. It is well known
in the industry that certain particle sizes are preferred for
different textural characteristics in extrusion cooking
[51,65,81]. For example, corn meal (40-60 mesh) is com-
monly used in snack production for making puffed corn
snacks. It may also be used in RTE cereals in direct expan-
sion products, batch cooks, and extrusion dough cooks,
whereas the finer granulation corn cones may be preferred
624 Whalen et al.

Indirect expanded products

Product inlet
dry blend Liquid (Direct steam) Degasing (Additions)
addditions
11 rn
Bl 4LER
Steam —10- -iivarTm imwrie4V1
L ‘-- Mh,==:E
I*11*101.ki.:$_14.111414!?IPPPPAWAII.V.1 0.4.1 PKEI,

Preconditioning Compacting Plastifying Mixing Degasing Pressure Forming

Feeding Mixing Metering Shearing build-up Cutting

Expanded products
Product inlet
dry blend Liquid (Direct steam) (Additions)
additions
ILI 1
Steam -iihirJWWIAWA8M0
J.,•••• Awn vwLILIMMI111111111•1=111M11110

411'41111 ‘i $1 'V 4 4 II Vi$ ti

Preconditioning Compacting Mixing Cooking Pressure Formingic) 0 0®

Feeding Mixing Metering Shearing build-up Expanding
Cutting

FIGURE 5 Varying twin screw extruder screw configurations and their function. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)

in twin screw extrusion (80 mesh). This is because the sin-
gle screw is affected more by the particle size because of
the die effect, whereas the twin screw can control the me-
chanical input via screw configuration, thus the granula-
tion effect is eliminated to some degree. However, twin
screw extruders offer the option to use a wider variety of
particle sizes, perhaps to develop certain product charac-
teristics. One disadvantage of twin screw extruders is their
penchant to overdesign the screw configuration for in-
creased shear. The related product problems are caused by
the screw design rather than ingredient problems (i.e., par-
ticle size). Indeed, ingredient or formulation manipulation
is necessary to salvage twin screw products, as evidenced
by the addition of extrusion aids such as emulsifiers and
low levels of oil to reduce the effects of high shear [51].
4. Preconditioning and
Postextrusion Treatment
Techniques for preconditioning are well known
[7,54,92,137]. Most extrusion manufacturers make some
sort of preconditioning unit, which allows addition of wa-
ter or steam to the mix formula prior to transfer into the ex-
truder. These units operate on a continuous-feed basis and
employ mixing via single or twin shaft mixers. Many of
these units are of short residence time (2-4 min) but can be
sized for longer times. The amount of steam and water is
limited by gelatinization in the preconditioner, thus, many
of the devices are atmospheric. However, the Sprout Bauer
Co. offers a pressurized steam preconditioner capable of
steam treating the material at 20 psi or more for longer pe-
riods of time. Preconditioning is useful but strongly depen-
dent upon the product and the desired features. It is used to
initiate the cook and enhance the cook qualities and
throughout of the extruder. Some precooked grain materi-
als are available commercially utilizing the micronization
process [101]. Pregelatinized or modified starches are also
used in formulation, and care must be taken not to selec-
tively hydrate these materials.
Postextrusion modification can be accomplished using
pipe dies or hold tubes. Basically, this process is simply an
extension off the end of the extruder. However, in the
patent of Roush and Stocker [113] they teach a method of
extended hold time using a twin screw extruder. The ex-
truded material exists the twin screw adiabatically (no
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals
flash off) and flows into a Teflon-coated expansion cham-
ber or pipe of suitable length to allow a hold time of 15-20
minutes, as desired. Via the increased residence time, this
method allows further thermal conversion of the material
and increased flavor development. The process was intend-
ed for making improved flakes but is applicable for many
dough applications.
5. Comparison of Cook Processes
Throughout this chapter, different products have been as-
sociated with different types of energy inputs, thermal and
mechanical. Along with the impact of formulation, the en-
ergy input and resulting material conversion is responsible
for the unique textures and flavors sought via the "process
by formulation" interaction. It has been asserted here that
the cook process fundamentally impacts the characteristics
of the product and affects its behavior at unit operations
occurring downstream (drying, flaking, puffing, toasting).
This can be shown via measuring the "degree of cook" us-
ing the RVA, as these profiles shed light on the basic nature
of the products. Different processing techniques can be
evaluated based on the functional and chemical attributes
of a given end product. A simple illustration is to compare
off-the-shelf samples of traditional shredded wheat versus
a similar product that, as shown in Figure 6, was clearly
made by a different process. Nonetheless, the two product
characteristics are very close and would go undetected by
typical consumers, whereas a trained panel might detect a
difference.
Similar scenarios exist for other products, not only in
off-the-shelf comparisons but rather as a means of under-
standing entire shifts in applications of extrusion technolo-
gy in the RTE cereal industry. Directly expanded rice
5510
4726
3942
Pcj
3147
2363
1580
784
0
00 4.6 9.2
Time, minutes
FIGURE 6 RVA profiles of two brands of shredded wheat (traditional vs. competitor). (From Ref. 132.)
625
crisps are distinctly different from the traditional oven
puffed product via RVA, as shown in Figure 7. These dif-
ferences are also apparent for corn flakes [132], wheat
flakes, puffed oat rings, and virtually every product catego-
ry of RTE cereal. This process information is crucial to
producing the products but also demonstrates the versatili-
ty in the industry for manufacturing RTEs. The fact is that
the industry is consumer driven and processes are a means
to accomplishing that end—consumer acceptance, satis-
faction, and repeat purchase.
B. Tempering
True tempering is a physiochemical effect that impacts the
properties of the final product. The physiochemical temper
effect is differentiated from that due to a hold time for
equilibration of either temperature or moisture by starch
retrogradation. The traditional shredded wheat product is
an example of tempering wherein the large polymers of a
high-moisture, atmospheric cook are induced to retrograde
by a chill step [135]. Tempering is affected by the degree
of cook a product has received. For example, a corn flaking
grit constitutes the pellet, each one ultimately resulting in a
finished flake. After cooking, the polymers reorient as the
grits cool, changing the manner in which they flake. Simi-
lar observations have been made for wheat flakes [59,82].
The matrix in which this occurs will affect the time to opti-
mum temper. For example, cooked corn flaking grits were
held for as long as 6 days prior to flaking [82]. Introduction
of shear via forming pellets from dough resulted in lower
hold times [59,76,82]. Generally, extrusion cooked half-
products do not require a tempering step [88,109] because
of the higher level of starch polymer degradation. On the
13.8 18.5 23 1
626 Whalen et al.

2000
Direct
1500 Expanded
Puffed
1250
Traditional
Viscosity, cP

1000
(Oven puffed)

750 4
1
500
Extrusion
250

0 1 I I
0. 0 4. 6 9. 2 13.8 18. 5 23. 1

Time, minutes

FIGURE 7 RVA profiles of traditional versus direct expanded rice crisps. (Courtesy Ringger Foods Inc.)

other hand, temperature and moisture equilibration are
simply the effects of the material cooling by conductive
heat transfer without substantial molecular or polymeric
changes of the matrix. The difference lies in the lack of an
effect due to the rate of cooling with no discernible change
in product performance or quality. The manner in which a
piece is dried affects the surface structure [136]. The sur-
face of the grit itself changes the behavior of the pellet due
to "case-hardening" effects, which directly impact final
product features.
C. Expansion or Puffing Phenomenon
With very few exceptions, RTE cereals undergo some de-
gree of expansion during the process. Expansion is desir-
able in part due to achieving the desired textural aspects of
the product. However, there are unique product require-
ments such as the number of pieces per spoonfull and bowl
life. Unlike snacks, RTEs have the additional sensory re-
quirement of sustaining texture in milk (bowl life) for a
reasonable time. Even baked RTE products expand to
some degree as part of obtaining the desired features for
this category. The exceptions are few and include only the
very high-fiber strand-type products and products similar
to granola (e.g., Grape-Nuts). Shredded Wheat and Crack-
lin' Oat BranTM are baked, but the former does not expand
so much as set and the latter is virtually a formulated cook-
ie product [44]. High-fiber flakes and wheat-based flakes
do not exhibit puffed cell structure either, rather, these
denser products feature a highly desirable curled, puckered
shape, which reduces the weight per unit volume [59].
Corn flakes, rice flakes, and other multigrain flakes obtain
expansion in the form of blisters, which increase consumer
appeal [39,80,92].
The mechanism for puffing is vaporization of the inter-
stitial water entrapped in the matrix, which upon heating
expands to a volume of three to four times the original.
Like direct expanded products, puffed products will follow
the orientation of the die or forming force and are a func-
tion of the rheological properties of the material [12,92].
Puffed products must have the strength to hold together
and sustain the desired shape upon puffing. Puffing is a
thermal process in which rapid heat transfer takes place in
order to phase shift the water to a vapor. In gun puffing,
high temperatures are attained (600-800+°F) followed by
a pressure drop of 100-200 psi [123]. The structure must
resist blowing apart and set upon cooling. These factors
are determined by the ingredients, the cook, and the drying
processes. Other puff processes include radiant heat such
as ovens (for rice crisps or "bubbles"), conductive heat
such as air impingement for both flakes and puffs (for both
flakes and puffs), superheated steam such as gun puffing
(wheat, rice, formed pellets), vacuum-assisted tower puff-
ing (corn puffs), or microwave (industrial and home)
[106,115,131].
1. Gun Puffing
Some of the first RTE cereals were gun-puffed via batch
processes akin to cannons. Anderson [2] discovered that
rice heated in sealed test tubes and then smashed open re-
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals
suited in a puffed product. Work to scale up this process by
Quaker literally utilized a military engineer who came up
with the cannon design [19]. Puffed whole grain cereal
"shot from cannons" was displayed at the 1904 World's
Fair in St. Louis, Missouri [19]. Matz [80] shows a photo
of Cheerios being "shot" from a batch puffing gun. The
process for the batch gun involved charging the chamber
with pellets, sealing with a hinged lid, heating via a gas
flame to attain pressurization with venting, and, after ap-
proximately 5 minutes, tripping the lid manually. Puffed
product was collected in bins, dried, sized, and packaged.
Modern gun processes were made continuous by heating a
rotating cylinder with a gas flame or electrically in which
the chamber is fed via a rotary valve and the exit fitted with
a sized orifice. The cylinder rotates at a specific declining
angle and achieves a constant internal working pressure
via the exit orifice, which continuously discharges product.
Details are given in the patents of Tsuchiya et al. [123] and
Dahl [30]. Numerous puffed products are made by gun-
puffing—Cheerios and Kix [80], Corn Pops [19], and Al-
pha BitsTM [24]. However, more of these type of products
are being made by direct expansion extrusion. A good ex-
ample in the patent literature is Alpha Bits, for which the
1960 patent clearly describes pellets shaped like letters or
numbers that are subsequently gun puffed. Then, in 1977,
36
26a
14, yii
Mrkm,"
AI N.
rri r
ACVNIN
•
4
26
36
36
FIG. 2
FIG. 3 36
36
36
22a
36 24a
/22a .-26a
,--<,24a 20
FIGURE 8 Alpha Bits extruder head and die configuration. U.S. Patent 4,051,162, Sept. 27, 1977. (From Ref. 111.)
627
Rose and Lawrence described a direct expanded version of
the product from an extrusion process (see Fig. 8)
The pellets must be dried to 10-12% moisture [90] and
may be held to temper before puffing [123]. This allows
the pellets to cool and equilibrate before being puffed and
aids in setting the structure. The pellet may be preheated
before gunning [123] or even microwaved [114] to obtain
the desired texture, appearance, and performance upon
puffing Aside from puffed wheat or rice, Matz [80] identi-
fies Kix, Trix, and Cheerios as gun-puffed products. This is
supported by the patents of Tsuchiya [123,124], which
identify corn puffs as well as "puffed oat rings" as prod-
ucts from continuous gun puffing.
2. Direct Expansion
Many products previously made by gun puffing are now
being made by direct expansion extrusion—especially
twin screw extrusion (Fig. 9). The primary advantage of
extrusion cooking is the reduction of multistep operations
down to one step highlighted in the case of direct expand-
ed products. Recent trends for puffed RTEs show an in-
creasing number of direct expanded products [43]. Distin-
guishing features that identify direct expansion products
are appearance, texture, label changes (puff aids), and high
cold paste viscosity in the RVA profile (Figs. 4 and 10)
„a FIG. 1
32 -1
26
36
36
36
628 Whalen et al.

[132,133]. Directly expanded products generally have high
shear input from the die and/or the screw configuration in
either type extruder [53]. This results in characteristic tex-
ture defects such as gummy, toothpacking, and slimy qual-
ities [92]. These issues are the primary problems encoun-
tered in trying to adapt cooking extruders from
atmospheric or batch cooking processes [88,109]. There-
fore, the principal application for direct expanded products
has been for products with high levels of sugar coating
since sugar hides these defects.
The principles for expansion are the same as described
above, except that the extruder barrel acts as the pressur-
ized chamber. It is important to remember that for directly
expanded products, the extruder is performing several
functions—mixing, cooking, pressurizing, and expand-
ing—all in one unit operation. Despite the dough's low
moisture, it is transformed into a thermoplastic, flowable
mass commonly referred to as a "melt" [29]. However, this
term, which is a carry-over from the plastic industry, is a
misnomer, as pointed out by Harper [53], because it does
not sufficiently describe the changes occurring to the
starch as it travels through the extruder barrel under high-
shear conditions. Under these conditions of high shear and
low moisture (15-18% as per Harper [54]), the starch is
mechanically degraded. Very small differences in moisture
can dramatically affect product qualities [14]. Hence, di-

FIGURE 9 Twin screw extruder. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)

1552

1330

re 1109

-4; 887
O
665

444

222

0
0.0 4.6 9.2 13B 18.5 23.1

Time, minutes
FIGURE 10 RVA profiles for direct expanded versus gun puffed children's cereal. (From Ref. 133.)
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals
rectly expanded products are easily identified by their RVA
profiles (see Fig. 4), which reflect the high degree of degra-
dation as compared to the gun puffed product. The pellets
used in gun puffing have a lower degree of cook in order to
retain their shape and piece integrity during expansion.
The overall lower degree of cook and mechanical energy
input in the gun puffed products is responsible for many of
the desirable qualities, especially texture. Extrusion
processors are discovering their own means of accom-
plishing similar texture and appearances.
D. Flaking
Flaked products are produced by passing tempered grits or
pellets through two large counterrotating metal rolls.
These grits or pellets can be produced from any of the
cooking and/or forming steps outlined previously. The
rolls use high pressure to flatten the grit, or pellet into a
thin flake. The rolls are equipped with sharp blades, com-
monly referred to as "doctor knives" that scrape the flakes
off the bottom of the rolls. The flaked grits are fed directly
or conveyed a short distance to an oven or drier. Several
sets of flaking rolls feed into one drier to assure adequate
drier bed depth (Fig. 11). The main principles required for
producing a good quality flaked product are correct grit
moistures, proper roll settings, and optimal roll tempera-
tures. The mechanisms of the flaking process are outlined
in the patent by Holahan [59].
A variety of starting materials can be used to make
flaked RTE breakfast cereals. Obviously, the type of grain
is important, but the form of the grain being used will also
greatly influence the characteristics of the finished flake
product. For example, wheat flakes can be prepared from
whole kernels of wheat or from a dough made with wheat
flour and other ingredients (i.e., bran, sugar or malt syrup,
salt, etc.). The cooked dough is sized into small grits or ex-
truded into pellets. Upon flaking, each whole kernel, grit,
or pellet will yield a single finished flake. Regardless of the
type of flake being made and specific processing steps
used, the grain base must be cooked, dried, and tempered
prior to flaking. Differences in the size, shape, and compo-
sition of the unflaked grits greatly affect drying, tempering,
and handling as well as the texture and appearance of the
finished flaked product.
1. Grit Moistures
After the cooked grits are dried to approximately 20%
moisture, they are tempered to allow the moisture to equil-
ibrate within each piece and among pieces. Tempering is
also often done with pellets but is not mandatory, as the
pellet is more uniform in shape and consistency. Temper-
ing times vary in duration from several hours to more than
24 hours, depending on the type of product being made.
629
FIGURE 11 Flaking roll stand. (Courtesy of Lauhoff Corp.)
During tempering, the grits lose moisture; the amount de-
pends on several factors such as time, amount of grits in
the holding bin, air circulation in the bin, etc. The ideal grit
moisture prior to flaking is between 14 and 17% [38,39].
Proper grit moisture is critical to assure consistent flow
through the rolls. If the grit moisture is too low or they are
not tempered well, the surface of the grit is hard and will
not be gripped by the roll nip. Consequently, the grits do
not feed well into the flaking rolls. When the moisture is
too high, the grits are overly soft and adhere to the surface
of the rolls. High moisture also causes the grits to stick to-
gether either before or after flaking, thus forming over-
sized flakes or clumps. The optimally dried pellet, accord-
ing to Holahan [59], has a slightly hardened outer layer
and plastic interior ("case-hardened") such that the non-
continuous layers possess different elasticities causing the
desirable curling effect when flaked.
Another procedure for making the grits soft and pliable
without excess moisture is to preheat prior to flaking.
McKay [82] noted greatly improved throughputs when
corn grits were steamed. By heating very quickly, the grits
or pellets are plasticized and are easily grabbed by the roll
nip and flow uniformly through rolls. Preheating changes
the rheological properties of the pellets, possibly due to a
transformation from the crystalline to a rubbery state. Suf-
ficient heat must be used to heat the pieces rapidly with
minimal moisture loss.
In addition, the shape and texture of the finished flake is
determined by tempering and moisture content of the grit.
Adequate moisture content (10-14%) of the flaked grit,
along with drier conditions, are responsible for the blis-
tered, light texture of the finished flake. For this reason, the
630
flaked grits move directly from the flaking rolls to the dri-
er. Uneven moisture levels within each piece cause the
flakes to dry at different rates. Hence, the flakes curl and
twist as they are dried. If the grits are tempered too long
and the moisture is completely uniform throughout the
piece, the flake will not curl and a flat, poker chip—like
flake results. Flat flakes are not only aesthetically undesir-
able, they also adversely affect the volume of finished
product in the box. Furthermore, curling can be attributed
to the compositional differences within the grit. For exam-
ple, a kernel of grain contains bran and endosperm por-
tions as opposed to uniform extruded pellets. The flake
curls at the interface of the components due to the differ-
ence in drying rates [39]. To assure that flakes made from
pellets curl during drying, the pellets often have minimal
tempering time in order to maximize the difference be-
tween the outer and inner moisture content.
2. Roll Conditions
During the flaking process, heat is generated due to fric-
tion. Control of the roll surface temperature is critical for
good grit handling. Cooling water is circulated through the
interior of the rolls to maintain an optimal surface temper-
ature of 110-115°F (43-46°C) [40]. If the temperature is
too cool, the rolls will not pull the grits into the roll nip.
Conversely, roll temperatures over 120°F cause the grits to
stick to the rolls. Also, the rolls expand at higher tempera-
tures, which will decrease the gap opening.
The roll position is adjusted by manual or motor-driven
screws or hydraulic cylinders to set the roll gap. As the
grits are fed between the rolls, very high pressure, com-
monly 2000-3000 psi [40], is required to maintain a con-
stant gap. Maintaining a constant gap depends on a consis-
tent and even feed rate of grits to the rolls. Because a
constant pressure is set, fluctuations in feed rate or flow of
grits across the width of the rolls will result in inconsistent
flake thickness. As the flaked grits exit the rolls, their
thickness is checked with a micrometer. The rolls can be
operated at a slight differential to feed the grits into the roll
nip. Usually, the grits are flaked between 0.020 and 0.050
inch. Drying rates, final flake moisture, and finished prod-
uct density are all influenced by the flake thickness. Ex-
tremely thin flakes break easily during downstream pro-
cessing, and overly thick flakes have a tough texture.
E. Shredding
The original patent for making shredded wheat biscuits
was granted over 100 years ago (Fig. 12) Nowadays,
shredded products come in several forms such as large and
small shredded wheat biscuits and various types of extrud-
ed cross-meshed pieces. Examples of the latter are Chex©
Whalen et al.
and Quaker's Life© cereals. There are several distinctions
in the processing of these various types of product, yet the
major steps are similar and will be outlined separately.
Shredded wheat biscuits are made by cooking soft
white wheat in an excess of water at atmospheric pressure.
The drained wheat is cooled to ambient temperature and
contains approximately 50% moisture. The cooled wheat
is tempered for up to 24 hours to allow for moisture equili-
bration and firming of the kernel. It was reported by
Jankowski and Rha [67] that during tempering, the starch
in the wheat kernel retrogrades, resulting in a firmer, less
sticky product with improved shredding properties. With-
out the tempering step, the wheat fails to form continuous
strands in the shred rolls. Refrigerated temperatures accel-
erate the retrogradation reaction and can be used to reduce
the tempering time substantially [135].
Next, the wheat is fed between two counterrotating
metal shredding rolls. One of the shredding rolls is
smooth, the other contains grooves. The wheat kernels are
quite soft and are compressed into the grooves and are
raked out as the rolls rotate, exiting as fine, dough-like
strands of wheat. The comb that rakes the wheat out of the
grooves is similar in action and position to the roll, or doc-
tor knives on flaking rolls. Like flaking rolls, shredding
rolls operate at a differential speed and are water cooled to
control the roll surface temperature.
The strands are placed on a traveling conveyor belt di-
rectly beneath the set of rolls. Numerous sets of rolls in se-
ries layer the strands on top of one another to obtain the de-
sired biscuit thickness. Commonly, between 10 and 20 sets
of rolls are used depending on the size and shape biscuit
being made [80]. Small amounts of granular sugar, fruit
paste filling, and/or vitamins can be deposited onto the lay-
ered shreds. As additional layers are compiled, the filling
will be contained in the center of the biscuit. The biscuits
are then cut into the desired biscuit shape and size by pass-
ing the layered shreds under a rotating cylinder possessing
blunt blades [58,71]. The blades form the biscuits by
crimping the moist layers together at the edges.
Careful handling of the fragile biscuits is required dur-
ing conveying and drying. The biscuits are first baked at
high temperature for a short duration, followed by an ex-
tended time at reduced temperatures. The two-stage drying
causes the biscuit to expand slightly, due to the different
drying rates of the various layers. The biscuits are dried to
a final moisture of 3-11% depending on the type, size, and
shape of product being made [39,63,80]. After drying, an
opaque sugar frosting can be applied to one side of the bis-
cuits [125]. The reader is referred to Spiel and Knipper
[119] for a more detailed discussion of the technology in
this area.
Since the biscuits are made from the entire wheat ker-
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals 631

(No Model.)
H. D. PERKY.
ROLL MACHINE FOR REDUCING CEREALS FOR FOOD.
No. 533,553. Patented Feb. 5, 1895.

In,
Fla 5.
a -.
... il x .:.`'s1 I
. .11 ' I
a

17
1%),

-'—n
111W--.4.tAll _11,Ali

@i44.3.244.toz
d‘bn 0 el'e-ricy
vtav
tJEN cr. V \ Cknprn tt

FIGURE 12 Original shredded wheat process patent. (From Ref. 100.)

nel including the bran and germ, rancidity often develops
during storage of the product due to lipid oxidation. The
problem is addressed either by allowing the rancid odors
to dissipate out of the package ("breather box") or by
adding an antioxidant (i.e., BHT or BHA) to the liner ma-
terial. Both methods effectively extend the normal product
shelf life.
The other style of shredded or sheeted products are gen-
erally made from a dough containing flour(s), sugar,
starch, and/or bran. Wheat, corn, oat, and rice are frequent-
632
ly used alone or in combination with one another. The
dough is cooked and extruded into pellets, which are
cooled and may or may not be tempered. Pellet extrusion
streamlines the process by combining or eliminating sever-
al unit operations, such as drying or tempering.
The pellets are fed into the rolls in the same manner as
outlined for whole kernel shredded wheat. The key differ-
ence is the configuration of the channels on the grooved
roll. In addition to parallel grooves, there are bisecting
grooves, which give the dough layer a cross mesh pattern.
There are fewer layers required for these products com-
pared to the shredded wheat biscuit, therefore, fewer sets
of rolls in series are needed. Sugar and/or vitamins can be
deposited into one of the layers, which will be incorporat-
ed into the center of the piece. The layers pass under the
cutting device, which crimps the sheets into bite-size
pieces. Some unique products are made by sheeting layers
of different grain types on top of one another such that the
piece formed has a different kind of grain on each side
(i.e., Kellogg's Crispix©).
The pieces are dried to a final moisture of approximate-
ly 3%. Certain products, such as corn and rice, are dried
using multiple temperature profiles in order to puff or ex-
pand the pieces, thus improving the texture [38].
F. Baked Cereal Granules
Developed in the late 1800s, Post Grape-Nuts is one of the
oldest RTE cereal brands. Unlike other RTE cereal
processes, its cereal granules are produced using a modi-
fied bread-baking procedure. A stiff dough is prepared
from wheat flour, malted barley flour, salt, yeast, and wa-
ter. The dough is mixed and allowed to ferment in troughs
for 4-5 hours at approximately 80°F and 80% RH [80]. In
this stage, the malt enzymes hydrolyze starch into sugar,
and the yeast partially leavens the dough. After fermenta-
tion, the dough is molded into loaves and baked without a
proofing step. The dense loaves are removed from the
pans and coarsely cut or ground into large pieces, which
are rebaked for approximately 2 hours at 250°F [63,80].
The dried pieces are ground into small pieces and
screened to obtain the desired particle size. Any fine parti-
cles generated in the two grinding steps are reworked into
the dough. Prior to packaging, the cereal granules are for-
tified with a topically applied vitamin solution. The final
product has a notable crunchy texture and unique malty,
toasted flavor.
Figure 13 outlines two different process schemes for
producing nugget-type cereals: traditional and extruded.
Extrusion of expanded dough balls, which are dried,
ground, and conditioned, is an alternative method to pro-
duce a nugget-type cereal.
Whalen et al.
G. Ovens and Driers
Drying causes changes in physical characteristics that may
impact downstream operations like puffing and flaking.
This is due to the effect of moisture removal on the surface
or surface layer of products that involve half-products or
pellets. Pellets for flake products have a moisture of
30-33% prior to drying and are dried down to 16-22%
moisture, while pellets for gun puffing are dried from
30-32% moisture down to 10-12% [91]. Moisture mi-
grates from the interior to the exterior, where air sweeps it
away. If water is simply removed as rapidly as possible,
the pellet exterior will change into a crystal lattice and
change the functionality of the pellet. Therefore, dryer
manufacturers [90,91,108] commonly use multipass dryer
designs to obtain better control of residence time and hu-
midity. Wet bulb control and increased relative humidity in
pellet drying have been recognized as important for pellet
drying since they not only affect case-hardening and other
physical properties of the pellet such as shrinkage [136].
Single-pass dryers (Fig. 14) are utilized in some systems
(Buhler, Wenger), usually matched to a specific cook sys-
tem that may account for the drying effect. Otherwise, it is
generally accepted that pellets are best handled using a
multipass belt drier wherein a single pass is followed by
increased bed depth on two or more conveyors [90,108].
Product handling depends upon the unit dimensions and
geometry [90]. The drying curve for this type of product
entails a rapid decrease in moisture, which is followed by a
longer time required to obtain the final target moisture.
Target moistures depend on the composition of the pellet
and degree of cook since these factors comprise their rheo-
logical behavior upon flaking or puffing. The ranges given
above for gun puffing are confirmed by Tsuchiya [123,124]
for corn pellets and oat "rings." Indeed, this critical mois-
ture of 10-12% is recurring in other puffed products rang-
ing from popcorn to microwave puffing of pellets [131].
1. Toasting
RTE products rely heavily on the natural grain flavor de-
velopment. This results from the cook in which the raw,
green, or grainy notes dissipate and flavors and flavor pre-
cursors form. Clearly the conditions of the cook time, tem-
perature, and energy input play a role in the extent of the
development. Maillard reactants are formed as a conse-
quence of common ingredients providing reducing sugars
and amino acid end groups [42]. As discussed in the sec-
tion on formulation, most cereal bases contain salt, which
affects starch degradation, buffering salt(s), which are usu-
ally alkali to increase the pH from 5.0 towards neutrality,
sugar, and malt, which is basically a reaction flavor in it-
self containing complex reducing sugars and protein hy-
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals
Mixer
Ingredient Scaling
Extruder
Fermenters
Loaf Former
Depan Loaves
E 8
FIGURE 13 Flow diagram for baked granule—type cereal. (Adapted from Ref. 63.)
drolysis products. Along with the grain, each of these com-
ponents promotes the Maillard reaction and formation of
precursors in the cook that are the hallmark of the toasted
notes in RTEs. It is well accepted that the cook establishes
the baseline for the toasted flavors that result in the toasted
product [23,42]. The cook provides the heat input and
degradation of the starch whose products contribute to col-
or and flavor development. Thus, a product virtually de-
void of any additions to the formula (i.e., shredded wheat)
will still result in flavor and color characteristics due to
starch degradation providing reducing ends in the presence
of the cereal proteins. For flakes or gun puffed products,
the half-product is dried not only for handling and forming
purposes but to promote the browning reactions at lower
moistures. The basis for the rate of browning reactions in
the toasting or during puffing is strongly related to mois-
ture [42]. Product is usually introduced at a high tempera-
ture that promotes rapid moisture loss, followed by expan-
sion and, subsequently, accelerated browning at the lowest
633
Processes:
Extruded —10.
Packaging Traditional ►
4
Vitamin Application
Dryer
moisture. The sequence can be partitioned into functioning
zones within the toasting unit operation such that the tem-
perature in the low-moisture zone is manipulated to devel-
op optimal flavor and color [89]. Since the toasting zone is
dependent upon the kinetics of moisture loss and expan-
sion, the reactions are interactions and need to be treated as
such in a unit operation. Finally, the toasting reaction is
usually quenched by cooling to around ambient tempera-
tures to avoid overtoasting and condensation, which can
affect flavor. Other aspects of browning are the formation
of polymeric cyclic compounds such as melanoidins,
which are known antioxidants and important to the shelf
life and stability of RTEs [9,102].
Carmelization is responsible for other color and flavor
attributes in RTE processes. This reaction is a degradative
process but is distinct from carbonization, which also oc-
curs in some processes with high heat input [9]. Sugars, es-
pecially sucrose, will form important flavor characteristics
and color upon high heat. In some processes this is an issue
634
FIGURE 14 Conveyor dryer. (Courtesy of Wenger Manufacturing Inc.)
since the flavor at the extreme can be bitter or burnt. Slur-
ries prepared for charging batch cooks or injecting into ex-
truders may undergo carmelization, Maillard reaction, and
inversion, either planned or unplanned. Therefore, care
needs to be taken to assure the objectives of the slurry,
whether it is intended to simply solubilize and deliver sug-
ar and minor ingredients or it is a key flavor reaction that
must occur in the kettle prior to addition to a batch cooker
or extruder.
2. Oven Puffing
A classic oven puffed product is rice crisps or rice bubbles.
The traditional product is made by using whole white rice
with malt, sugar, and salt in a batch pressure cook process
(15-18 psi for 1 hour) [38,39,80]. Cooking is followed by
cooling, drying to 25-30% moisture and tempering for
about 15 hours. The rice pieces are delumped and further
dried to 18-20% moisture and preheated to plasticize the
surface and allow "bumping" of the grain. Bumping is a
less severe process similar to flaking where the flake roll
gap is set further apart so to slightly flatten but not flake the
piece. This disruption of the piece integrity enhances puff-
ing. The bumped rice is tempered again [60] for 24 hours
and dried to 9-11% moisture. The rice is then oven puffed
at high temperatures (450-575°F). Rice crisps may also be
produced by direct expansion as described by Holay et al.
[80]. In this process rice flour, sugar (7%), salt, and malt
(both at 1%) are added as a mix to a single screw extruder
with 20-25% total moisture. The product is cooked at a
peak pressure of 1500 psi at the die and product cut to size
Whalen et al.
off the face. The rice pieces are conveyed by air at 200°F
and dried to 15% moisture or less. The product is then toast-
ed by conventional methods such as an air impingement
oven at 450°F for 35 seconds. The final product is claimed
to obtain the appearance of the oven puffed product.
Oven puffed products also include those produced by
extruding or otherwise forming a sheeted product from
which pieces or shapes can be cut. The process is similar to
that of the snack industry in which a sheet is formed from
a dough and partially dried prior to cutting and frying [81].
For RTEs, the dough is extrusion cooked at 20-35% mois-
ture (preferably 23%) and extruded or rolled to form a
sheet 0.02-0.07 in. thick [11]. The sheet is conveyed on a
belt and the surface moisture reduced to remove tackiness
via blowing cooling air on both the bottom and top sides of
the sheet. The sheet stiffens and can be easily cut by units
commonly used in the food industry (Urschel Labs, Inc.).
The product requires special drying as a result of the flat
shape of the pellets. A rotary dryer capable of 50-90 min-
utes of hold time is used to agitate the pellets along with
exposure to air blown in at 130-160°F [11]. This allows
equilibration of the moisture and avoidance of excessive
case hardening and surface distortion. The pellets are dried
to 11.5% moisture and puffed via conventional ovens to
form a tender, uniform, and toasted product.
IV. ADDITIVES/FORMULATION
In addition to the grain components, there is an entire
group of additives or adjuncts commonly added in RTE ce-
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals
real formulations which are made up either in conjunction
with the grain/flour mix or added separately as a slurry,
syrup, or premix. RTE cereal bases consist of:
Basic Base:
Grain(s)
Sugar
Malt
Salt
Buffering salts
Complex Base:
Grain(s)
Flour
Puff aids (starches)
Fiber
Sugar
Oil(s)
Malt
Salt
Buffering salts (phosphates)
Process aids
Vitamins, minerals
Within each listed item there are a large number of poten-
tial subcategories. For example, sugar includes sucrose,
brown sugar, glucose, fructose, honey, invert sugar, and
various syrup forms such as 43 DE corn syrup, etc. For a
practitioner in the area it is easy to discern the constituents
of a coating from those in the base. For example, the buffer
salts such as mono-, di-, or trisodium phosphate are added
to adjust the pH of the cooked dough for browning and
gelatinization effects [51,95]. Salt is commonly added to
the mix base but may also be added to the surface [36] as
in snacks. Syrup adjuncts (malt syrup, high-fructose corn
syrup, corn syrups, sucrose slurries, etc.) added to batch
cooks or injected into extruders are usually made up sepa-
rately in mixer/cook kettles [39,92]. Typically, the sugar
and minor components are combined, hydrated, heated,
and pumped at a rate commensurate with the flavor and
declaration levels of the product. In the United States, the
law requires that all ingredients must be listed unless they
are process aids used at low levels [26]. An example of
such aids are emulsifiers like distilled mono- and diglyc-
erides, used to reduce the stickiness of a product [5,51,95].
In addition, nutritional components are listed on the side
panel and must be within a range of the U.S. Recommend-
ed Daily Allowance (RDA) for a nutritional claim to be
made. Typically, these ingredients are obtained from any
number of vendors as a preblend that matches the produc-
tion system requirements for addition to the base or to be
applied topically later in the process.
Flours and starches are added primarily for textural pur-
poses. In this case, flour refers to the enriched fraction of
wheat (primarily) versus a reduce particle size like corn
635
flour. Wheat flour and starch both serve to enhance the ce-
real's density and texture. This is primarily due to removal
of bran and oil but also a result of the fine particle size. Re-
cently, modified starches have been employed in large
share, brand name RTE products (i.e., Cheerios) in the
United States [72]. Use of modified starches specifically
for oat-based cereals initiated much of the interest in appli-
cation in RTEs [96]. This has created an opportunity to du-
plicate textures more easily since a wide range of modified
starches exist from sources such as corn, wheat, potato,
tapioca, etc. and fall under the label standard of "modified
food starch." Generally, the starch modification must
match the principal production process for a product cate-
gory [4]. For example, a different starch modification
would be employed for the same product made by direct
expansion versus gun puff versus oven puffed. Functional-
ity is evaluated by process characterization of the main
thermal and mechanical inputs critical to obtaining the de-
sired product qualities.
Formulation addition of oil, leavening agents, and/or
emulsifiers are similar to flour and starch in that they affect
and contribute to shape, texture, and eating qualities of
RTE cereals [5,95]. The need to reformulate has become
more apparent as twin screw extruders continue to be used
to reduce multistep operations in cereal manufacture.
Overshear is inherent in high-temperature, short-time ex-
trusion, often resulting in undesirable product attributes
i.e., product squaring, poor cell structure, glassiness, and
toothpacking. This is evidenced by the noticeably inferior
quality of direct expanded "knock-offs" or duplication of
name brand products [92]. It is further complicated by a
current tendency to overdesign screw configurations in
twin screws to high-shear profiles. Failure to correct for
these design limitations leads to the increased need to
make the product respond by addition of specific, function-
al ingredients to the formula. Thus, puffing is enhanced by
leavening, which in turn causes the product to brown ex-
cessively, necessitating the need to neutralize the alkali re-
action with another salt [75]. Flavor issues also attend such
formulation corrections. In corn products, alkali salts such
as sodium bicarbonate and trisodium phosphate result in
masa flavors that are largely undesirable in RTEs. Levels
can be adjusted by simply reducing the concentration to
maintain the buffer effect but remain below the threshold
for impacting flavor.
Browning reactions in the cook and toasting process are
important to RTEs in another well-recognized area—shelf
stability. RTE cereals generally have a one-year shelf life,
however, rancidity is an issue in any cereal with even small
amounts of lipid. Maillard reaction products are well-
known antioxidants [8,16,93], as are many cyclic furans
and phenols. In addition, label declarations indicate the in-
636
creased use of tocopherols in cereals as a result of efforts
to employ natural antioxidants to enhance shelf life instead
of BHT and BHA. Lipids are key factors even at very low
levels in grain ingredients such as rice and corn, which re-
quire measures to remove the oil in standard products
(bran removal and degerm, respectively). Oats are one of
the highest fat—containing grains and thus are notoriously
unstable unless properly heat treated at the groat stage
[33], and peroxidase levels, as a measure of rancidity, are
strictly monitored in oat flour, rolled oats, etc. Even so,
considerable attention must be paid to RTEs because the
disruptive production processing steps can lead to further
instability. Generation of free radicals as well as off-fla-
vors is a concern in oat products [35]. Thus, the use of dif-
ferent methods including tocopherol addition, ferrous salts
[6,103], toasting, and microwaving [114] are employed in
stabilizing oat products. Phenolic compounds in oats are
also well-known antioxidants [52].
Nutritive additions other than vitamins include fiber
and mineral fortification. High-fiber cereals primarily
make use of wheat bran for its well-documented laxative
effects [118]. Oat bran cereals made a run in the early
1990s as a dietary factor in cholesterol reduction. This sub-
sided, as most fads do, but then was resurrected in 1997
with FDA allowing a specific claim for soluble fiber from
whole oats in the diet performing a role in reducing the risk
of coronary heart disease [27]. This was largely the result
of the efforts of The Quaker Oats Co. and meta-analysis of
studies on oats and soluble fiber in cholesterol reduction.
This was similar to the persistent effort by Kellogg with
FDA to relate the impact of dietary fiber on colon cancer.
Other products have steered towards the supplementation
of calcium, iron, and zinc. Grain is usually not considered
a good source of minerals with the exception of potassium
and some trace elements such as selenium, but they prove
a ready carrier or vehicle for fortification, even if the sup-
plement fails at its intended claim, as was the case for beta-
carotene [32,34]. Surely, if a supplement becomes promi-
nent in the news, like folate, it will soon be boldly
highlighted on product packages to draw consumer atten-
tion.
A. Role of Sugar
Contrary to the popular belief that children are the only
consumers of presweetened cereals, there is considerable
demand for pre-sweetened RTE breakfast cereals in both
children's and adult categories. The primary reason for
adding sucrose is taste enhancement.
Sugar can be added to RTE cereals at various steps in
the manufacturing process, however, there are two basic
modes, namely as an integral ingredient and as a surface
Whalen et al.
coating. Sugar incorporated into the "dough" or added into
the cooking syrup contributes a much different functional-
ity than sugar applied topically to the product.
When incorporated into the dough stage, sugar con-
tributes binding, flavor, and browning characteristics, is
critical in controlling the texture and mouthfeel, and acts
as a flavor carrier and potentiator to other flavors [45]. To-
tal sugar concentration in the dough can run from 6 to 25%
on a finished product (3% moisture) basis (Tables 5-7). Al-
though other sugars are often blended with it, sucrose is
the principal contributor to flavor enhancement. Liquid
sugar or sucrose syrup is frequently used in place of the
granular form for ease of transportation and metering.
These syrups often are blends of sucrose with lower-priced
reducing sugars, which induce Maillard browning and
caramelization. Depending on the product, these reactions
may or may not be desirable, but it does provide an addi-
tional variable for use by the product development scien-
tist.
Cooked or toasted flavor and color are obtained from
Maillard reactions with ingredients such as malt and re-
ducing sugars [39,42]. Maillard reactions also involve dex-
trins produced in the cook process. Malts employed in
RTEs are nondiastatic and may be used in a liquid or pow-
der form. For browning, reducing sugars may be added di-
TABLE 5 Sample Dough Formula for Corn Flakes
Corn 82.6%
Sucrose 9.5
Rice 4.6
Salt 2.5
Malt 0.8
Water is added to 27% moisture. The dough is
processed through a continuous extruder to cook and
form pellets, which can then be partially dried,
tempered, flaked, and toasted.
Source: Ref. 104.
TABLE 6 Sample Dough Formula for Extruded Shapes
Whole wheat flour 44%
Yellow corn cones 44
Sucrose 10
Salt 2
Water is added to 25% moisture. The dough is cooked to
gelatinize the starch, and the pellets are formed at 25%
moisture content. The pellets may then be flaked and
toasted, or puffed by hot air, frying, vacuum, etc.
Source: Ref. 10.
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals 637

TABLE 7 Sample Dough Formula for Oat Flakes continuous coating, whereas porous products, (i.e., puffed
wheat) may require 25% or more.
Oat flour 60-70%
Rice flour 7-12
Soy flour 5-10 B. Sugar Coatings
Sucrose 5-15
Lecithin 0.05-0.15 The majority of the sucrose is used as a surface coating in
Salt 2-4 the manufacture of RTE cereals. Visually, the coatings can
Milk protein 1.5-3.5 come in several forms, as shown in Figures 15-18. Clear
Water is added to 27-29% moisture. Cook at 250°F, glazes, a frosted layer or a powdered or granular form can
15 pounds per square inch, for 8 minutes. Form be achieved by altering the types of sugars or other ingre-
dough pellets, dry to 20% moisture, and temper dients used and controlling the rate of crystallization.
before flaking at 0.01-0.05 inch thick. Dry and toast Crystalline or frosted forms can also serve as flavor carri-
in hot air to 1-3.5% moisture. Corn flour may be ers and potentiators by adhering or tacking on fruit bits or
used to replace the oat and rice flour, at 70-80%, to
flavorings such as cinnamon [129].
prepare a form of corn flakes. (Note that a stiff
Sugar coating and enrobing are extensively covered by
dough of this type may also be shredded.)
Burns and Fast [20]. Basic sugar coatings are commonly
Source: Ref. 25.

rectly as glucose or fructose but very often are added in the

syrup forms of corn or invert sugar or high-fructose corn
syrup or honey. The level of reducing sugar and malt is rel-
atively low in a base mixture intended for cooking, be-
cause excess browning results in an overly strong or bitter
flavor in the final product. In general, levels run from 0.5
to 10% maximum [51]. Sucrose is a nonreducing sugar,
which can be added at a high rate to RTE cereal bases;
however, levels above 10% affect the cook quality. Specif-
ically, at higher levels, sucrose can act as a plasticizer, re-
ducing shear effects during cooking and altering product
texture. Caramelization also occurs but is a less important
factor. Thus, in presweetened RTEs, the majority of the FIGURE 15 White frosted sugar coating on a corn flake.
sugars declared on the label are usually added to the prod-
uct as a coating. Likewise, claims for "made with real fruit
juice" are the result of addition in the coating to avoid
browning reactions in the base. In order to make a claim, a
significant level of fruit juice must be added [26], which is
not compatible with cooking the base material.
When a whole grain (corn flaking grits or whole wheat
kernels) is used to make flakes, sucrose or malt syrup is of-
ten added during the cooking stage. Grains prepared for
oven puffing (i.e., rice) are similarly treated. The concen-
tration of sugar is relatively low (about 3%). Sugar is
added principally for flavor enhancement but may also af-
fect the color, surface porosity, and starch gelatinization.
The level of sugar applied to the cereal surface varies
widely depending on the desired end product, the absorp-
tion of sugar into the cereal base, the cereal dimensions,
and the syrup viscosity. For example, a cereal piece with a
smooth, nonporous surface generally requires a minimum FIGURE 16 Snow-like frosted sugar coating on shredded
of 15% by weight of added sugar to achieve a uniform, wheat biscuit.
638
FIGURE 17 Sugar and honey glaze on puffed whole wheat
kernel.
FIGURE 18 Expanded oat ring with sugar frosting incorporat-
ing fruit bits.
applied using high-temperature heat exchangers or thin-
film heat exchangers to apply the material in a molten state
[20,37,80,83,126]. Sucrose is the preferred sugar for sever-
al reasons—its low viscosity enables it to be easily
pumped and sprayed or poured on the cereal, there are few
problems with excessive browning during final drying, and
it crystallizes rapidly into an opaque, frosted layer.
Some recent improvements appear in the patent litera-
ture [17,112] as well the more standard methods [125].
The main improvements concern decreased water content
Whalen et al.
(high solids) and improved control of crystallization for
producing a glaze, frost, or powdered appearance. The
method of Roufs et al. [112] assigned to General Mills ac-
complishes this via co-spraying sugar solutions using
steam while the Kellogg's method [17] pumps superheated
and pressurized syrup solutions. Both offer improvements
in coverage, convenience, clean-up, and efficiency. Coat-
ings are commonly applied via wands extended into an en-
rober (a rotating horizontal open-ended cylinder), and the
material is aspirated via compressed air or steam onto the
cereal pieces flowing into the enrober (Fig. 19). Depending
on the shape of the cereal pieces, the cylinder may have
lifts to ensure even distribution of the spray on the surface.
Generally, the coating formulation will be at or above satu-
ration (>72% sugar). For glaze coatings the high-tempera-
ture hold time must be long enough to melt all crystals.
Frostings need crystals to enhance nucleation and the de-
sired appearance. A glaze formulation is antithetical to the
requirements for a frost. Glaze formulations contain invert
sugars, glucose, fructose, corn syrup, and oil(s) and are
dried slowly at lower temperatures in order to control the
crystallization rate and grain size [73]. However, glazed
products historically had stickiness and cohesion defects,
causing the material to act as a humectant once the pack-
age was opened [19,37]. This was controlled by lowering
the nonsucrose sugars and adding maltodextrins, oil, and
water-scavenging components such as sodium acetate
[37]. Alternatively, reduction of the amount of water in-
volved in applying the slurry to the cereal is advantageous
because it reduces the drying requirement.
Frosts or snow-like sugar coatings, such as those on
frosted shredded wheat biscuits, are prepared by incorpo-
rating gelatin or other hydrocolloid gums into the sucrose
syrup. Specific conditions must be maintained to achieve
the desired frosts: (1) avoiding inversion, free fructose,
and glucose and (2) rapid drying with controlled tempera-
ture, air velocity, and humidity conditions to regulate the
rate of crystal growth and size [49,55,125]. Frost forma-
tion is enhanced by friction or vibration before and after
drying, which acts to seed the reaction as the crystal lattice
develops.
C. Nonsugar Coatings
The main topical coatings applied to cereals, other than
sugar(s), are vitamins, oil, and flavorants. These ingredi-
ents can be added to the cereal in different forms and dur-
ing various steps throughout the process. Topical applica-
tion is advantageous for several reasons, such as accurate
measurement and uniform application and maximized effi-
cacy and potency. Specifically, minor ingredients are ap-
plied at very low levels; they are generally expensive, and
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals
FIGURE 19 Coating and enrobing drum. (Courtesy of Spray
Dynamics.)
precise, uniform delivery is critical for either labeling or
consumer satisfaction reasons.
Cereal manufacturers have been voluntarily supple-
menting their cereals since 1941 [56]. Vitamins and miner-
als are often added during the cooking step, but several vi-
tamins are not heat stable or react under pressure, which
results in substantial losses. The extent of the vitamin loss-
es are determined by the severity of the processing condi-
tions [32]. Supplementary amounts are usually required to
compensate for the processing losses as well as losses that
will occur over the shelf life of the product [121]. Some
heat-stable vitamins (i.e., B6, B12, E, niacin, folic acid, ri-
boflavin, and calcium pantothenate) can be added prior to
the cooking step, whereas others (A, D, and C) are very
heat labile and must be applied at lower temperatures. By
spraying an aqueous vitamin solution onto the finished ce-
real base product, the losses due to heat degradation are re-
duced. The vitamin solution is sprayed in a fine mist onto a
tumbling bed of cereal to ensure uniform coverage. Some
vitamins impart a strong flavor and odor, which can be
minimized by getting even coverage with the dilute vita-
639
min solution. If the cereal product is to be sugar coated, the
vitamin solution is sprayed on just prior to application of
the liquid sugar. Most sugar coatings require an additional
drying step to remove excess water contributed by the sug-
ar solution. The sugar coating will act as a protective layer
for the vitamins.
Although minerals are included as part of fortification,
they are generally not topically applied to the cereal. Many
are insoluble and are simply added to the flour or other dry
ingredients prior to cooking. Some problems associated
with insoluble minerals, particularly iron powders, are get-
ting uniform distribution, low bioavailability, and dark-
colored specks mistaken by the consumer as a contaminant
[31]. A soluble form, ferrous sulfate, may be an option, de-
pending on the type of product and how it is processed. An
aqueous solution can be applied to the cereal in a coating
reel. Because ferrous sulfate is an oxidant, it can induce
rancidity by reacting with unsaturated lipids. In the oxi-
dized form, ferric ions can form colored compounds caus-
ing a discoloration in the finished product [31].
There are many considerations in determining how a
cereal product will be fortified. According to Johnson et al.
[68], some key factors include (1) product physical charac-
teristics, i.e., moisture content and pH, (2) processing steps
involved, i.e., whether the product is coated or not, (3) pro-
cessing conditions, i.e., temperature, pressure, (4) flavor
and/or odor contribution, and (5) stability throughout shelf
life. More specific information on vitamin and mineral for-
tification can be found in the patent literature.
Popular flavors used in many products today include
fruit, chocolate, maple, vanilla, graham, honey, and brown
sugar, among others [3]. Flavors come in liquid or dry
form and can be classified as natural or synthetic. Pow-
dered flavors can be added to the dough prior to the cook-
ing or extrusion process. High heat and pressure may af-
fect the flavor and must be taken into consideration. Liquid
flavor additives are commonly added during the sugar
coating process, where they are either sprayed onto the ce-
real directly or added to the heated sugar solution and ap-
plied jointly (Spray Dynamics, personal communication).
Topical application is often the preferred method because
it reduces the likelihood of flavor profile changes and
volatilization during downstream processing. If the cereal
is dried after coating, flavor compounds can evaporate and
some flavor intensity may be lost. Sugar coatings provide
some protection against flavor loss. The form of the flavo-
rant and addition method depends on such factors as solu-
bility, heat stability, and application level [107]. The level
used is very low, generally less than 1% [77]. Also, selec-
tion of packaging liner material that does not allow the fla-
vor volatiles to escape will help retain the flavor intensity
throughout the storage life of the product.
640 Whalen et al.

Oil may also be sprayed on the surface of the product.
Oil serves a variety of functions as a cereal coating, such
as decreasing sugar crystallization (frosted appearance),
keeping particles separate [63], as an adherent and/or en-
robing aid [21], and improving texture and flavor. A wide
variety of vegetable oils can be used, depending on the
properties desired and the specific end product. Oils from
cereal, soy, rapeseed (canola), or sunflower sources with
varying degrees of hydrogenation are commonly used [8].
In products where moisture control is crucial to the tex-
ture and shelf life of the product, water can be sprayed on
the surface of the cereal. As discussed in Section IV.E,
products containing semi-moist fruits require additional
moisture to be applied in a wetting reel. Like a coating
drum, the product is gently agitated as the spray is applied.
The fine mist of water must be uniformly distributed to the
mass of cereal, followed by a tempering step. Tempering
allows the surface moisture to absorb and equilibrate
throughout the cereal piece and between cereal pieces.
D. Fillings in Shredded Products
The flavor of biscuit or shredded products can be enhanced
by the inclusion of sugar crystals, brown sugar, fruit
pastes, nuts, or other flavorings in the middle of the layered
cereal strands as biscuit is being built up. Sucrose is better
than other sugars for layering into shredded products be-
cause of its crystalline nature, which retains its identity
during drying (Fig. 20). The large crystals are visible in the
dry product but dissolve quickly when milk is added.
A small amount of fruit paste, such as raisin, apple, or
different types of berry flavors, can be added to the biscuit
as a flavorful filling. The viscous paste is deposited in the
center of the biscuit as the product is layered. Various
humectants (e.g., glycerol and high-fructose corn syrup)
are used to lower the water activity of the fruit filling in or-
der to avoid moisture migration between the filling and the
biscuit.
to 0.7, whereas most finished cereal bases range between
0.1 and 0.4 aw. Although the mechanics of moisture migra-
tion are beyond the scope of this text, the net result is that
available water in the fruit migrates to the lower-water-ac-
tivity cereal portion. As a result, the fruit will become dry
and leathery and the cereal portion will become soggy. A
compromise is made to maintain reasonable texture of the
fruit and the cereal base throughout the storage life of the
product. A small amount of water can be sprayed on the ce-
real portion, which prevents the fruit from excessive mois-
ture loss over time. As the product ages, the wetted flakes
lose moisture to the fruit pieces, with the net result being
an acceptably crisp cereal base with fruit that remains soft
throughout the storage life of the product.
Other inlays that have water activity and moisture con-
tent comparable to the cereal base do not require addition-
al water. Small granola pieces or clusters are a common in-
lay in many RTE cereal products. Granola consists of grain
pieces agglomerated with oil, sugar, and other ingredients.
Basically, the grain pieces (such as rolled oats, barley
and/or wheat, and puffed rice) are blended with other dry
ingredients, such as dried milk, fruit, nuts, coconut, spices,
and the liquid ingredients, i.e., water, liquid sugar, honey,
or oil [15]. The mixture is spread uniformly onto the band
of a conveyor oven and baked to a solid sheet. After
emerging from the oven, the sheet is broken and sized into
small pieces. The final moisture content is approximately
2-5% [38].
Size and density of any inlay piece is an important con-
sideration to avoid segregation within the package. During
shipping and handling, dense inlays (i.e., large granola or
fruit pieces) will tend to sink to the bottom of the box,
leading to consumer dissatisfaction. Dried fruits are usual-

E. Inlays
An inlay is a minor component of the finished RTE cereal
product, which is separate from the major cereal portion of
the product. Numerous types and combinations of inlays
are used in RTE cereal products, such as raisins and other
dried fruits, nut pieces, small granola clusters, or dried
marshmallow bits [120]. Inlays are included primarily to
add textural and visual interest, sweetness, and flavor.
When adding an inlay, it is critical to consider its phys-
iochemical impact on the total product: Depending on the
type of inlay, the water activity and moisture content can
be substantially different from the cereal base. For in- FIGURE 20 Sheeted biscuit showing sugar crystals incorpo-
stance, natural dried fruits range in water activity from 0.3 rated between layers. (From Ref. 129.)
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals 641

ly coated with sugar, high-stability oil, or glycerin to pre- product surface. Two commonly used antioxidants are
vent clumps and keep the product free-flowing [57]. Uni- BHT or BHA. Antioxidant added to the liner material
form distribution of inlays within the box assures a rela- slowly migrates into the lipid components of the cereal
tively consistent amount of inlays per serving. over time, preventing oxidation and effectively extending
the shelf life of the product [61]. Another method is to sim-
ply use a "breather box" or liner, which allows the rancid
V. PACKAGING
odors to escape from the package as they develop. Al-
Packaging of food products serves several purposes- though this approach does not prevent lipid oxidation, it
specifically to provide consumer information and product often is sufficient due to the relatively low level of unsatu-
protection. From the consumer standpoint, package label- rated fat in most cereal products.
ing furnishes information about ingredients, nutritional In addition to the barrier properties of the liner, the bag
content, manufacturer's code dates, product claims, and must be properly sealed to ensure good protection. The in-
overall visual appeal. The package protects the product ner liner should be completely sealed with no gaps or air-
from contamination and/or physical damage and helps holes, while still allowing the consumer to peel open the
maintain stability over the shelf life of the product. Product bag without ripping. The amount of heat and type of
stability falls into two categories: organoleptic properties sealant layer in the film control the integrity of the seal.
and analytical values, i.e., vitamins, minerals, etc. [64]. The bag is constructed by fusing together two layers of
RTE breakfast cereals are very stable products with a film with heat to form the top and bottom seams. The heat
long shelf life, typically a year. By virtue of their low melts the film's sealant layer, and upon cooling the seal is
moisture content, microbial spoilage or safety is not usual- formed. Many films consist of multiple layers of different
ly a problem. Packaging is designed to minimize deteriora- materials laminated together in order to combine the best
tion due to moisture uptake or loss, oxidative rancidity, and properties of each film. Table 8 demonstrates the barrier
loss of aromas and flavors [38]. properties of both single and multiple layer films [120].
Changes in moisture content can greatly affect
organoleptic properties [64] and, ultimately, consumer sat-
isfaction. The liner should reduce the moisture vapor trans-
mission rate (MVTR) either into or out of the package.
MVTR is measured as the number of grams of water trans-
ferred across a piece of film (100 in.2 area) from one cham-
ber at 100°F/90% RH to another at 100°F/0% RH within
24 hours [120]. Most cereals are between 2 and 5% mois-
ture and approximately 0.3 a, and thus are hygroscopic,
especially sugar-coated products. The packaging material,
TABLE 8 Film Properties of Common RTE Cereal
specifically the inner liner, must provide a moisture barrier
Packaging Materials
for the cereal to retain its crispness. If the cereal absorbs
enough moisture from the environment, the texture can be- A. Barrier Properties of Various Materials
come soggy and undesirable [18]. Products containing Stock (1 mm) MVTR OTR
fruit contain more moisture and therefore tend to lose Polyethylene (PE) 1.2 250-840.0
moisture and dry out, resulting in tough, chewy fruit Cellophane 0.5 2.0
pieces. Oriented polypropylene (OPP) 0.4 150.0
The liner material also provides a barrier to atmospher- Polyester (PET) 1.3 5.0
ic oxygen. Oxidative rancidity is accelerated at low water Nylon 25.0 2.6
activities and is especially a problem in cereals that are Foil 0.007 0.004
high in oil (i.e., oat-based products or granola) or that con- B. Effect of Lamination onto 1 mm OPP
tain nuts. Films that block light and have a low oxygen Laminate MVTR OTR
transmission rate (OTR) can retard the onset of rancidity.
OTR measures the volume in cubic centimeters (cc) of Base OPP 0.4 150.0
oxygen transferred at 73°F across a piece of liner (100 in.2 + Saran 0.35 2.0
+ Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) 0.38 <0.1
area) from one chamber containing pure oxygen to another
+ Polyvinyldichloride (PVdC) 0.18 0.3
with pure nitrogen within 24 hours [120]. Other techniques + Metalized 0.1 3.0
that prevent rancidity include incorporation of an antioxi-
dant into the liner material or direct application onto the Source: Ref. 120.
642 Whalen et al.

APPENDIX RTE Cereal Grains: Forms and Products

Grain type Form Key specifications & features Typical product applications

Corn (Maize) Whole, flours Whole grain, stabilized; Lipase inactivated; 5% on U.S. # 30; 30% Whole grain, TDF (4%), dough, pellet
on # 40; 30% to pass # 140. products; flakes & puffs
Raking grits Degermed large grits, —0.5% fat; Low 85-90% on U.S. # 4-5 sieve. Flakes, direct roll; gun puffed
Grits Degermed small grits, —0.5% fat; 85-90% on U.S. #14-16 sieve. Flake, pellet form
Meal, coarse Degermed corn meal, —0.5-0.7% fat; 85-90% on U.S. # 30-40 Direct expansion, dough, pellet, sheet, oven
sieve. puff
Meal, medium Degermed corn meal, —0.5-1.0% fat; 85-90% on U.S. # 40-60 Direct expansion, dough, pellet, sheet, gun,
sieve. air or toaster puff
Meal, cones Degermed corn meal, —0.5-1.0% fat; 85-90% on U.S. # 80 sieve. Direct expansion, dough, pellet, sheet, gun,
air or toaster puff
Flours Degermed corn flour, —1.0-2.0 + % fat; 85-90% on U.S. # 80 + Puff aid in above products.
sieve.
Bran, corn 80-90% TDF; Fiber source. Fine (90% pass U.S. # 200), Medium Fiber supplement, high fiber products, flakes
(60% on U.S. # 200), and Coarse (30% on U.S. #40, 50% on U.S. (corn), texture and puff aid, extruded
#60) products.
Wheat Whole, white Clean, low sprout damage, (i.e., Grade of 0-5% or Falling Number Flakes, granola
(cleaned) > 200 or equivalent RVA)
Whole, durum Puffing grain. Puffed Wheat, Kasha.
Cut Cut wheat pieces. Low fines. 5% on U.S. # 8, 35% on # 10, 25% on Whole grain appearance. Flakes via pellet
# 20; 5% pass # 20. process.
Rolled Whole rolled wheat; Low fines. Thickness = 0.042; 80% min on # 6. Whole grain appearance. Flakes via pellet
process.
Heavy Bran TDF increase; Whole grain, low fines. High TDF = 20%; 10% on Flakes, shreds; Increased TDF
U.S. # 8; 62% on U.S. #14; 27% on U.S. # 40.
Ground, whole Graham flour, flavor (with sugar & sodium bicarbonate); Fine Graham flavored products, extruded, sheeted,
grind-90% pass U.S. # 20; 12.7% on #30; 44% on # 80. oven puffed, toasted (air, baked)
Flour, Red or All purpose flours. Puffs—extrusion, gun, oven; Flavor and
White texture vs. starch alone.
Starch Unmodified, wet mill product from hard, red wheat. Usually at Puffs—extrusion, gun, oven; flakes, direct
<10% in formula. Standard, fine granulation. expansion, texture aid.
Bran, Red and 30-40% TDF; Fiber supplement. White is less bitter than red; Fiber supplement, high fiber products,
White Coarse, medium and fine grind. Grind affects health aspects— especially extruded 'strand' products. Also
laxation. in flakes, extrusion expansion and puff
products.
Oats Whole Clean, stable groat, Peroxidase negative. Dehulled oat. 2-4% beta- Granola, whole grain products.
(stabilized) glucan. Approx. 1:1 soluble to insoluble fiber.
Rolled Thick, medium and thin rolled; Regular and large flakes; Also Oatmeal, granola, flakes—extrusion formed
`instantized.' or batch cooked.
Steel Cut Cut into 2-4 pieces; whole grain; 90+% on U.S. # 8-16; low fines. Granola, whole grain flakes—extrusion
formed or batch cooked.
Flour, whole Ground oat groats; toasted oat flavor: 2-4% beta-glucan; 80-98% to Puffed oat rings—pellet gun puffed or direct
pass U.S. # 35 and # 50; up to 88% pass # 100. expanded; process aid, toasted flavor.
Oat bran Enriched flour fraction with increased bran due to loss of Fiber source & soluble fiber source; Flakes,
endosperm flour. TDF = 16% min.; soluble 5% min.; Beta-glucan extrusion cooked, formed or puffed
= 5.5-7.5%; coarser than oat flour; 50 to 74% on U.S. # 35. products; oven baked.
Bran, fiberb TDF source, 95% modified oat bran. Fiber source, texture, process aid, and flavor.
Barley Pearled Dehulled and pearled grain; Regular, medium & fine pearled. Fiber, flavor. Granola.
Flaked Rolled, thin flakes Granola.
Grits & meal Size reduced, pearled barley; Grits-45% each on U.S. # 12 and 16; Grape nuts, granola, pellet puffed, extrusion
Meal-20% on U.S. # 20; 40% on # 40; 20% on #60. cooked and puffed.
Rice Whole Unbroken or at least 3/4 kernels of hulled, degermed, long, medium Puffed rice, rice flakes.
(White) or short grain rice and parboiled pretreatments.
Second Head —75% broken kernels and pieces; may be milled in-line in a cereal Flakes and extrusion (doughs or puffs).
process. 50% to pass U.S. # 6.5.
Grits and Meal Size reduction; comparable to corn grits; Meal also similar— Flakes from formed pellets, puff and texture
i.e.-50% on U.S. # 30; 36% on # 40; 10% on # 50. aid; extrusion products.
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals 643

APPENDIX Continued

Grain type Form Key specifications & features Typical product applications
Flour Fine milled; types may differ due to variety and particle size; 25% Extrusion products-direct expansion, oven
on U.S. # 80; 15% on # 100, remainder to pass. Finer = 98% to puffed, gun puffed, etc.
pass U.S. # 100; 50% on # 200; remainder to pass # 200. Super
fine = 98% to pass # 200.
Brown Dehulled rice kernels; whole, pieces, grits, meal, and flour. Other Whole grain label declaration; appearance,
than whole must be stabilized. flavor, and fiber. Used in similar manner to
white rice products.
Bran Stabilized full fat & defatted. 30-50% TDF, high insoluble. Coarse, Fiber supplement, flavor and texture.
medium and fine grinds.

References: Corn-Lauhoff Grain Co., Danville, Illinois; J. R. Short Milling Co., Kankakee, Illinois; Wheat-Star of the West, Frankenmuth, Michigan;
Minnesota Grain Pearling Co., Cannon Falls, Minnesota; Oats-The Quaker Oats Co., Chicago, Illinois; ConAgra, Omaha, Nebraska; Can-Oat Milling,
Portage La Prairie, Manitoba, Canada; Barley-Minnesota Grain Pearling Co., Cannon Falls, Minnesota; and, The Quaker Oats Co. Rice-Pacific Grain
Products, Woodland, California.
Grain Manufacturing Processes Handbook, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.
1. R. Short Milling Co., Kankakee, Illinois.
bCanadian Harvest, Cambridge, Minnesota.

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20
PASTA: RAW MATERIALS AND PROCESSING
Brendan J. Donnelly and Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.*
Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
I. INTRODUCTION
Pasta is a generic term used in reference to the whole range
of products commonly known as spaghetti, macaroni, and
noodles. Italians, who are the largest consumers of pasta
products in the world, call these products pasta alimentare
(alimentary paste). Germans refer to them as Teigwaren
(pasta goods), and to the French they are pates alimen-
taires [1]. Production and consumption of the various pas-
ta products, which number approximately 150 in the Unit-
ed States, include long spaghetti and macaroni; short-cut
products such as elbows, shells, and noodles; and such
specialty products as bow ties, rigatoni, lasagna, etc. [2].
More formal definitions of pasta products are incorporated
in the Standards of Identity for macaroni and noodle prod-
ucts as outlined in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR) (Table 1) [3]. In the CFR macaroni products are de-
fined as a class of food, each of which is prepared by dry-
ing formed units of dough made from semolina, durum
flour, farina, flour, or any combination of two or more of
these, with water and with or without one or more of op-
tional ingredients specified in the CFR.
The CFR standards allow the use of optional ingredients
in order to enhance some of the cooking qualities. There is
provision made for the use of egg white solids ranging from
0.5 to 2.0% of the weight of the finished goods and also the
use of disodium phosphate for a quick-cooking pasta prod-
uct. Seasoning is permitted in the form of onions, celery,
*Retired.
647
garlic salt, and bay leaf. Gum gluten and concentrated glyc-
erol monosterate are also allowed in pasta products within
specified limits. Whole milk and nonfat milk solids are also
permitted under the standards, as is 12.5% soya flour, 3%
vegetable solids (includes spinach, carrots, and tomato
solids), whole wheat, and enriched (i.e., not less than 4 mg
and not more than 5 mg thiamine, not less than 1.7 mg and
not more than 2.2 mg riboflavin, not less than 27 mg and not
more than 34 mg niacin or niacinamide, and not less than 13
mg and not more 16.5 mg of iron, in each pound) pasta.
II. HISTORICAL NOTES
Italy is generally regarded as the home of pasta products.
They appear to have been first developed in Sicily and later
in China or Japan [4]. Certainly Italy is the country with
which pasta products are most readily identified [1]. Pasta
products, as we know them, were first made in Italy over
800 years ago. In the fifteenth century, Italians learned how
to make noodles from the Germans, who had previously
learned the process in their travels to Asia. In Germany, this
product is called Nudeln, and it is still the more popular type
of pasta consumed in that country [2]. The Italian climate,
especially around Naples, was particularly favorable for the
drying of pasta products. After the Italian pasta products in-
dustry quickly developed, it spread rapidly to France and
elsewhere in Europe. The pasta industry in the United
States was started commercially by Antoine Zerega, who in
1848 founded A. Zerega and Sons, Inc. in Brooklyn, New
York [2].
648
TABLE 1 Code of Federal Regulation: Pasta Products
Macaroni Tube-shaped and more than 2.8 mm but not
more than 7 mm in diameter.
Spaghetti Tube-shaped or cord-shaped (not tubular)
and more than 1.5 mm but not more than
3 mm in diameter.
Vermicelli Cord-shaped (not tubular) and not more than
1.5 mm in diameter.
Noodle products Prepared by drying formed units of dough
made from semolina, durum flour, farina,
flour, or any combination of two or more
of these, with liquid eggs, frozen eggs,
dried eggs, egg yolks, frozen yolks, dried
yolks, or any combination of two or more
of these, with or without water, and with
or without one or more of the optional
ingredients specified in the CFR. The
finished noodle product must contain not
less than 87% of total solids. The total
solids of noodle products contains not less
than 5.5% by weight of the solids of egg
or egg yolk.
Source: Ref. 3.
All pasta products were home-made until about 1800,
when the mechanical devices for the manufacture of pasta
products first appeared in Italy. Around 1850 the first hand-
operated mechanical presses came into existence, and by
1860 more elaborate presses had been made. The increas-
ing popularity of pasta products required that more effi-
cient production processes be developed. These were de-
veloped in Italy and France and subsequently in Germany
[1]. At the turn of the twentieth century, equipment com-
prising mixers, kneaders (gramolas), hydraulic extrusion
presses, and drying cabinets became available. It was not
until 1934 that the French, Swiss, and Italians developed
continuously operated automatic presses replacing the
batch system [1,4]. Today all presses are of the continuous
type for all makes and shapes of pasta products. Produc-
tion lines can now process in excess of 2000 kg of pasta
per hour in one continuous automatic operation from mix-
ing and extrusion to drying and packaging [5]. The recent
advent of high-temperature drying has improved plant-op-
erating efficiencies and product throughout, with some in-
dications of product quality improvement.
III. RAW MATERIALS FOR
PASTA PRODUCTS
The pasta products macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and
noodles are manufactured primarily from semolina, durum
granulars, and flour produced from the milling of durum
Donnelly and Ponte
wheat. These are the preferred raw materials for the pro-
duction of superior quality pasta products [6,7]. To a lesser
extent, farina and flour from common wheats are also
used. In addition, pasta can be processed from blends of
various nondurum materials with durum semolina or flour
[5,8-11]. However, blended products usually suffer a defi-
ciency with respect to some quality attributes such as color
or cooking quality. The degree to which blending is prac-
ticed is usually dependent on wheat availability and price,
competitive pricing, and consumer acceptance in a given
market.
A. Durum Wheat
This is the raw material of choice for the production of
pasta products. Durum wheats are better adapted to semi-
arid climates than are common wheats, and as a result, du-
rum growing is more widespread in the semiarid zones
around the world (Table 2) [12]. Durum wheat production
in the United States is concentrated in North Dakota in an
area known as "the durum triangle" in the north central
area of the state. Minnesota, South Dakota, and Montana
also produce durum wheat in areas bordering the state of
North Dakota. Durum wheat is also produced in southern
California and Arizona and is commonly referred to as
desert durum (Table 3) [13]. Desert durums have different
wheat kernel and quality characteristics when compared
with durum wheat grown in the Upper Great Plains states
(Table 4) [13]. They generally have higher test weight,
higher 1000-kernel weight, higher percentage of larger
kernels, and lower moisture content. Protein contents of
the desert durums are 1.0 percentage point lower (dry mat-
ter basis) than their counterparts up north.
The first durum wheat variety of importance to be
grown in the Upper Great Plains was Arnautka [14]. This
variety was introduced from Russia to the United States in
TABLE 2 Principal Durum-Growing Areas in
the World
Afghanistan Iraq
Algeria Jordan
Argentina Libya
Australia Italy
Canada Spain
Ethiopia Syria
France Tunisia
Greece Turkey
India United States
Iran U.S.S.R. (former)
Source: Ref.12.
Pasta 649

TABLE 3 Durum Wheat Production (million metric tons) for value of durum wheat is its grade. According to the U.S.
Major U.S. Wheat-Producing States Grain Standards for wheat, durum wheat is classified into
Crop year six possible grades (Table 6) [17]. The basis for this classi-
fication depends upon:
State 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
Arizona 0.41 Minimum test weight per bushel
0.22 0.40 0.23 0.23
California 0.43 0.37 0.38 0.19 0.15 Amount of damaged kernels
Minnesota 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 Maximum limits of foreign material, shrunken and broken
Montana 0.33 0.20 0.19 0.22 0.15 kernels, and defects
North Dakota 2.65 1.54 2.16 2.12 2.08 Maximum limits of mixtures of wheats of other classes
South Dakota 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02
Total U.S. Durum wheat is further divided into three subclasses,
production 3.84 2.35 3.16 2.78 2.63 namely:
Source: Ref. 13.
1. Hard Amber Durum Wheat-must contain 75% or
more vitreous kernels of amber color.
2. Amber Durum Wheat-must contain 60% or more
TABLE 4 Durum Wheat Harvest Data but less than 75% vitreous kernels of amber color.
3. Durum Wheat-contains less than 60% vitreous ker-
Upper Pacific nels of amber color.
Great Plains Southwest
1997 1998 1997 1998 It should be noted that the protein content of durum
wheat is not a grading factor. However, a minimum of
Test weight (kg/hl) 77.2 78.5 80.6 81.6
about 11.0% protein in semolina is necessary to make pas-
Vitreous kernels (%) 81 77 95 96
Moisture (%) 11.5 11.2 7.7 7.9 ta products having good cooking quality. Durum millers
Protein dry basis 16.2 16.2 15.1 15.2 generally prefer the numerical grades 3 or better within the
(@ 12% moisture) 14.2 14.2 13.3 13.4 subclass Hard Amber Durum because of higher potential
1000 kernel weight (g) 34.1 37.6 48.6 54.1 semolina milling yields.
Kernel size distribution (%) Although adequate protein is required in durum wheat,
Large as noted above, a recent study found inconsistent correla-
Medium tions between durum wheat protein (12 varieties, grown 3
Small years) and pasta sensory scores. Protein content did not
Ash (%) (14% moisture) 1.74 1.68 1.82 1.76 correlate with any of the 18 chemical and physical screen-
Falling number (s) 343 369 608 630 ing tests used to predict pasta cooking quality; the mixo-
Source: Ref. 13. graph test was the most useful in predicting end use quali-
ty of durum wheat in breeding programs [16].
Characteristics, other than grade, which distinguish du-
rum wheat from the common bread wheats grown in the
1856. It was not until about 1900 that this wheat came into United States are outlined in Table 7.
fairly extensive production along with another variety
from the U.S.S.R. called Kubanka. Over the years durum
B. Semolina
wheat variety or cultivar development and introduction has
undergone considerable change, particularly since the ear- Semolina is derived from the Italian word semola and the
ly 1940s [14,15]. Since 1943, most of the predominant cul- French equivalent semoule. Pasta products are manufac-
tivars grown in the United States were developed and re- tured principally from the three main milled products of
leased by North Dakota State University in cooperation durum wheat, namely semolina, durum granulars, and du-
with the ARS-USDA (Table 5). The changing distribution rum flour. Farina and flour from common wheat are also
of varieties illustrates that as new varieties are developed used, but to a lesser extent in the United States than else-
and released, they are soon accepted by the producers and where. For the production of good-quality pasta, the parti-
the older varieties are gradually replaced due to improved cle size of the semolina should not be too coarse nor too
agronomic, disease resistance, and/or quality traits. fine. Semolina milling is unique in that the objective of the
One of the primary factors establishing the economic process is to prepare granular middlings with a minimum
650 Donnelly and Ponte

TABLE 5 Durum Wheat Cultivars Grown in the Upper Great Plains

Cultivar Origin Datea Cultivar Origin Datea
Armautka Russia 1856 Macoun Canada 1973
Pelissier Algeria 1900 Rugby U.S.-ND 1973
Kubanka Russia 1900 Cando U.S.-ND 1975
Pentad Russia 1911 Coulter Canada 1977
Mindum U.S.-MN 1917 Calvin U.S.-ND 1978
Golden Ball South Africa 1918 Edmore U.S.-ND 1978
Carleton U.S.-ND 1943 Vic U.S.-ND 1979
Stewart U.S.-ND 1943 Lloyd U.S.-ND 1983
Vernum U.S.-ND 1947 Medora Canada 1983
Nugget U.S.-ND 1950 Kyle Canada 1984
Sentry U.S.-ND 1954 Lakes U.S.-MT 1985
Langdon U.S.-ND 1956 Sceptre Canada 1985
Ramsey U.S.-ND 1956 Monroe U.S.-ND 1985
Towner U.S.-ND 1956 Fjord U.S.-CO 1986
Yuma U.S.-ND 1956 Renville U.S.-ND 1988
Wells U.S.-ND 1960 Plenty Canada 1990
Lakota U.S.-ND 1960 Voss U.S.-CO 1994
Stewart-63 Canada 1964 AC Melita Canada 1995
Leeds U.S.-ND 1966 Munich U.S.-CO 1995
Rolette U.S.-ND 1971 Ben U.S.-ND 1996
Wakooma Canada 1972 Belzer U.S.-ND 1997
Ward U.S.-ND 1972 Mountrail U.S.-ND 1998
Botno U.S.-ND 1973 Maier U.S.-ND 1998
Crosby U.S.-ND 1973
'Approximate date released, distributed, or first grown in the United States.

of flour production. To mill durum wheat into semolina,
several steps are necessary [18,19]. These include wheat
cleaning, tempering, milling, and purifying.
Details of the milling process will not be discussed
here. However, it is important to know something about
the process, as the main objective related to the processing
of semolina into pasta. First, durum wheat is cleaned to re-
move foreign material and shrunken and broken kernels.
Foreign material is matter other than wheat. An excessive
amount of it can be detrimental to the appearance and eat-
ing quality of the finished pasta product [20]. Tempering
(conditioning) the wheat to a moisture content of approxi-
mately 16.5% toughens the seed coat so that efficient sepa-
ration of bran and endosperm can take place. If properly
conditioned, the endosperm will be reduced to the proper
granular size distribution with a minimum production of
flour. Proper sifting and purifying will allow for maximum
semolina yield and large bran flakes with a minimum
amount of bran powder.
The process of durum milling is a complex procedure of
repetitive grinding and sieving. The tempered wheat is
ground on a series of corrugated break rolls, the objective
being to open up and scrape the wheat kernels to release
the endosperm from the bran. A second set of reduction
rolls having finer corrugations is used to grind the mid-
dlings (semolina) to the proper size. Various vibrating
sieves are used between grinding steps to allow for effi-
cient reduction of the endosperm to proper granular size.
Final steps of milling involves purifying to separate as
much of the small bran particles and flour from the semoli-
na. A commercial durum mill will produce 64% semolina
and 9% flour from a good grade of durum wheat. A typical
product diagram of a commercial durum mill is shown in
Figure 1 [20].
Semolina is defined as the purified middlings of durum
wheat, which has been ground so that all of the products
pass through a No. 22 U.S. sieve and not more than 3%
shall pass through a No. 100 U.S. sieve. Particle size distri-
bution for typical U.S. commercial semolina is shown in
Table 8.
Durum flour is the purified endosperm of durum wheat
ground fine enough so that at least 98% passes through a
U.S. No. 70 sieve.
Most U.S. pasta manufacturers prefer semolina with
more uniform particle size rather than a mix of coarse and
fine particles. With more uniform and finer granulation,
less trouble is encountered in mixing the semolina and wa-
ter to form a uniform dough for extrusion. If semolina is
Pasta 651

TABLE 6 Grades and Grade Requirements of Durum Wheata

Maximum limits of

Wheat of other classesd

Minimum Heat- Damaged Wheat
test weight damaged kernels Foreign Shrunken Defects of other
per bushel kernels (total)b material and broken (total)` Contrasting classes'
Grade (lb) (To) (%) (%) kernels (%) (%) classes (%) (%)
U.S. No. 1 60.0 0.2 2.0 0.5 3.0 3.0 1.0 3.0
U.S. No. 2 58.0 0.2 4.0 1.0 5.0 2.0 2.0 5.0
U.S. No. 3 56.0 0.5 7.0 2.0 8.0 3.0 3.0 10.0
U.S. No. 4 54.0 1.0 10.0 3.0 12.0 12.0 10.0 10.0
U.S. No. 5 51.0 3.0 15.0 5.0 20.0 20.0 10.0 10.0
U.S. Sample grade: U.S. Sample grade shall be wheat that (1) does not meet the requirements for the grade U.S. Nos.
1,2,3,4, or 5, or (2) contains eight or more stones, two or more pieces of glass, three or more crotalaria seeds
(Crotalaria spp.), two or more castor beans (Ricinus communis), four or more particles of an unknown foreign
substance(s) or a commonly recognized harmful or toxic substance(s), or two or more rodent pellets, bird droppings, or
equivalent quantity of other animal filth per 1000 g of wheat; or (3) has a musty, sour or commercially objectionable
foreign odor (except smut or garlic odor); or (4) is heating or otherwise of distinctly low quality.

'Reprinted, with modifications, from Ref. 17 (1997). The subclass Hard Amber Durum shall be Durum Wheat with 75% or more of hard
and vitreous kernels of amber color. The subclass Amber Durum Wheat shall be Durum Wheat with 60% or more but less than 75% of
hard and vitreous kernels of amber color. The subclass Durum Wheat shall be Durum Wheat with less than 60% of hard and vitreous ker-
nels of amber color.
bIncludes heat-damaged kernels.

`Defects (total) include damaged kernels (total), foreign material, and shrunken and broken kernels. The sum of these three factors may
not exceed the limit for defects.
d Unclassed wheat of any grade may contain not more than 10% of wheat of other classes.
'Includes contrasting classes.

TABLE 7 Characteristics of Durum Wheat Compared with

SEMOLINA
Common Bread Wheats 64 lbs
(PASTA
Separate species of wheat PRODUCTS)
Tetraploid (28 chromosomes) vs. hexploid (42 chromosomes)
FIRST
for the common wheats
MILL SECOND CLEAR
Hardest of all wheat classes
FEED CLEAR FLOUR
Amber in color
Higher test weight and 1000-kernel weight 23 lbs 4 LBS 9 lbs
(PASTA
Kernel sizes larger in relation to height and width
Endosperm has higher level of xanthophyll pigments, which
J, NOODLES)
BRAN SCREENINGS
gives semolina its bright amber appearance. GERM
SPECIAL
Pasta products made from durum semolina have better cooking (COMMERCIAL
FIBER
stability. FEEDS)
SOURCE
Source: Ref. 15.
FIGURE 1 Milling of durum wheat into semolina. (From
Ref. 1.)

not uniform, but consists of fine as well a coarse particles,

the fine particles will tend to absorb water faster than the
larger particles, resulting in white specks in the pasta.
Durum granular is usually used in short-cut pasta such
as shells or elbows.
Durum flour is used primarily in the manufacture of
noodles and noodle products since it has been determined
that the fine flour yields a smoother and more homoge-
neous mix with the egg ingredient [2]. Durum flour is clas-
sified according to its ash content into various grades such
as Fancy Durum Patent Flour, Durum Patent Flour,
Straight, and First Clear.
652 Donnelly and Ponte

TABLE 8 Particle Size Distribution for Typical U.S.' and Italianb Semolina
U.S. sieve
opening U.S. % Italian sieve Italian %
U.S. sieve no. (mm) total semolina opening (u) total semolina
On 20 0.86 0.0
On 40 0.38 22.8 >315 9
On 60 0.23 57.6 315-250 30
On 80 0.18 14.6 250 26
On 100 0.14 9.3 250-150 20
Through 100 1.7 <150 15
'From Ref. 15.
b From Ref. 21.

C. Water line in Parma, Italy. Continuous pasta processing has been

discussed in recent publications (e.g., Refs. 6, 25). A typi-
Water used in pasta products should be pure, have no off-
cal flow diagram for processing either short or long goods
flavors, and be suitable for drinking. Since pasta can be
pasta using conventional temperature (up to 55°C) drying
processed below pasteurization temperatures, the bacterial
is shown in Figure 2 [20]. The essential steps include the
count of the water is directly related to the bacterial count
continuous press, shaker/spreader, predryer, finish dryer,
of the finished product. Consequently, only pure water of
storage, and packaging. An example of a commercial pro-
low total plate count should be used under these circum-
duction line is shown in Figure 3.
stances [18]. Water composition considered best suited for
In the continuous press, water is added to semolina to
pasta processing is shown in Table 9 [2]. The recent advent
give a dough moisture content of approximately 31%. Uni-
of high-temperature and ultra-high-temperature drying and
form water/semolina mixing is carried out in a counterro-
microwave drying of pasta has resulted in lower levels of
tating mixing chamber with vacuum applied prior to extru-
microbial counts in pasta products than previously experi-
sion. Counterrotating mixing shafts limit balling of the
enced with conventional temperature drying [22-24].
dough, and the applied vacuum reduces formation of small
air bubbles in the dough and limits oxidation of the xan-
IV. PASTA PRODUCTION thophyll/lutein pigments. The presence of air bubbles in
pasta gives it a chalky appearance and reduces its mechan-
A. Extrusion ical strength. Pigment oxidation reduces the attractive yel-
Pasta extrusion and drying has evolved to the point where low appearance of the pasta and its subsequent consumer
continuous, high-throughput presses and dryers are stan- appeal.
dard throughout the industry, with outputs known to be as The heart of the continuous press is the extrusion auger,
high as 7000 kg/h (15,000 lb/h) at a Barilla short goods which kneads the dough into a homogeneous mass prior to
extrusion through a die. Auger speed and temperature con-
trol of the dough contributes to the quality of pasta prod-
ucts [5]. Most modern presses are equipped with sharp-
TABLE 9 Water Composition for Pasta Production edged augers having a uniform pitch over this entire
length. The auger fits within a grooved extrusion barrel,
Maximum limits
which helps the dough move forward and reduces friction
(mg/L)
between the auger and the inside of the barrel during the
Calcium or magnesium carbonate 180-200 extrusion process. Extruder barrels are normally equipped
Sulfates 70-90 with water-cooled jackets to hold the pasta temperature
Silicates 25-30 near 40°C during the extrusion process.
Nitrates, nitrites 5-10 The inside surface of the die influences product appear-
Chlorides 5-10
ance and extrusion rate [20]. Current manufacturing
Organic matter 10-40
Optimum pH processes generally use bronze dies fitted with Teflon in-
6.6-6.9
serts. These inserts extend the life of the die and improve
Source: Ref. 2. the quality of the product with respect to product surface
Pasta 653

TO PACKAGING
ROOM

14 O
PRESS SHAKER PRE-DRYER FINISH DRYER STORAGE
UNIT

TO CUTTER AND
PACKING ROOM

PRESS SPREADER PRE-DRYER INTERMEDIATE FINISH STORAGE

DRYER DRYER UNIT

FIGURE 2 Long goods line. (From Ref. 20.)

FIGURE 3 Commercial production line. (Reproduced by kind permission Pavan, Padova, Italy.)
654
smoothness and appearance. Stainless steel dies are fre-
quently used in high-volume presses to prevent die distor-
tion and use Teflon- or non—Teflon-coated bronze inserts.
B. Drying
Another critical step in pasta processing is drying. Moist
pasta from the extruder needs to be dried from 31% to ap-
proximately 12% moisture so that the product will be hard,
retain its shape, and store without spoiling. Regardless of
dryer design and temperature-humidity-airflow control,
problems can arise if the pasta is not dried carefully [1]. If
pasta is dried too rapidly, moisture gradients will occur,
which can cause the product to crack or check. Checking
can occur either during the drying cycle or as long as sev-
eral weeks after the product has been packaged. If large
stresses are present due to improper drying, any change in
relative humidity can result in a checked product. It is es-
sential that a pasta product be dried using a drying cycle
tailored to meet that product's requirements.
Prior to 1974, conventional or low-temperature drying
spaghett i moisture %
30
12.5
(a)
spaghett i moisture %
30
12.5
(b)
FIGURE 4 Processing diagrams for (a) low- and (b) high-temperature drying. T = Air temperature inside dryer, taken on a dry-bulb
thermometer; AT = difference between temperatures taken inside dryer on dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers. T and AT are used in a
formula to find the relative humidity inside the dryer. (From Ref. 31.)
Donnelly and Ponte
(LTD) of pasta utilized drying times of approximately 16
hours for long goods and 8 hours for short goods. A typical
CTD or low-temperature (LT) drying cycle for spaghetti is
shown in Figure 4.
High-temperature drying (HTD) was introduced into
commercial drying lines in 1974. HTD raised drying tem-
peratures from 55 to 75°C, which resulted in shorter drying
times (10 hours for long goods, 4.5 hours for short goods),
lower bacterial counts, and improved end-product quality
(Fig. 4) [26-30].
More recently the evolution of pasta-drying technology
has increased drying temperatures from 75 to 100°C and
above. These drying cycles are referred to as very-high-
temperature drying (VHTD) or ultra-high-temperature
drying (UHTD) [6,31,32]. The advantages of VHTD in-
clude significantly reduced drying times (5.5 hours for
long goods, 2.5 hours for short goods), improved end-
product quality (Table 10), and reduced investment and
operating costs. A typical VHTD profile is shown in Fig-
ure 5.
Microwave technology has also been successfully ap-
drying time hrs
12
drying time hrs
Pasta
TABLE 10 Impact of VHTD on Quality Pasta
Quality parameter
Color
Available lysine
Plate count
Enzyme activity
Cooked firmness
Cooked stickiness
Source: Ref. 31.
plied to the drying of short goods pasta [22]. Microwave
drying of short goods consists of three stages: a conven-
tional hot air predryer, a microwave—hot air second stage,
and an equalized third stage. Figure 6 shows a typical dry-
ing curve for elbow macaroni at a production rate of 1500
kg/h (3300 lb/h). As shown in the figure, drying time is less
than 2 hours. Advantages claimed for microwave drying
include one third to one quarter floor space of convention-
al dryers, reduced drying times, improved product color
and cooking quality, reduced plate counts, reduced sanita-
tion costs, and reduced operating costs.
C. Packaging
There are thousands of different sizes, shapes, and types of
packages in which pasta products may be sold [18]. How-
ever, they all perform the same basic functions, such as
keeping the product free from contamination, protecting it
1h 2h 3h 4h 5h 6h 7h 8h 9h 10h 1h 12h 13h 14h 15h 16h 17h 18h 19h t
FIGURE 5 Long-cut pasta product moisture curve. M = moisture; t = drying time. (From Ref. 31.)
655
from damage during shipment and storage, and displaying
the product favorably and with consumer appeal.
Result
Cellophane is used primarily for packaging noodles. It
Improved provides clarity as well as insect and moisture-proof pro-
Unchanged tection. Low-density polyethylene bags and other types of
Negligible flexible films [33] are often used for packaging pasta prod-
Absent ucts. These offer the same protection but may not have the
Improved clarity of cellophane. They also have the disadvantage of
Reduced
being difficult to stack on supermarket shelves. Many U.S.
pasta manufacturers prefer to package their products in
cardboard boxes since they are easy to stack and provide
good physical protection for the product, and advertising is
easier to print and read on boxes than on plastic containers.
Modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP) methods are
now being used to package fresh pasta products, which are
typically marketed in retail refrigerated cases and are at
some risk of microbial contamination [34]. The aim of
MAP is to change the atmosphere encompassing the food
product, and thereby minimize oxidative, enzymatic, and
organoleptic changes, and to retard microbial growth [33].
V. NUTRIENT PROFILE OF PASTA
The nutritional composition of pasta is shown in Table 11
[35]. The amino acid composition of pasta products are
presented in Table 12, and the vitamin/mineral content in
Table 13 [35]. Pasta products are a good source of many
essential nutrients, as indicated in Tables 11-13. However,
like any single food source, it does not supply all the nutri-
ents for a complete human diet. Protein in pasta contains
all eight essential amino acids; therefore, 0.68 kg of pasta
656 Donnelly and Ponte

MICROWAVE LINEN°2
ELBOW MACARONI
3250 lbs./hr.
30

25

20

z
z 15
O
0
CC
10
(i) PREDRYER EQUALIZER
O HOT AIR

5
MICROWAVE' HOT AIR

0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 1 20
TIME, MINUTES

FIGURE 6 Typical drying rate curves for pasta drying with microwaves. (From Ref. 22.)

TABLE 11 Nutritional Composition of Pasta (per 100 g)

Moisture Total Dietary
(%) Ash (g) Calories Protein (g) Fat (g) carbohydrates fiber (g)
Pasta
Dry 9.8 0.7 366 12.8 1.6 75.1 1.8
Range (dry) 5.2-12.0 0.6-0.8 12.1-14.2 0.2-2.6 1.4-2.5
Cooked 71.5 0.18 177 4.3 0.6 25.2 0.5-0.68
Egg noodles
Dry 9.2 0.9 380.6 14.0 4.2 71.7 1.7
Range (dry) 7.9-11.5 0.7-1.1 12.0-14.4 3.1-5.6 0.86
Cooked 70.4 0.7 125 4.1 1.5 23.3 1.1-2.6
Source: Ref. 35.

containing 12.0% protein would supply the required daily
amounts of protein for a normal person. Pasta is particular-
ly low in lysine. Therefore, when assessing nutritional
quality the combined value of other foods consumed with
pasta should be taken into consideration. For example,
most often pasta is consumed with meat, meat sauce,
and/or cheese. The protein present in the meat and/or
cheese usually balance that in pasta, giving a very high
combined nutritional quality to the food.
As a low-fat food, dry pasta contributes only small
amounts of fat to the diet. Nonegg pasta contains no cho-
lesterol and little saturated fat. Over 63% of the fat in
nonegg dry pasta is made up of the essential fatty acid
linoleic acid.
Pasta has become a popular source of complex carbohy-
drate for athletes and also for those embarking on a low-
sodium, low-fat, high—complex carbohydrate diet. Carbo-
hydrate loading is a technique that has gained popularity
among athletes to increase muscle glycogen stores for pro-
longed exhaustive exercises, such as running marathons
[37]. Pasta, as a source of complex carbohydrate, is a valu-
able part of this diet.
VI. PROTEIN-FORTIFIED
PASTA PRODUCTS
Over the years numerous studies have been conducted on
producing protein-fortified pasta products. Researchers
Pasta 657

TABLE 12 Amino Acid Content of Pasta Products sources into pasta using semolina as a base. More than 60
different high-protein materials were used in their study.
Uncooked Cooked
macaroni macaroni
Of these, 35 were selected for further investigation after
Amino acids (mg/100 g food) (mg/100 g food) preliminary evaluation of the original 60 showed process-
ing and quality problems. Sources of protein included
Histidine 310 98 commercially available soy products, wheat germ, defatted
Isoleucine 580 180 cotton seed meal, defatted oat, fish protein concentrate,
Leucine 1,060 330
corn protein isolate, low-lactose whey, egg albumin solids,
Lysine 290 90
and edible bean protein. In general their results showed
Sulfur amino acids
(Met & Cys) 630 195
that, again, the protein-fortified products and formulations
Aromatic amino all suffered some deleterious quality trait and low degree
acids (Phy & Tyr) 1,110 330 of consumer acceptability because of poor product color,
Threonine 410 130 cooking quality, or taste.
Tryptophan 170 53
Valine 650 200
VII. FACTORS INFLUENCING
Source: Ref. 35. PASTA QUALITY
A. Pasta Processed from Semolina/Farina
have looked at incorporating soy flour [38], nonfat dried Although durum wheat semolina is the raw material of
milk [39], wheat flour, oat flour, corn germ, and casein choice for the production of pasta products, almost any
[40], corn soy milk [41], and fish protein concentrate [42] type of wheat may be used for producing pasta products
to enhance the protein quality of pasta. However, all these [44]. Fernandez et al. [45] have shown that the mill
approaches suffered from some undesirable consumer ac- streams of durum were more yellow than those obtained
ceptability trait, whether it be color, taste, texture, or from bread wheats and that they gave lower absorptions,
mouthfeel. A study conducted by Seyam et al. [43] at- which is an advantage in pasta processing since less water
tempted to reevaluate the merits of incorporating protein has to be removed in drying. Subsequent reports by Mousa

TABLE 13 Vitamin/Mineral Content of Pasta Productsa

Nutrients per 100 g Enriched macaroni Enriched noodle

dry weight product product RDI'

Thiamine (mg) 1.07 1.08 1.5

Niacin (mg) 8.35 7.94 20.0
Riboflavin (mg) 0.48 0.49 1.7
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.084 0.088 2.0
Folacin (.1g) 12.0 16.0 400.0
Vitamin E (mg) Trace Trace 30.0 (IU)
Pantothenic acid (mg) 0.3 10.0 10.0
Biotin (lig) 1.0 300.0
Iron (mg) 4.09 4.91 18.0
Calcium (mg) 20.0 32.0 1000.0
Magnesium (mg) 48.0 71.0 400.0
Phosphorus (mg) 148.0 215.0 1000.0
Potassium (mg) 152.0 191.0 3500.0
Sodium (mg) 8.0 21.0 2400.0
Zinc (mg) 1.0 1.76 15.0
Copper (mg) 0.247 0.260 2.0
Manganese (mg) 0.525 0.690 2.0
Selenium (jig) 90.0 85.0 70.0

aFrom Ref. 35.

'Recommended daily intake from Ref. 36.
658
et al. [46,47] have shown that pasta processed from durum
wheat granular mill streams (GMS) with other bread wheat
GMS produces a better pasta product in appearance and
cooked properties than pasta processed from the GMS of
bread wheats alone. Wyland and D'Appolonia [28] studied
the influence of drying temperature and farina blending on
pasta quality. Blends were prepared that contained the du-
rum semolina and 0.5, 10, 20, 40, 60, and 100% of each
class of hard red spring (HRS) and hard red winter (HRW)
wheat farina. Temperatures of 40, 60, 70, and 80°C were
used in drying the spaghetti after extrusion. Results
showed that increasing drying temperature improved
spaghetti color, increased cooked firmness, and decreased
cooking loss and cooked weight values. Increasing the pro-
portion of HRS and HRW wheat farina in the farina-
semolina blends brought about a decrease in cooking loss,
cooked weight, and spaghetti color. Drying at the higher
temperatures improved cooked firmness. Wyland and
D'Appolonia concluded that a good quality pasta product
can be obtained by incorporating a certain percentage of
farina with semolina and that the quality of these products
can be improved with high-temperature drying.
Kim et al. [48] assessed the influence of HRW wheat fa-
rina on spaghetti cooking quality and color compared to
spaghetti processed from semolina. They found that dry
spaghetti made from farina of 14.3% mill extraction ap-
peared almost the same as durum spaghetti, except its col-
or was a faded yellow. Spaghetti cooked firmness was
slightly lower and stickier than the 100% semolina prod-
uct. Farina of fine, intermediate, and coarse granulation re-
portedly gave spaghetti of good quality. However, when
granulation was at flour fineness, spaghetti had an uneven
surface, brown color, and higher cooking losses.
Some countries such as Italy, France, and Greece place
restrictions on the addition of common wheat to durum
wheat pasta. To monitor compliance with these restric-
tions, methods have been developed to detect the presence
of common wheats in durum wheat products [29]. Sarwar
and McDonald [49] reported that sterol palmitate content
can be used to detect pasta adulteration, while Barnwell et
al. [50] utilized reversed-phase high-performance liquid
chromatography for this purpose. Lookhart and Bean (see
Chapter 12) discuss using electrophoretic methods to dis-
tinguish durum from other wheats. Recently, Lempereur et
al. [51] and Lookhart et al. [52] successfully used high-
performance capillary electropheresis to differentiate du-
rum gliadins and glutenins, respectively, from those in
common wheats.
Kovacs [53] described a gas-liquid chromatographic
procedure to determine cholesterol in pasta products, pri-
marily as an index of the presence of egg.
A report by Kim [54] reviewed the noodle-making
Donnelly and Ponte
properties of U.S. produced wheats, namely dark northern
spring (DNS), hard red winter (HRW), and western white
(WW) wheats. This report provided an evaluation of the
effects of wheat flour protein on noodle quality and cook-
ing quality. Kim noted that noodles can be considered as
Chinese type and Japanese or Korean type. In Chinese-
type noodles, lye water is used in processing, whereas
Japanese or Korean noodles are processed with salt water.
Some general conclusions drawn from Kim's studies indi-
cate that the optimum protein content for Korean (Ramy-
on) noodles is 9.28-9.62%, regardless of whether the prod-
uct was made from a blend of HRW-WW or DNS-WW,
and that there were no significant differences in cooking
quality (cooked weight, cooked volume, cooking loss)
among the blended products. The report provides a good
review of the limited published data on noodle processing.
Recent noodle-processing information has also been pub-
lished on Japanese noodles [55], instant noodles [56], and
alkali-processed noodles [57].
B. Pasta Processed from
Sprout-Damaged Grain
Germination (sprouting) of grain before harvesting can be
a problem when rain and cool weather prevent or slow
down normal harvesting operations. Pasta manufacturers
are particularly sensitive to using semolina milled from
sprouted durum wheat in their pasta-processing operations
since it can affect end-product quality. Several studies
have been conducted of the problems of sprouting in terms
of pasta quality [58-64]. Some general conclusions from
those studies indicate that test weight, kernel distribution,
protein content, milling performance, pasta color, and
cooking quality were not adversely affected by increasing
sprout damage (decreasing Falling Numbers). The only
major adverse effect appeared to be higher semolina speck
counts and spaghetti shelf stability [60,61]. It was also not-
ed [61] that sprout damage levels of 4.0% or higher
(Falling Numbers of 120 or less) resulted in pasta products
having high potential for checking and cracking in storage.
Commercial manufacturers of spaghetti are concerned not
only with the problems mentioned above but also with the
tendency of spaghetti processed from sprout-damage grain
to stretch and fall off the rods during drying. Because of
such concerns a number of U.S. pasta manufacturers will
not process pasta from semolina with Falling Numbers less
than 300 (S. Kuhl, personal communication). Research re-
sults indicate that pasta can be processed utilizing semoli-
na with Falling Numbers of 250 without any apparent
problems, so commercial manufacturer's use of semolina
with values of 350 and higher provides a large margin of
safety.
Pasta
C. Pasta Processed from Low Test
Weight Wheat
Test weight (ib/bu or kg/hL) is an important quality trait of
wheat as it can effect numerical grade designation and
milling performance. Dexter et al. [65] reported on the re-
lationship of durum wheat test weight to spaghetti quality.
It was found that test weight had a highly significant effect
on durum wheat quality when considered in the absence of
environmental damage. As test weight decreased, durum
wheat milling potential declined because of the combined
effects of lower semolina yield, higher semolina ash, and
duller semolina color. They found that semolina ash and
semolina color were affected by environmental growing
conditions, and that low test weight resulted in improved
spaghetti cooked firmness and resilience because of a
strong negative relationship between test weight and wheat
protein. The impact of test weight on wheat grading was
similar to that reported previously by Watson et al. [66].
D. Lipids and Their Role in Determining
Spaghetti Cooking Quality
Lipids, although a minor constituent of pasta, appear to in-
fluence the physical properties of cooked spaghetti. Fabri-
ani et al. [67], in their studies on the changes in lipids dur-
ing processing of pasta products, found that lipids were
less amenable to extraction in the pasta product than
semolina. Such results suggested that lipids undergo chem-
ical changes and/or complexation as a result of the me-
chanical action of the screw on the semolina dough during
extrusion. Subsequently Barnes et al. [68] reported that
about 90% of the free lipids in semolina became bound
during processing and, more particularly, during the drying
process. Laignelet [69] and Niihara et al. [70] have re-
viewed lipids and their role in pasta and pasta products,
and Youngs [71] has reviewed the lipids of durum. A study
by Matsuo et al. [72] indicated that the lipids found to ex-
ert marked influence on spaghetti cooking quality were the
monoglycerides. They not only improved tolerance to
overcooking but also reduced surface stickiness. The abili-
ty of monoglycerides to form water-insoluble complexes
with amylose is thought to result in this reduced stickiness
[73]. Unsaturated monoglycerides, for example, glycerol
monolinolein and glycerol monoolein, are more effective
in forming complexes with amylose at lower temperatures
(30-40°C) than at higher temperatures (60°C). Monoglyc-
erides with saturated fatty acids, on the other hand, are
very effective in complexing amylose in amylose solution
at the higher temperature of 60°C. Therefore, if complex
formation can be assumed to follow similar temperature
dependence in doughs, the temperature at which dough de-
velopment occurs during processing may be the deciding
659
factor as to the effect of various lipids on the cooking qual-
ity of pasta.
Monoglyceride-starch interactions in suspension were
studied by Kim and Robinson [74] at temperatures ranging
from 30 to 90°C. They found that at 30°C amylose bound
small amounts of lipids due to its extended conformation.
At gelatinization temperatures near 60°C, with the result-
ant conformational change of amylose from extended to
helical form, the amount of monoglycerides bound to
starch increased, reaching a maximum at 90°C. Matsuo et
al. [72] proposed that if such a mechanism existed in a
dough system, it would explain a decrease in cooked pasta
stickiness for high- versus low-temperature dried pasta
with added monoglycerides.
E. Protein Quantity Versus Quality and
Impact on Pasta Cooking Quality
The cooking characteristics of pasta products are the ulti-
mate tests in determining its quality. In general, cooked
pasta should be neither "mushy" nor "rubbery." It should
retain its shape during cooking and be firm to the bite (al
dente). Cooking time is important in terms of relative
speed of cooking and tolerance to overcooking.
Three major components of cooking quality assessment
include cooked weight, cooking loss, and cooked firmness
(texture). Cooked weight (expansion volume) is a measure
of the water-absorbing capacity of the pasta during cook-
ing and should be three times the weight of the dry materi-
al. Cooking loss is the percent solids lost to the cooking
water. Cooked firmness determines the chewing character-
istics of pasta. Cooked weight and cooking loss are rela-
tively easy to measure, but objective measurements of
firmness and stickiness has been the subject of study over
many years [75-82]. Objective firmness tests are now used
routinely for cooked spaghetti, since it was shown they
have a high positive correlation (r = 0.812) with taste pan-
el scores. Research has also shown there is a significant
positive correlation between cooking quality and protein
quantity and quality [83-90]. In general, results show that
higher protein and stronger gluten protein in semolina pro-
duces pasta with better overall cooking quality and toler-
ance to extended cooking than do lower-protein, weaker-
gluten products. Feillet et al. [29] recently cited a number
of publications dealing with the relationship between pro-
tein composition and cooking quality.
Because of the positive correlation between stronger
gluten and improved pasta cooking quality, considerable
research has been directed towards the development and
interpretation of prediction tests related to gluten quality.
Dick [91] reviewed some of the tests used to predict durum
wheat and pasta quality. In his review, Dick discusses such
660 Donnelly and Ponte

prediction tests as the mixograph, farinograph, wet gluten, TABLE 14 Evaluation of the Quality of Cooked Pasta
sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation, elec-
Score Stickiness Bulkiness Firmness
trophoresis, and chromatography and their relevance to
pasta quality. D'Egidio et al. [92] analyzed 50 samples of 0 Totally Totally Absent
10 Italian durum varieties by various technological and 20 Very High Very High Rare
chemical tests, obtaining 26 variables; a study of their val- 40 High High Insufficient
ue in predicting pasta cooking quality suggested manual 80 Almost absent Almost absent Good
100 Absent Absent Excellent
evaluation and alveograph W value were the most effi-
cient. These publications and the references therein are a Source: Ref. 95.
valuable source of information on the development of the
various test procedures used to predict pasta quality.

F. Regrinds and Impact on Pasta Quality

3. Bulkiness, which is the degree of adhesion of pasta
Commercial pasta processing is such that anywhere from 5 strands after cooking and is evaluated visually and
to 15% of product ends up as regrinds. These can be re- manually.
processed into pasta after blending back with the raw ma-
The characteristics are then reported as in Table 14. Over-
terial prior to mixing and extrusion in the press. A study by
all pasta cooking quality is determined by summing the
Donnelly [93] has shown that blending regrinds beyond
score obtained for each characteristic, multiplying the sum
15% can adversely reduce pasta color and cooked firmness
by 33.3, and dividing by 100. The final value of the cook-
and can also reduce tolerance to extended cooking times
ing quality is correlated to a description.
when compared with a 100% semolina processed spaghet-
Spaghetti with a total score equal to or below 40 is
ti as control. Fang and Khan [94] studied effects of re-
poor; above 40 but below or equal to 50 is not satisfactory;
grinds drying temperature on product quality and found
above 50 but below or equal to 70 is fair; above 70 but be-
varying relationships among drying temperatures and re-
low or equal to 80 is good; above 80 is excellent.
placement levels; for example, low-temperature regrinds
In France, only surface conditions (stickiness and bulk-
produced better firmness of spaghetti and macaroni and
iness) are evaluated by sensory tests. A standard method
less cooking loss of macaroni, but increased drying tem-
has been elaborated by the International Standards Organi-
perature slightly improved product color.
zation (ISO) for sensory evaluation of spaghetti cooking
quality, based on estimation of surface conditions (sticki-
VIII. PASTA QUALITY EVALUATION ness) using photographs and firmness estimation by chew-
ing with the teeth [96].
No standard procedure exists for the deterntination of pas-
By contrast, an evaluation procedure used in the United
ta quality in terms of appearance, color, and cooking qual-
States involves objective procedures that not only assess
ity. Pasta quality is such a subjective matter that what is ac-
the cooking quality of pasta but also that of the raw materi-
ceptable in one country is not necessarily acceptable in
als used in the processing of the pasta [97]. Computer and
another. Objective/subjective evaluation of pasta in labora-
statistical analysis of quality evaluation data provides for
tories around the world evolved with the perceived needs
overall quality rating within major and minor fault param-
of the indigenous consumer. Two examples reflect these
eters (Table 15). Major emphasis is placed on such quality
differences.
traits as wheat protein, semolina and spaghetti color, and
In Italy the evaluation of pasta cooked stickiness, firm-
spaghetti cooked firmness. Faults in any of these traits
ness, and bulkiness is widely accepted and applied [95,96].
change the acceptability of the sample quickly. An advan-
The test is performed on spaghetti of 1.60-1.65 mm or
tage of this type of computer scoring system is its flexibil-
1.70-1.75 mm diameter cooked under standard conditions
ity for adjustment to meet changing quality demands.
for 10-11 minutes according to the diameter. At least three
Standardization of sensory analysis is difficult, and for
expert tasters assess the cooked product for:
this reason much work has been done over the years to de-
1. Stickiness, which is the state of surface disintegration velop objective methods for evaluating textural attributes.
of the cooked product, estimated by visual inspection, These methods include chemical tests and a variety of
with or without the aid of a standard reference pasta. physical tests utilizing both commercially available and
2. Firmness, which is the resistance of the cooked pasta experimental instruments [96,98,99]. Despite progress in
when chewed or flattened between the fingers or developing objective methods for textural properties,
sheared between the teeth. many shortcomings remain [96,98].
Pasta 661

TABLE 15 Durum Program Faulting and Scoring Values

Effect on
Rangeb evaluation score'
Minor Major Minor Major
Variablea fault fault fault fault
Test weight (lb/bu) -2.2 -3.1 -1
1000-kernel weight (g) -2.1 -5.1 -1
Small kernels (%) +5 +10 -1
Wheat protein (%) 12.5 11.5 -1 -2
Total extraction (%) -2.5 -3.5 -1 -2
Semolina extraction (%) -3.0 -4.0 -1 -2
Semolina color -10 -15 -2 -3
Specks per 64.5 cm2 (10 int) +10 +15 -1
Semolina protein (%) 11.5 11.0 -1 -2
Visual spaghetti color -1.0 -1.5 -2 -3
Firmness (g-cm) -1.5 -2.25 -1 -2
'Other variables measured and recorded that do not contribute to the final score are large and
medium kernels (%), total extraction, falling number, and mixogram.
bWheat and semolina protein percentages are fixed lower limits for faults. All other values

represent the deviation from the average of the standards required to warrant a minor or ma-
jor fault.
`These values are subtracted from the beginning score of 4.
Source: Ref. 97.

TABLE 16 The Market for Pasta by Typea

IX. CONCLUSION
This chapter provides an overview of factors that can influ- Dried
Dried Canned macaroni Refrigerated
ence the processing and quality attributes of pasta prod-
Year pasta pasta and cheese pasta
ucts. Processing of pasta has evolved over many years
from an art to a highly sophisticated system of continuous 1993 N/A N/A N/A 182.4
raw materials blending, mixing, extrusion, drying, and 1994 1275.2 510.6 511.7 176.9
packaging technology as we know it today. In order to pro- 1995 1306.0 506.2 547.3 179.1
duce superior quality pasta, attention has to be paid to the 1996 1328.8 534.9 592.3 170.9
1997 1319.9 571.4 658.5 157.1
source and quality of raw materials used; the quality of wa-
1998 1287.0 558.1 691.1 148.9
ter mixed with the raw materials to form the dough prior to
extrusion; the quality of other ingredients used in the aData in $ millions.
dough mix; extrusion condition; and drying conditions. Source: Courtesy of Information Resources, Chicago, IL 60661,
Taken in total, producing high-quality pasta is much 1999.
more complicated than it might first appear. The roles
played by the plant breeder, cereal chemist, producer,
miller, and grain market can have significant influence on 22 to 30% between 1995 and 1997 [101]. In the United
what the pasta manufacturers will use and process in their States per capita use of durum wheat flour, mainly used in
plants. This in turn will ultimately affect the consumer's pasta production, doubled between 1984 and 1994, to 14
perception of the product as a desirable food. That con- pounds per person [102]. This figure would not reflect, of
sumers have a positive perception of pasta was shown in a course, pasta or noodle products made from wheats other
recent survey, indicating that pasta's increased popularity than durum. By way of comparison, per capita consump-
was due, in part, to its nutritional value, taste, and conven- tion of pasta products by the top pasta-consuming coun-
ience; 77% of those surveyed said they eat pasta at least tries are: Italy, 62.8 lb (28.3kg); Venezuela, 28.0 lb (12.6
once a week, and almost a third eat it three or more times a kg); and Tunisia, 25.8 lb (11.6 kg) [103].
week [100]. A Gallup study found that when asked to name Although pasta is a popular food, U.S. pasta sales have
favorite grain foods, the popularity of pasta increased from been flat during the past several years. Table 16 shows that
662
dried pasta sales declined somewhat from 1996 through
1998. Canned pasta fell off from 1997 to 1998, while dried
macaroni and cheese increased during the period 1994
through 1998. Refrigerated pasta has also declined in sales
during the past several years. Not included in this table is
frozen pasta, sales of which totaled $1.3 billion in 1996;
about $1 billion of this was for pasta in frozen dinners and
$300 million for pasta sold alone [104].
Imported pasta, mostly from Italy, has grown in impor-
tance and in 1997 amounted to about 18.5% of the total
U.S. market for dry pasta [105].
Although refrigerated fresh pasta sales have been flat
during the past several years, newer packaging methods
may lead to increased product consumption [34]. Fresh
pasta from the extrusion press has approximately 31%
moisture, and presently many fresh pastas are sold unpack-
aged, thus requiring no labeling as do the packaged prod-
ucts. The products can be processed from nondurum wheat
flours or farina and many contain egg. Once fresh pasta is
processed, shelf life becomes an important consideration
in getting the product to the consumer, In general, fresh
pasta has a shelf life of about 30 days. Some distributors
freeze the product during the distribution phase and let it
"slack" out to get some extra shelf-life days. Improve-
ments in packaging and oxygen removal help preserve the
fragile flavors of fresh pasta while extending its shelf life
[33,34,106].
Pasta companies have become interested in the mar-
ketability of flavored pasta. ()strove [107] pointed out that
pasta products have become more than simply a vehicle
for sauces, but are available in nearly every conceivable
flavor and color as a complement to any meat, fowl, or
fish. Dehydrated powders of vegetable flavors are general-
ly preferred because overall quality of the products tends
to be better. Powders such as spinach, carrot, tomato, corn,
broccoli, and others as well as spices like saffron and fla-
vors like vanilla, mushroom, cayenne, and curry are be-
coming more and more popular. The importance of new
pasta shapes as well as new flavors and colors in promo-
tion of pasta marketing has been stressed in recent reports
[108,109]. Fruit-flavored pasta, as well as walnut and
Grand Marnier-sweetened cream sauce, etc., suggests uti-
lization of pasta for dessert.
The breadth and depth of pasta utilization is being con-
tinually explored and reflects some of the optimism pro-
jected by the industry for increased consumption trends.
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J., 73(3):17 (1989).
107. Ostrove, M. V., The flavored pasta explosion, Pasta J.,
17(3):24 (1989).
108. Pasta: Industry executives predict product growth will
soar, Milling Baking News, 72(21):32 (1993).
109. Krumrei, D., Pasta industry looks beyond flat retail de-
mand, Milling Baking News, 77(35):27 (1998).
21
CEREAL-BASED SNACK FOODS
Joseph A. Maga*
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
I. INTRODUCTION
Snack foods have always been an important part of Ameri-
can life, and as such they represent a diverse and continu-
ally changing group of food items whose sales are in the
billions of dollars and are continually climbing (Table 1).
An overview as to some of the types, and their market
share, is summarized in Table 2. Based on the above fig-
ures, the United States is the leading worldwide producer
and consumer of snack foods, an honor that some individ-
uals would not like to claim. Other major international
snack food markets include the NAFTA countries and
Western Europe, as can be seen from the data shown in
Table 3. However, from a relative standpoint, the dollar
value associated with U.S. snack food exports is somewhat
small compared to the total market in the United States
(Tables 4, 5).
Numerous types of foods can be consumed as snacks,
and the volume and corresponding economic value of the
most popular types of snacks are summarized in Table 5.
These data can be further extrapolated to arrive at per capi-
ta consumption figures (Table 6). It can be seen that ap-
proximately 22 pounds of snacks are consumed among the
1600 pounds of food consumed per person per year in the
United States.
It is interesting to note that the apparent definition of the
term "snack food" is continually changing or is interpreted
by various groups differently. Certain food items that were
extremely popular in the past were culturally or historical-
*Retired.
667
ly not considered to be snack foods, but because of drastic
changes in lifestyle and marketing techniques, products al-
most overnight become snack foods.
There is no question that the types of snack foods avail-
able to the general public are continually changing, and al-
though historically snack foods were not marketed and
promoted with nutrition in mind, many new lines and cate-
gories of snacks are now available that attempt to address
specific aspects of nutrition. For example, these new prod-
ucts contain low or lower levels of salt, fat, and sugar, as
well as higher levels of fiber and lower amounts of saturat-
ed fats, due to the incorporation of different fat/oil sources
in formulation. Examples of modified snacks with a specif-
ic emphasis on nutrition include the introduction of no-
salt-added chip products, chips containing 20% or less fat
instead of over 40%, artificially sweetened bakery items,
and high-fiber snack bars. This approach is attempting to
partially or completely replace traditional meals with
snack foods.
Another area that is experiencing significant growth in-
volves the introduction of items that are bite-sized com-
pared to their traditional counterparts. Examples in this
category include mini-muffins and bagel chips. If one
reads the nutritional profile of several "mini" items, in
most cases, it does not look as devastating as if the parent
item were consumed.
Although through the years most snack foods were not
considered to be a good nutrition sources, numerous items
were the exception. A prime example would be rice cakes,
which were consumed because of their nutritional proper-
ties. However, historically, products of this type were pri-
668 Maga

TABLE 1 U.S. Snack Food Sales TABLE 3 U.S. Snack Food Export Markets, 1997
and Volume
Region Million $
Year Billion $ Billion lb
NAFTA 275.6 34.8
1990 12.72 4.62 Western Europe 152.2 19.2
1991 13.43 4.92 Japan/Chinese Economic Area 146.8 18.5
1992 13.80 5.18 Other Asia 98.7 12.5
1993 14.66 5.52 Latin America 76.4 9.6
1994 15.05 5.69 Rest of world 42.3 5.3
1995 15.09 5.54 Total 792.0
1996 15.32 5.57
5.73 Source: Ref. 1.
1997 16.44

Source: Ref. 1.

manly distributed through health food stores, which were

not frequented by the masses. Currently, heath food stores TABLE 4 Value of U.S. Snack Food
have expanded into traditional grocery stores, and thus the Exports, 1997
general consumer now has increased exposure to more
Category Million $
health-oriented snack foods.
Another significant trend in the snack food industry has Cookies and crackers 208.6
been the introduction of ethnic snack foods, both national- Snack nuts 190.8
ly and internationally. Historically, ethnic foods have been Potato chips 161.7
popular and available only in select regional areas, howev- Popcorn 100.5
er, major snack food manufacturers have introduced prod- Meat snacks 67.1
Corn chips and pretzels 63.1
ucts such as corn and tortilla chips across the country, usu-
Total 791.8
ally with a great deal of success. This in turn has made the
population more likely to consider the purchase of ethnic Source: Ref. 1.
foods in general. Also, the use of sophisticated packaging,
which features individually wrapped items, and heavy ad-

TABLE 2 U.S. Percent Sales per Snack

Segment, 1997 TABLE 5 U.S. Snack Food Sales and Volume, 1997

Snack Category Million $ Million lb

Potato chips 31.7 Potato chips 5220.0 1775
Tortilla chips 20.9 Tortilla chips 3428.5 1305
Pretzels 8.2 Snack nuts 1350.7 403.8
Nut snacks 8.2 Pretzels 1341.3 658
Extruded snacks 5.7 Extruded snacks 931.9 324.6
Meat snacks 5.5 Meat snacks 896.1 62.7
Microwave popcorn 5.1 Microwavable popcorn 836.5 386.7
Corn chips 3.6 Corn chips 589.3 219.1
Ready-to-eat popcorn 2.5 Ready-to-eat popcorn 413.0 153.3
Party mix 2.2 Party mix 358.9 116.9
Pork rinds 1.9 Pork rinds 308.2 47.2
Variety packs 1.8 Variety packs 290.2 80.7
Multigrain chips 0.8 Multigrain chips 133.5 37.4
Unpopped popcorn 0.5 Unpopped popcorn 84.7 100.8
Other snacks 1.5 Other snacks 254.2 60.6

Source: Ref. 1. Source: Ref. 1.

Cereal-Based Snack Foods 669

TABLE 6 U.S. Per Capita Snack Food crowave oven. This, in turn, has led to the introduction of
Consumption, 1997 various hot snack products that can be individually re-
Category Pounds moved from frozen storage, heated in a microwave, and
eaten within minutes. Without question, as many "meals,"
Potato chips 6.7 which most often include various snack items, are now eat-
Tortilla chips 4.9 en in the car as are eaten at a table at home.
Pretzels 2.5 The point of purchase for snack foods has also in-
Microwavable popcorn 1.5
creased dramatically over time. Early in their introduction,
Snack nuts 1.5
they were primarily available only in the traditional gro-
Extruded snacks 1.2
Corn chips 0.8 cery store. Currently, snacks can be purchased in conven-
Ready-to-eat popcorn 0.6 ience stores, warehouse clubs, drugstores, supermarkets,
Unpopped popcorn 0.4 gas stations, vending machines, and through mass mer-
Party mix 0.4 chandisers.
Variety packs 0.3 Well-established multinational corporations dominate
Pork rinds 0.2 the American snack food industry, but they have signifi-
Meat snacks 0.2 cant competition from both regional and local processors
Multigrain snacks 0.1 and distributors. These latter groups exist because most
Other snacks 0.2 snacks are low in density and thus are relatively expensive
Total 21.6
to ship long distances. In addition, certain snacks are rather
Source: Ref. 1. fragile and have relatively short shelf lives, thus making
their regional or local production and distribution more
practical.
vertising has aided in expanding consumer interest for eth-
nic snacks.
II. COOKIES AND CRACKERS
The evolving American lifestyle has also been an im-
portant contributor to the increased purchase and con- Historically, cookies and crackers have been called baked
sumption of snack-based foods. Lack of time for everyday snacks and can be divided into sweet baked snacks (cook-
leisurely dining, along with family member work and ac- ies) and salty baked snacks (crackers). Cookies, in turn,
tivity schedules, has led to the need for food items that are can be classified into sugar, bagged, icebox, sandwich, and
quick and easy to prepare even by children via a mi- bar types. Typical formulations are shown in Table 7.

TABLE 7 Typical Cookie Formulations

Sugar Bagged Icebox Sandwich Bar

Ingredient lb oz lb oz lb oz lb oz lb oz

Sugar 2 1 8 1 8 1 8 2
Salt 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1
Milk powder 2 1 1
Shortening 1 8 1 1 2 12 12 1 4
Corn syrup 2 2 1 7
Eggs 8 4 10 1 8 1
Water 12 7 8
Vanilla 1 1 1 1
Cake flour 4 2 4 2 4 4 6
Baking powder 2 1/2
Bread flour 2 4
Butter 12
Cinnamon
Baking soda
Raisins 2
Walnuts 1

Source: Ref. 2.
670 Maga

TABLE 8 Typical Cracker Formulations tion from such products as Wish Biscuits, which are gour-
met fortune cookies with sophisticated sayings, as well as
Soda Sprayed Cheese
cracker cracker chocolate-covered fortune cookies. Cookies and crackers
cracker
have also undergone significant formulation changes with
Sponge ingredients (lb) an eye towards nutrition, emphasizing all natural ingredi-
70 75 ents, fruit juices as sweetening agents, lower salt, and
Flour 30 23.5 added fiber.
Shortening 4 7.5 A diverse range of flavor-coated crackers has also ap-
Malt 0.02
peared, where essentially the same formulation is used to
Yeast 0.23 0.3
Cheese, cheddar 10 make the base product but different flavors and colors are
Dough ingredients (lb) applied to the cracker surface. Popular flavors include
Flour 30 100 25 cheese, bacon, taco, and Cajun.
Shortening 5.8 7.5 Nutritional losses are usually greater during the baking
Salt 1.4 1.0 1.0 of cookies than for crackers mainly due to the interaction
Malt 0.92 1.5 1.0 of protein fractions with the high levels of reactive carbo-
Water 0.8 28 0.8 hydrates that are present in most cookie formulations.
Sodium bicarbonate 0.63 0.9 0.45 The small size of most cookies and crackers makes an
Sugar 5.0 accurate estimate of nutritional content relative to average
Nonfat dry milk 2.5 serving size somewhat difficult. Therefore, the industry
Invert syrup 2.5
has agreed that a serving of cookies is 1 oz, which repre-
Monocalcium phosphate 0.75
4.0 sents three sandwich, eight sugar wafers, or three choco-
Cheese
late chip cookies. On the other hand, an average serving of
Source: Ref. 3. saltines is 4, whereas an average serving of soup or oyster
crackers is 18-20.

Crackers, in turn, can be divided into soda crackers, which

are fermented and include soda and saltine crackers;
sprayed crackers, which are usually round and chemically
leavened; and cheese crackers, which are fermented and
contain some form of cheese as a dough ingredient. Typi-
cal cracker formulations are shown in Table 8.
The most popular cereal-based snacks are cookies and
crackers. Most cookie doughs or batters are not fermented
but are just blended, formed, and baked. In contrast, most
cracker doughs are fermented before forming and baking.
Several cookie brands have been around for generations
(e.g., Oreos, Animal Crackers). On the other hand, many
others have relatively short histories. A classic example is
what is now called soft cookies. They were nationally in-
troduced in 1983 and were designed to simulate freshly
baked at home cookies that have a softer center portion
than the outside. Most are produced by using different car-
bohydrate sources. The outside portion usually uses granu-
lated sugar, whereas liquid fructose or other liquid sugar
sources are used inside. The liquid sugar portion is more
hydroscopic and thus gives a moister texture.
Other recent trends in the cookie and cracker industry
include the introduction of numerous novel shapes, more
chocolate-based items, and gourmet products, both domes-
tic and imported. A phase of the cookie industry that is also
seeing a dynamic change is the Asian or fortune cookie
market. The traditional fortune cookie now has competi-
III. CORN AND TORTILLA CHIPS
After potato chips, corn and tortilla chips represent the sec-
ond largest category of salted snacks. Current new related
items include a host of flavored products as well as snacks
made out of native American blue corn. Acreage of blue
corn is increasing, and the crop is being used exclusively
for snack and blue corn flour tortillas.
Of all cereal-based snacks, the method for making corn
and tortilla chips is unique, in that it has a long history, go-
ing back to the Aztecs. Compared to soda cracker or pret-
zel manufacture, for example, it does not involve sophisti-
cated equipment and thus is adaptable to a small operation.
Authentic corn and tortilla chips start with a product
called masa, which is either made fresh or bought in the
dry or instant form. A general flow diagram for the produc-
tion of masa and its subsequent use to produce corn or tor-
tilla chips is outlined in Figure 1. The major difference be-
tween tortilla chips and corn chips is the extra baking step
required in the manufacture of tortilla chips.
The key to the process is the initial nixtamalization or
alkaline cooking and steeping step involving whole corn.
In the past, not much attention was given to corn type in
the manufacture of fresh masa that was to be immediately
converted to chip products. However, corn quality is quite
critical in the manufacture of dry masa. To date, corn hy-
brids that have a hard endosperm with a small dent, white
Cereal-Based Snack Foods 671

Whole Corn starch gelatinization, and disrupts and partially dissolves

the pericarp. Subsequent washing removes the pericarp
+ Water
and residual lime. The resulting cooking/steeping liquor
+ Lime normally contains 2-6% of dissolved and suspended
solids, which is usually discarded. The washed material is
then traditionally stone-ground, resulting in fresh masa,
Coking which is then sheeted, cut, and either baked and fried to
produce tortilla chips or just fried after sheeting and cut-
ting to make corn chips. In the case of corn chips, the masa
Steping can also be directly extruded and cut into the frying oil in-
stead of being sheeted and cut.
If reconstituted masa flour is used, a large particle size
Washing should be used for corn chips. This will provide for inter-
ruption in the dough structure so that air and water vapor
can escape during frying. If small-particle flour is used, ex-
Grindg cessive puffing occurs during frying, resulting in a chip
that will absorb more oil during frying and be easily bro-
ken. Corn chips average 35% fat, whereas good-quality
Mas tortilla chips have 25%. The preliminary baking step with
tortilla chip manufacture sets the structure, thereby mini-
Dried mizing oil uptake during frying. Corn chips are usually
Reconstiud made from a blend of white and yellow corn masa, which
produces a chip that is light in color. Corn chips made from
Sheting/ / 100% yellow corn masa usually have an objectionable
burnt flavor, which is attributed to the degradation of
carotenoids during the frying step.
Cuting Many of the smaller manufacturers prefer to use dry
masa flours that come in a wide range of colors and parti-
cle sizes, thereby permitting the optimization of masa to
Baking specific product. The need for capital equipment and labor
are drastically reduced when masa flour is used. However,
masa flour usually lacks some of the characteristic flavor
Frying Frying associated with fresh masa, and usually the texture of
products produced using masa flour is not as good. In addi-
tion, products made from masa flour stale faster than those
Tortila Chip Corn Chips made from fresh masa. They also have a shorter shelf life
relative to rancidity. Since whole corn is used to produce
FIGURE 1 Production of masa and the resulting corn tortilla masa, germ oil is present, which can go rancid if the flour
chips. (From Ref. 4.) is not properly processed and stored. The shelf life for
masa flour is approximately 6 months. As a result of the
above limitations, most large producers of corn and/or tor-
cob, little or no tendency to form red streaks in the peri- tilla chips prefer to use fresh masa.
carp, easily removable pericarp, uniform kernels, and low With either masa base, flavors and colors can either be
dry matter losses during processing are highly preferred, added to the dough, which can result in significant flavor
since such hybrids have been found to increase dry masa loss due to volatilization or degradation during frying, or
yield 10-20%. they can be added either as a powder or in the form of an
In the actual process, good-quality whole corn is oil spray after frying.
cooked for up to 3 hours at 80-100°C with frequent stir- As can be seen in Table 9, corn chip sales have been
ring in 120-300% excess water containing 0.1-2.0% hy- somewhat erratic, and during the last several years the ac-
drated lime. The cooked corn is then permitted to steep, tual pounds of corn chips produced have declined. In an at-
usually overnight. The cooking and steeping steps permit tempt to revitalize the corn chip market, companies have
the endosperm to hydrate and soften, encourages partial introduced flavored corn chips. As shown in Table 10, fla-
672 Maga

TABLE 9 U.S. Corn Chip Sales TABLE 12 U.S. Tortilla Chip

and Volume Flavors, 1997
Year Million Million lb Flavor
1990 632.1 234.4 Regular 61.4
1991 620.7 243.7 Cheese 22.9
1992 597.6 238.4 Ranch 6.6
1993 631.7 248.9 Spicy/Hot 5.3
1994 668.3 266.2 Salsa 1.5
1995 562.7 218.6 Pizza 1.2
1996 558.0 216.9 Chili 0.6
1997 589.3 219.1 Other 0.5
Source: Ref. 1. Source: Ref. 1.

TABLE 10 1997 Corn Chip Flavors TABLE 13 U.S. Sales of Tortilla Chips,
According to Fat Content, 1997
Flavor
Fat type Total sales (%)
Regular 79.0
Barbecue 12.0 Regular 93.7
Spicy cheese 6.6 Low fat 4.0
Hot/Spicy 1.4 Reduced fat 2.3
Ranch 0.8
Source: Ref. 1.
Other 0.2
Source: Ref. 1.

sumers say they want low- or reduced-fat snacks, the sales

TABLE 11 U.S. Tortilla Chip Sales of these forms of tortilla chips account for only approxi-
and Volume mately 6% of total tortilla chip sales (Table 13).
Year Million Million lb
IV. PIZZA
1990 2422 968
1991 2531 1033 The toppings on a pizza or its style may vary, but the crust is
1992 2573 1063 still cereal based. Aside from the traditional thin crust pizza,
1993 2910 1176 many companies offer products such as thick crust pizza,
1994 3033 1258 French bread pizza, pizza rolls, croissant pizza, and whole
1995 3195 1288
wheat pizza.
1996 3179 1285
1997 3429 1305 The major segments of the pizza industry include deli-
style fresh pizzas that are traditionally offered in restau-
Source: Ref. 1. rants and fast food outlets but are now also available in
many super-markets, via home delivery, or as frozen piz-
zas. By far, the fresh baked in-store pizza still has the
vored corn chips now account for approximately 20% of largest market, but the home delivery and frozen markets
the market. are both rapidly expanding. The frozen market has espe-
A major reason for the decline in the corn chip market cially benefited from the introduction of acceptable mi-
has been due to the increased popularity of tortilla chips. crowavable pizzas, while the home delivery market has ex-
As shown in Table 11, both the dollar value and tortilla panded primarily due to advertising and major expansion
chip poundage have been steadily increasing. As with corn in delivery outlets with well over 20,000 outlets now in op-
chips, flavored tortilla chips are making significant inroads eration.
into the traditional tortilla chips market. Currently, fla- Pizza dough must function in several ways. First, it
vored tortilla chips account for approximately 39% of the must have good extensibility so that it can either be me-
tortilla chip market (Table 12). Interestingly, although con- chanically rolled or hand-stretched, and second, it must be
Cereal-Based Snack Foods 673

TABLE 14 Typical Pizza Dough Formulation Weigh And Mix Ingredits

Ingredient lb oz
Yeast 8 Permit Dough To Rise
Water 2
Salt 4
Flour 13 8 Scale And Round Dough Units
Optional:
Sugar 2
Malt syrup 2
Shortening Dough Units Flatend And Roled
2
Dough conditioner 1/8-1/4
Source: Ref. 3. Placed On Shets, Pans Or Oven Pel

Toping Aplied

strong enough to support sauces and toppings before and

during baking. The flour of preference is milled from
American Dark Northern Spring wheat or a good quality
Hard Red Winter wheat having 13-14% protein.
The two major types of pizza are thin crust, or Neopoli-
tan, which is usually round in form and baked directly on
the oven hearth, and thick crust, or Sicilian, which is usu-
ally baked in deep pans. Both types of dough use the same
basic formulation composed of yeast, salt, water, and flour.
A typical base formulation is shown in Table 14. In addi-
tion, optional ingredients include sugar, malt, shortening
or oil, and dough conditioners. These ingredients give the
dough better extensibility, increased water absorption, im-
proved crust color, taste and flavor, better crispness and
chewiness, and better freezing properties.
Once fermented, rolled, and topped, thin crust pizza is
usually baked at 500°F, whereas thick crust pizza is baked
at 450°F. Baking time for both types ranges from 10 to 15
minutes. Typical amounts of dough required for various
sizes of thin crust pizzas are shown in Table 15, and the
general processing steps involved in making pizza are
summarized in Figure 2.
TABLE 15 Dough Weights for Various Sizes of
Thin Crust Pizzas
Pizza size OZ g
Individual size 2.5 75
12-in. round 10 300
14-in. round 13 380
16-in. round 18 500
Source: Ref. 3.
Baked
FIGURE 2 Typical steps in pizza manufacture.
V. IMPORTED AND MISCELLANEOUS
PRODUCTS
Due to the fact that many Americans view imported goods
as having better quality and due to increased travel by
Americans to foreign lands, a significant number of im-
ported cereal-based snacks are finding their way into the
domestic market. Most of these products come from Cana-
da, as well as Denmark, Germany, Japan, and the United
Kingdom. Most products are in the form of biscuits, cakes,
wafers, and similar snack items.
Miscellaneous cereal-based snack foods are products
that clearly do not fit any of the other major categories and
thus cover a multitude of products produced domestically
as well as being imported. Typical products in this catego-
ry include rice cakes, crackers, pasta snacks, sesame
sticks, bagel chips, baked whole grain rice snacks, and eth-
nic specialties.
Of special interest are various rice-based Asian snacks,
whose popularity is increasing in the United States. Both
glutinous (sticky) and nonglutinous rice is used, and, as
seen in Table 16, their starch expansion properties are sig-
nificantly different.
The classification of Japanese rice crackers relative to
rice type is summarized in Figure 3, and a typical flow dia-
gram for the manufacture of glutinous rice crackers is
shown in Figure 4. Rice crackers made from glutinous rice
are soft in texture, whereas nonglutinous rice produces
crackers that have a hard and rough texture.
674 Maga

TABLE 16 Expansion Rates of Various Starches Glutinous Rice

Starch source Rate of expansion Washed

Rice (glutinous) 100 Soaked

Rice (nonglutinous) 10.8
Potato 17.0 Drained
Sweet potato 15.5 Crushed
Wheat 10.8
Corn 9.2 Steamed

Source: Ref. 5. Coiled

Kneaded

Frozen
VI. EXTRUDED SNACKS
Cut
The extruder and various modifications thereof can be
used to make a wide variety of cereal-based snacks. The Dried
first commercially expanded, extruded corn snack was in-
troduced in 1946, although the technology had been Flavor Coated

demonstrated 10 years earlier. Bared

Extrusion technology offers many advantages over oth-
er traditional forms of processing (Table 17), the greatest Dried
of which is that it is a continuous process, which lends it- Packaged
self well to the production of both expanded and dense
snacks. A general flow diagram of a typical process is FIGURE 4 Processing of glutinous rice crackers. (From
shown in Figure 5. The major components of an extruder Ref. 5.)
are shown in Figure 6, and various configurations for sin-
gle and twin screws are summarized in Figure 7. By
changing screw configuration, a wide variety of extruded
snacks can be produced.
Today three general categories of extruded snacks are
TABLE 17 Advantages of Extrusion Processing
recognized. The first includes highly expanded curls, balls,
and related products. These snacks are called second-gen- Continuous processing
eration since their manufacture is more complex than that High productivity
of snacks such as potato chips, which are called first gener- High product quality
ation. They are basically made by introducing materials Low labor and flour space requirements
such as low-moisture degerminated corn grits into a ex- Versatility
Minimum amount of effluent
truder, where the major source of energy comes from the
Energy efficient
dissipation of the mechanical energy input, thereby caus-
ing highly expanded end products, which are then usually
dried and coated with flavorings, often containing oil, salt,
and cheese powder.

Rice

Nonglutinous Glutinous

F ---
Uruchi Senbei Arare Okaki

FIGURE 3 Classification of Japanese rice crackers. (From Ref. 5.)

Cereal-Based Snack Foods 675

Ingredit Blendig panded before consumption using traditional frying or

baking techniques. These are also considered to be third-
generation snacks and have the advantages that the extrud-
Moisture Adjustmen ed pellets, also called half-life or intermediates, are very
shelf stable and dense, thus they can be shipped long dis-
tances for economical transportation costs. Some typical
Extrusion flavored formulations are shown in Table 18. The manu-
facturing interrelationships between second- and third-
generation extruded snacks are shown in Figure 8.
Cuting Almost any cereal can be extruded, but if expansion is a
major objective, the number of functional cereals is com-
mercially limited to dry-milled dehulled and determinated
Drying corn grits or rice flour. Rice is interesting in that it gives a
crisper product that is blander in flavor than corn. Thus,
rice-based extruded snacks are more compatible with a
Flavor Aditon wide range of added flavors, whereas in the case of corn-
based extruded snacks, the added flavor should be compat-
ible with corn flavor. Cereals that have significant amounts
Packgin of lipid, such as oats, are more difficult to expand due to
dough slippage within the extruder and usually require
FIGURE 5 Extrusion processed snacks. high-moisture and high-temperature conditions before sig-
nificant puffing will occur. Another excellent puffing cere-
al is sorghum, which is not used much in snack foods in the
The second category, called third generation, includes United States because many of the varieties are heavily
more technically sophisticated filled or tube-type snacks. pigmented, which produces a dark extrudate. Wheat flour
Some require the use of two extruders, with the first cook- can also be used but does not give as much expansion as
ing the dough while the second is used to form product corn grits or rice flour. Noncereal flours such as potato and
shape. Using this technology, a wide variety of shapes and tapioca also give excellent expansions.
textures can be obtained. Purified or modified cereal starches can also be used.
The third category centers around pellet-based snacks Their generally higher cost as compared to cereals is
that are formed as dense pellets via extrusion but are ex- somewhat offset by the facts that they can give excellent

DRIVE , GEAR FEED

REDUCER a HOPPER BARREL
COOLING
THRUST BEARING

r
WATER STEAM
JACKET JACKET PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER

THERMOCOUPLES
a•MMI6
DIE

1ii.....,......_......1- i_w •
'MEW

• .
11M,.............i.

i 0
DISCHARGE

Ihottik.A********.ii,
THERMOCOUPLE

mr ,o. BREAKER
PLATE
BARREL WITH
FEED COMPRESSION METERING
HARDENED LINER
II SECTION SECTION SECTION

SCREW WITH
INCREASING
ROOT DIAMETER

FIGURE 6 Typical extruder components. (From Ref. 6.)

676 Maga

INCREASING SCREW DIAMETER DECREASING SCREW PITCH

DECREASING BARREL DIAMETER DECREASING SCREW PITCH &

DECREASING BARREL DIAMETER

CONSTANT PITCH & DIAMETER

WITH SCREW RESTRICTIONS

CO-ROTATING, COUNTER-ROTATING, CO-ROTATING, COUNTER-ROTATING ,

NON-INTERMESHING NON-INTERMESHING INTERMESHING INTERMESHING

FIGURE 7 Single and twin-screw extruder configurations. (From Ref. 7.)

TABLE 18 Typical Extruded Pellet Snack

pared to amylopectin are attributed to the fact that un-
Flavoring Formulations
branched amylose can orient itself more easily and thus
Ingredient Percent exit the extruder orifice in a manner better suited for ex-
pansion than branched amylopectin. Chemically modified
Cheese flavor:
starches, including cross-bound, pregelatinized, and phos-
Starch 53
phate, acetate, and hydroxymethyl derivatives, have been
Water 27
Cheddar cheese powder 18
found to give good results, especially in the manufacture
Salt 2 of half-life products.
Potato and onion flavor: Numerous other factors can influence the degree of
Water 34.6 puffing. For example, the amount of moisture in the feed
Starch 29.6 material will influence the resulting dough temperature
Potato granules 27.8 and thus the amount of starch gelatinization that occurs
Soy concentrate 5.5 during the extrusion process. An under-gelatinized starch
Salt 2.3 will not fully puff. If a starch becomes dextrinized, expan-
Onion powder 0.2
sion also decreases. If conditions are optimum, the gelati-
Source: Ref. 8. nized starch will be able to form a very flexible dough that
is easily expanded immediately after exiting the extruder
due to the expansion of the associated steam when it reach-
expansion and produce very bland extrudates that can car- es atmospheric pressure. In low-moisture, high-tempera-
ry a wide range or added flavors. However, their amy- ture doughs, a significant amount of water is lost as steam,
lose/amylopectin ratio is somewhat critical since a high- but the expanded product may still require further drying
amylopectin starch will produce fragile extrudates of to obtain a shelf-stable product.
rather poor density. Approximately 5-20% amylose in the This loss of water vapor also reduces the retention of
starch will significantly improve expansion as well as tex- flavorings added to the dough prior to extrusion. Flavor
ture. The better expansion properties of amylose as corn- compounds that are quite volatile or water soluble will be
Cereal-Based Snack Foods 677

Second Generation Third Generation

Ceral Grits/Sach Ceral Flour/Stach

Extrude Coking Extrude

Drying Forming Extrude

Flvor Fr) er Drying

Highly Pufed
Snacks Flavor Frye

Expande,
Crunchy Flavor
Snacks

Elaborte Shapes and

Varied Texturs

FIGURE 8 Extrusion processing of second- and third-generation cereal-based snacks. (From Ref. 8.)

lost to the atmosphere as the product exits the extruder. ingredients, moisture, extrusion temperature, and resi-
Thus most manufacturers prefer to add flavorings after ex- dence time, a wide variety of snacks ranging from dense to
trusion. Several of the major flavor houses have introduced highly expanded can be produced. The variety of snacks
flavorings that they claim are thermostable and can with- that can be produced with the same unit can be expanded
stand extrusion conditions, but some loss of flavorants can by having numerous dies of different shapes, thereby the
still be expected. same base formulation can be used to produce many inter-
Another important variable affecting puffing is the esting shapes and forms of the same product.
dough residence time within the extruder. Most larger units Historically, extruders had a single screw of relatively
are equipped with a variable drive screw, which can be simple design that would produce a specific snack under a
used to control the amount of starch gelatinization occur- set of relatively rigid conditions; however, most new ex-
ring within the extruder. Cereal particle size can dramati- truders are designed to give the operator a wide range of
cally influence the degree of product puffing. If particles operating parameters. Typical of the new breed of extruder
are too small, especially with corn, they are difficult to is the twin screw unit, which gives the operator the option
feed and dough slippage can occur in the extruder, thereby of producing a wide range of snacks having diverse textur-
decreasing puff. Some extruders are especially sensitive to al properties.
this condition and thus require a uniform particle size feed Also, if an extruder is operated under conditions of high
material. The presence of added salt will also usually de- moisture and relatively low temperature, the unit can es-
crease puffing, and therefore, if extruded puffed products sentially be used as a dough-forming device, which, when
are to be salted, it is usually done in a step subsequent to equipped with a knife attachment, provides a continuous
extrusion. In the extrusion processing of half-life products, means of directly feeding a frying unit. This approach is
salt is added to the feed material so that product puffing is used by some producers of corn chips. Due to the versatil-
discouraged. ity of extruders, their use should continue to expand in the
The addition of coloring agents prior to extrusion is production of cereal-based snacks.
usually not suggested since most colors tend to either ther- During the last decade there has been some fluctuation
mally degrade or chemically react during extrusion. Also, in the size of the extruded snack market, but as can be seen
with highly expanded products, physical fading of added in Table 19, during the last several years this market has
color becomes apparent since the resulting expanded struc- grown significantly. Part of this expansion is due to the in-
ture dilutes the amount of color per unit volume. troduction of flavored products, which now represent ap-
A major advantage of extruder-produced expanded proximately 11% of the market (Table 20). However, as
snacks is that only one basic unit is needed since mixing, can be seen in Table 21, low- or reduced-fat versions of
cooking, and forming are accomplished in a continuous extruded snacks represent only around 5% of the total
fashion during extrusion. Also, by varying factors such as market.
678 Maga

TABLE 19 U.S. Extruded Snack Sales TABLE 22 U.S. Microwaveable Popcorn Sales
and Volume and Volume

Year Million $ Million lb Year Million $ Million lb

1990 751.4 255.9 1990 775.7 320.6

1991 813.0 273.8 1991 830.0 353.0
1992 774.0 269.5 1992 768.0 344.2
1993 767.8 285.4 1993 791.6 375.7
1994 795.5 290.2 1994 777.7 377.6
1995 768.1 285.0 1995 668.0 330.8
1996 845.0 310.9 1996 764.0 357.5
1997 931.9 324.6 1997 836.5 368.8

Source: Ref. 1. Source: Ref. 1.

TABLE 20 U.S. Extruded Snack TABLE 23 U.S. Ready-to-Eat Popcorn Sales

Flavors, 1997 and Volume
Flavor Year Million $ Million lb
Cheese 88.8 1990 402.8 125.5
Hot/Spicy 3.6 1991 422.1 133.6
Barbecue 0.4 1992 472.8 154.2
Other 7.2 1993 466.4 165.2
Source: Ref. 1. 1994 487.0 157.4
1995 486.1 150.6
1996 432.0 147.8
1997 413.0 153.3
TABLE 21 U.S. Sales of Extruded Snacks,
According to Fat Content, 1997 Source: Ref. 1.

Type Total sales (%)

Regular 95.7 TABLE 24 U.S. Ready-to-Eat Popcorn

Reduced fat 4.0 Flavors, 1997
Low fat 0.3
Flavor
Source: Ref. 1.
Caramel 42.2
Cheese 13.7
Regular 13.3
Butter 10.5
VII. POPCORN White cheddar cheese 10.4
Popcorn is a snack that is unique to America, with most Other 9.9
Europeans having the opinion that corn was meant for ani- Source: Ref. 1.
mal consumption. However, in the United States, its popu-
larity and the forms in which it is available continue to
grow. The major reason for its popularity is that it is rela-
tively inexpensive and easy to prepare, even in homes. flavored popcorn being the most popular (Table 24). It is
Again, the microwave oven has also added greatly to its also interesting to note that the consumer apparently has
growth. different concepts relative to product fat content when one
By comparing the data shown in Tables 22 and 23, it compares the market for microwave and ready-to-eat pop-
can be seen that that microwave popcorn market is current- corn. In Table 25 it can be seen that reduced- and low-fat
ly approximately twice the size as the ready-to-eat market. microwave popcorn represents approximately 40% of the
A significant factor in the popularity of ready-to-eat pop- market, while in the ready-to-eat popcorn market, it repre-
corn is the wide variety of flavors available, with caramel- sents only 15% of the market (Table 26).
Cereal-Based Snack Foods
TABLE 25 U.S. Sales of Microwaveable
Popcorn According to Fat Content, 1997
Fat type Total sales (%)
Regular 60.2
Reduced fat 31.3
Low fat 8.5
Source: Ref. 1.
TABLE 26 U.S. Sales of Ready-to-Eat
Popcorn, According to Fat Content, 1997
Fat type Total sales (%)
Regular 84.6
Fat free 9.0
Reduced fat 5.8
Low fat 0.6
Source: Ref. 1.
The commercial concept of microwave popcorn was in-
troduced in the mid-1970s. At that time, microwave pop-
corn was sold in the frozen food section of grocery stores.
Room temperature—stable microwave popcorn was intro-
duced in 1984. Many brands of shelf-stable microwave
popcorn are on the market today.
Several cereals including rice, wheat, and some
sorghum varieties will pop to some extent when exposed to
heat at atmospheric pressure, but none can match the 20- to
40-fold expansion exhibited by good-quality popcorn. In
the manufacture of puffed breakfast cereals, wheat or rice
can be made to expand only several time in volume.
The composition and structure of raw popcorn kernels
are such that popping occurs due to the high proportion of
flinty or horny endosperm present in popcorn as compared
to other cereals. Popcorn is also unique in that each kernel
is covered with a tough by elastic pericarp that prevents
moisture from gradually escaping the kernel. When the
raw kernel is heated, moisture within the kernel is convert-
ed to steam and when the resulting pressure is sufficient,
an explosion occurs.
The major measure of good-quality popcorn is the
amount of expanded product resulting from a specific
weight or volume of unpopped corn. This in turn is influ-
enced by numerous factors including popping method, dif-
ferences in kernel maturity, kernel moisture level, and
genotype. Kernel moisture is apparently quite critical; for
most popcorn varieties 13-14% seems to be optimum. If
the moisture content is lower, many kernels open only par-
tially since not enough steam is produced to cause maxi-
679
mum expansion. On the other hand, if the kernels are too
moist, small volume also results because too much steam
pressure develops and the kernel pops prematurely. Also,
the resulting popped kernels are rough and jagged. Volume
can either be measured using the Official Volume Test
(OVT) or the Weight Volume Test (WVT). With the OVT,
unpopped volume is compared to popped volume, whereas
with the WVT, pounds of raw popcorn are compared to cu-
bic inches of popped corn. Of the two, WVT is preferred
since most raw popcorn is sold by weight and resold by
popped volume.
Popped kernel tenderness is another important quality
attribute and is indirectly related to degree of expansion
since as expansion increases, so does apparent tenderness.
Tenderness is also related to the amount of hard core at the
base of each kernel. Usually the tough pericarp or hull is
highly fragmented during popping, and large amounts of
free hulls are not desirable. Pericarp thickness also influ-
ences popped product texture, with a thin pericarp being
desirable, but usually the larger the kernel, the thicker its
pericarp.
Most popcorn processors are not especially concerned
with flavor, since usually butter and salt are added to
popped products called plain flavored popcorn. In the case
of caramel corn, the caramelized sugars contribute most of
the flavor, and with flavored popcorns, the same is true.
However, freshly popped corn has a very distinctive and
pleasing flavor that certainly contributes to the overall ac-
ceptability of popcorn.
The overall shape of popped corn can also be of signifi-
cance, especially to the processor making caramel corn. In
this instance, varieties that produce a round or ball shape,
often called mushroom popcorn, are preferred because
they can be more uniformly coated and are not as fragile to
required mixing and tumbling associated with the coating
process. The other major shape characterization is butterfly
popcorn, because the popped kernels have a highly irregu-
lar surface since the kernels actually turn inside out upon
popping. Butterfly popcorn retains salt better, and usually
its texture is considered to be better than mushroom pop-
corn. Butterfly popcorn is typical of South American culti-
vars.
Popped kernel color can vary from chalky white to
cream, while hull color can vary from white to deep yellow.
Some processors prefer lighter hull colors because residual
hulls will not be as noticeable in the popped product. Most
varieties that produce a mushroom puff are quite yellow.
Harvesting and storage methods can also influence pop
quality. Some farms still harvest on the cob and slowly
cure the kernels on the cob for several weeks, whereas oth-
ers combine at harvest when the corn is at 16-17% mois-
ture. The kernels are permitted to naturally equilibrate in
680 Maga

moisture. Popcorn harvested at high moisture levels needs TABLE 27 Typical Cereal Meal Bar Formulations
to be dried, but the process must be done slowly or the ker-
Nut—based Fruit and
nels may develop cracks, which then reduce popping qual- Ingredient (lb) nut—based (lb)
ity. If properly harvested and stored, popping ability can
continue to improve for up to a month. Properly stored raw Flour 400 400
popcorn can have a shelf life of over a decade, and thus it Shortening 140 140
represents a cereal-based snack commodity for which Sugar 200 200
Cinnamon 2 2
long-term storage is not a problem.
Allspice 1 2
Commercial popcorn can be popped using wet (oil) or
Ginger 3
dry (air) techniques. Some of the advantages of wet pop- Skim milk powder 20 20
ping include better flavor and odor and simplicity of oper- Salt 5 5
ation. The process requires relatively inexpensive equip- Soda 4 6
ment. On the other hand, wet popping requires more oil Acid powder 4 2
than dry popping, irregular oil coverage results, the forma- Coconut 100
tion of smoke may be a problem, and equipment cleanup is Nuts 160
quite difficult. With dry popping, more expensive equip- Raisins 240
ment is required, but it lends itself better to a continuous Pecans 60
operation and thus is more compatible with the production Molasses 200 300
Liquid whole eggs 60 48
of caramel and flavored popcorn.
Water 32 40
During the popping of corn, weight losses in the neigh-
borhood of 15% can be expected. The major loss comes Source: Ref. 9.
from water loss during popping. Good-quality raw pop-
corn should be in the 13-14% moisture range at time of
popping, and immediately after popping popcorn normally
has a moisture content of approximately 2.5%. If the
popped product is sifted, there is also the loss of hulls to Weigh and Mix Ingredits
consider. Also, some pieces of popped popcorn break dur-
ing handling and thus usually represents another loss.
The packaging of popped popcorn is a special problem Pour Into Rectangulr Molds
since freshly popped corn is very hydroscopic and will ab-
sorb moisture from the air even at 20% relative humidity.
Moisture uptake dramatically influences texture and the Bake
product becomes elastic and chewy.
Traditional popcorn has historically been flavored with
butter or flavored/colored oils and salt. A typical formula- Col
tion would be 73% popped corn, 22% oil, and 5% salt.
Caramel and cheese-coated popcorn are also available but
have a relatively short shelf life if not properly packaged, Coat with Choclate
again because of their ability to absorb moisture from the
environment, thus becoming sticky.

VIII. CEREAL MEAL BARS

The cereal meal bar area is undergoing a period of dra-
matic change. Once products known as granola bars had
a very positive image as products that were healthful
snacks. However, most granola bars are now formulated
akin to candy bars, although a few are still cereal, fruit,
and nut based. Sales have fallen the last several years.
Typical formulations for this type of product are shown in
Table 27, and the general steps in manufacture are out-
lined in Figure 9.
FIGURE 9 Typical steps in cereal meal bar manufacture.
IX. PRETZELS
Pretzels are well established as an American snack, with
close to 90% being in the form of hard pretzels. The re-
maining 10% are soft pretzels, especially frozen soft pret-
zels. These products are usually consumed warm.
There are five general market segments for pretzels in
Cereal-Based Snack Foods 681

TABLE 28 Typical Pretzel Formulations TABLE 29 U.S. Pretzel Sales and Volume

Ingredient Twist (lb) Stick (lb) Year Million $ Million lb

Flour 160 160 1990 608.6 350.0

Shortening 2 4 1991 764.4 414.7
Malt 2 4 1992 833.0 490.1
a a
Yeast and yeast food 1993 1101.0 592.2
Ammonium bicarbonate 1 oz 4 oz 1994 1271.0 671.7
Sodium bicarbonate 3 oz 1995 1295.0 678.4
Water 8 gal 7.5 gal 1996 1238.0 652.3
1997 1341.3 658.0
aAs required.
Source: Ref. 3. Source: Ref. 1.

Weigh and Mix Dough Ingredits TABLE 30 U.S. Pretzel Types, 1997

Type

Form Dough Stick Mini 20.2

Thin 18.7
Hard/Dutch/Sourdough 17.3
Sticks 12.8
Prof
Twists 9.5
Rods 7.3
Nuggets 5.7
Form Twist Knots 2.6
Filled 1.3
Other 4.6
Caustic Tanks
Source: Ref. 1.

Drain
TABLE 31 U.S. Pretzel Flavors, 1997

Flavor
Salt
Regular 88.5
Honey mustard and onion 4.0
Bake Butter 1.9
Cheese 1.5
Other 4.1

Drying Oven Source: Ref. 1.

Package
snack manufacturers who have pretzel lines, and the last is
FIGURE 10 Typical steps in the production of pretzels. the soft pretzel market.
Pretzels are made from fermented dough. Traditional
curled pretzels are usually machine formed, then passed
the United States. The first is the regional market, where through a lye dip for approximately 10 seconds containing
the northeastern United States is by far the leader. Next is either 0.5% sodium hydroxide or 2% sodium carbonate at
the distribution of pretzel brands nationally through ware- 180-210°F. Salt at a final level of 2% is added and the
houses as well as national marketers who deliver pretzels product baked at 450°F for 4-5 minutes. Pretzels come
door-to-door. The fourth category is regional full-line from the oven at around 15% moisture and go through a
682 Maga

TABLE 32 Typical Filling Formulation for drying tunnel set at around 250°F for 25-90 minutes to re-
Toaster Pastries duce final moisture to 2.0-2.5%. Stick pretzels are extrud-
ed, cut, and then follow the same general procedure as de-
Ingredient Percent
scribed above. Typical formulations for twist and stick
Sugar 31.25 pretzels are shown in Table 28 and their manufacturing
Corn syrup 25.00 process summarized in Figure 10.
Water 20.83 As seen in Table 29, pretzels represent an industry
Evaporated apples 12.50 whose sales are in excess of a billion dollars. A major rea-
Strawberry puree 8.32
son for this vast market is the fact that pretzels are market-
Dehydrated citrus pulp 0.83
ed in many different forms (Table 30) with no one form
Carboxymethylcellulose 0.33
Citric acid anhydrous 0.33 representing more than 20% of the total market. In addi-
Algin 0.21 tion, recently flavored pretzels have been introduced, and
Agar 0.16 as seen in Table 31, they represent approximately 11% of
Locust bean gum 0.13 the total pretzel market.
Sodium benzoate 0.08
Imitation flavor 0.014
FD&C Red No. 2 0.008 X. TOASTER PASTRIES
FD&C Red No. 5 0.008
Toaster pastries, initiated in 1964, are another unique
Source: Ref. 2. American product. They are essentially individual flat pas-
tries with a fruit-type filling layered inside. Their size and
thinness permits them to be heated in a toaster or mi-
crowave to provide a warm snack product. Frozen forms
with more sophisticated fillings are also available.
These are made by depositing a thin layer of fruit filling
having a composition as shown in Table 32 onto a thin lay-
TABLE 33 U.S. Snack Mix Sales and Volume er of pastry dough. A top layer of dough is applied and rec-
tangular shapes cut. This is followed by baking, cooling,
Year Million $ Million lb
and packaging.
1990 179.1 54.5
1991 243.8 75.9
1992 270.6 86.5 XI. SNACK MIXES
1993 288.8 96.9
Snack mixes represent snacks that contain a combination
1994 304.9 103.7
1995 289.8 101.5 of ingredients, most of which can be considered to repre-
1996 311.0 107.1 sent individual snacks on their own. For example, a snack
1997 358.9 116.9 mix may contain extruded snacks, pretzels, and nuts. They
can be purchased commercially, or consumers may pur-
Source: Ref. 1. chase the individual ingredients and prepare snack mixes
in the home. As can be seen in Table 33, sales of these
products have been steadily growing with about 15% of
their market consisting of low- and reduced-fat products
(Table 34).

TABLE 34 U.S. Sales of Snack Mixer, REFERENCES

According to Fat Content, 1997
1. State of the snack food industry 1998, Snack World, 55
Type Total Sales (%) (1998).
Regular 85.3 2. Sultan, W. J., Recipes for cookies, in: Practical Baking, AVI
Reduced fat 14.4 Publ., Westport, CT, 1980, pp. 407-459.
Fat free 0.5 3. Matz, S. A., Fermented dough products, in: Cookie and
Low fat 0.1 Cracker Technology, AVI Publ., Westport, CT, 1968, pp.
137-149.
Source: Ref. 1. 4. Gomez, M. H., Rooney, L. W., Waniska, R. D., and Plfug-
Cereal-Based Snack Foods
felder, R. L., Dry corn masa flours for tortilla and snack food
production, Cereal Foods World, 32(5):372-377 (1987).
5. Li, C. F., and Luh, B. S., Rice snack foods, in: Rice: Produc-
tion & Utilization (B. S. Luh, ed.), AVI Publ., Westport, CT
1980, pp. 690-711.
6. Harper, J. M., Snack food, in: Extrusion of Foods, Vol. II,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1981, pp. 66-78.
683
7. Harper, J. M., Food extrusion, in: Extrusion of Foods, Vol. I,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1981, pp. 1-19.
8. Matz, S. A., Puffed snacks, in: Snack Food Technology, 2nd
ed., AVI, Westport, CT, 1984, pp. 150-165.
9. Smith, W. H., Formulations, in: Biscuits, Crackers and
Cookies, Vol. 2, Applied Science Publ, London, England,
1972, pp. 153-274.
22
MALTED CEREALS: THEIR PRODUCTION AND USE
Richard E. Pyler and D. A. Thomas
Coors Brewing Company, Golden, Colorado
Malting of the wild barley cultivar Hordeum spontaneum
to provide a food source for humans and accidental micro-
bial infection of the resultant limash to produce an alco-
holic beverage probably occurred in Neolithic times [1].
Intentional malting was accomplished on table maltings
for generations after that for domestic use in baking, brew-
ing, or distilling. Malting was necessary to convert hard,
insoluble cereal grains to softer, sweeter kernels by allow-
ing them to germinate in thin layers with frequent manual
turning. Drying of the germinated grain was frequently left
up to the sun's rays or to small wood- or peat-fired kilns
Later, floor maltings that handle several tons of barley per
batch were built alongside small breweries and distilleries
and are still used today in some locations.
Since the mid—nineteenth century, however, pneumatic
malthouses have been employed by commercial maltsters
in order to malt very large batches of cereal grains (up to
500 tons) in an economical and efficient manner. Pneumat-
ic malthouses use large fans to draw or push prescribed vol-
umes of conditioned air through the respiring cereal grain
bed to remove heat, purge carbon dioxide, and provide oxy-
gen to the growing embryo. Without these fans and the per-
forated or "false" bottoms installed in steep tanks, germina-
tion compartments, and kiln floors, the temperature in large
batches of grain would not be easy to control.
Many cereal grains can be malted, but barley is the ce-
real most often used. For this reason, more is known about
the internal chemical changes in barley malting, but most
of the information available can be applied to the malting
of other cereals such as wheat, rye, triticale, oats, and
sorghum.
685
I. THE MALTING PROCESS
Simply stated, malting is a brief initiation of the normal
botanical growth of a cereal grain followed by an abrupt
interruption of this growth with hot, dry air in the malt
kiln. This starting and stopping of botanical growth is ex-
pertly timed by the maltster to achieve minimum malting
loss and maximum malt modification. The three main steps
of the malting process are steeping, germination, and kiln-
ing.
Figure 1 represents a simplified schematic of the malt-
ing process. In this scheme, cereal grains and water are
combined in specific ways with the transfer of gases, like
oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the timed application of
cooling and heating to produce finished malt and by-prod-
ucts. Recycling of air, heat, and water is practiced to vary-
ing degrees in different malthouses. Some recovery of wa-
ter and heat is usually done internally in most malthouses
to improve malting economics but may even be used in
such seemingly unrelated industries as fish farming, pro-
viding heat to buildings, or growing potted plants in green-
houses. It is likely that the future will hold much more in
the way of recycling and recovery to continue to improve
economics and lessen the environmental impact of malt-
houses.
After harvest, the cereal grains are usually stored for a
time, typically one month to a year, to allow the grains to
break normal dormancy before malting is started. The de-
gree of dormancy is determined by several factors, includ-
ing growth environment and cereal variety. Techniques
have been developed to help expedite the breaking of dor-
686 Pyler and Thomas

HEAT and AIR GRAIN WATER

GRAIN RECEIVING
QUALITY CHECKS
CLEANING
CHAFF & DUST
1111,
ANIMAL FEED
GRADING
BY KERNEL SIZE AND/OR %PROTEIN

11,
STEEPING
COOLING AIR/WATER 4-- STEEP WATER 4,,
CHILL & RECIRC.
HEAT & CO2 WASTEWATER
,-
EXHAUST WASTE ALTERNATIVE USE
TREATMENT

"CHIT' MALT
GERMINATION
CONDITIONED AIR SPRAY WATER
COOLING SPRAYS

HEAT & CO2

"GREEN" MALT
KILNING

C
WATER
HOT, DRY AIR —1
1. EXHAUST
VAPOR

AT RECOVERY SYSTEM
CURED MALT
+
CLEANING —4> ROOTLETS & ACROSPIRES
•tr
MALT AGING lir
+ ANIMAL FEED
BLENDING
4-
FINISHED MALT
FIGURE 1 Malting process flow.

mancy by artificially heating the grain for a specified time
[2]. Laboratory tests are routinely carried out to assess ger-
mination vigor and other quality characteristics before
grain is brought in for malting.
The many complex changes that occur during malting
are lumped together in one term, "modification," and in-
clude degradation of cell wall materials, solubilization of
the protein matrix, and production of amylolytic enzymes
that will be used to advantage later in brewing or baking.
Of these, hydrolysis of fl-glucan, which makes up 70% of
the endosperm cell walls of barley [3], is the principal rate-
limiting step in the modification of barley. Other cereals,
wheat, for instance, contain less P-glucan (20% total) but
more pentosan (70% total) in their endosperm cell walls
[4].
The maltster must ensure that sufficient hydration of the
cell wall material occurs and that [3-glucan hydrolases are
synthesized and released into the endosperm. These en-
zymes solubilize the high molecular weight 13-glucans
from the cell wall and ultimately degrade them to smaller
molecules. If malt cell wall modification is started but not
completed prior to kilning, i.e., if the malting process is too
short or the barley quality is poor, then high molecular
weight 113-glucan materials will be solubilized but not de-
graded, which can cause a number of technological diffi-
culties. In brewing, these include impeded wort separation,
reduction in extract yield, slowed beer filtration, and the
formation of undesirable precipitates and hazes in beer.
The food reserves of the mature barley grain can be
classified into two groups: those required immediately for
Malted Cereals
embryonic respiration and growth and those that are stored
in the endosperm in an insoluble form for later use by the
embryo (during growth), the brewer (in the mash vessel),
or the baker (bread functionality). In barley, the respiratory
substrates consist of sucrose and raffinose, which are con-
centrated in the embryo and aleurone layer and are used
during the first 24 hours of growth [5]. They provide the
immediate energy needed by the embryo to begin respira-
tion and are used for enzyme synthesis in the aleurone lay-
er, which surrounds the endosperm, in response to embryo-
secreted hormones like gibberellic acid. Long-term food
reserves in the endosperm include starch, protein, 13-glu-
can, and pentosan and are more technologically important
to the final user of the malt. The chemical characteristics
and physical relationship of P-glucans, proteins, and pen-
tosans to starch granules in the endosperm make enzymic
hydrolysis (via malting) imperative prior to the use of
these cereals in most food processes. The maltster desires
extensive degradation of endosperm cell walls, moderate
solubilization of matrix proteins, adequate production of
enzymes, and limited amylolysis of native starch granules.
It is this balancing of the natural hydrolytic and cytolytic
processes comprising malt modification that account for
the art and science of malting expertise and modern malt-
ing technology.
A. Steeping
Just as the growing cereal seed in the field requires a peri-
od of water uptake before seed germination can begin, the
maltster must provide for this in the malthouse. The hydra-
tion of cereal grains in the malting process is facilitated by
a sequence of soaking, air rests, and/or spray cycles dictat-
ed by the rate of water uptake, germination characteristics
of the grain, and type of malting equipment in place. Mod-
ern malting methods usually require 24-80 hours to in-
crease kernel moisture to 40-48% in steeping, whereas al-
most 300 years ago winter steeping periods of 150-174
hours were not uncommon [6] (Table 1).
In practice, the maltster must provide enough water
contact to allow rapid absorption, but not too much, espe-
cially in the case of water-sensitive grains. These grains
will actually show a reduction in germination vigor if ex-
TABLE 1 Approximate Cycle Times During
the Last 300 Years of Malting
1686 1886 1986
Steeping (days) 6-8 3-7 1-3
Germination (days) 10-35 8-28 3-6
Kilning (days) 4-6 2-4 1/2-2
687
posed to an excess of water. Water sensitivity, not to be
confused with normal seed dormancy, is caused by a layer
of surface water, which inhibits the transfer of oxygen to
the respiring embryo.
The temperature of the water is also critical in steeping.
The steep water must be warm enough to allow for rapid
water uptake and germination, but not too high, which
would allow natural microflora on the surface of the grain
to grow. This could lead to competition with the embryo
for oxygen and may produce off-flavors in the final malt
product. Warmer temperatures can also exacerbate the res-
piration problem in water-sensitive grains. Normal steep-
ing water temperatures vary from 10 to 20°C.
Replacement of depleted oxygen and removal of heat
generated by grain respiration is achieved by drawing at-
temperated and humidified air down through the steep tank
during air rest cycles, by immersing the grain in a series of
fresh water soaks (which can produce a heavy demand on
water-treatment facilities) or, more recently, by recirculat-
ing chilled, aerated water through overhead high-volume
spray nozzles. Aeration of the steep water is important and
must be repeated several times during a normal steeping
cycle. The rate of reduction of dissolved oxygen from
steep water has been recently measured at about 1 ppm/h
in the initial soak cycle and 10 ppm/h in a third soak [7].
This means that dissolved oxygen can be depleted from
steep soak water in as little as one hour, thus the need for
frequent changes or aeration of steep water. Some steep
vessels use a water/air "geyser" system in the center of the
tank to continuously move the grain and aerate it.
During water imbibition, the cereal grain swells as
much as 25% in volume. This swelling, due mainly to ab-
sorption of water by grain protein, must be handled by pe-
riodic rousing of the grain during water soak cycles with
blasts of compressed air. This rousing or "tank blowing"
also serves to aerate the water and loosen foreign material
from the surface of the grain.
The functions of steep water, once absorbed into the
grain, include initiation of cell elongation, respiration, and
secretory activity of the embryo and activation of en-
zymes. The maltster must also ensure that the endosperm
is sufficiently hydrated for these enzymes to hydrolyze the
food reserves stored in the endosperm. When the cereal
grain is hydrated and the embryo shows signs of rootlet
growth, it is "steeped out" to a germination vessel.
B. Germination
Germination has been defined, in a strict botanical sense,
as the process that starts with water imbibition, proceeds
through intermediate phases of enzyme activation and mi-
tosis, and ends with elongation of the radicle or rootlet [8].
688
Germination in the malting process, however, generally
covers the growth phase, which occurs after steeping and
before kiln drying. Paradoxically, the rootlet emergence,
called "chitting," which signifies the end of botanic germi-
nation, usually occurs prior to the end of steeping and be-
fore the "germination" phase of malting has begun. Al-
though the imbibition of water by the grain is effectively
complete at the end of steeping, some malting methods,
particularly pneumatic germination compartments with
high air throughput and subsequent water evaporation, re-
quire additional water application during germination to
maintain adequate grain hydration. This water is usually
applied through fine mist sprays attached to the germina-
tion turning machine. However, excessive mechanical
turning of the malt, usually with augers, in order to apply
water during germination may cause grain damage.
Germination requires the most time in the malting
process and, as Table 1 shows, has been the area most im-
proved over the past 300 years of malting technology [9].
This 10-fold reduction in germination time has been real-
ized by improved varieties through cereal grain breeding
research, tighter control of cereal agronomic properties,
and application of new malting technology, as well as an
increased scientific understanding of exactly what occurs
during malt modification.
Current germination methods and equipment are almost
as plentiful as malthouses. By far the most common design
is pneumatic compartment maltings, also known as Sal-
adin boxes. These are rectangular, open-top vessels with
slotted, false floors that hold the steeped grain in beds 3-5
feet deep. Air, which has been attemperated (10-18°C) and
humidified (90+% relative humidity) by water sprays, is
passed through the bed by updraft or, less commonly,
downdraft, fans at a fairly high rate (200-1000 na3/h/ton),
which removes the heat of respiration from the bed. This
also provides oxygen to the respiring embryo and prevents
the grain from souring.
Most germination methods involve batch processes,
with as many as several dozen germination compartments
in large malthouses. Continuous malting can also be done
in germinators that move the malt through belts, augers, or
drums and aerate and apply spray water automatically.
Lower labor costs and more rapid germination are claimed
to offset the higher capital and maintenance costs of con-
tinuous malting plants.
Some maltsters also use modification aids like gibberel-
lic acid, which speeds up modification, or potassium bro-
mate, which is added to slow proteolysis and thereby re-
duce malting loss. This practice will vary with the quality
of the harvested grain, customer requirements, and, of
course, malting philosophy. Detailed descriptions of the
Pyler and Thomas
physiology of malt modification have been reviewed else-
where [10,11].
The maltster must balance the quality, germination
characteristics, and steep-out moisture of the grain against
germination temperature, water applications, and germina-
tion cycle time to produce the desired green malt charac-
teristics prior to kilning. However, in contemporary malt-
houses producing at, or near, capacity, germination cycle
time is often preset by schedule and is not very flexible.
The maltster must then "steer" the modification of the malt
by adjusting germination air-on temperature, water appli-
cations, and addition of malting aids, if used. Air tempera-
tures are often controlled in the winter by mixing cold,
fresh air with warmer, recirculated air. In the summer,
however, large refrigeration units are used to cool the air,
and these represent a considerable energy demand for
malthouses. In traditional floor maltings, without refrigera-
tion, summer malting would not be attempted due to lack
of ability to cool the "pile" or "piece."
Analytical methods to evaluate the degree of modifica-
tion during germination range from simple on-the-spot
checks by the maltster to more involved laboratory tech-
niques. "Rubbing out" or smearing the green malt between
thumb and index finger is certainly the simplest technique
for determining whether the endosperm is "friable" or soft.
This technique is used by virtually all practical maltsters,
who can easily be recognized by the layer of chalky, white
malt starch on their "maltster's thumb."
Recent malting literature is full of more sophisticated
laboratory techniques for determining green malt modifi-
cation, such as warm water extraction, cell wall fluores-
cence staining, scanning electron microscopy, and soluble
protein estimation. No doubt methods will continue to be
developed that help the production maltster determine the
exact degree of malt modification prior to kilning
C. Kilning
The objectives of kilning are to arrest botanical growth and
internal modification, to reduce moisture for grain storage,
and to develop color and flavor compounds in the malt. By
carefully selecting the cycle times, temperature, relative
humidity, and volume of air drawn through the kiln bed,
the maltster largely determines the characteristics of the
finished malt. High volumes of warm, dry air will produce
lightly colored, enzymic malt, while reduced flow of hot,
wet, recirculated kiln air will "stew" the malt and produce
high color and more toasted malt flavors.
The general relationship between enzyme activity level
and color in flour and extract of a few representative malts
is shown in Table 2. Although individual maltster's defini-
Malted Cereals
TABLE 2 Different Malt Types Showing
General Relationship Between Final Enzyme
Activity and Malt Color
Enzyme
Malt type activity Color
Diastatic High Low
Brumalt
Lager
Pilsener
Pale Ale
Mild Ale
Munich
Diamber
cara-Pils
Amber
Dextrine
Caramel
Crystal
Chocolate
Black Patent Low High
Lions may vary, diastatic malts with high amylolytic en-
zyme activity will have light color (pale malts), while crys-
tal, chocolate, and black patent malts are very dark and
have little or no enzyme activity due to heat denaturation
of the enzyme proteins. Each malt in this list has its own
use for specific brewing and baking applications. Color
and enzyme activity, as well as other malt characteristics,
are strictly identified in the customer's specification.
The technological development of commercial malt
kilns started with simple gravity-flow kilns with perforated
floors and evolved to those with variable speed fans and
multiple floors. The distinctive "Pagoda-style" roof archi-
tecture of many kilns at floor maltings, still used at many
distilleries in the highlands of Scotland, were built for
function, rather than aesthetics, although they certainly are
classic buildings. The high-domed chimney of these kilns
acts to create a natural draft, which draws the heat and peat
smoke (used in Scotch whiskey manufacturing for the dis-
tinctive flavor) up through the drying malt bed. The germi-
nated malt is spread in shallow layers 4-12 inches deep.
During kilning, workers manually turn the malt with pitch-
forks or wooden shovels to ensure even drying and contact
with peat smoke. Fans were later added to these kilns, and
any of later design, to speed up the drying process, im-
prove uniformity, and conserve energy by recirculating dry
air during the last phases of kiln drying and roasting. To-
day's kilns can be comprised of single or multiple floors,
rotating drums, or even vertical kilns. Bed depth can be as
689
little as 12 inches or up to 5 feet in deep-bed kilns, with
kiln cycle times of 9-48 hours. Forced-air volumes also
vary considerably between malthouses and can be set very
high to achieve rapid drying (>10,000 m3/h/ton) or low
(<2,000 m3/h/ton) to slow the drying process, thereby al-
lowing further malt modification. Kiln airflow is usually
updraft, though downdraft kilns are also being used, with
reported advantages for both. The initial drying stage in
kilning is designed to remove most of the free and bound
moisture in the kernel while protecting against enzyme de-
naturation with lower temperatures, usually 40-65°C. The
roasting or curing stage of kilning immediately follows
drying and is responsible for most of the color and flavor
compounds produced in malt. Final roast temperatures of
75-100°C are common in the United States for typical
lager malts, although specialty malts are routinely pro-
duced outside of this temperature range. Most maltsters
monitor the on and off grain temperature and humidity
very closely during kilning and use these to signal when
the malt moisture is right for the next scheduled tempera-
ture increase, especially the critical final roasting tempera-
ture. Malt kiln technology has been covered in great detail
by Hough et al. [12].
After the final roasting cycle is complete, the kiln and
malt are cooled by drawing fresh air through the fans.
Samples are taken immediately from the kiln bed, and final
malt quality or grade is determined by a variety of tests.
Some maltsters simply score flavor, aroma, and friability
or crushability of the malt by rapid methods to determine
malt grade. Others store the malt in temporary surge bins
for several days and wait for complete laboratory results
before assigning a malt grade and malt storage bin. Full
malt analysis might include percent warm water extract,
enzyme activity levels, extract and flour color, as well as
traits specific for the intended commercial use of the malt.
Complete malt analyses are described in detail by the U.S.
[13,14], Great Britain [15], and European [16] malting
communities.
D. Malt Aging
An important final step in producing malt for brewing is
the aging of whole malt prior to grinding. Although the ex-
act mechanisms of malt aging remain to be elucidated, the
required storage apparently involves the slow diffusive
balancing of moisture within the kernel. While the water
taken up in steeping and germination has been absorbed
over a period of several days, removal of the water during
kilning is much more rapid. Fresh kilned malt, at 3-5%
kernel moisture, can be thought of as having a dry outer
periphery at perhaps 1-3% moisture and a "wetter" inter-
690 Pyler and Thomas

nal core of 5-8% moisture or higher. This malt, if milled States is based on their adaptation to growing areas near
immediately after kilning, would produce a mixture of the early brewing centers (New York, Cincinnati, Milwau-
very dry finely divided flour and larger "clumps" with kee, Detroit, and St. Louis) and their historically higher
higher moisture. These different particles would tend to level of enzyme activity, which allowed the use of adjunct
agglomerate and reduce extractability. Indeed, fresh-kilned or nonmalt sources of starch. Two-rowed malts continue to
malt has been known to cause lower extract yield, reduced be used by brewers in the United States as either the sole
enzyme activity, and poor performance in mash filtration malt source, as part of a normal malt blend, or in some "su-
and spent grain handling. For these reasons, most brewers per-premium" beers. It is usually the malt of choice in the
specify a minimum malt age before milling, usually at pub and microbrewery sector. Typical analyses of two-
least one month. rowed and six-rowed barley malts made for brewing are
Cereal grain variety and quality, degree of modification shown in Table 3. These data show two-rowed barley malt
achieved in germination, and kilning conditions largely de- to be higher in extract, lower in total protein, and slightly
termine the characteristics of the final malt product. Com- plumper than six-rowed malt, all of which are positive dif-
mercial maltsters will usually blend several different types ferences from a quality standpoint. The two-rowed sam-
of malts, based on final malt analysis, to meet customer ples were, however, lower in diastatic power.
specifications.
A. The Brewing Process
II. BARLEY MALTS IN BREWING The brewing process may be conveniently divided into
The most important use of barley malt produced in the four distinct operations: mashing, fermentation, aging, and
United States is in the production of alcoholic malt bever- finishing. The following is a brief description of the
ages, primarily beer, where it represents the main nonwater process, concentrating in each area on the contributions of
ingredient. More than 4.7 billion pounds of barley malt malt to the changes that occur. Fuller descriptions of the
was used by U.S. brewers in 1994 in the production of 181 chemistry, biochemistry, and technology of the process are
million barrels of beer [17]. Barley, as opposed to other ce- available from several sources [18-22].
reals, has been the traditional cereal of choice for malting 1. Mashing
for the production of beer throughout the world because it
The objective of the mashing process is to convert malt
is widely adapted to a variety of climates and soil condi-
components and any adjunct material used into a fer-
tions and thus is readily available, because its balance of
mentable substrate consisting of fermentable sugars de-
amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes produces a highly fer-
rived from malt and adjunct starch, amino acids and small
mentable wort without requiring added nutrients, and be-
cause its husk remains attached during harvest and subse-
quently provides protection to the growing acrospire
during malting and provides a filtration medium in the TABLE 3 Typical Analysis of Six- and Two-Rowed Barley
brewing process. Barley malt also provides sufficient amy- Malts Produced for Brewing
lolytic enzymes for the production of fermentable sugars Two-rowed Six-rowed
from commonly used nonmalt starchy adjuncts. Characteristic malt malt
Barley and barley grasses make up the genus Hordeum
Moisture (%) 4 4
of the Gramineae family. Two distinct species of barley are
Extract (%, fine grind) 81 79
used for malting and are classified according to the charac- Fine-coarse grind difference (%) 1.1 1.2
teristics of the grain spikelets during ripening. These Wort color (SRM) 1.72 1.91
spikelets are arranged radially from the nodes on the de- Diastatic power (°ASBC) 125 155
veloping head of grain. When all six spikelets are fertile, a-Amylase (20°DU) 55 46
six rows of grain will be formed when viewed down the Total protein (%, db) 11.9 12.9
length of the barley head. This barley is therefore called Soluble protein (% < db) 5.15 5.55
six-rowed (Hordeum vulgare). In two-rowed barley Soluble/total protein 43.2 43
(Hordeum distichon), only the two central spikelets are Free amino nitrogen (mg/L) 178 197
fertile and two rows of grain are produced. Wort viscosity (cP) 1.45 1.47
13-Glucan (mg/L) 87 142
Malt from six-rowed barleys comprise the predominant
Kernel plumpness:
ingredient in beers produced in the United States, whereas
on 7/64-in. screen, % 70 62
malts from two-rowed barleys are used in most other coun- thru 5/64-in. screen, % 0.4 0.3
tries. The preference for six-rowed barleys in the United
Malted Cereals
peptides derived from malt protein, vitamins and minerals,
nucleic acid breakdown products, and other materials in
the malt and adjunct that are either naturally soluble or sol-
ubilized by the malting and/or mashing process.
A brewing adjunct is a starch-rich material, which is
used primarily as a source of fermentable sugars. Common
adjuncts used in the United States are derived from either
corn or rice. Corn is usually used in the form of grits,
which represent endosperm chunks derived from the dry
milling process, or in the form of corn syrups with a fer-
mentable sugar profile, which provides the appropriate lev-
el of fermentability. The rice used is a by-product of the
rice-milling operation and consists of those rice kernels
that are broken during milling. The different adjuncts used
by foreign and domestic brewers have been reviewed by
Pyler and Thomas [23], Canales [24], and Coors [25].
Typical brewing practice in the United States utilizes a
double mash system in which the malt and adjunct are
mashed separately and are then combined to complete the
process. In this system, the adjunct is first combined with a
portion of the malt, usually about 10% based on adjunct
weight, and water at 45-55°C. This mash is subjected to a
series of temperature increases and holds in order to care-
fully gelatinize and solubilize the adjunct starch. Careful
control of temperature and the rate of temperature increase
is important in controlling mash viscosity. Holds of vary-
ing duration at appropriate temperatures are provided to al-
low time for malt a-amylase to liquefy and solubilize the
adjunct starch. The primary goal of the cereal-mashing
process is the liquefaction of starch, not the production of
fermentable sugars. The final stage in the cereal mashing
schedule is typically an atmospheric or pressure boil to en-
sure complete gelatinization of the starch.
While the cereal mash is being prepared, the remaining
malt is mashed in with water, usually between 40 and
50°C. The mash is held at this temperature for 30-60 min-
utes to allow malt proteolytic enzymes sufficient time to
produce the free amino acids and small peptides that repre-
sent the only source of nitrogen available for yeast metab-
olism. At the same time, various other malt enzymes are
solubilized and begin to degrade and solubilize carbohy-
drates, nucleic acids, etc., to smaller molecules.
At the appropriate time, the temperature of the malt
mash is raised to 60-67°C by addition of the hot adjunct
mash. This is a temperature range in which the action of
the amylases, and therefore the production of fermentable
sugars, is very rapid. The hold at this temperature is of a
duration sufficient to impart the desired degree of fer-
mentability to the resulting wort. The temperature is then
raised again to about 75-78°C to complete the conversion
of starch and starch-derived dextrins to shorter-chain
oligosaccharides and to inactivate the remaining amylolyt-
691
ic enzymes and fix the carbohydrate composition of the ex-
tract.
Several other mashing systems or modifications of
them are in common use. For brewers who choose to use
liquid adjuncts such as corn syrup, which have already
been converted to appropriate level of fermentability by
the syrup producer, only malt mashes are prepared in the
brewhouse. This single mash system is termed infusion
mashing, and it might also be applied in the production of
all-malt beers. The fermentable syrups in adjunct brews
are usually added during kettle boil. Another mashing sys-
tem, termed decoction mashing, is similar to the double
mashing system used in the United States in that, at times
in the process, the brewer is dealing with two mashes of
the same brew. In decoction mashing, a portion of the main
mash is removed to another vessel where it is heated to
boiling or other predetermined temperature before being
added back to the main mash. Temperature increases occur
during the recombination of the mashes. Many modifica-
tions of these basic systems are in use in various parts of
the world, the choice of which mashing system to use de-
pending upon a number of considerations including the de-
sired characteristics of the finished beer and the equipment
and raw materials available.
Separation of the sugar/amino acid—rich extract from
the insoluble materials derived from the malt and adjunct
is traditionally accomplished by means of a lautering ves-
sel. The mash is introduced into the lautering vessel, a
large round vessel sized to hold an entire brew, which is fit-
ted with a slotted-plate floor. The mash is allowed to settle
undisturbed for a short period of time to allow the insolu-
ble material to settle and form a filter bed. The malt husk,
which adheres to the grain during malting and which sur-
vives the malt milling process with as little damage as
practical, comprises a major component of this bed. Once
the bed has been formed, filtration by gravity begins and
the first cloudy extract is recycled to the lautering vessel
until it is of suitable clarity. At this point, the clear extract
is run into the brew kettle. After all the extract has been fil-
tered in this manner, the liquid entrained in the insoluble
spent grains still contains considerable amounts of fer-
mentable sugar, and these are recovered by sparging, i.e.,
by adding hot water to the top of the lautering vessel to
wash remaining extract from the filter bed.
Another device used for mash filtration is the mash fil-
ter or filter press. This unit is designed as plate and frame
filter, the plates and frames being separated by cotton or,
more typically today, polypropylene filter cloths. These
clothes provide support for the filter bed, each one, in ef-
fect, being a mini-lauter tun. In this case, the mash is
pumped through the filter, followed by an appropriate
amount of sparge water.
692
The extract in the kettle is typically boiled for about
1.5-2 hours, during which time the hops are added. Hops
are typically added at the beginning of the boil and again
about half way through the boil time. Worts are boiled (1)
to sterilize the wort prior to fermentation, (2) to form color,
flavor, and aroma compounds through the Maillard reac-
tion, (3) to inactivate any remaining enzymes, (4) to re-
duce the wort volume to allow standardization to a consis-
tent fermentation specific gravity, (5) to drive off
undesirable flavor and aroma compounds, (6) to coagulate
soluble, high molecular weight proteins, which may cause
problems later in processing or in finished product, and (7)
to extract and chemically modify compounds from hops
that are responsible for the characteristic bitterness and
hoppy character of beer.
When the boil is complete, the hop residue is removed
in a strainer called a hop jack (if whole hops have been
used) and the extract is transferred to the coolship or
whirlpool where it is cooled slightly and the mostly pro-
teinaceous material precipitated during the boil is allowed
to settle for separation. The clarified wort is decanted off,
cooled to fermentation temperatures, and aerated. This
completes the brewhouse phase of the process, which typi-
cally lasts between 6 and 10 hours.
2. Fermentation
Fermentation is usually carried out at 8-14°C for 6-8 days
at initial yeast levels of approximately 106 cells per milli-
liter of wort per degree Plato. During this period, the fer-
mentable sugars produced during malting and mashing are
consumed, as are certain of the free amino acids, which
function as the primary source of assimilable nitrogen.
Consumption of these materials and their metabolism by
the yeast result in the production of ethanol, carbon diox-
ide, and a complex mixture of other yeast metabolic by-
products, which contribute to the flavor characteristics of
the resulting beer. Among these metabolic by-products are
various organic acids, aldehydes and ketones, higher alco-
hols, and esters. The relative levels of these flavor active
compounds is largely determined by the strain of yeast
used, and brewers, therefore, go to great lengths to protect
their particular strain(s).
Fermentation may be completed in the fermentation
vessel, or the fermenting beer may be transferred to a
lagering tank while still containing fermentable extract and
yeast. In either case, the bulk of the yeast settles to the bot-
tom of the fermenter as the end of fermentation nears. The
young or green beer is separated from the yeast bed by de-
cantation, by centrifugation, or by filtration. The yeast re-
maining in the fermenter is usually reclaimed for addition
to subsequent fermenters.
Ale fermentations are similar in nature to lager fermen-
Pyler and Thomas
tations, but significant differences occur in how they are
carried out. Traditionally, the yeast used for ale fermen-
tations was termed a top fermenting yeast because the
yeast rose to the top of the fermenter and was recovered
by skimming Ale fermentations are carried out at some-
what higher temperatures than are lager fermentations
(15-20°C); due to the higher temperatures, fermentations
are usually complete in 3-5 days. Also due to the higher
fermentation temperatures and the strains of yeast em-
ployed, the flavor compound profile differs from that pro-
duced by lager yeast fermentations and the resulting prod-
ucts are distinctly different in flavor. This difference and
the short fermentation times make ale fermentations the
process of choice in the micro-, pub brewery segment.
3. Aging
If a secondary fermentation is desired, the beer is trans-
ferred, with some fermentable extract and some yeast re-
maining in suspension, to other tanks for the aging, lager-
ing, or secondary fermentation step. Here, most of the
remaining fermentable sugar is consumed, various flavor
and/or aroma active materials either rise or decline in con-
centration, natural carbonation is effected, and yeast and
other insoluble materials settle out. Aging is typically car-
ried out at low temperatures (near 0°C) and may last any-
where from one week to several months. Filtration through
diatomaceous earth removes residual yeast and suspended
material before the beer is blended to appropriate alcohol
levels.
Although biologically and enzymatically inert, beer re-
mains active chemically. One of the chemical reactions
that occurs in beer is the reaction between proteins that
survive mashing and wort boiling and natural polyphenols,
which are solubilized during the process. The chemical re-
action between these compounds results, ultimately, in the
formation of a haze or turbidity in the packaged product.
Since this is an undesirable sensory characteristic in beer,
brewers take steps to stabilize their products. There are
several means of accomplishing this. Historically, long
storage at very low temperatures (< 0°C) forced the forma-
tion of this haze, which was subsequently removed by fil-
tration. Since this removed the participants in this reaction,
the beer was rendered stable at temperatures above this
forcing temperature. More recently, specifically prepared
silica hydrogels or polyvinyl polypyrrolidones (PVPP) re-
move one or the other of the reactants, again protecting the
beer against this undesired reaction.
A final polish filtration through diatomaceous earth or
cellulose filter sheets leaves the beer ready for packaging.
If the final filtration is designed to leave the beer free of
microorganisms, the packaged product need not be pas-
teurized and can be sold as "draft beer." Currently, most
Malted Cereals
packaged beer in the United States is subjected to pasteur-
ization, but one major brewery pasteurizes none of its
products and other brewers produce various unpasteurized
beers.
This brief description of the brewing process illustrates
the various contributions of malt to the process and to the
finished product. Among these contributions are (1) en-
zymes for the formation of fermentable sugars, free amino
acids, nucleic acid degradation products, etc., (2) a source
of fermentable carbohydrates and free amino nitrogen
from the malt starch and protein, (3) minerals and vitamins
necessary for vigorous yeast metabolism, and (4) color,
flavor, and aroma compounds derived from Maillard and
caramelization reactions, which occur during kilning and
mashing.
The development in recent years of technology for the
production of microbial enzymes in commercial-scale
quantities has led to their use in brewing to supplement the
natural enzymes of malt, to allow the use of nontraditional
adjuncts such as barley, and to alleviate specific problems
that may occur in the brewhouse. The uses of such en-
zymes have been described recently by Beckerich and De-
nault [26].
B. Light Beers
Light or low-calorie beers represent a growing proportion
of the total beer market in the United States. These prod-
ucts may be produced by (1) dilution of normally produced
beer to a predetermined calorie level, (2) the use of micro-
bial enzymes (e.g., amyloglucosidase or pullulanase
preparations) in the mash tun or fermenter to convert more
of the starch to fermentable sugar, (3) the use of highly fer-
mentable corn syrups as adjuncts, or (4) through the addi-
tion of sterile filtered malt extract to the fermenter, which
allows the natural malt enzymes to convert more, but not
all, of the starch to fermentable sugar. Beers produced by
methods 2-4 contain significantly reduced levels of resid-
ual carbohydrate, resulting in fewer calories from this
source. These beers are also typically lower in alcohol,
which also contributes to their lower caloric load.
III. BAKING APPLICATIONS
Another major user of cereal malts has been the baking in-
dustry. Malts used by the baking industry are produced in
the same general manner as those used for brewing pur-
poses with minor changes depending upon the type of
grain being malted. This process has been described by
Gill [27]. Briefly, the grain is steeped, germinated, and
kilned as described above and then further processed de-
pending upon the type of malt product being produced.
For the production of malt flours, the kilned malt is
693
cleaned to remove the rootlets and acrospires that form
during germination and is milled to the appropriate particle
size.
The production process for malt extracts and syrups is
more extensive and mirrors to a large extent the mashing
step of the brewing process described above. The malt is
mashed in with water at a controlled temperature, typically
between 35 and 45°C. The mash is then carried through a
controlled time/temperature profile to ensure the proper
breakdown of malt protein to soluble protein and free
amino acids and of the malt starch into fermentable sugars,
primarily glucose and maltose.
At the end of the mashing process, the mash is filtered
through the bed composed of malt husk and other insolu-
ble material and the extract is boiled to sterilize it, to inac-
tivate the enzymes, and to impart, through Maillard-type
reactions, desirable flavor and aroma to the extract. After
boiling, the extract is cooled and precipitated protein is al-
lowed to settle. After filtration, the extract is concentrated
to about 80% solids in a multiple effect evaporator.
For the production of malt syrups comprising mixtures
of barley malt and corn or wheat as adjuncts, the adjunct is
usually cooked separately in the presence of a small
amount of the malt to gelatinize and liquefy its starch and
then is added to the remainder of the malt mash to convert
its starch into fermentable sugars.
Malt is also available as dried malt extract, and, in this
case, the malt syrups produced as described above are sub-
jected to spray-drying.
The temperatures used during the various phases of pro-
duction must be carefully controlled because they will af-
fect both the color of the resulting extract and its enzyme
activity. Before the widespread availability of microbial
enzymes, diastatic malts were produced without the boil-
ing step mentioned above, and the concentration steps
were carried out at lower, carefully controlled tempera-
tures. Currently, many diastatic malts are produced by the
addition of enzymes of microbial origin to the finished,
nondiastatic syrups [28].
The composition of malt products varies depending
upon the conditions employed in the malting and concen-
tration processes, the cereal grain malted, and the type and
level of adjunct used (Table 4). It also varies depending
upon whether a diastatic or a nondiastatic malt is consid-
ered.
Table 5 shows the composition and properties of two
malt syrup products. Solids levels in syrups are typically
about 75-80% for reasons of economy in shipping and
storage and because high solids levels prevent microbial
growth. Reducing sugars, expressed as maltose, range
from 55 to 75%, and protein levels may be quite variable
depending on the type of adjunct used and its level and on
694 Pyler and Thomas

TABLE 4 Proximate Analysis of Barley TABLE 6 Vitamin Content of Malted Barley

Malt Flour (%, dry basis) (in ppm)
jb Vitamin
Component I a

Protein 11.5-14.5 8-11 Biotin 0.22 0.2

Lipid 1.5-2.5 2-3 Niacin 90.2-149.6 90-150
Ash 2-3 2.2 Pantothenic acid 4.4-17.2 4.4-5.6
Fiber 2-6 Pyridoxine 5.9-7.9 6-8
Nitrogen-free extract 68-74 Riboflavin 1.98-3.96 2-5
Starch 58-60 Thiamine 2.86-3.52 1.2-6.8
Nucleic acids 0.2-0.3 Choline Trace
Cellulose 5 Inositol Trace
Amino acids 1-2 Ascorbic acid Absent
Folic acid 0.4
aFrom Ref. 28.
bFrom Ref. 29. aFrom Ref. 28.
bFrom Ref. 30.

TABLE 5 Analysis of Malt Products

Nondiastatic Malted barley tivity, but no a-amylase or proteolytic activity. They also
malt syrup and corn syrup contain low levels of starch damaged during the milling
process, which is susceptible to amylolytic activity. This
Solids (%) 78.5-80 78.5-80 damaged starch is available to 13-amylase action in doughs,
Acidity (%) 0.9-1.4 0.7-1.1 but the extent of breakdown is limited by the inability of 13-
Reducing sugars (%) 54-62 57-67 amylase to hydrolyze or bypass a-1,6 linkages in starch.
Protein (%) 5-6.3 3-4
pH 5.1-5.8 5.1-5.8 The addition of diastatic malt products provides both a-
Ash (%) 0.8-1.4 0.6-1 and 13-amylases to the dough, and the a-amylase is able to
Color (Lovibond) 200-370 100-250 make available for maltose production a significantly
greater proportion of the damaged starch for subsequent
Source: Ref. 27. fermentation by the yeast. Among the advantages derived
from the action of the amylolytic enzymes are increased
gas production in the dough, better moisture retention in
the extent of amylolysis and proteolysis that occur during the crumb, and slower staling due to the hygroscopic na-
mashing. The color of the syrups and dissolved dried ex- ture of the dextrins produced by a-amylase and the more
tracts is generally between 60 and 500 on the Lovibond extensive breakdown of starch. In addition, the preformed
scale because of the occurrence of Maillard-type reactions sugars present in malt products and their mineral and vita-
during the kilning, mashing, and boiling processes. min contents ensure rapid and vigorous yeast activity. The
Malt flours, syrups, and extracts contribute a number of presence of reducing sugars and low molecular weight
functional components to the bakery products to which they protein breakdown products leads to desirable crust color
are added. The malting process results in the production of and flavor development due to the formation of Maillard-
fermentable sugars, low molecular weight nitrogenous ma- type reaction products.
terials, enzymes (especially amylolytic and proteolytic en- Finney et al. [31] have shown that cereal malts were ac-
zymes), and various flavor and color compounds. In addi- ceptable replacements for the sucrose that is normally
tion, the cereal that is malted generally brings with it its added to bread dough formulations. With optimum levels
complement of vitamins and minerals (Table 6). Diastatic of malt (as measured by loaf volume), adding sucrose at
and nondiastatic malts differ generally only in that the latter levels of 0 and 6% had no effect, indicating that all of the
are processed so as to inactivate their enzymes. sugar necessary for fermentation had been supplied pre-
Many of the components of malt products have been formed in the malt or was produced from damaged starch
demonstrated to have desirable effects on baked products. by the malt enzymes. They also demonstrated that triticale
Fermentable sugars, including glucose, maltose, and mal- malts were most effective in increasing loaf volumes at a
totriose, contribute to gas production in doughs both im- given addition level because of their higher diastatic pow-
mediately, in the case of glucose, and later in the process, er and higher levels of soluble protein. Malt syrups are also
in the case of the higher sugars. Sound wheat flours used more effective than corresponding flours, probably be-
for baking purposes generally contain some (3-amylase ac- cause they were added at higher levels, and because of the
Malted Cereals 695

TABLE 7 Typical Use Levels of Malt Syrups in allow amylolysis to continue during the fermentation
Baked Goods process.
Use level (%) Most other distilled spirits are produced using barley
Product Malt type (flour basis) malt as only a fraction of the mash bill. In bourbon
whiskey production, for example, the mash bill must con-
White bread LD 0.25-0.5 tain at least 51% barley malt, but it may contain up to 70%.
Soft rolls LD 1-2 The use of unmalted cereals requires their prior gelatiniza-
Hard rolls MD 2.0-2.5
tion and liquefaction, and this is accomplished using a por-
White hearth bread LD 0.25-3.0
tion of the malt as described for the brewing process. After
Hamburger buns LD 0.25-0.50
Rye breads DB 3-6 gelatinization has been effected, the mash is cooled to
Sweet doughs LD 2 about 63°C, and the remaining malt is added to complete
English muffins LD 0.5-1.0 the conversion of starch to fermentable sugars.
Pretzels ND 2-6 Among the cereals utilized as adjuncts in various prod-
Soda crackers SP 1 ucts are wheat, rye, oats, and unmalted barley.
Cookies ND 18 A more complete discussion of the production of dis-
tilled spirits has been prepared by Nagodawithana [33].
LD = Low diastatic; MD = medium diastatic; DB = dark bread
type; SP = special; ND = nondiastatic.
Source: Ref. 32. V. NONALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES
A variety of nonfermented malt-based beverages is pre-
pared and consumed throughout the world. Among these
manner in which they are produced, they contributed more
are hot or cold water infusions of ground malt and malted
fermentable sugars. Malt use levels vary widely in baking
milk The latter is typically prepared from a malt extract,
applications depending to some extent upon whether its
which may be combined with milk products and dried. If
primary contribution is to be its enzyme activity or its fla-
milk is present, the drink is prepared by dissolving the
vor and/or color. Table 7 shows that typical levels range
powder in warm water; if not, warm milk is used.
from 0.25 to 33% based on flour. A more detailed discus-
A fuller discussion of nonfermented malt-based bever-
sion of the use of cereal malts in the baking industry has
ages is given by Briggs [34].
been provided by Pyler [32].

VI. OTHER CEREAL MALTS

IV. MALTS IN DISTILLED SPIRITS
Another common use for cereal, and especially barley,
malt is in the production of distilled spirits, where it func-
tions primarily as a source of fermentable sugars.
The mash bill for distilled spirit production may contain
only barley malt, as in the case of Scotch malt whiskey, or
barley malt along with other cereals, as in the case of
Scotch grain whiskey, bourbon, and Canadian and rye
whiskeys.
The malt used in the production of Scotch malt whiskey
is steeped and germinated in the normal manner, and the
green malt is taken to the kiln. During the kilning process,
peat is burned directly under the kiln floor for a specified
period. The absorption by the green of malt of certain con-
stituents from the peat smoke impart desirable organolep-
tic properties to the malt and subsequently to the distilled
spirit. This is followed by low-temperature drying in order
to minimize enzyme denaturation.
The malt so produced is then mashed at 60-65°C, a
temperature range within which a- and [3-amylases are
very active, in order to maximize conversion of starch into
fermentable sugars. After filtration of the insoluble materi-
al, the extract is pitched with yeast without prior boiling to
This discussion has been limited to the production and
uses of barley malt because it is the most widely used in
the United States. Other cereals, primarily rye, wheat, trit-
icale, and sorghum, are also malted in other parts of the
world and find use in applications similar to those de-
scribed above.
REFERENCES
1. Corran, H. S., A History of Brewing, David and Charles,
Newton Abbot, 1975, p. 11.
2. Taylor, J. A., and Palmer, G. H., Drying and Dormancy in
Malting Barleys, Progress Reports on Research and Devel-
opment, Home-Grown Cereals Authority, 1982, pp. 11-16.
3. Fincher, G. B., Morphology and chemical composition of
barley endosperm cell walls, J. Inst. Brew., 81:116-112
(1975).
4. Bacic, A., and Stone, B. A., A (1-3) and (1-4) linked 13-
glucan in the endosperm cell walls of wheat, Carbohydr.
Res., 82:372-377 (1980).
5. MacLeod, A. M., Studies on the free sugars of the barley
grain, J. Inst. Brew., 58:270-276 (1952).
6. Tryon, T., The New Art of Brewing Beer, Ale and Other
Sorts of Liquors, Salisbury, London, 1691, pp. 45-57.
696
7. Maule, A. P., Aerated conical and flat-bottomed steeping
systems in theory and practice, in: Proceedings of the Sec-
ond Aviemore Conference on Malting, Brewing and Distill-
ing (I. Campbell and F. G. Priest, eds.), The Institute of
Brewing, London, 1987, pp. 251-254.
8. Wellington, P. S., Germination and seedling emergence, in:
The Growth of Cereals and Grasses (F. L. Milthorpe and
J. D. Ivins, eds.), Butterworths, London, 1965, pp. 3-19.
9. Thomas, D. A., The magic of malt, in: Beer and Brewing,
Vol. 6 (V. Thomas, ed.), Brewers Publications, Boulder,
CO, 1987.
10. Palmer, G. H., and Bathgate, G. M., Malting and brewing,
in: Advances in Cereal Science and Technology (Y. Pomer-
anz, ed.), AACC, St. Paul, MN, 1976, pp. 237-324.
11. MacLeod, A. M., The physiology of malting, in: Brewing
Science (J. R. A. Pollock ed.), Academic Press, London,
1979, pp. 146-224.
12. Hough, J. S., Briggs, D. E., and Stevens, R., The technolo-
gy of malting and kilning, in: Malting and Brewing Sci-
ence, Chapman and Hall, London, 1971, pp. 108-148.
13. American Society of Brewing Chemists, Methods of
Analysis of the ASBC, 7th ed., St. Paul, MN, 1976.
14. American Association of Cereal Chemists, Approved
Methods of the AACC, St. Paul, MN, 1984.
15. The Institute of Brewing, Recommended Methods of
Analysis, London, England, 1982.
16. European Brewery Convention, Analytica-EBC, 4th ed.,
Brauerei- and Getranke-Rundschau, CH8047, Zurich,
1987.
17. Brewers Digest, 70(5):16 (1995).
18. Briggs, D. E., Hough, J. S., Stevens, R., and Young, T. W.,
Malting and Brewing Science, 2nd ed., Chapman and Hall,
New York, 1981.
19. Pollock, J. R. A., ed., Brewing Science, Academic Press,
New York, 1979.
20. Broderick, H. M., ed., The Practical Brewer, Master Brew-
ers Association of the Americas, Madison, WI, 1977.
Pyler and Thomas
21. Hardwick, W. A., ed., Handbook of Brewing, Marcel
Dekker, New York, 1995.
22. Kunze, W., Technology Brewing and Malting (Internation-
al Edition), VLB, Berlin, 1996.
23. Pyler, R. E., and Thomas, D. A., Cereal research in brew-
ing: Cereals as brewers adjuncts, Cereal Foods World,
31:681 (1986).
24. Canales, A. M., Unmalted grains in brewing, in: Brewing
Science, Vol. 1 (J. R. A. Pollock, ed.), Academic Press,
New York, 1979, pp. 223-278.
25. Coors, J., Practical experience with different adjuncts,
MBAA Technical Quarterly, /3(2):117-119.
26. Beckerick, R. P., and Denault, L. J., Enzymes in the prepa-
ration of beer and fuel alcohol, in: Enzymes and Their Role
in Cereal Technology (J. E. Kreuger, D. Lineback, and
C. E. Stauffer, eds.), American Association of Cereal
Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1987, pp. 335-355.
27. Gill, R. J., Malts used in baking, Proc. Am. Soc. Bakery
Engrs., 61 (1982).
28. Matz, S. A., and Matz, T. D., Cookie and Cracker Technol-
ogy, AVI Publishing Co., Westport, CT, 1978, p. 125.
29. Harris, G., The structural chemistry of barley and malt, in:
Barley and Malt, (A. H. Cook, ed.), Academic Press, Lon-
don, 1962, p. 435.
30. Scriban, R., in: Brewing Science, Vol. 1 (J. R. A. Pollock,
ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1979, p. 52.
31. Finney, K. F., Shogren, M. D., Pomeranz, Y., and Bolte,
L. C., Cereal malts in breadmaking, Bakers Digest,
46(1):36 (1972).
32. Pyler, E. J., Baking Science and Technology, 2nd ed.,
Siebel Publishing Co., Chicago, 1973, pp. 423-430.
33. Nagodawithana, T. W., Yeasts: Their role in modified cere-
al fermentations, in: Advances in Cereal Science and Tech-
nology, Vol. VIII (Y. Pomeranz, ed.), American Associa-
tion of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, 1986, pp. 15-104.
34. Briggs, D. E., Barley, Chapman and Hall, London, 1978,
p. 560.
23
CEREAL ENRICHMENT AND NUTRIENT LABELING
Peter M. Ranum
American Ingredients Company, Grand Island, New York
I. HISTORY OF ENRICHMENT
The United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom have
had a cereal enrichment program for over 50 years. Some
of the discoveries and events that led to the adoption of the
program in the United States [1] are:
1. The discovery in the early 1900s that certain chemical
compounds (vitamins) and minerals in foods are es-
sential for good health.
2. The synthesis of thiamine by R. A. Williams in 1936.
The reduced cost of synthetic vitamins made enrich-
ment economically feasible.
3. The finding that a large proportion of the vitamins and
minerals naturally occurring in wheat were being re-
moved by the milling process [2].
4. The alarming incidence of nutritional deficiency dis-
eases, especially pellagra (niacin deficiency), among
the poorer population groups of the United States.
5. The early advocation by James F. Bell of the General
Mills Company, Dr. Russell Wilder of the American
Medical Association (AMA), and other influential
voices for cereal enrichment.
In 1939 a few bakers started enriching bread voluntari-
ly after the AMA Council on Foods published a resolution
encouraging it be done. The Food and Nutrition Board
(FNB) of the National Research Council (NRC) was
formed in 1940. One of its first actions was to propose
guidelines for cereal enrichment. In 1941 the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) issued standards of identi-
ty for enriched flour and farina. Enrichment of white flour
and bread became mandatory during World War II. This
697
order was recalled after the war, but by then 19 states had
passed their own mandatory enrichment laws. Since the
war the U.S. enrichment program has been expanded to
cover the other cereal staples: corn meal, rice, and pasta.
For a comprehensive review of food fortification in gener-
al, see Ref. 3.
II. NATURE OF FORTIFICATION
AND ENRICHMENT
Fortification can be defined as simply the addition of nutri-
ents (vitamins, minerals, protein, or amino acids) to food.
Foods are fortified in order to improve their nutritional
quality or to improve the nutritional status of a population
by increasing the level of consumption of deficient nutri-
ents. A food fortification program is a public health mea-
sure in which manufacturers of specific foods are required
or encouraged to add nutrients for the purpose of prevent-
ing or correcting a demonstrated deficiency of one or more
nutrients within the general population or a specifically
targeted part of the population. Examples of successful
food fortification programs are the addition of vitamins A
and D to milk and margarine, iodization of salt, and en-
richment of cereals. Even fluoridation of water to prevent
tooth decay can be considered a food fortification program.
The term enrichment was coined to describe fortifica-
tion of cereal based foods under the following conditions:
1. The food being enriched is an inexpensive dietary sta-
ple, consumed by the general population on a daily
basis. This applies to many of the cereal grain prod-
ucts like wheat flour, bread, cornmeal, and rice. These
698 Ranum

foods make excellent vehicles for delivering nutrients
to people who need them the most.
2. The nutrient being added is present in the unprocessed
food at significant levels, and the amount added is
(generally) to make up for the what was lost in normal
processing, such as milling.
Whether a cereal product should be enriched with a
particular nutrient for this reason is readily evident
from its Index of Nutritional Quality (INQ), shown in
Table 1 for a number of nutrients in different cereal
products. The INQ is the ratio of the percent nutrient
requirement to the percent of the recommended ener-
gy intake (2000 kcal/day) provided by the food [4].
An INQ near 1.0 indicates that the food has a good nu-
trient-to-caloric content balance for that particular
nutrient. INQs far below 1.0 show that the food is de-
ficient in that nutrient compared to its caloric content,
suggesting that fortification would be in order.
As an example, the INQ for niacin is shown in
Table 1 to drop from 1.4 in wheat to 0.2 in milled,
white flour. Enrichment brings it back up to 1.5. Other
nutrients showing similar reductions are iron, zinc,
magnesium, copper, thiamine, and pyridoxine. Ri-
boflavin starts out low in wheat; enrichment brings it
up to higher than natural levels. All cereals are shown
to be poor sources of calcium. The optional calcium
enrichment standards make them fair sources of calci-
um with INQs near 1.0.
3. In order for a particular nutrient to be included in an
enrichment program, there must be good evidence
that it is in short supply within the target population.
That is, there must be evidence of need for that nutri-
ent. This can be a very difficult thing to establish,
which probably accounts for the reasons why only a
few nutrients are presently required under the stan-
dards.
4. For enrichment to work properly it should be invisi-
ble. It must not cause any change in the appearance,
flavor, or even the price of the food. This prevents the
addition of riboflavin to rice (it give an unnatural yel-
low color) and the restoration of magnesium in wheat
flour (flavor problems). Vitamin E is quite expensive;
its addition to a basic food staple would result in a no-
ticeable increase in cost.
III. GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS
AND GUIDELINES
An enrichment program is normally set up, regulated, and
enforced by the government. As such, it is a public health
program designed to ensure that the general population
gets adequate amounts of essential nutrients that may be
missing in their diets.
While the addition of nutrients to food is recognized as
being an effective way of maintaining and improving the
overall nutritional quality of the food supply, unregulated
fortification can cause problems. Some foods could be-
come overfortified, creating nutrient imbalances. To regu-
late this, FDA suggests the following circumstances under
which it would be appropriate to add nutrients to food [5]:

TABLE 1 Index of Nutritional Quality for Selected Cereal Grain Products

Folic
Product Pro Ca P Fe Zn Mg Mn Cu B1 B2 Ni PA B6 acid
Barley 0.7 0.1 1.1 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.6 0.5 0.2 0.9 0.8
Cornmeal 0.7 0.0 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.7
Millet 0.9 0.1 1.9 2.3 0.7 1.7 2.5 2.3 3.0 1.4 0.7 0.5 1.2 1.3
Oats 1.1 0.3 2.1 1.3 1.2 2.0 1.5 2.1 0.4 0.3
Rice, brown 0.6 0.2 1.2 0.5 0.7 1.8 5.2 0.7 1.3 0.2 1.3 0.8 1.4 0.9
Rice, white 0.6 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.5 1.3 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.4
Rye 0.1 2.3 0.4 1.5 1.8 4.0 1.3 1.7 0.8 0.5 0.9
Wheat flour 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2
Whole wheat flour 1.2 0.2 2.2 1.1 1.0 2.0 6.1 1.0 2.2 0.4 1.3 0.6 1.0 0.7
Wheat 1.1 0.2 2.3 1.1 1.2 1.8 6.0 1.3 2.1 0.4 1.4 0.3 1.1 0.6
Enriched cornmeal 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.9 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.5 1.6 0.8 1.3 0.3 0.7 2.1
Enriched rice 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.4 0.5 1.6 0.4 1.6 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.4 2.1
Enriched flour 0.8 1.1 0.1 1.3 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.4 2.3 1.3 1.5 0.3 0.1 2.1
Pro = Protein; Ni = niacin; PA = pantothenic acid.
Source: Based on data of chemical composition of whole grains plus additional data from Ref. 12 using the formula: INQ =
[2000/caloric content] x [nutrient content/nutrient RDI].
Cereal Enrichment and Nutrient Labeling 699

1. To correct a recognized dietary deficiency IV. ENRICHMENT STANDARDS

2. To restore nutrients lost on processing
3. To balance the nutrient content in proportion to the
caloric content
4. To avoid nutritional inferiority in new products re-
placing traditional foods
5. To comply with other programs and regulations
FDA further suggests [6] that the following conditions be
met when adding nutrients to foods:
1. The intake of the nutrient is below a desirable level in
diets of a significant number of people.
2. Food used to supply the nutrients is likely to be con-
sumed in quantities that make a significant contribu-
tion to the diet of the population in need.
3. The addition of the nutrient is not likely to create an
imbalance of essential nutrients.
4. The nutrient added is stable under proper conditions
of storage and use.
5. The nutrient is physiologically available from the
food.
6. There is reasonable assurance against excessive intake
reaching a level of toxicity.
A number of countries have cereal enrichment pro-
grams, including the United States, Canada, Venezuela,
Chile, and the United Kingdom. Sadly, many of the devel-
oping countries, which stand to gain the most from such
programs, do not have them. There is much work in
progress by international aid groups, e.g., UNICEF/WHO,
The World Bank, and USAID, to encourage cereal fortifi-
cation programs in these countries when it would be ap-
propriate.
AND REGULATIONS
Current cereal enrichment standards are shown in Table 2.
These standards specify the types and levels of nutrients
required to be in enriched cereal products. In the United
States enrichment can be achieved either at the mill or the
bakery, but most bakers find it more convenient to use en-
riched flour rather than add the enrichment at the bakery.
Canada requires that all flour be enriched so there is no en-
richment at the bakery.
FDA does not require enrichment; it only specifies what
the product must contain if it is labeled or advertised as be-
ing enriched. Enrichment is required for most cereal prod-
ucts purchased by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) for use by the military, school lunch programs,
and food aid administered by the USAID (see Table 3) and
for products sold in states with mandatory enrichment
laws. Since there were 37 states with such laws, enrich-
ment became a virtual requirement for anyone wishing to
ship interstate. With the passage of the Nutritional Label-
ing and Education Act of 1990, some of the state laws may
have been superseded under national uniformity provi-
sions and may no longer be enforced. Enrichment is re-
quired in all of Canada.
Revisions in the U.S. enrichment standards for flour and
bread were made in 1974 for vitamins and in 1981 for iron.
These revisions put the standards as single, minimum lev-
els instead of a range and adjusted the bread standards so
they were 63% of the flour standards, since bread general-
ly contains around 63% flour. Previously there were sepa-
rate flour and bread standards that did not match. It used to
be possible for the baker to enrich to a higher level by

TABLE 2 U.S. Cereal Enrichment Standards

Riboflavin Folic acid Niacin Iron Calcium Serving
Enriched product Thiamine (mg/lb) (mg/lb) (mg/lb) (mg/lb) (mg/lb) size (g)

Flour and self-rising flour 2.9 1.8 0.7 24 20 (960) 30

Farina 2.0-2.5 1.2-1.5 0.7-0.87 12-20 13 (500)
Corn meal and corn grits 2.0-3.0 1.2-1.8 0.7-1.0 16-24 13-26 (500-750) 28
Self-rising corn meal 2.0-3.0 1.2-1.8 0.7-1.0 16-24 13-26 (500-1750) 28
Rice 2.0-4.0 0.7-1.4 16-32 13-26 (500-1000) 45
Macaroni and noodles (pasta) 4.0-5.0 1.7-2.2 0.9-1.2 27-34 13.0-16.5 (500-625) 56
Bread and rolls 1.8 1.1 0.44 15 12.5 (600) 30
RDI (mg/day) 1.5 1.7 0.4 20 16 1000

This table shows the final nutrient levels required for enriched cereal products. Standards are in mg/lb. When two figures are shown, they in-
dicate a minimum-maximum range. Where one figure is shown it indicates the minimum level with overages left to good manufacturing
practices. Standards in parentheses are optional. Compliance with the appropriate standard is required when the product is labeled or adver-
tised as being "enriched" or some health claim is made for one of the nutrients listed. The serving size, in g/day, and RDI (recommended dai-
ly intake in mg/day) are used in nutritional labeling.
Source: Ref. 14.
700 Ranum

TABLE 3 Enrichment Standards for Government-Purchased ASCSa Commodities as of 1990

Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Iron Calcium Vitamin A
Product (mg/lb) (mg/lb) (mg/lb) (mg/lb) (mg/lb) (IU/lb)
Wheat flour-U.S. 2.9 1.8 24 20 1
Wheat flour-export 2.9 1.8 24 20 500-625 10,000-12,000
Soy-fortified flour 2.9 1.8 24 20 500-625 10,000-12,000
Corn meal-U.S. 2.0-3.0 1.2-1.8 16-24 13-26
Corn grits-U.S. 2.0-3.0 1.2-1.8 16-24 21-26
Corn masa flour 2.0 1.2 16 13-26
Corn meal and soy fortified corn meal
(export), bulgur, soy-fortified bulgur,
and soy-fortified sorghum grits 2.0-3.0 1.2-1.8 16-24 13-26 500-750 10,000-12,000
aASCS = Agriculture Stabilization and Conserva on Service of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Kansas City, MO.

adding nutrients rather than by using enriched flour. The TABLE 4 Expanded Enrichment/Fortification
most recent revision [15] was the required addition of folic
Typical level (mg/kg) in bread
acid after January 1, 1998, at levels shown in Table 2.
An expanded cereal enrichment/fortification program Commercial
was proposed for cereal grain products by the National Nutrient Canadaa NRC/NASb whole white'
Academy of Science, Food Nutrition Board [7] in 1975
Thiamine 2.4 4.0 4.0
(see Table 4 for levels in bread). This was never adopted in Riboflavin 1.8 2.3 2.3
the United States, largely because of lack of support from Niacin 22.0 33.0 33.0
industry and FDA. A few bakers tried them out voluntarily, Pyridoxine 1.4 2.8 1.9
but it never met with much commercial success. A similar Folic acid 0.24+ 0.4+ 0.56
proposal in Canada did result in expanded optional stan- Pantothenic acid 6.0 4.6
dards, but little use has been made of them. Vitamin A (IU/kg) 6000
Some baking companies have marketed white breads Iron 18 28 28
claimed to be nutritionally equivalent to whole wheat. To Calcium 660 1240 830
do this they add all the nutrients, including fiber, needed to Magnesium 900 630
make up the difference between those in white bread and Zinc 14 16
those in whole wheat bread. An example of one such prod- Manganese 26
Copper 2.3
uct is shown in Table 4.
Folic acid was added to the cereal enrichment stan- °The levels shown for Canada are based on the required and optional
dards to help prevent certain birth defects. The Public Canadian flour enrichment standards in Table 2.
bThe NRC/NAS are based on the expanded cereal enrichment standards
Health Service (PHS) estimated that approximately 4000
proposed by the National Research Council [7].
pregnancies each year, including 2500 live births, are af- `A commercial bread produced by the W.E. Long Independent Bakeries
fected by spina bifida and other neural tube defects Co.
(NTDs). Evidence gradually accumulated that the inci-
dence of these tragic defects was lower in mothers with
adequate amounts of folic acid in their blood stream dur- cautioned against daily intakes of folate above 1 mg, as
ing first few weeks of pregnancy. In September 1992 the this could mask the presence of anemia caused by vitamin
PHS recommended that all women of childbearing age in B 12 deficiency, allowing the neurological damage from
the United States consume 0.4 mg of folic acid daily to re- that condition to progress untreated. It was left up to FDA
duce their risk of having infants affected with spina bifida to figure out how to do this safely and effectively. In Oc-
or other NTDs [8]. They also identified several possible tober 1993 FDA proposed the addition of folic acid to the
approaches by which folate intake by the target population cereal enrichment standards as the best solution [14]. The
could be increased. These included (1) improvement of final action was issued March 1996 [15], allowing the
dietary habits, (2) fortification of the U.S. food supply, and original proposed folic acid enrichment standards to go
(3) daily use of folic acid supplements by women through- into effect immediately and requiring them in enriched
out their childbearing years. The PHS recommendations products by January 1, 1998.
Cereal Enrichment and Nutrient Labeling 701

V. NUTRITION LABELING
Nutrition Facts
For specific details on U.S. food labeling as it relates to ce- Serving Size 2 oz (56g / 1/8 box)
Servings Per Container 8
real and bakery products, consult one of the comprehen- MNMMMIIMMMMii.MEM
sive labeling guidebooks such as that published by Vetter Amount Per Serving

[9]. The format for the current food nutritional label, called Calories 210 Calories from Fat 10
%Daily Value•
"Nutrition Facts," is a result of the Nutrition Labeling and
Education Act (NLEA) of 1990. An example of one such Total Fat lg 2%

label for pasta is shown in Figure 1. The label has the fol- Saturated Fat Og 0%
Cholesterol Omg 0%
lowing features:
Sodium Omg** 0%
1. Serving size and servings per container: Serving size Total Carbohydrate 41g 14%
is specified by the regulations for most foods. Table 2 Dietary Fiber 2g 7%
provides serving sizes for some basic cereal products. Sugars 2g
2. Required nutritional information: Protein 7g

Calories (kcals per serving) ONMEMOMMENNEMEMME

Vitamin A 0% • Vitamin C 0%
Calories from fat (kcal per serving)
Calcium 0% • Iron 10%
Total fat (g and % daily value)
Thiamine 30% • Riboflavin 15%
Saturated fat (g and % daily value) Niacin 20% • Folate 25%
Cholesterol (mg and % daily value) *Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000
Sodium (mg and % daily value) calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or
lower depending on your calorie needs:
Total carbohydrates (g and % daily value) Calories 2,000 2,500
Dietary fiber (g and % daily value) Total Fat Less than 65g 80g
Sat. Fat Less than 20g 25g
Sugars (g) Cholesterol Less than 300mg 300mg
Sodium Less than 2,400mg 2,400mg
Protein (g) Total Carbohydrate 300g 375g
Dietary Fiber 25g 30g
Vitamin A (% RDI)
Calories per gram:
Vitamin C (% RDI) Fat 9 • Carbohydrate 4 • Protein 4

Calcium (% RDI) INGREDIENTS: SEMOLINA, NIACIN,

Iron (% RDI)
3. A number of optional nutrients, like potassium, solu-
ble fiber, and other vitamins and minerals can be de-
clared if desired.
4. The statement on percent daily values, shown in Fig-
ure 1, must be shown when space permits. This same
text is common to all foods.
5. The format (fonts, size of type, lines, and appearance)
of the label is specified.
Use of the term "enriched," such as enriched flour or en-
riched bread, as part of the name of a product triggers the
requirement to declare enrichment nutrients. The vitamins
added in enrichment (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and folic
acid) must then be shown along with iron. These four vita-
mins need not be shown in a nutrition facts label of a bak-
ery product if the only mention of enrichment is in the in-
gredient statement as enriched flour. The percentage of
vitamins and minerals are declared in 2-unit increments up
to and including 10% and in 5-unit increments from 10 to
50%.
Nutrients added as enrichment or fortification must be
present at levels at least equal to the amount declared, as
opposed to naturally occurring nutrients that can be pres-
ent within 80% of the declared level for vitamins, miner-
FERROUS SULFATE (IRON), THIAMIN
MONONITRATE, RIBOFLAVIN,
FOLIC ACID.
**WITHOUT ADDED SALT IN
COOKING WATER.
FIGURE 1 Nutrient facts and ingredient label for a pasta
product.
als, protein, and fiber. The nutrient label claim must agree
with the enrichment standard for foods that have standards.
Pasta products, for example, have a folic acid enrichment
standard of 0.9-1.2 mg/lb. A 56 g serving size of pasta al-
lows claims of 25, 30, or 35% of the RDI for folic acid. A
claim of 30% would require the presence of no less than
0.97 mg/100 g folic acid. The level of folic acid needed to
meet that claim would have to be high enough to provide
that level of the vitamin in the final product after allowing
for any processing losses.
VI. SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS
The sources of different nutrients used in enriching cereals
are given in Table 5. The amount of a nutrient source to
meet a particular standard has to be adjusted on the basis of
702 Ranum

TABLE 5 Nutrient Sources

S ource:b chemical Nutrient

Nutrient' Code compound activity (%)'

Vitamin A A Vitamin A acetate 500 IU/mg

Vitamin A palmitate 250 IU/mg
Thiamine Thiamine mononitrate 103
Thiamine hydrochloride 100
Riboflavin B2 Riboflavin 100
Niacin B3 Nicotinic acid (Niacin) 100
Niacinamide 100
Folacin Folic acid 87
Pantothenic acid B5 D-Calcium pantothenate 82
Pyridoxine B6 Pyridoxine hydrochloride 83
Cyanocobalamin B12 1% Vitamin B12 1
Ascorbic acid C Ascorbic acid 100
Sodium ascorbate 89
Vitamin D D3 Vitamin D3 100 IU/mg
Tocopheryl E Alpha-Tocopheryl acetate 0.5 IU/mg
Calcium Ca Calcium sulfate, anhyd. 29
Calcium sulfate, dihydrate 23
Calcium carbonate 40
Copper Cu Cupric carbonate basic 53
Cupric sulfate, anhyd. 40
Iodine I Calcium iodate 62
Potassium iodate 59
Iron Fe Hydrogen reduced iron 98
Electrolytic iron 99
Ferrous sulfate 32
Ferric orthophosphate 29
Ferrous fumarate 33
Magnesium Mg Magnesium carbonate 25
Magnesium oxide, heavy 60
Magnesium sulfate 14
Manganese Mn Manganese sulfate 32
Phosphorus P Dicalcium phosphate, anhyd. 29
Tricalcium phosphate 39
Zinc Zn Zinc sulfate 36
Zinc oxide 80

'The nutrient is the form of the nutrient specified by the U.S. FDA [5].
6The source is the form of the nutrient actually used.
`The nutrient activity shows the % nutrient in the source.

the concentration of the nutrient in the chemical com-
pound.
In the case of vitamins, molecular weight (MW) adjust-
ments must be made if the chemical source of the nutrient
used differs from the compound specified by FDA [4]. For
example, the U.S. recommend daily intake (RDI) for thi-
amine is 1.5 mg/day of thiamine hydrochloride, with a
MW of 337.3. Thiamine mononitrate, with a MW of 327.4,
would have an effective vitamin concentration of 100 x
(337.3/327.4) = 103%. Fat-soluble vitamin RDIs are mea-
sured in International Units (IU). Commercial sources of
these vitamins are not pure compounds. Their concentra-
tions are given in IU/g or IU/mg, as shown in Table 5. In
order to facilitate the addition of vitamin B12, which is
needed in very low amounts, vitamin producers offer it in
dilute form, usually 1%. Folic acid always has some mois-
ture content that must be corrected for in determining the
amount to add.
The stability of added vitamins, shown in Table 6,
should be considered when fortifying foods [10]. Niacin is
Cereal Enrichment and Nutrient Labeling 703

quite stable under all conditions. Thiamine can show sig-
nificant losses at high pH, such as are present in chocolate
cakes and tortillas. Thiamin mononitrate has been found to
be the most stable form for cereal enrichment [11]. Ri-
boflavin can be lost when exposed to sunlight. This can be
a problem when enriched pasta is packaged with clear
plastic windows, as is often done. Vitamin A can show
heavy losses if not in a stabilized form, and even then loss-
es in the dry cereal product can reach 30%. The USDA
specifies that the vitamin A added to a P.L. 480 commodity
be encapsulated and show no more than 20% loss of activ-
ity after 21 days of storage at 45°C [12]. There are no ma-
jor problems with the stability of pyridoxine and pan-
tothenic acid. Folic acid can show losses up to 30% when
exposed to high heat, as present in high-temperature pasta
drying and cookie baking. The normal application of
bleaching, maturing, and oxidizing treatments at the mill
was found to have no effect on added vitamins [13].
Iron is often a problem in cereal enrichment. The char-
acteristics of the different iron sources commonly used in
enrichment are given in Table 7. As a general rule, ferrous
sulfate should be used whenever possible because of its
higher bioavailability. When not possible, because of long
shelf-life requirements, reduced iron is recommended.
VII. INGREDIENT LABELING
An ingredient label for enriched cereal-based foods, such
as that on the bottom of Figure 1, must indicate the
sources of the nutrients used in the enrichment. This is
normally done by giving them in parentheses in order of
descending concentration after the primary enriched com-
ponent, such as enriched flour. (The label in Figure 1
states it a little differently, since there is no standard for
enriched semolina, only enriched pasta.) The FDA allows
reduced iron to be labeled as simply iron, but the full
name must be used with other iron sources. Nicotinic acid
can be labeled as niacin, because people confuse it with
nicotine, but niacinamide must be labeled as that. Folic
acid can be labeled as folic acid, folate, or folacin, and the
same term can be used in the nutrition facts label. If a
product contains two different enriched ingredients or if

TABLE 6 Stability of Vitamins Under Different Conditions

Cooking
Vitamin pH 7 Acid Alkaline Air Light Heat loss (%)
Vitamin A S U S U U U 0-40
Vitamin C U S U U U U 0-100
Vitamin B12 S S S U U S 0-30
Vitamin D S S U U U U 0-40
Niacin S S S S S S 0-75
Vitamin B6 S S S S U U 0-40
Vitamin B1 U S U U S U 0-80
Vitamin B2 S S U S U U 0-75
Vitamin E S S S U U U 0-75
S = Stable; U = unstable.
Source: Ref. 10.

TABLE 7 Characteristics of Different Iron Sources Used in Cereal Enrichment

Reduced Electrolytic
Characteristic iron iron Ferrous sulfate Ferric orthophosphate
Stability in food Good Good Fair Excellent
Bioavailability Fair Good Excellent Poor
Color Black Black Tan White
Magnetic Yes Yes No No
Labeling required "Iron" "Iron" "Ferrous sulfate" "Ferric orthophosphate"
Cost Low Higher Low High
704
the enrichment is added at the bakery, the nutrient sources
can be put after the statement "contains 2% or less of the
following" along with any other minor ingredients. Many
labels explain the ingredients more, such as thiamine
mononitrate, vitamin B1, to ensure that the consumer un-
derstands it is a nutrient.
VIII. COST/BENEFITS OF ENRICHMENT
The current cost of adding the four B vitamins and iron to
wheat flour required under the U.S. standards is about
6 cents per 100 lb of cereal product. Since the average per
capita consumption of enriched milled cereals runs around
122 lb per year, enrichment costs each person 7.3 cents per
year. For that, everyone receives, on average, one third of
their RDI for iron, niacin, and riboflavin and over half of
their requirement for thiamine and folic acid.
On a worldwide basis, iron and vitamin A are the two
micronutrients most lacking in food. Much work is being
done to increase the amount of these two nutrients in the
food supply. The Venezuelan government passed legisla-
tion in 1993 requiring all wheat and maize flour to be forti-
fied with iron, B vitamins and vitamin A to help reduce the
prevalence of anemia [16]. A 1996 evaluation concluded
that this program had been extremely successful in halving
the prevalence of anemia in children between the ages of 7
and 15 years at a time when a poor economy had reduced
the quality and quantity of food consumed by the lower so-
cioeconomic strata of the population. Cereal enrichment
has been called a silent miracle. It has proven to be an ef-
fective way to improve a nation's nutritional health at very
little cost.
REFERENCES
1. Lavallee, D. F., A history of the policy of cereal-grain en-
richment in the United States, master's thesis, Syracuse
University, Syracuse, New York, 1984.
Ranum
2. Schultz, A. S., Atkin, L., and Frey, C. N., The vitamin B1
content of wheat, flour and bread, Cereal Chem., 16: 643
(1939).
3. Baurenfiend, J. C., and De Ritter, E., Nutrient Addition to
Foods, Food & Nutrition Press, Trumbull, CT, 1991.
4. Hansen, R. G., An index of food quality, Nutr. Rev., 31:1
(1973).
5. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Part 104 B,
Fortification Policy.
6 General principles governing the addition of nutrients to
food, Fed. Reg., 39(116):20900 (1974).
7. NAS/NRC, Proposed Fortification Policy for Cereal-
Grain Products, National Academy of Sciences, Washing-
ton, DC, 1975.
8. Centers for Disease Control, Recommendations for the use
of folic acid to reduce the number of cases of spina bifida
and other neural tube defects, MMWR, 41(RR-14):1-7
(1992).
9. Vetter, J. L., Food Labeling-Requirements for Bakery and
Related Products, American Institute of Baking, Manhat-
tan, KS, 1993.
10. Birdsall, J. J., Stability and availability of nutrients, in:
Technology of Fortification of Foods, National Academy
of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1975.
11. Borenstein, B., Vitamin A fortification of flour and corn-
meal, Northwest. Miller, 27(2):18 (1969).
12. Houser, N. D., Amendment 1 to wheat flour/soy-fortified
bread wheat flour export announcement WSF-2, USDA
ASCS, Jan. 26,1988.
13. Ranum, P. M., Loewe, R. J., and Gordon, H. T., Effect of
bleaching, maturing, and oxidizing agents on vitamins
added to wheat flour, Cereal Chem., 58:32 (1981).
14. Food standards: Amendment of the standard of identity for
enriched grain products to require the addition of folic
acid, Fed. Reg., 58:53305-53312 (1993).
15. Food Standards: Amendment of the standard of identity for
enriched grain products to require the addition of folic
acid, Fed. Reg., 61:8781 (1996).
16. Layrisse, M., Chaves, J. F., Mendez-Castellano, M.,
Bosch, V., Eastardo, Bastardo, B., and Gonzelez, E., Early
response to the effect of iron fortification in the Venezuelan
population, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 64:903 (1996).
24
NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF CEREAL-BASED FOODS
Carol F. Klopfenstein
Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
Grasses are the greatest single source of wealth in the
world.
—Agnes Chase, First Book of Grasses (1959) [25]
Q: There are about 1.3 billion cattle on earth. The caloric
equivalent of the food they consume would feed approxi-
mately how many human beings?
A: Nine billion people.
--Bill Adler, Jr., The Whole Earth Quiz Book (1991) [1]
Human existence on this planet depends on the green
plants, largely grasses, that share our world. Of those
grasses, the cereal grains are the most significant providers
of the energy and protein we need to live. The world's ce-
real crop now exceeds more than two billion metric tons
per year [38]. Many sites on the World Wide Web tell us
that about 6.0 billion people currently inhabit this planet.
Those numbers show that enough cereal grain is produced
every year to provide each of us with more than 3000 kcal
of energy daily, which is considerably more than most peo-
ple's daily requirement. Cereals certainly are important
contributors to our nutritional well-being.
As a result of the dietary recommendations of govern-
mental [115] and health agencies [5], more of us are com-
ing to recognize the health benefits of grain-rich diets. In
addition, as populations grow and crop land diminishes,
we may not have the luxury of feeding much of our grain
crops to livestock. Francis Moore Lappe pointed out in her
book, Diet for a Small Planet [70], that eating meat to get
protein is about as efficient as paddling a canoe with a ten-
nis racket. Food companies are continuously searching for
new ways to process cereals into the tasty and nutritious
705
grain-rich products that today's health-conscious and envi-
ronmentally aware consumers demand.
Grains are important sources of many nutrients, but
they are limited in others. Not all grains are equally nutri-
tious. This chapter will explore the benefits and limitations
of cereals as important dietary components and discuss the
nutritional quality of popular cereal-based foods.
I. NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
ALL CEREALS
Wheat, rice, and maize are by far the most important cere-
al crops worldwide, comprising about 85% of the yearly
total production of cereals (Fig. 1). The other 16% of cere-
als produced includes barley, oats, sorghum, millets, and
rye.
From a structural perspective, all cereals can be charac-
terized as being composed of (1) a starchy core with a pro-
tein matrix (the endosperm), (2) the germ, which contains
the grain's embryonic root and shoot and much of the fat in
the kernel, and (3) tough outer layers called the bran, com-
prised mainly of indigestible complex carbohydrates. The
outer layer of the endosperm is called the aleurone. During
milling of refined flours, the aleurone layer of the cereal
kernels, which is only one or two cells thick, usually
breaks away with the bran. Although the bran fraction con-
stitutes only about 15-20% of cereals by weight, it con-
tains a much higher proportion of most of the nutrients in
the kernel because it also contains the vitamin-, mineral-,
and protein-rich aleurone layer.
A comparison of representative protein, lipid, ash, di-
706 Klopfenstein

sorghum cereal starch is the primary energy source for most of the
oats world's population.

barley A. Cereal Lipids

8%
rice
28%
wheat
29%
maize
28%
FIGURE 1 Cereal grains as percent of world production.
(From Ref. 38.)
etary fiber, and energy contents of the common cereals is
shown in Table 1. Protein concentration ranges from about
8% in rice to more than 16% in oat groats; most cereal pro-
tein is in the endosperm portion of the grain. Lipids vary
from less than 2% in wheat to nearly 7% in oats. Energy
content of cereals, provided mainly by the starch, averages
about 350 kcal/100 g of the edible portion [112]. In fact,
Although lipids comprise only about 1.5-7% of cereal
grains (Table 1), some appear to have special properties
that contribute to added health benefits. Cereal lipids are
composed mainly (about 80%) of fatty acids esterified to
the trihydric alcohol glycerol. Linoleic (C18:2) acid is the
major unsaturated fatty acid in all cereals except brown
rice, which contains more oleic acid (C18:1). Palmitic acid
(C16:0) is the major saturated fatty acid in cereals and, ex-
cept in barley, is present in lower concentration than
linoleic and oleic acids [27]. Cereals also contain a broad
class of unsaponifiable lipid material (about 2-10%) that
includes tocols, carotenoids, sterols, high molecular
weight alcohols, and ferulic acid esters of triterpene alco-
hols and sterols. A comprehensive overview of the lipid
contents of major cereals is available [27]; that reference
also cites extensive earlier reviews on cereal lipids in spe-
cific cereal grains.
B. Cereal Lipids in Heart-Healthy Diets
In 1997, two independent research groups published meta-
analyses of the effects of dietary fat and cholesterol on
plasma lipid levels in humans [28,55] that strongly rein-
force earlier data showing the health advantage of dietary
fat from plant sources, including cereal grains, over that
from animal sources. The meta-analyses, based on sepa-
rate studies (224 for Ref. 28 and 80 for Ref. 55), provided
predictive equations to estimate the population-wide plas-
ma lipid responses to dietary total fat, saturated fat, and

TABLE 1 Major Nutrients of Common Cereals (as-is basis)

Protein' Fata Ash Total dietary Energy'
Cereal (%) (%) (%) fiber' (%) (kcal/100 g)
Wheat (Triticum, whole, hard red winter) 12.6 1.54 1.57 12.6 327
Rice (Oryza sativa, brown) 7.94 2.92 1.53 4.6 370
Corn (Zea mays, whole) 9.42 4.74 1.20 13.4 365
Barley (Hordeum vulgare, dehulled) 12.5 2.30 2.29 17.3 354
Oats (Avena sativa, dehulled) 16.9 6.90 1.72 10.2 389
Rye (Secale cereale, whole) 14.8 2.50 2.02 14.6 335
Sorghum (Sorghum spp., whole) 11.3 3.30 1.57 12.8' 339
Triticale (Triticosecale rimpaui, whole) 13.1 2.09 2.23 18.1 336
Millet (Proso, Panicum miliaceum) 11.0 4.22 3.25 NA 378
NA = Not available.
aFrom Ref. 112.
'From Ref. 113.
`From Ref. 66.
Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods
cholesterol. The equations make it clear that reducing the
percent of total dietary fat or replacing dietary saturated fat
with unsaturated fat has a major effect on reducing blood
cholesterol levels. Dietary cholesterol is a less significant
factor in the equations. All cereal grains are low in total fat,
low in saturated fat, and contain no cholesterol. Therefore,
they fit well into the American Heart Association's dietary
recommendations for heart-healthy diets for adults and
children over 2 years old [6].
Although the unsaponifiable lipid matter in cereals
comprises a much smaller percentage of total lipids, that
fraction appears to play an important role in regulating
blood cholesterol levels. It has been known for some time
that P-sitosterol, the major sterol component of all cereal
grains, can reduce blood cholesterol levels [81]. To-
cotrienols, vitamin E analogs found in the unsaponifiable
lipids of most cereals, can apparently inhibit cholesterol
biosynthesis [88,89]. Several studies have shown that the
ferulic acid ester of 24-methylene-cycloartenol (also called
oryzanol) is an effective cholesterol-lowering agent [81].
The hypocholesterolemic action of rice bran has been at-
tributed, at least partly, to its high unsaponifiable lipid con-
tent [61]. Rice bran oil contains severalfold more oryzanol
than most other vegetable oils. Reduced cholesterol in
hamsters fed rice bran and rice bran oil unsaponifiables
was associated with increased fecal excretion of fat and
neutral sterols, and that was suggested as their possible
mechanism of action [61].
C. Protein Quality
The most limiting essential amino acid in all cereals is ly-
sine. Protein quality is highest in the outer layers of the en-
dosperm and in the germ, because that is where the lysine-
rich albumins (water-soluble proteins) and globulins
(salt-soluble proteins) are located. The lysine-poor pro-
lamins (alcohol-soluble proteins) and glutenins (acid- or
base-soluble proteins) are located mainly in the inner en-
dosperm of the seeds. In general, as the protein content of
a cereal increases, its protein quality and digestibility de-
crease, because the protein increase is mainly in the lysine-
poor, less digestible, prolamin protein fraction. In a recent
review, Juliano [60] discussed the inverse relationship be-
tween crude protein content and true protein digestibility
of different types of rice.
Although lysine is the most limiting essential amino
acid in the protein of all cereals, its concentration is high
enough to meet the requirements of human adults, but not
those of children (Table 2). As is evident from Table 2, the
nutritional value of barley, oats, and rye is generally con-
sidered to be higher than that of other cereals. Older chil-
dren's lysine requirement can be met by those cereals.
707
Children fed maize diets often suffer from a deficit of tryp-
tophan in addition to the severe deficit of lysine. The tryp-
tophan amino acid score for maize protein for 2-year-olds
is only 63, whereas for adults it is greater than 100. In oth-
er cereals tryptophan is not limiting.
A high-lysine mutant of maize, opaque-2, was discov-
ered in 1964; a high-lysine barley was identified in 1968,
and high-lysine sorghums were reported about 5 years lat-
er [78]. Opaque-2 maize and high-lysine sorghum have in-
creased levels of tryptophan in their proteins, but high-ly-
sine barley does not. However, tryptophan is not a limiting
amino acid in normal sorghum or barley as it is in maize.
Protein quality assessment of opaque-2 maize using rat
studies and its use in diets of malnourished children during
the 1960s demonstrated the superior nutritional perfor-
mance of the high-lysine mutant over normal maize. How-
ever, the opaque-2 maize mutant had serious agronomic
and economic disadvantages, which took geneticists and
breeders nearly a decade to overcome. The much im-
proved, hard endosperm, opaque-2 maize developed by the
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
(CIMMYT) in Mexico in the early 1980s is now called
quality protein maize (QPM); many successful and locally
adapted hybrids of QPM are now available. Dietary re-
placement of normal maize with QPM has the potential for
improving the nutritional status of many in Central and
South America and parts of Africa [78].
No high-lysine mutants have thus far been found for ce-
real crops other than maize, sorghum, and barley. Until re-
cently, wheat has been difficult to hybridize, but modern
techniques involving the use of new hybridizing agents are
beginning to produce improved hybrids more quickly and
easily [30]. That will allow breeders the opportunity to take
advantage of the wide genetic diversity in wheat germ-
plasm and should lead to increased yield potential and sta-
bility, as well as better functional properties for different
food applications. Biotechnology also has been difficult to
apply to wheat, but progress is being made. Protein quality
enhancement, involving the introduction of more lysine
into wheat proteins, may be achieved more easily through
biotechnology than through hybridization techniques [30].
As mentioned earlier, rye protein is richer in lysine than
wheat protein. A fertile cross between the two grains was
made as far back as 1888, but the name triticale was not
given to the wheat (Triticum spp. L) x rye (Secale cereale
L.) crosses until 1935 [116]. In general, the concentrations
of essential amino acids, including lysine, are intermediate
in triticale when compared with lower levels in wheat and
higher levels in rye. Newer triticale cultivars can be milled
much like wheat, but the quality of baked products pre-
pared from triticale flour is usually inferior to that of those
made from wheat flour [117]. Triticale products have a
708 Klopfenstein

TABLE 2 Lysine Amino Acid Scores of Cereals for Different

Age Groupsa
Age group
Infant Preschool School
Cereal (<1 yr) (2-5 yr) (10-12 yr) Adult
Millet (Proso) 32 33 43 100+
Sorghum 33 34 45 100+
Sorghum (high lysine) 43 45 59 100+
Wheat 43 46 62 100+
Maize 45 47 61 100+
Maize (high lysine) 62 64 84 100+
Triticale 48 50 66 100+
Rice (dehulled) 57 61 82 100+
Barley (dehulled) 62 64 85 100+
Barley (high lysine) 88 91 100+ 100+
Rye 68 71 93 100+
Oats (dehulled) 69 72 94 100+
'Scores were calculated using lysine and protein concentrations from USDA/
HNIS [112] and standard amino acid values were from FAO/WHO/UNU [39].

mild rye flavor, which arises from alkyl resorcinols in the
grains. Although interest in triticale lagged for decades,
great improvements in yields and other agronomic proper-
ties have been made, and considerable effort is now being
devoted to improving the milling and baking properties of
new cultivars. Triticale will grow under more marginal
conditions of soil and climate than wheat and may become
an important contributor to the food supply as the world's
population continues to grow.
In contrast to other common cereals, the starch granules
in rice kernels are not entwined within a protein matrix
[49]. Instead, the rice proteins are encapsulated in discrete
protein bodies distributed throughout the endosperm.
Large spherical protein bodies (PBI) that contain lysine-
poor and less digestible prolamin protein, as well as
glutelin, are found in the center of the endosperm; they
constitute about 20% of milled rice protein. Small, crys-
talline protein bodies (PBII), containing only glutelin pro-
tein, comprise 60-65% of the rice protein. Their lysine
content is higher, and they are more digestible than the
large ones, especially after cooking [37]. Methods for im-
proving the protein quality of milled rice have focused on
increasing the level of PBII at the expense of PBI and im-
proving the digestibility of PBI by mutation [37]. Attempts
to increase the lysine in rice proteins using cell biological
approaches have thus far not been successful [26].
D. Naturally Occurring Vitamins
As can be seen from Table 3, whole grains provide signifi-
cant dietary amounts of many B vitamins when compared
with the newly revised recommended dietary allowances
(RDAs) [79,80]. However, factors affecting the bioavail-
ability of those vitamins from grain products are still under
investigation. As grains mature, the niacin they contain be-
comes progressively more bound to indigestible, hemicel-
lulosic components of the seeds [120]. Treatment with al-
kali, as in the production of masa from maize, frees the
niacin, making it much more bioavailable. Thiamin, how-
ever, often is destroyed during that process, because it is
very unstable to alkali treatment.
Vitamin B6 in whole wheat bread appears to be 10-15%
less available than that in vitamin B6—enriched white flour
[71]. Lindberg et al. [73] reported that, although dietary
wheat bran did decrease absorption of vitamin B6, 15 g of
wheat bran per day should not adversely affect vitamin B6
status when intake of the vitamin is adequate.
In foods, folates occur as combinations of pteroic acid
bonded to from one to seven glutamic acid residues [15].
Before those complexes can be absorbed and used as a vi-
tamin, all but one of the glutamic acid molecules must be
split off by enzymes in the intestinal tract to form pteroyl-
monoglutamic acid. That compound is called folic acid or
folacin. Although the terms folic acid and folate often are
used interchangeably, folic acid refers only to the monog-
lutamate form of the vitamin. Wheat bran was shown to in-
hibit the absorption of septaglutamate folate, but not
monoglutamate folate [15]. In vitro studies have shown
that diverse dietary fiber sources such as lignin, cellulose,
pectin, wheat bran, and sodium alginate do not bind folate
monoglutamate [93]. After reviewing work on the effects
Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods 709

TABLE 3 Vitamin and Mineral Contents (mg/100 g edible, dry portion) of Cereals in Comparison with the Adult RDAs (mg/d) for
Each Nutrient
Cereal product

Adult Whole Medium Triticale Maize

RDA wheat rye whole whole Proso
Nutrient (m/Fa) flour flourb flour Barley' flour Oatmeal Riced Sorghum millet

Vitamins
Thiamin 1.2/1.1 0.45 0.28 0.37 0.65 0.24 0.73 0.44 0.24 0.42
(0.19) (0.14)
Riboflavin 1.3/1.1 0.22 0.11 0.13 0.29 0.80 0.14 0.08 0.14 0.29
(0.11) (0.02)
Niacin' 16/14 6.37 1.73 2.86 (4.60) 1.90 0.78 6.34 2.93 4.72
(2.59)
Pantothenic 5/5 1.01 0.49 2.17 (0.28) 0.66 1.25 1.59 1.25 0.85
acid (0.82)
Vitamin B6 1.3-1.7/ 0.34 0.27 0.403 0.32 0.47 0.12 0.73 0.50 0.38
1.3-1.5 (0.26) (0.44)
Folacin 0.4/0.4 0.044 0.019 0.074 0.019 0.025 0.032 0.016 0.02
(0.023) (0.004)
Minerals
Calcium 700/700 34 24 35 33 7 52 11 28 8
(29) (10)
Iron 10/18 3.88 2.12 2.59 3.60 2.38 4.21 1.98 4.40 3.01
(2.50) (0.35)
Magnesium 400-420/ 138 75 153 133 93 148 112 180 114
310-320 (79) (35)
Phosphorus 700/700 346 207 321 264 272 474 337 287 285
(221) (98)
Potassium None 405 340 466 452 315 350 289 350 195
(280) (76)
Sodium None 5 3 2 9 5 4 8 5
(12) (0)
Zinc 15/15 2.9 2.0 2.7 2.8 1.7 3.07 2.45 1.9 1.68
(2.1) (0.80)
Copper" 1.5-3.0 0.38 0.29 0.56 0.50 0.23 0.34 0.23 1.1 0.75
(0.42) (0.13)
Manganese' 2.0-5.0 3.80 5.46 4.19 1.94 0.46 3.63 4.01 1.8 1.63
(1.32) (1.20)

'Allowances for males (M) and females (F) 19-70 years of age.
bConcentrations of nutrients are higher in dark rye flour and lower in light rye flour.
`Numbers in parentheses are for pearled barley.
'Numbers in parentheses are for white rice flour.
`Units are in niacin equivalents (NE); 1 NE equals 1 mg of niacin or 60 mg of dietary tryptophan.
No RDA established; adequate daily amounts are given.
Source: Refs. 79, 80, 112.

of dietary fiber on vitamin bioavailability, Kelsay conclud-
ed that "reported decreases of vitamin bioavailability be-
cause of the presence of fiber or related components in
foods have been small in most cases and likely would not
affect vitamin nutritional status when vitamin intakes are
adequate" [64].
Preformed vitamin A is found only in foods of animal
origin. Provitamin A carotenoid compounds, which can be
converted to vitamin A by humans, are found in apprecia-
ble amounts only in maize and yellow sorghum [19]. Some
thought has been given to introducing carotenoid genes
into rice to make the grain a source of vitamin A [26],
710
which often is limited in areas of the world where rice is a
dietary staple.
Tocols, with various amounts of vitamin E activity,
comprise part of the lipid component of cereals [19] and
are located in the germ portion of the seed. Vitamin E is
not stable to light, heat, and air, so nearly any processing
method will adversely affect its concentration.
Low levels of vitamins D and K are found in the lipids
of most cereals, but virtually no vitamin C occurs in ma-
ture, ungerminated seeds. Koivu et al. [67] have reported
that, although cereal products constitute a large portion of
Finnish diets, they cannot be considered as significant
sources of vitamin K.
Although vitamin B12 generally occurs only in foods of
animal origin (as a result of microbial activity in the ani-
mal's gut), some fermented foods, especially those that in-
volve the use of Rhizopus species, reportedly contain sig-
nificant amounts of vitamin B12 [51,121]. A widely used
fermented food is tempe(h), which is usually prepared
from soybeans or other legume seeds. However, the same
fermentation techniques have been used to prepare tempe
from oats, rice, barley, wheat, rye, and cereal-legume mix-
tures [121]. For wheat tempe, losses of niacin, riboflavin,
and thiamin were noted during the preparation (cooking)
of the grain prior to fermentation. The losses of niacin and
riboflavin, but not thiamin, were reversed during the Rhi-
zopus oligosporus fermentation process. The flexibility of
the tempe fermentation process to allow use of cereals
could lead to the preparation of texturized meat substitutes
from various grains alone or mixed with legumes [121]. A
good review of the vitamin contents of common cereals is
available [19].
E. Minerals
Cereals contain about 1.5-2.5% of total minerals (ash,
Table 1). A comparison of the mineral contents of common
grains is shown in Table 3. The mineral in highest concen-
tration (16-22% of the total ash) in all cereals is phospho-
rus, most of which is in the form of calcium or magnesium
phytates, which are mainly biologically unavailable to
monogastric animals, including humans. In addition, phy-
tates can adversely affect the absorption of other nutrients,
including protein, starch, and other minerals such as zinc,
calcium, iron, magnesium, and copper [45,123]. Some
work has shown that development of low-phytate cultivars
of some cereals is feasible. A low-phytate rice mutant (25
vs. 75% of total phosphorus) has been reported [90]. In ad-
dition, breeding efforts are being made to increase the con-
centrations of zinc and iron (as well as vitamin A) [60].
Lignin is a phenylpropane polymer that, like phytate, is
closely associated with dietary fibers in cereals and does
Klopfenstein
have calcium-binding sites. However, lignin apparently
does not impair calcium absorption in rats [98].
Dietary fiber itself apparently has little effect on miner-
al bioavailability. The work of Gordon et al. [44], which
employed a threshold nutrient concept and the use of ra-
dionucleotides, indicated that dietary fiber does not impair
mineral absorption and retention in rats. According to
those researchers, the dietary mineral concentrations and
the mineral status of the host control mineral bioavailabili-
ty. However, Bergman et al. [17] reported that dephy-
tinized oat, wheat, and rice brans bound Ca+2, Cu+2, and
Zn+2. Oat bran bound more of the minerals than wheat
bran, which bound more than rice bran. Extrusion process-
ing did not affect the brans' insoluble fiber in vitro binding
capacity for Cu+2, but it increased binding of Ca+2 and Zn+2
to rice and oat bran insoluble fiber.
Mineral composition of seeds can be affected by genet-
ic factors, as well as environmental ones, such as soil com-
position, crop fertilization practices, and climatic condi-
tions [10,34]. Therefore, values reported for any grain can
vary over a wide range. Further information about the min-
eral constituents of cereals is given by Bock [19].
F. Dietary Fiber
Whole grain cereals are concentrated sources of dietary
fiber, with most containing more than 10% (Table 1). In
comparison, most fresh vegetables contain about 1-3% di-
etary fiber, and fresh fruits average slightly less than that
(USDA 1988). Since Cleave and Campbell [29] and Trow-
ell [110] first attributed a number of intestinal tract disor-
ders to reduced intakes of dietary fiber, many claims have
been made about its nutritional benefits. Although much
epidemiological, experimental, and clinical data clearly
show a protective effect of some dietary cereal fibers
against heart disease [8] and cancer [22,47,52] and in de-
laying nutrient absorption [109], the same cannot be said
about fiber's involvement in such diseases as appendicitis,
inflammatory or irritable bowel diseases, or gastric ulcer
[76]. Data connecting those digestive system disorders
with dietary fiber intakes are still largely epidemiological.
However, a new study has reported an inverse association
between total dietary fiber intake (especially cellulose and
other insoluble fibers) and diverticular disease [4]. Chao et
al. [24] have thoroughly reviewed the health benefits of
wheat bran. Although past studies support the view that
whole grain is protective against some kinds of cancer, the
authors of a recent review caution that at least part of the
effect might be due to unknown or unmeasured dietary
constituents of the grains and not their dietary fiber or an-
tioxidant compounds alone [57].
The first global nutrition report, which was supported
Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods
by the American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) and
the World Cancer Research Fund, had some key recom-
mendations regarding diet and cancer prevention. Primary
among those were that individuals choose a predominately
plant-based diet that includes a variety of vegetables,
fruits, grains, and legumes [3]. According to the report,
eating those types of foods, coupled with not smoking, has
the potential to reduce cancer risk worldwide by 60-70%.
In the United States, an estimated 375,000 cases of cancer
could be prevented each year through healthy dietary
choices [3].
Insoluble starch that is resistant to digestion by human
digestive enzymes often reaches the colon, where it is
available for microbial fermentation to short-chain fatty
acids (SCFA)—acetic, propionic, and butyric—in much
the same way as some types of soluble fiber [104]. Many
investigators consider enzyme resistant starch to be one
component of dietary fiber, which is commonly defined as
all of the plant polymers that cannot be digested by en-
dogenous secretions of the digestive tract [103]. In people
who eat large amounts of starchy plant foods, the amount
of resistant starch in their diets could be greater than other
indigestible nonstarch polysaccharides. It is important to
realize that, although resistant starch is not digestible, the
SCFA that are produced when it is fermented in the colon
can be absorbed and used as an energy (calorie) source
[59]. Much is still to be learned about the effects of SCFA
on the human digestive tract. Some research indicates that
increased butyrate concentration in the large bowel can in-
hibit colon cancer and increased levels of SCFA in the
blood and liver may result in decreased serum cholesterol
levels [31].
Many fiber studies have shown soluble dietary fiber (in-
cluding the 1-3, 1-4(3-glucans from the bran and en-
dosperm of oats and barley) to have cholesterol-lowering
activity in experimental animals and humans. As a result,
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in January
1997 allowed the first food-specific health claim for a
whole grain cereal, oats [42]. That regulation was amended
in February 1998 to include soluble fiber from psyllium
seed husk [43], which currently is used in Kellogg's Bran
Buds breakfast cereal. Foods containing whole oats or
psyllium seed husk as ingredients can now make a health
claim linking consumption with a reduced risk of coronary
heart disease when they are part of a diet low in saturated
fat and cholesterol. FDA acknowledged that soluble fiber
from sources other than oats and psyllium probably affect
blood lipids and reduce the risk of heart disease, but those
sources would be considered on a case-by-case basis.
Wood and Beer [126] reviewed the physical and physio-
logical properties of oat 13-glucans.
In contrast, insoluble oat hull fiber, derived from the
711
outermost layer of the grain, reportedly is resistant to
colonic fermentation, provides no energy to the body, and
has no effect on serum lipids [106].
II. EFFECTS OF EXTRUSION ON
DIETARY FIBER
Although extrusion is becoming more and more popular as
the processing method of choice for making today's snack
foods, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, pasta, and other new
food products, its impact on the nutritional quality of those
foods remains largely undetermined [14,23]. In 1993,
Mercier [77] reviewed the methodology used and the main
effects of extrusion processing on the nutritional value of
foods, but extrusion technology has changed much since
then, and more data are needed. Much of the research ex-
ploring the effects of various dietary fibers on body choles-
terol levels have been done using raw or baked products.
In general, extrusion within the range of conditions nor-
mally used in making food products results in little change
in total dietary fiber or in the distribution between soluble
and insoluble fiber content. The tendency is toward small
decreases in total and insoluble dietary fiber and slight in-
creases in soluble dietary fiber [14,23,122,128,129]. How-
ever, important changes occur in the physiological, partic-
ularly cholesterol-lowering, activity of extruded fiber-rich
foods [65,122,128,129]. Those studies showed that extru-
sion processing under certain conditions could enhance the
cholesterol-lowering activity of some cereals. When whole
wheat, oats, and barley were extruded at different screw
speeds using the Wenger TX-52 twin-screw extruder, their
dietary fiber content and distribution were not much
changed, but animals fed the extruded grains had much
lower serum and liver cholesterol levels than those fed the
raw grains [122]. Enhanced cholesterol-lowering activity
in hamsters also was noted for extruded snack squares that
contained corn bran and soy cotyledon fiber, but extrusion
using the same conditions had no effect on similar prod-
ucts containing oat bran [129]. Animals fed the extruded
soy fiber crackers had cholesterol levels half as great as
those of animals fed the raw snack mix.
Another experiment showed that some extruded crack-
ers containing wheat flour and soy cotyledon fiber had a
greater hypocholesterolemic effect than either baked
crackers or the raw cracker mix [128]. In that study, serum
cholesterol levels were correlated highly with Rapid-Vis-
co-Analyzer (RVA) viscosities (at 37°C in the presence of
a-amylase) of the raw, baked, and extruded product diets
(r = —0.904, p = 0.001). In addition, the faster the RVA vis-
cosity dropped to a minimum, the higher were the animals'
serum cholesterol levels (r = —0.913, p = 0.003). Extruded
cracker diets also had higher minimum viscosities than
712 Klopfenstein

baked or raw product diets. The fermentability of the fiber
to SCFA in the cecum was affected by extrusion process-
ing conditions. Animals fed most of the extruded diets had
higher cecal total SCFA and higher propionic acid levels
than those fed baked crackers or the raw mix. Mechanical
and thermal energy inputs were calculated, and an extru-
sion index (EI) was developed in an effort to relate degree
of cholesterol lowering with total energy inputs during the
extrusion process. Significant correlations were found be-
tween EI and serum cholesterol, diet viscosity, total cecal
SCFA, and propionic acid. Fecal fat extractability was neg-
atively correlated with EI, so formation of less digestible
lipid complexes during extrusion might be another factor
in the hypocholesterolemic effect of extruded products
[65,124]. Very little resistant starch was formed during ex-
trusion under any of the eight sets of processing conditions
or in baking. It appears that extrusion processing enhanced
the cholesterol-lowering activity of the extruded products
by increasing the diet viscosity, which might have inhibit-
ed the absorption of cholesterol and other lipids from the
digestive tract, and/or by affecting the fermentability.
Others [62] have reported that low-energy extrusion en-
hanced the blood cholesterol—lowering ability of wheat
bran, but not corn, rice, or oat brans. Hamsters fed rice
bran extruded at a higher energy level had liver cholesterol
concentrations that were lower than those of animals fed a
cellulose control diet, whereas animals fed unextruded rice
bran or rice bran extruded at a lower energy level did not
[62].
III. IMPACT OF MILLING ON NUTRIENTS
In general, fiber, protein, vitamin, and mineral concentra-
tions in cereals decrease from the outer to the inner part of
the seed, with the decline being steeper in some cereals
than others. For that reason, and because of the removal of
the aleurone fraction of the cereal, milling results in large
losses of many nutrients. That is demonstrated in Table 4,
which shows that when wheat is milled to white flour, the
niacin content drops to about 20% of its original level, thi-
amin to 27%, and riboflavin to 19%. After milling of wheat
to white flour and then bleaching, almost 98% of vitamin E

TABLE 4 Comparison of Vitamins and Minerals in Whole Wheat and Enriched and
Unenriched White Flours (amount/100 g edible portion)
Flours
Whole Enriched Unenriched Percent remaining
Nutrient wheat white white after milling
Vitamins
Thiamin (mg) 0.447 0.785 0.120 27
Riboflavin (mg) 0.215 0.494 0.040 19
Niacin (mg) 6.365 5.904 1.250 20
Pantothenic acid (mg) 1.008 0.438 0.438 43
Biotin (mg) 0.010 0.002 0.002 20
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.341 0.044 0.044 13
Folic acid (mcg) 44 154 26 59
Vitamin E (IU) 1.5 0.03 0.03 2
Minerals
Calcium 34.0 252a 15.0 44
Iron 3.88 4.64 1.17 30
Magnesium 138 22 22 16
Phosphorus 346 108 108 31
Potassium 405 107 107 26
Sodium 5 2 2 40
Zinc 2.93 0.70 0.70 24
Copper 0.38 0.144 0.144 38
Manganese 3.80 0.682 0.682 18
Protein (g, N x 5.7) 13.7 13.4 13.4 98
Lysine (g) 0.378 0.228 0.228 60
Total dietary fiber (g) 12.6 2.7 2.7 21
aCalcium fortified.
Source: Refs. 32, 33, 112, 113.
Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods 713

is lost [32,33]. During the corn wet-milling process, the oil
recovered is a valuable by-product; but much of its vitamin
E is destroyed during the extraction and refining process.
Rice bran, a by-product of rice milling, commonly is stabi-
lized by extrusion processing. Shin et al. [99] have shown
that, as extrusion temperature increased from 110 to
140°C, the concentration of vitamin E in rice bran dropped
progressively from 304 to 274 mg/kg.
Only 30% of the iron, 18% of the manganese, and 16%
of the magnesium in wheat remain in the refined flour
(Table 4). Although the protein content drops by only 2%,
it is the higher quality protein that is removed; refined flour
contains only 60% of the lysine of whole wheat flour
[32,33]. Total dietary fiber drops from nearly 13% in
whole wheat flour to less than 3% in refined flour.
IV. ENRICHMENT OF REFINED PRODUCTS
In many developed countries, including the United States,
some of the nutrients lost during milling are replaced by
adding vitamin and/or mineral enrichment mixtures to the
refined flours. More than a half century ago, the U.S. gov-
ernment passed the Enrichment Act of 1942, which re-
quired the replacement of niacin, thiamin, and iron to re-
fined white flour and the addition of more riboflavin than
was present in the whole grain. In 1996, the enrichment
standards for cereal foods were amended to include folacin
in the enrichment mixture (Table 5) (21CFR parts 136,
137, and 139) [40] to reduce the risk of neural tube birth
defects, such as spina bifida; that requirement became ef-
fective January 1, 1998.
One of the metabolic roles of folic acid is to facilitate
the transfer of methyl groups to DNA, which prevents a
cancer-causing gene from being switched on. Therefore,
low dietary intakes of folate may increase the risk of
switching on a cancer-causing gene [16]. Folate probably
plays a role in reducing coronary heart disease by enhanc-
ing the conversion of homocysteine to the amino acid me-
thionine [54]. Studies have shown that high levels of blood
homocysteine are a risk factor for heart disease [119].
Some question remains as to whether the current level of
fortification of folic acid fortification of foods is sufficient
to reduce plasma homocysteine levels significantly [74].
That report suggested that levels of fortification higher
than recommended by FDA might be warranted. An edito-
rial accompanying that report also called for an increase in
the level of folic acid fortification in the United States [82].
The author pointed out that food folate is less effective
than supplemental (synthetic) folic acid in raising blood
folate levels.
To account for the differences in bioavailability be-
tween synthetic and natural food folates, dietary reference
intakes now are expressed in terms of dietary folate equiv-
alents (DFE). One DFE is equal to 1 lig of natural food fo-
late or 0.6 1.tg of folic acid (from fortified food or dietary
supplements) consumed with food or 0.5 lug of synthetic
(supplemental) folic acid taken on an empty stomach
(available on the internet at www.nas.edu) [80].
Recently, Pfeiffer et al. [86] demonstrated that radiola-
beled folacin monoglutamate (folic acid) added to white or
whole wheat bread, rice, and pasta was highly bioavail-
able. They concluded that the enrichment of cereal prod-
ucts with folacin will contribute effectively to the folate
status of the population.
Vitamin and mineral enrichment standards apply to en-
riched bakery products (bread, rolls, and buns), refined
flour, self-rising flour, corn grits, corn meals, farina, rice,
and macaroni and noodle products (Table 5). Often ri-

TABLE 5 U.S. Cereal Enrichment Standards (mg/lb) as Revised March 5, 1996a

Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Folic acid Iron
Product Max. MM. Max. MM. Max. Min. Max. MM. Max. Min.
Enriched flour and enriched self-
rising flour 2.90 1.80 24.0 0.70 20.0
Enriched bread, rolls, and buns 1.80 1.10 15.0 0.43 12.5
Enriched macaroni and noodle
products 5.00 4.00 2.20 1.70 34.0 27.0 1.20 0.90 16.5 13.0
Enriched farina 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.20 16.0 20.0 0.87 0.70 26.0 13.0
Enriched corn meals and enriched
corn grits 3.00 2.00 1.80 1.20 24.0 16.0 1.00 0.70 26.0 13.0
Enriched rice 4.00 2.00 2.40 1.20 32.0 16.0 1.40 0.70 26.0 13.0
aFood and Drug Administration, Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations, Parts 136.115, 137.105, 137.185, 137.260, 137.305, 137.350, and 139. Calcium
and vitamin D enrichment are optional [40].
714 Klopfenstein

boflavin is not added to refined rice because it imparts a
yellow color to the product. Additions of calcium and vita-
min D are optional, but acceptable levels of addition have
been established [40]. Recently, Ranhotra et al. [92] re-
ported results of a rat-feeding study that showed that the
relative bioavailabilities of calcium from bread containing
calcium carbonate, sulfate, citrate, or lactate were not sig-
nificantly different. Apparently, the less expensive inor-
ganic calcium salts can be used as effectively in bread en-
richment as the more expensive organic salts.
That fortification of staple foods can make important
contributions to the overall nutrient intake of a population
was demonstrated recently in Denmark, where a long-
standing policy of mandatory fortification of flour with
calcium was discontinued in 1987 [85]. Since then, the
percentage of adults with calcium intakes below the rec-
ommended level has increased from 6 to 22%. The authors
concluded that the Danish government's decision to stop
the mandatory fortification with calcium might have been
premature.
In most developing countries refined cereal products are
not vitamin enriched, but 10 nations are currently adding
iron to wheat or maize flours and many other countries are
considering doing so [111]. In Venezuela, both wheat and
maize flours are enriched. Vitamin or mineral enrichment
of flours requires that cereal flours or other products be
processed centrally. In much of the world that is not the
case; locally grown grains often are processed and con-
sumed at home.
Ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals account for a large
portion of the total cereal consumed in the United States.
Foods such as bagels and English muffins recently have cut
into the RTE cereal market, but the average American still
eats nearly 11 pounds (about 13 boxes) of RTE cereals a
year [127]. Although no federal standards have been estab-
lished for their enrichment, FDA has established some
guidelines [41]. The recommended enrichment of breakfast
cereals includes 25% of the U.S. RDAs of vitamin A, thi-
amin, niacin, iron, vitamin B6, and folacin. Calcium and ri-
boflavin levels suggested are 15% of the U.S. RDAs. In the
United States, enriched RTE cereals are top dietary contrib-
utors of folate (provide 19% of total intake) and vitamin B6
(15%) and are among the top five food sources for thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B12, and vitamin E [107].
Nutrition information for some common breakfast ce-
reals is given in Table 6. Most corn flakes contain no fat
and little sugar, but they also have very little dietary fiber
[13]. In general, children's cereals also contain little di-
etary fiber. Raisin bran and muesli have considerably
more fiber, but they contain more sugar than corn flakes.
One serving of raisin bran contains 187 calories, and a
serving of muesli has 200 calories versus 112 calories for
corn flakes. Most breakfast cereals are low in fat (3 g or
less/serving), but exceptions exist, with some cereals con-
taining as much as 8 g of fat. Nuts, such as almonds and
pecans, slightly increase the fat content of flake/nut/fruit
cereals; fruits raise the sugar content. Traditionally, chil-
dren's cereals have been criticized for containing large
amounts of sugar (40%), but raisin brans also are quite
high in sugar (33%). Mueslis (also called granolas) range
from having no fat to containing more fat than any other
type of cereal marketed [13]. Oatmeal is a much richer

TABLE 6 Nutrition Information for Some Common Types of Breakfast Cereals'

No. of Serving size Dietary

Cereal Type samples (cups) kcal/Serving Fat (g) fiber (g) Sugar (g)

Corn flakes 5 1.06 ± 0.15 112 ± 13 0 0.6 ± 0.54 2.4 ± 0.5

Shredded wheat (plain) 2 1.4 ± 0.5 170± 0 0.75 ± 0.4 5.5 ± 0.7 0
Shredded wheat (frosted) 1 1.0 190 1.0 5.0 12
Raisin bran 18 0.94 ± 0.16 187 ± 11 1.0 ± 0.0 6.6 ± 0.9 17.0 ± 3.0
Flake/Nut/Fruitb 13 0.96 ± 0.15 192 ± 40 3.0 ± 1.5 3.0 ± 1.0 13.0 ± 4.0
Muesli' (granola) 4 0.67 200 ± 8 3.0 ± 0.0 5.0 ± 2.0 15.0 ±2.0
Oatmeal (cooked) 2 0.84 ± 0.23 100 2.5 ± 0.7 3.4 ± 0.9 <1
Cream of wheat (cooked) 2 1.0 ± 0.0 120 ± 0.0 0 1.0 ± 0.0 0

'Suggested daily allotments for a person who eats 2000 calories per day: 25 g of fiber, 65 g fat [69]. There is no daily allotment
for sugar.
b All included nuts and/or clusters of nuts and some had dried fruit.

`The German word Muesli means mixture. Usually, these are quite dense products that can contain raw or toasted cereals (main-
ly oatmeal), dried fruits, nuts, bran, wheat germ, sugar, and milk solids.
Source: Refs. 13, 114, and product package labels.
Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods
fiber source than cream of wheat and contains more solu-
ble fiber than most other cereals.
V. VITAMIN AND MINERAL
FORTIFIED FOODS
A lucrative market for vitamin- and/or mineral-fortified
foods currently exists and is projected to grow at a yearly
rate of nearly 5% until 2001, reaching $2.2 billion in sales,
according to Find/SVP, an international research, advisory,
and business information service [84]. An organic bagel
with added nutrients is a new product of Great Northern
Baking in St. Louis. The heat stability of vitamins present-
ed a problem in that product. Use of encapsulated vitamins
showed increased stability and also helped mask the vita-
min flavor in the bagels; about a 20% excess was used to
achieve the desired amount in the finished product. Encap-
sulation of minerals with food gums or gelatin also has
been shown to overcome issues of off-flavors in fortified
products [83].
VI. IMPACT OF SNACK FOODS
ON NUTRITION
According to data provided by McCormick & Company,
the snack food market in the United States is growing at a
rapid rate [11]. Instead of families following the traditional
three-meal-a-day routine of the past, many now are eating
five smaller meals per day, with two of those meals being
hand-held snacks [11]. In India the snack food market was
predicted in 1995 to increase at a rate of 20% per year.
Canada, Japan, Russia, Mexico, and Belgium import large
quantities of snacks from the United States. A recent sur-
vey, The State of America's Plate, showed fast-growing
markets for grain-based snacks, bagels, and ready-to-eat
cereals [84]. The grain food category was the only catego-
ry for which consumption increased over the past 10 years.
Traditionally, snacks have been implicated as dietary
villains, with low concentrations of nutrients and high lev-
els of fat [2]. Corn-based, extruded cheese puffs, for exam-
ple, may contain 56% of their calories as fat [114]. Howev-
er, according to McCormick's recent survey, the preference
for healthful foods is still increasing and is probably "a
trend that is here to stay"; a high proportion of new snack
introductions are low- and no-fat products [11]. The Amer-
ican Heart Association [6] recommends that total fat in the
diet should not exceed more than 30% of caloric intake.
Many snack products that formerly were fried are now
baked, and fat replacers are becoming more popular in
many traditional baked products.
Current data indicate that eliminating all fat from one's
diet is not as important as limiting the amount of saturated
715
fat and trans-fatty acids [56]. That study showed that re-
placing those fats with unhydrogenated monounsaturated
and polyunsaturated fats was more effective in preventing
coronary heart disease in women than reducing overall in-
take of fat. Monounsaturated fat appears to be protective
against breast cancer [125]. Those authors reported that the
type of fat found in olive and canola oils reduced a wo-
man's risk for breast cancer by 45%, but other types of
vegetable oils (corn, safflower, and sunflower) increased
the risk by 69%. Apparently, low-fat foods are necessary,
but no-fat foods are not [100]. There were fewer low-fat
products introduced in 1997 than in the record year of
1996, but the low-fat market is still strong [35].
At the same time there has been a renewed interest in
the total calories in food [102]. According to a recent Calo-
rie Control Council survey, 92% of adult Americans (79
million people) consume low-calorie, reduced-fat, and
light foods and beverages. That is up from 81% in 1993
and 45% in 1987. Today, fewer than 18% of Americans are
at their ideal weight. Evidence of increased risk for heart
disease, some cancers, diabetes, respiratory disease, and
osteoporosis related to overweight is accumulating [102].
The calorie, fat, and sodium contents of pretzels, tortilla
chips, microwave popcorn, and potato chips are shown in
Table 7. Because they are so low in fat, pretzels currently
are one of the most popular snack foods. Plain pretzels
contain very little fat (0-2.5 g), but some flavored or
stuffed pretzels (such as those with cheddar cheese) con-
tain five times that much, although their total caloric value
is similar to that of the plain pretzels [12]. Sodium content
of pretzels usually is higher than for other snacks, but un-
salted products are available. Fried tortilla chips have
about five times more fat per serving than baked chips.
Baked potato chips also contain much less fat than fried
potato chips; some contain no fat. Chips fried in sucrose
polyester (Olestra, Procter & Gamble) contain only about
75 kcal per serving and no digestible fat. An Olestra Post-
marketing Surveillance Study (OPMSS) recently showed
that there is the potential for relatively high Olestra con-
sumption among the population and concluded that substi-
tuting Olestra snacks could substantially reduce intakes of
fat and energy [68].
Popcorn cooked in a hot-air machine contains only 85
kcal and 1 g of fat per ounce. When the same amount of
popcorn is cooked in oil, the number of calories can nearly
double, and fat can increase to about 8 g per serving [12].
Some microwave popcorn products can have the same
amount of fat as oil-popped corn, but others are nearly fat-
free.
Increasing the dietary fiber content of snacks is another
approach to making them more nutritious [97]. Using
whole grains and adding additional bran from oats, wheat,
716 Klopfenstein

TABLE 7 Calorie, Fat, and Sodium Contents of Common Snacks

kcal/1 oz. Fat in % Calories
No. of g) g/serving2 from fat Sodium in
Snack products serving (range) (range) (range) mg (range)
Pretzels (unsalted) 2 114 ± 11 (0.0-1.0) (0-10) 60±42
Pretzels (salted) 10 111 ± 7 (1.0-2.5) (0-19) 481 ± 122
Tortilla chips (fried) 3 138 ± 7 (6.0-7.5) (42-48) 61.3 ± 50
Tortilla chips (baked) 6 112 ± 4 (1.0-1.5) (8-11) 101 ± 72
Popcorn (microwaved) 9 98 ± 39 (1.0-9.5) (10-64) 284 ± 66
Popcorn (air-popped, prepared without salt) 3 108 1.2 10 1.0
Popcorn (oil-popped) 50 142 8.0 23 (22-74)
Potato chips (fried, salted) 8 145 ± 11
191 (130-160) (6-11) (42-62) (80-356)
Potato chips (baked or microwaved, salted) 3 110± 0 (0-2.5) (0-20) (180-230)
Potato chips (fried, Olestra) 1 75 0 0 200
Source: Refs. 12, 114, and product package labels.

or corn to prepare extruded, bite-size minibreads is one ap-
proach to preparing nutritious new snack products [97].
Although the number of new products having reduced/
low-fat claims dropped in 1997, the number of new prod-
ucts containing added/high fiber was higher than in 1996
[11].
According to a recent World Health Organization
(WHO) Consultation on Obesity, an "escalating epidemic
of overweight and obesity is affecting many countries in
the world." WHO warned that if action is not taken now to
stem that epidemic, millions of people will be at increased
risk for noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) such as in-
sulin-dependent diabetes mellitis, coronary heart disease,
stroke, several types of cancer, gallbladder disease, muscu-
loskeletal disorders, and respiratory problems. In fact, ex-
perts at the Consultation recommended that the measure-
ment of abdominal circumference be used as an indicator
for identifying NCD risk. They agreed to use the body
mass index (BMI) as an international standard for indicat-
ing the degree of overweight. BMI is defined as weight (in
kg) divided by the square of one's height (in m): kg/m2.
The BMI categories are:
Category BMI (kg/m2)
Overweight 25
Preobese 25-29.9
Class 1 obese 30-34.9
Class 2 obese 35-39.9
Class 3 obese 40+
Recent studies have shown that overweight and obesity
affect over half the adult population in many countries
[118]. The percentage of overweight Americans has in-
creased by about a third in the last 20 years, so that 54% of
all adults and 25% of American children now are over-
weight or obese [53]. Scientists attribute the problem
mainly to high-fat, energy-dense diets. Increasingly seden-
tary lifestyles and a genetic predisposition to weight gain
are less important factors [118]. The International Food
Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) has found that, as urban-
ization increases in developing countries, the preference
for grains declines; and people begin to eat more meat
products (http://www.cgiar.org.ifpri/2020backgrnd). Eat-
ing habits in Southeast Asia have changed dramatically in
recent years. The consumption of rice, the region's most
important food, fell as much as 50% over the past three
decades in Japan and Taiwan. Both IFPRI and WHO rec-
ommend diets rich in vegetables, fruits, grains, and cereals
as the best way to reduce dietary energy intakes.
Cereal-based ingredients are extremely adaptable for
use in all types of new, low-calorie, low-fat, nutritious
food products. It appears that the time is right for food
manufacturers to develop the next generation of weight
control products.
VII. ANTIOXIDANT COMPOUNDS
IN CEREALS
Oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids appears to
be a major contributor to aging and associated diseases
such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, cataract, impaired
immune system, and decreased brain function [7]. Oxidiz-
ing species (free radicals) can arise from endogenous
sources as a result of common metabolic processes, includ-
ing respiration, lipid metabolism, natural defense mecha-
nisms against viral and bacterial infections, and the induc-
tion of cytochrome P-450 enzymes that prevent adverse
physiological effects of ingested toxins [7]. Exogenous
Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods
sources of oxidizing radicals are numerous and include
some minerals (especially iron), radiation (including sun-
light), and cigarette smoke. Andlauer and Fiirst [9] dis-
cussed the antioxidative power of some of the phenolic
compounds in cereals, including phenolic acids, procyani-
dins, flavonoid compounds, and tocopherols and to-
cotrienols. In addition to their antioxidant properties, plant
phenols may induce phase II enzymes in the body, which
catalyze conversion of carcinogens to inert, excretable
substances [87].
Estrogenically active phenolic compounds, such as fig-
nans, are found in wheat, rye, oatmeal, and barley [96].
Resorcylic acid lactones, also known as plant estrogens,
occur in oats, barley, rye, wheat, and corn. In addition to
their antioxidant properties, plant hormones may protect
against breast and ovarian cancers by blocking the entry of
human estrogen into cells. Plant estrogens have been
shown to slow the reproduction of cells in the large intes-
tine and to prevent tumors from getting an established
blood supply by blocking angiogenesis [96].
Reportedly, the major functional antioxidants in wheat
bran are ferulic, vanillic, caffeic, and p-coumaric acids.
Combinations of phenolic acids may have antibacterial
and anticarcinogenic properties. Sorghum [21] and barley
[75] contain flavonoid substances called procyanidins.
Pearl millet contains the C-glucosylflavones vitexin, glu-
cosylvitexin, and glucosylorientin. Those compounds [18]
and probably other plant phenolic substances can interfere
with iodine metabolism, leading to goiter in humans and
animals.
VIII. ANTINUTRIENTS
A. Protease and Amylase Inhibitors
Compared with legumes, common antinutrient levels in
cereals are quite low. Although digestive enzyme (protease
and amylase) inhibitors have been identified in most cere-
als, they do not pose serious nutritional problems. Rye, trit-
icale, and barley contain higher levels of protease (trypsin)
inhibitor activity than other cereals [20]. In high-lysine
corn and barley, that activity is higher than in the corre-
sponding normal varieties. Bread wheats have nearly twice
as much trypsin inhibitor activity as other wheats. Howev-
er, that activity is much lower in cereals than in legumes.
For example, total protease inhibitor in barley normally is
about 0.45 g/kg, whereas in defatted soy flours it is more
than 32 g/kg [91].
B. Lectins
As in legumes, most cereals commonly consumed by hu-
mans contain glycoproteins called lectins. Many lectins
717
can bind to intestinal epithelial cells, where they may im-
pair nutrient absorption and cause damage that may allow
infiltration of bacteria into the blood stream. Although con-
siderable evidence indicates that legume lectins can be
harmful to humans, virtually no evidence exists of any sig-
nificant antinutritional effect from cereal lectins [72].
C. Tannins
Tannins (condensed polyphenols) in some sorghum culti-
vars, barley, and some millets impart an astringency that
can reduce the grains' palatability and, thereby, their con-
sumption, possibly providing a survival mechanism for the
seeds. Numerous feeding trials have shown reduced
growth rates, digestibilities, metabolizable energy, and
amino acid bioavailability in monogastric animals fed
high-tannin sorghum [48,66]. The antinutrient effect of
tannins is probably the result of their ability to interact
with dietary nutrients as well as with human digestive en-
zymes [48]. Various alkaline chemical treatments have
been shown to reduce the assayable tannin content of
seeds, but none appear to be completely satisfactory. Be-
cause tannins in seeds are concentrated in their outer lay-
ers, milling to remove the bran and testa is an effective
means to reduce tannin content. However, because nutrient
content and protein quality tend to decrease from the outer
to the inner regions of cereal grains, tannin reduction by
milling is achieved at the expensive of nutrient loss. Some
evidence shows that germination can reduce the amount of
measurable tannins, especially in legume seeds. That could
be the result of increased polyphenol oxidase activity dur-
ing germination and actual tannin destruction of or binding
of the tannins to seed components during the process that
simply makes them insoluble and unassayable [95]. Feed-
ing studies still are needed to measure the in vivo effects of
fermentation on the nutritional quality of tannin-rich seeds.
Griffiths [48] suggested that a combination of convention-
al breeding techniques and genetic engineering could be
used to optimize the nutritional and agronomic properties
of tannin-containing seeds.
D. Mycotoxins
At least 25% of the world's crops may be affected by my-
cotoxins, even small quantities of which can potentially
harm humans [36]. Aflatoxins, often found in wheat and
rice, as well as corn, are some of the most potent naturally
occurring carcinogens. FDA has set a maximum allowable
level of total aflatoxins at 20 ppb in those grains. Deoxyni-
valenol (DON), or vomitoxin, can cause acute gastroin-
testinal illness in humans, for whom an advisory level of 1
ppm has been set by FDA. Fumonisins, primarily found in
corn and corn products, are other mycotoxins that current-
718 Klopfenstein

ly are receiving much attention by scientists. Presently, bind starch, thereby making it less digestible and facilitat-
FDA is trying to determine if fumonisins should be regu- ing fermentation in the colon leading to increased bacterial
lated like aflatoxins or given a set of advisory levels simi- mass. Increase in fecal bulk caused by phytates appears to
lar to DON [36]. be small compared with the effects of fibers such as wheat
bran [109]. Phytate contents of some common cereals are
given in Table 8.
E. Phytates—Good, as Well as Bad?
Although phytates in cereals have long been considered as IX. ALLERGY TO CEREAL PROTEIN
antinutrients because of their ability to interact with di-
etary protein, starch, and minerals, some investigators Government health agencies all over the world are advis-
suggest that health benefits associated with dietary fiber, ing people to eat more grains. Cereals form the base of not
such as delayed nutrient absorption, decreased cancer risk, only the USDA food guide pyramid [115] (Fig. 2), but also
increased fecal bulk and lowering of blood lipids, also are a major part of the foundations of the Asian, Mediter-
may be attributed to phytates [109]. As mentioned previ- ranean, Latin American, and Vegetarian pyramids (provid-
ously, phytates in cereals can bind to starch or to digestive ed on the internet by the Oldways Preservation and Ex-
enzymes such as amylase, thereby delaying digestion and change Trust, a nonprofit food education group based in
absorption of starch and, consequently, flattening the Cambridge, MA; http://www.cyberdiet.com/foodfact).
blood glucose and insulin response. That could be espe- However, in some areas of the world, an abnormal im-
cially beneficial to diabetic and hyperlipidemic individu- munological response (allergy) to certain to cereal pep-
als. tides is not uncommon. Celiac disease, or gluten sensitive
Thompson [109] has reviewed several mechanisms by enteropathy, affects between 1 in 200-500 people in parts
which phytates could inhibit carcinogenesis. If starch di- of Ireland, Austria, and Scandinavia and 1 in 1000-5000 in
gestion is delayed in the the small intestine, fermentation North America and Europe [101]. The number of celiac
to short-chain fatty acids could occur, which might lower sufferers in the United States is estimated to be more than
the pH to a protective level. In addition, phytates can in- a half million, and at least a million Europeans are affected
hibit iron-mediated production of hydroxy (•OH) radicals by the disease [46]. For those people, addition of cereals,
and lipid peroxidation, thus preventing the initiation and especially wheat, to more and more food products could
promotion of some cancers. By chelating minerals such as lead to major health problems.
zinc, phytates can reduce cell proliferation. In fact, zinc Celiac disease apparently has a genetic basis, with at
supplementation has been shown to reverse phytate-in- least two genes being involved [63]. The etiology of the
duced cell proliferation reduction. Phytates can reduce the disease is puzzling, because the first symptoms can be-
activities of bacterial enzymes, such as [3-glucuronidase come manifest at any time during a person's lifespan, from
and mucinase, which have been associated with increased
carcinogenesis. In mice, phytates enhanced the natural
killer cell activity that was depressed by a colon carcino- TABLE 8 Phytate Content of Some Common
Cereal Foods
gen, but the mechanism of enhancement is not known.
Research has demonstrated that phytic acid added to rat mg Phytate/100 g
diets can lower plasma lipid levels [109]. However, wheat Cereal food edible portion
bran, which contains high levels of phytates, usually is not
Barley, pearled, boiled 164
reported to have a hypocholesterolemic effect. Thompson
Corn meal 943
[109] suggested that phytate may be an effective lipid-low- Corn (popped), plain 614
ering agent when it is added to the diets in the form of pu- Oatmeal, dry 943
rified sodium phytate. The effect of phytate on blood lipids Oatmeal, cooked 111
is thought to be related to its ability to bind zinc, thereby Rice, polished, dry 255
lowering the blood zinc-to-copper ratio; higher ratios sup- Rye flour 919
posedly predispose humans to cardiovascular disease. The Triticale flour 597
effect also may be related to the ability of phytates to re- Wheat flour, all purpose 282
duce plasma glucose and insulin responses; that could lead Wheat flour, whole wheat 845
to reduced lipid synthesis in the liver [109]. Some of the Wheat bran, crude (AACC) 3011
Wheat germ 4071
documented fecal bulking effects of dietary fiber may be
Yeast, baker's dry 495
the result of phytates associated with the fiber sources.
Phytates may increase fecal bulk through their ability to Source: Adapted from Ref. 50.
Nutritional Quality of Cereal-Based Foods
Fats, oils, & sweets
USE SPARINGLY
Milk, yogurt &
cheese group
2- 3 SERVINGS
Vegetable
group
3-5 SERVINGS
FIGURE 2 Food guide pyramid. (From Ref. 115.)
infancy to late adulthood. Some think that a viral or para-
sitic infection, or other stressful life event, may trigger the
disease in susceptible people.
All wheat gliadin protein fractions are toxic to those af-
fected. All types of wheat and its close taxonomic rela-
tives (such as spelt and kamut), rye [94], barley, and triti-
cale proteins initiate the common symptoms of diarrhea,
weight loss, abdominal pain, and anemia. Until recently,
oats were considered to be toxic to most celiac patients,
but new data from sound studies indicate that uncontami-
nated oats apparently do not adversely affect celiac pa-
tients [58,105]. However, because wheat, barley, and rye
often are grown in close proximity to oats and processed
using the same equipment, obtaining pure oats is difficult.
More data are needed to determine for certain that the oat
protein does not contain the celiac toxic amino acid se-
quence that is the basis of the problem. Tests have shown
that maize and rice are safe foods for celiac patients.
Grasses that are more closely related to those cereals than
to wheat, such as sorghum, millets, tef [108], Job's tears,
and wild rice, are likely to be safe, although not all have
been tested thoroughly [63]. Today, many celiac patients
have the vast resource of the interne to help them main-
tain a safe diet; a recent search netted 7500 sites. New in-
formation about the disease, testing procedures, associated
diseases, recipes and diet, and supports groups are easily
accessible there.
In the past few years a steady stream of exciting new
719
Meat, poultry, fish,
dry beans, eggs, and
nuts group
2-3 SERVINGS
Fruit group
2-4 SERVINGS
Bread, cereal,
rice, & pasta
group
6-11 SERVINGS
developments in cereal nutrition has flowed from scientists
to consumers. Sometimes data seem contradictory, but
gradually the physiological benefits of cereal-rich diets are
becoming clearer, and indications are good that more
health benefits of grains and grain components soon will
be revealed.
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25

NON OOD USES OF CEREALS

John W. Lawton
National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Peoria, Illinois

I. INTRODUCTION industrial application of organic raw materials, especially

those from farm products [5]. The chemurgy movement,
We generally take for granted all the industrial products
supported by influential industrialists, such as Henry Ford,
produced synthetically such as plastics, fibers, adhesives,
Irenee duPont, and Dr. Karl T. Compton, pressured Con-
dyes, paints, and pharmaceuticals. However, only a century
gress into funding research in chemurgy [4]. The Agricul-
ago these products were derived almost entirely from plants
tural Adjustment Act of 1938 authorized the U.S. Depart-
and animals [1]. Traditionally, cereals are used for either
ment of Agriculture (USDA) to build and staff four
food or animal feeds. However, cereals have also found
regional research laboratories. The purpose of these new
uses in nonfood areas throughout human history. There is
laboratories was to find new chemical and technical uses
evidence that cereal starch was used as an adhesive as early
and markets for farm commodities. A survey conducted af-
as 3500 B.C. [2]. Documents dating back to 130 B.C. describe
ter the 1938 Act showed that there were 10,000 research
a paste made from fine white flour and vinegar, which was
projects and 1,300 institutions interested in chemurgical
used as sizing for papyrus [2]. Corn flour was used to pow-
research. The research areas included all agricultural prod-
der men's wigs in the eighteenth century [3]. In the first half
ucts and residues. Research on nonfood uses of cereals in-
of this century, a great deal of research was done on using
cluded areas such as adhesives, plastics, fiber, and fuel.
cereals as industrial components for the production of vari-
Research was conducted on the use of vegetable oils and
ous materials. The first few decades of the twentieth centu-
crop residues to produce plastic-like materials and replace-
ry saw great improvements in the practices and mechaniza-
ments for rubber [6,7]. Any oil containing linolenic acid
tion of farming, resulting in increased agricultural
could be used to produce a synthetic rubber called Norepol
production. After the depression, world economic condi-
[8] and a coating material called Norelac [9]. Starch deriv-
tions changed, and demands for agricultural products de-
atives such as amylose triacetate were produced and made
creased. Large crop surpluses remained. In 1935, a group of
into film [10,11]. Corn gluten meal [12] and soybean meal
scientists and industrialists formed the Farm Chemurgic
[13] were mixed with phenol-formaldyde resins and used
Council [4]. This group proposed to channel the crop sur-
as plywood glue. Adding corn gluten meal or soybean
pluses into chemical industries for nonfood products. Thus
meal to the glue mix had a sparing effect on the phenol-
began the chemurgy movement.
formaldyde resins, and less of the resin was needed to get
Chemurgy is a branch of chemistry that deals with the
the same glueing effect. Zein found use as coatings, plas-
Names are necessary to report factually on available data; howev- tics, films, and binders [14]. Cereal starches were studied
er, the USDA neither guarantees nor warrants the standard of the to improve their already existing roll as adhesives, coat-
product, and the use of the name USDA implies no approval of the ings, and sizings in the paper and textile industries [15].
product to the exclusion of others that may also be available. After World War II, synthetic materials made from pe-

725
726 Lawton

troleum began to enter the industrial markets. The manu- has a higher starch content compared to that of other cere-
facture of virtually every industrial product except for pa- als (Table 1). Obviously, higher starch content would be of
per, which had once used plant and animal materials as greater value if the industrial product being manufactured
feedstocks, is now dominated by feedstocks made from was starch. Greater starch content is also important in the
petrochemicals. In the last decade, the two main industrial production of alcohol. In alcohol production, only the
uses of cereals were for the production of alcohol and starch content of the kernel that readily converts to glucose
starch. Any cereal can be used for the production of these is of value in fermentation. The other constituents of the
two products, but in the United States, the cereal of choice kernel end up as coproducts of the process.
is most often corn. Because of its relativy low and steady
cost, ready availability, and high starch content, corn is
II. ETHANOL PRODUCTION FROM
used predominantly in the United States for the production
CEREAL GRAINS
of alcohol and starch over other cereals. On average, the
cost for corn is lower than for the other starchy cereals Ethanol has been made since ancient times by the fermenta-
(Fig. 1). Although barley and oats have lower costs per tion of sugars. Ethanol can also be produced from polysac-
bushel, their costs per pound are not much different from carides if the polymers are broken down into sugars before
that of corn due to their low bushel weights. Another factor fermentation. As stated earlier, most ethanol produced in
in corn being the most important industrial cereal is that it the United States is made from corn, but any carbohydrate

10

8 - ---• Barley

I - Maize
Dollars per Bu

6 I 1,
/ - - Oats
/„ ../

4
1;1
- , - -• Sorghum

- - - m • Wheat
2

0 (n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 111111111I

89 90 I 91 I 92 93 94 95 I 96
Year

FIGURE 1 Price received by farmers for cereal grains in U.S. Data from National Agricultural Statistic Service.

TABLE 1 Average Composition of Cereal Grains (% dry weight basis)

Cereal Protein Fat Starch Fiber Ash Bu. Wt.

Wheat 12.2 1.9 71.9 1.9 1.7 60
Rye 11.6 1.7 71.9 1.9 2.0 56
Barley 10.9 2.3 73.5 4.3 2.4 47
Oats 11.3 5.8 55.5 10.9 3.2 34
Corn 10.2 4.6 79.5 2.3 1.3 56
Sorghum 11.0 3.5 65.0 4.9 2.6 57
Rice (brown) 8.1 1.2 75.8 0.5 1.4
Source: Ref. 108.
Nonfood Uses of Cereals 727

TABLE 2 Ethanol Yield from Cereal Grains duction of ethanol. U.S. ethanol production has a total an-
nual capacity of 1.58 billion gallons (Table 3). Archer
Average yields, Ethanol
1986-95 yield Average ethanol
Daniels Midland dominates the industry, producing almost
Cereal (bu/acre) (gal/bu) yield (gal/acre) half the domestic fuel alcohol. Six companies produce
more than 75% of the domestic fuel alcohol.
Wheat 36.4 2.6 95
Rye 27.3 2.6 71.0
A. Ethanol Processing
Corn 115.4 2.6 300.0
Oats 54.7 1.1 60 The technology used to produce ethanol from grain is well
Barley 53.6 1.6 86 established, and a detailed discussion of the process is be-
Sorghum 64.0 2.5 160 yond the scope of this text. The reader is directed to nu-
°Data from the National Agricultural Statistic Service. merous books on this subject [17-19].
During the fermentation process, yeast converts glucose
to ethanol. Before fermentation can take place, the corn or
any cereal has to be reduced to its glucose component. The
source can be used to produce ethanol. Probable yields two main processes used to prepare corn for fermentation
from various cereal grains are shown in Table 2. In 1997 it are wet and dry milling. About 60% of the ethanol pro-
is estimated that 425 million bushels of corn will be used to duced from corn is made in wet-milling plants [20]. The
produce more than one billion gallons of ethanol [16]. The remaining 40% is produced by dry-milling facilities. Dry-
greatest production of ethanol came in 1995 when nearly milling plants cost less to build and produce higher yields
1.4 billion gallons of ethanol were produced [16]. Over the of ethanol: 2.6 gal/bu compared with 2.5 gal/bu [20].
last 15 years there has been a 15-fold increase in the pro- Ethanol yields from wet-milling processing will always be

TABLE 3 U.S. Ethanol Producers

Annual capacity Feed Facility

Company Location (million gallons) stock type

Archer Daniels Midland Decatur, IL 771 Corn Wet mill

Archer Daniels Midland Peoria, IL Corn Dry mill
Archer Daniels Midland Cedar Rapids, IA Corn Wet mill
Archer Daniels Midland Clinton, IA Corn Wet mill
Archer Daniels Midland Walhalla, ND Corn Dry mill
Minnesota Corn Processors Columbus, NE 110 Corn Wet mill
Minnesota Corn Processors Marshall, MN Corn Wet mill
Cargill Blair, NE 100 Corn Wet mill
Cargill Eddyville, IA Corn Wet mill
Williams Bio-Energy Pekin, IL 100 Corn Wet mill
New Energy Co. of Indiana South Bend, IN 85 Corn Dry mill
Midwest Grain Products Atchison, KS 108 Grain Dry mill
Midwest Grain Products Pekin, IL Grain Dry mill
High Plains Corporation York, NE 68 Grain Dry mill
High Plains Corporation Colwich, KS Grain Dry mill
A. E. Staley Mfg. Co Loudon, TN 45 Corn Wet mill
AGP Hasting, NE 45 Grain Dry mill
Chief Ethanol Fuels Hasting, NE 40 Grain Dry mill
Nebraska Energy, L. L. C Aurora, NE 25 Grain Dry mill
Corn Plus Winnebago, MN 15 Corn Dry mill
CVEC Benson, MN 15 Corn Dry mill
24 Small producers (>15 Mgal/yr) 118 Note NA
TOTAL 47 facilities 1645

Note: Feedstock for small producers include cereals, potatoes, brewery waste, whey, sucrose, and trees.
Source: Bryan and Bryan, Inc., 1997.
728 Lawton

lower because of processing inefficiencies due to incom- The classical equation for the conversion of starch to
plete removal of the starch from the separated fractions ethanol is:
[21]. Refined starch fractions also must be supplemented
with nutrients for yeast growth. However, the down side of (C6111005), C61-11206 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + heat
starch + water glucose —> 2 ethanol + 2 carbon dioxide
the dry mill processing is that the coproducts are of less
value than those produced in wet-milling facilities (Table This simple flow equation actually represents a very
4). Lewis and Grimes [22] showed that wet milling yielded complex reaction, and constant care must be taken to elim-
$0.15 per gallon of ethanol higher coproduct value. inate contaminants so that alcoholic fermentation can take
After the initial particle size reduction step, the process place. The reaction produces two moles of ethanol and two
of alcohol production is approximately the same, regard- moles of carbon dioxide gas for every mole of glucose.
less of the starch source used. A generic outline of the Half the glucose is converted to carbon dioxide gas. This is
ethanol production process is given in Figure 2. a significant loss of energy value compared to the original
starch. However, some ethanol facilities do recover the
carbon dioxide gas and sell it to improve profitability. The
TABLE 4 Average Price of Ethanol Coproducts actual yield of ethanol from glucose is less than 50%,
which is represented in the equation, and is actually closer
Avg. pricey to 47-48% [23]. This is due to the following factors: the
Percent 1986-95 yeast uses some of the glucose for growth and reproduc-
Coproduct coproduct/bu ($/ton) Process
tion; other fermentation products are produced; and heat is
Distiller's dried grains 31.3 122.4 Dry generated. Some processing facilities capture the heat and
Carbon dioxideb 29.3 6.60 Dry recycle it, thereby recouping some of the heating costs.
Corn gluten feed 24.1 98.85 Wet Once the fermentation is complete, the alcohol needs to
Corn gluten meal 4.7 256.97 Wet be separated from the beer. This is done by distillation.
Corn oil 2.8 491.08 Wet Distillation is the most energy-intensive step in ethanol
Carbon dioxideb 28.2 6.60 Wet processing 1241 The process usually has two fractional
aData from Economic Research Service. distillation columns. The first column (stripping) is used to
bFrom Ref. 28. produce a distillate containing approximately 50% ethanol

Dry Mill Wet Mill

Corn t► Corn Steep

Degerm/Defiber Oil

Gluten separation Corn

gluten
meal
Enzyme Enzyme 0 Liquefy

Enzyme,/ Enzyme 0 Saccharify

Yeast Yeast 0 Ferment

Distill

Dehydrate

Ethanol Distiller's Ethanol Corn gluten

dried grains feed

FIGURE 2 Wet- and dry-milling processes for the production of ethanol. ddgs-Distiller's dried grain with solubles; cgf-corn gluten
feed; cgm-corn gluten meal. (From Ref. 109.)
Nonfood Uses of Cereals 729

from the beer (6-12% ethanol). The second column (refin- ethanol. When using the excise tax exemption, the prices
ing) uses the 50% distillate to produce a 95% ethanol prod- of ethanol and ETBE are competitive with gasoline, octane
uct. Because of the azeotrope formed from a mixture of boosters, and MTBE. Without the exemption, refiners and
water and ethanol, only a 95% ethanol product can be pro- blenders would use less expensive alternatives. The feder-
duced by standard distillation processes. If the alcohol is al excise exemption is scheduled to expire in the year
going to be mixed with gasoline, 100% ethanol (anhy- 2007. About every U.S. Congress has introduced a bill
drous) is needed. Water will phase separate from the since the exemption was passed that would eliminate the
gasoline-ethanol mixture if 95% ethanol is used. Tradition- exemption sooner. Some states (15, mostly in the Mid-
ally, ethanol has been dehydrated using a tertiary azeotrop- west) also have incentives for using or producing ethanol
ic distillation system. The third liquid can be benzene, cy- [28].
clohexane, trichlorethylene, or gasoline. In this type of
distillation, a tertiary mixture of water, ethanol, and the C. Comparison of Ethanol with Other Fuels
third liquid is distilled, leaving behind anhydrous ethanol.
Ethanol has been used for many years as a motor fuel. The
New methods are now replacing azeotropic distillations
production of industrial ethanol was widespread in Europe
that are less energy intensive and more environmentally
until after World War II. The alcohol was generally blend-
benign. These processes include the use of absorbent
ed with 75% gasoline [30]. Henry Ford designed his Mod-
agents [25,26], molecular sieves [23], or membrane-based
el-T so it would run on a variety of fuels, including ethanol
preevaporation for ethanol dehydration. Corn grits (ab-
[31]. Brazil, where ethanol has been blended with gasoline
sorbent) are currently used to dry approximately 740 mil-
since 1939, is the world leader in the use of ethanol as an
lion gallons of ethanol per year [27].
automobile fuel [32]. Brazil produces close to 3 billion
gallons of ethanol annually. About 15% of the vehicles run
B. Economics of Ethanol Production on neat ethanol and the rest use a 20% ethanol-gasoline
blend. In the United States ethanol-blended fuels represent
The cost of producing ethanol from fermentation depends
more than 11% of the total fuel sales [33].
on the following: the cost of corn, the value of coproducts,
There are many advantages in using ethanol over gaso-
the cost of energy and ingredients (yeast, enzymes, etc.),
line (Table 5). Ethanol has a higher octane number, thereby
the size of the plant, and the level of technology. The cost
increasing engine power and reducing noise. Ethanol burns
of production is broken down into three categories: capital,
cleaner, so it produces less carbon monoxide, oxides of ni-
feedstock, and operating [20]. Wet-milling facilities are
trogen, and total hydrocarbon emissions [33,34]. Ethanol
more capital intensive due to the fact that more expensive
does not contribute to an overall increase in carbon dioxide
milling equipment is required for steeping, degerming, and
in the environment, since carbon dioxide is needed for the
fiber removal versus just hammer milling for dry-milling
growth and development of the corn plant. In essence the
producers [20]. Estimates for required capital investment
carbon dioxide is recycled. There are also significant dis-
for dry-milling facilities (in 1993 dollars) range from
$2.00 to $2.50 per annual gallon of capacity for a 40 mil-
lion gal/yr plant to as low as $1.32 per annual gallon of ca-
TABLE 5 Fuel Properties
pacity for a 100 million gal/yr plant [28]. Capitol invest-
ment for a wet-milling facility with an annual capacity of 10%
100 million gal/yr is estimated to range from $1.90 to 2.50 Ethanol
per annual gallon of capacity [28]. In both types of facili- Category Ethanol blend Gasoline
ties, feedstock costs contribute 50-70% of the production Octane number 111 Note 91-100
cost of ethanol [28]. Stoichiometric A/F
Under current law, gasoline containing ethanol is ex- ratio 9 14 14.6
empted from part of the federal excise tax on gasoline. Energy (Btu/gal) 76,000 112,900 117,000
Fuel with ethanol contents of 5.7, 7.7, and 9.8-10% have a Heat of vaporization
partial exemption [28]. Typical fuels with 10% ethanol are (kJ/kg) 390 200 170
exempted by 5.4 cents of the 18.4 cents per gallon of gaso- Vapor pressure @
line [29]. Fuels containing oxygenate, which are made 100°F 2.5 8-16 9-13
from ethanol (ETBE), are also eligible for a partial exemp- Specific gravity @
60°F 0.79 0.73-0.76 0.72-0.75
tion of the federal excise tax on motor fuels. The excise tax
exemption is claimed by gasoline refiners and blenders, Note: May be the same as gasoline or may add 1.5-2 numbers.
who use ethanol and ETBE, and not the producers of Source: Ref. 34.
730
advantages in using ethanol instead of gasoline (Table 5).
Ethanol has lower vapor pressure than gasoline, which
may cause starting a car at moderately low temperatures
difficult. Because of the high heat of vaporization for
ethanol, it takes 3.7 times as much heat to vaporize ethanol
as compared with gasoline. Ethanol has lower energy per
gallon and higher specific gravity than does gasoline. This
means that a larger volume of ethanol will be needed to
travel the same distance.
In the United States, ethanol is blended with gasoline,
usually at the 10% (vol.) level. This blend contains about
3.5 wt.% oxygen. It is the increased oxygen in the fuel that
lowers carbon monoxide emissions. For some older vehi-
cles, emissions are lowered by 20% [35]. Ethanol has also
been approved for use in Reformulated Gasoline (RFG)
up to 2.0 wt.% oxygen level. To combat pollution, the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has man-
dated the use of RFG in certain high-smog areas of the
United States. Some formulations of ethanol and gasoline
do not meet RFG specifications for vapor pressure. Al-
though ethanol has a lower vapor pressure than gasoline,
some ethanol and gasoline blends have increased vapor
pressure. The increased vapor pressure is caused by dilu-
tion of the hydrogen bonding molecules of ethanol in the
final blend [35]. This makes the ethanol molecules behave
in the way their low molecular weight would suggest. Hot
starting is complicated because of the increased volatility,
which can lead to vapor-lock conditions. Blending ethanol
with gasoline can raise the overall octane value of the fuel.
Ethanol has long been known for the octane-boosting ef-
fect of gasoline, making ethanol an excellent additive for
improving engine performance and preventing engine
knock. When ethanol is blended with gasoline, the im-
provement in octane rating and reduction in air pollution
are roughly proportional to the fraction of ethanol in the
blend [35].
III. NONFOOD USES OF STARCHES
As stated earlier in this chapter, the second largest nonfood
use of cereals are in industrial starches. In the United
States the cereal most often used for starch production is
corn. Of the wet-milled starch produced in the United
States, about 54% goes to sweeteners, 27% goes to manu-
facture of fuel alcohol, and 19% is used as starch [36]. The
largest user of starch is the paper industry, which accounts
for 61% of the cornstarch uses. Food uses account for an-
other 15%; other nonfood uses, after paper, account for an
additional 14% of manufactured cornstarch. In the 1996-
97 crop year, it is estimated that total industrial cornstarch
use, not counting cornstarch used for fuel ethanol, will be
196 million bushels [37]. Using an average of 32 pounds
Lawton
of cornstarch per bushel, estimated total industrial use of
cornstarch is about 6.3 billion pounds for 1996-97.
A. Starch Used in Paper Production
Approximately 3.8 billion pounds of cornstarch went into
the manufacture of paper for the 1996-97 year. As with
ethanol production, the largest starch source for paper
manufacture in the United States is corn, but other starch
sources can and have been used. Most of the starch used in
paper manufacturing needs to be modified [38]. Starches
either can be modified at the paper mill or are purchased
premodified [38]. Starch use in paper manufacture is gen-
erally separated into three application areas: wet end inter-
nal sizing, surface sizing, and coating.
Wet end sizing can be divided among acid, alkaline, and
neutral sizes. Acid sizing is the oldest technology, but since
the late 1980s the industry has been shifting to alkaline siz-
ings [39]. Alkaline conditions yield stronger paper, which
allow mills to use more filler and less fiber, thereby saving
money. Fiber costs are estimated to be more than five times
as much as filler costs. By 1993, 70% of the 193 writing pa-
per mills in North America had converted to alkaline siz-
ings [39]. Increases in the use of alkaline sizing have led to
an increase in the use of starch. Before the switch to alka-
line sizing, manufacturers of uncoated paper used about 10
pounds of starch per ton of paper. Mills using alkaline tech-
nology average between 10 and 18 pounds of starch per ton
of paper [39]. The overall market for starch in wet-end siz-
ing in 1993 was around 500 million pounds [40]. Waxy
cornstarch holds half the market for paper starches used in
the alkaline process [39]. Starch is used in the wet end
process to improve strength and product appearance [41].
Starches used for sizing may be unmodified or specially
modified, uncooked, cooked before addition, or pregela-
tinized and dried. Cationic starches, which are starch de-
rivates, are the preferred wet end starch additives. By being
positively charged, they are attracted to the negatively
charged cellulose and the negatively charged fillers [41].
This increases fiber-to-fiber and fiber-to-filler bonding,
which thereby increases the strength and filler retention.
These starches provide strength and drainage, as well as im-
proved filler retention, in contrast to using native cornstarch
[42]. The cationic starches that are commercially available
are the tertiary amino or the quaternary ammonium deriva-
tives. Tertiary amino starches perform best under acidic
conditions; as the pH increases, the cationic charge decreas-
es. Quaternary ammonium starches do not lose their cation-
ic charge at alkaline pH, thus giving them an advantage
over tertiary amino starches in paper applications.
The largest volume of starch used in paper production is
for the purpose of surface sizing. Surface sizing improves
Nonfood Uses of Cereals
the paper's finish, gives a better writing and printing sur-
face, and minimizes lifting [43]. Sizing is accomplished by
running the paper through a sizing solution and then
through sizing rolls. These rolls press the sizing into the
paper and remove the excess from the surface of the paper.
To make the sizing solution, paper mills usually purchase
unmodified and unconverted starch and convert the starch
at the mill. Preconverted starches such as acid modified,
oxidized, acetylated, and hydroxyethylated, are also wide-
ly used. Cooked unmodified starch is too high in viscosity
for most sizing operations. Consequently, the viscosity of
the starch paste is usually reduced. This is normally done
at the mill by either enzyme conversion, thermal conver-
sion, or thermochemical conversion. The most common
problem with depolymerized starch sizing is its tendency
to retrograde or reassociate [44]. This can cause a discon-
tinuous film to be applied, resulting in off-quality paper.
Hydroxyethylated starch is the preferred modified starch
for use in surface sizing because of its strong resistance to
retrogradation. Because of this quality, films are clearer
and more flexible, with increased water holding. Viscosity
variations and storage problems are minimized when using
hydroxyethylated starch [44]. Low-level oxidized starch is
a product intermediate to hydroxethylated starch but with
superior sizing abilities compared to those of depolymer-
ized converted starches. However, if the finished paper is
repulped, oxidized starch contributes to the loss of pigment
and starch due to its negative charge [45]. New sizing solu-
tions containing a mixture of derivitized starches (cationic
and hydroethylated) are gaining popularity [44]. These
mixtures give some of the benefits of reduced retrograda-
tion and the added benefits of the cationic starch binding to
the paper fiber. The cationic starch also aids in fines reten-
tion during repulping [45].
Paper coating refers to the addition of pigment, adhe-
sives, and other materials to the surface of paper [46]. The
procedure is commonly called color coating. Some older
literature refers to the procedure as pigment coating. The
coating is done to provide whiteness, brightness, gloss, and
opacity, as well as an adequate surface for printing. Coated
paper production has grown faster in the last decade than
the production of paper overall [44]. This growth is prin-
cipally from the advertising supplements used in news-
papers. Coatings consist of the primary coating material
pigments and a starch adhesive that bond the pigments to
each other and to the paper. The pigments most commonly
used are clay, calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide, and
combinations of these. The adhesive must act as a binder
for the pigments but must also act as a carrier for the pig-
ments. Coating starches need to have lower viscosities
than other starches used in the paper industry, because
there needs to be a significant amount of starch present to
731
bind the pigments and still be applied as a film. Due to the
higher starch solids, there is a greater potential for ret-
rogradation to occur. Therefore, hydroxyethyl starch is an
excellent coating binder. However, higher cost usually lim-
its its use in conventional coatings. Most starches used in
coating applications have been enzymatically converted at
high solids. Continuously enzyme-converted starches have
lower viscosities and a more stable paste than those of
batch-converted starch of the same solid content [41].
Thermochemical conversion of starch with oxidants is ca-
pable of producing high-solids coating binder at low cost.
Preconverted oxidized starch is still used for paper coating.
However, its use is declining due to its undesirable proper-
ty of excessive pigment losses during repulping. Com-
pared with other binders such as latex, starch has a lower
adhesive strength but is usually less expensive. Some coat-
ings contain a mixture of starch and more expensive
binders to obtain a compromise between adhesive strength
and cost.
Corrugated board manufacturers are large consumers of
starch. They use starch not only to make paper, but also ad-
hesives. In 1993,29 4 million tons of container board were
produced in the United States [47]. Nearly all the corrugat-
ed board produced uses starch as the adhesive component.
Corrugators spend more money on starch than any other
raw material except for paper [41]. Corrugated board is a
combination of liners (flat) and fluted paper. The material
to be fluted is first softened by heat and moisture and then
passed through a corrugated roll to form the flutes [41].
Adhesive is applied to the tips of the flutes and to the face
of the liner. The two are brought together under heat and
pressure to form a single-facer web. A second liner is added
to the single-facer web under similar conditions to form a
flute double-backer used in shipping containers. Addition-
al single-facers can be applied to the double-backer to
build double and triple wall board. Various weights and
thicknesses of liners are used to produce corrugated board
of different strengths for various applications.
The material used to join two layers of corrugated board
is usually a two-phase starch adhesive [34]. The liquid or
carrier phase contains cooked (15-20% of total starch)
starch, sodium hydroxide, and water. The solid phase con-
tains raw starch, borax, and water. The total solids of the
adhesive are about 20%. The sodium hydroxide is added to
increase wetting of the cellulosic fibers and reduce gela-
tinization temperatures. The borax is used to cross-link the
carrier starch and increase water-holding capacity. When
the adhesive is applied to the heated flute tips, the raw
starch is gelatinized in place. Then the fluted tips are
brought into contact with the liner and passed through a
roll to bond the material permanently.
Large amounts of starch or starch-based adhesives are
732
used in the manufacture of bags and sacks. The three types
of bag adhesives used are side-seam, bottom paste, and
cross paste [48]. The formulations of the adhesives for the
three types of adhesive operation are quite different. During
production of a single-layer bag, the paper is formed into a
tube with the tube held together by side-seam adhesive.
This adhesive needs to be slow drying, nonpenetrating, and
made up of low solids having a high dry-bond strength [49].
Side-seam adhesives usually contain white dextrin or acid-
modified starch, so the viscosity will not be high. The adhe-
sive needs to have low viscosity because the adhesive is
pumped to the applicator. Bottom paste adhesive is used to
close the bottom of the bag. This adhesive needs to have
greater tack than the side-seam adhesive so as to keep the
bag from reopening at the bottom seam. The bottom paste
can be made from either white dextrin or starch and has a
much greater viscosity than do side-seam adhesives. The
cross paste is very similar to the side-seam adhesive and is
only used in the production of multiwall bags. Water resis-
tance of bag adhesives can be improved by the addition of
urea-formaldehyde or poly(vinyl alcohol) [34].
B. Starch-Based Adhesives
Adhesives are used in a variety of applications, with more
than 1000 different types of natural and synthetic adhe-
sives used to manufacture many materials. Natural adhe-
sives make up about 32% (or 4 billion pounds) of the ad-
hesive market. Natural adhesives are derived from corn
and wheat starches, lignin, vegetable oils, rubber, and ani-
mal-based proteins. Starch-based adhesives are the largest
segment of the natural adhesive market. In 1995, approxi-
mately 60% (2.4 billion pounds) of the natural adhesives
produced and consumed in the United States were derived
from corn and wheat starch [37]. Environmental concerns
have spurred the use of natural adhesives with better
biodegradability than their synthetic counterparts. The suc-
cess of some starch-based adhesives can be directly related
to solid-waste disposal problems and recycling operations.
Starch-based adhesives are now preferred in some types of
TABLE 6 Dextrin Production Parameters
Dextrin type Color
White White
Yellow Yellow or tan
British gum Yellow to dark brown
Source: Ref. 48.
Lawton
automated systems because of easy equipment cleaning
and flow characteristics.
Starches must be converted before they can be used as
adhesives. Methods of conversion include heating, oxida-
tion, alkali, and acid treatment. Dextrins are also a starch
conversion product. Dextrins are produced by dry-roasting
starch with an acid hydrolysis step [48]. Starches such as
potato, tapioca, and sago are generally easier to convert to
dextrins. However, due to the low cost of cornstarch, this
starch is most often used to produce dextrins in the United
States. Dextrins can be divided, based on their manufac-
ture, into three categories: white dextrins, yellow dextrins,
and British gums (Table 6). Dextrins are used as adhesive
components in bag manufacture, lamination, carton seals,
stamps, labels, envelope flaps, and tapes [48].
C. Other Uses of Starches
There are numerous other uses of starch that make up
many nitch markets. Starch is an excellent binder and is
used in the manufacture of charcoal briquettes, ceramics,
sand molds, gypsum board, crayons, and chalk [49]. The
amount of starch used as a binder in foundry applications
is expected to grow to 134 million pounds in 1997 [37]. By
using starch in ceramics, few hazardous air pollutants are
released during firing in contrast to the pollutants released
by bitumen, pitch, or lignin sulfate [50].
Starch has a long history in the textile industry, but the
volume used has declined as the industry has moved out of
the United States. About 80% of the starch consumed in
textiles is used as warp sizings [44]. Acid-modified starch
is the predominant starch used for warp sizing, although
some oxidized starch is also used. Various starches are
coated onto yarn to increase strength and abrasion resis-
tance during weaving, which are removed by washing (de-
sizing) the finished fabric [51]. Starches, starch deriva-
tives, and dextrins are also used for textile finishing. The
finishes are intended to improve the appearance, "feel,"
and draping qualities of the material [51]. Specialty starch-
es such as acetate and hydroxyethyl derivatives have found
uses as finishes [44]. Oxidized starches have also been
Degree of
Roasting Roasting polymerization
temp. (°C) time (h) (%)
120-130 3-7 20
135-160 8-14 20-50
150-180 10-24 >50
Nonfood Uses of Cereals
used as finishes, sometimes in aerosol cans for home use
[52].
Superabsorbents developed in the mid 1970s are starch-
based polymers such as hydrolyzed starch-grafted poly-
acrylonitrile (HSPAN), which can absorb hundreds of
times their weight in water [53]. Starch-based superab-
sorbents were first envisioned for use in medical and per-
sonal care products, such as hospital pads, wound dress-
ings, feminine napkins, adult incontinent pads, and diapers
[54]. A number of agricultural applications have also been
tried with good results. HSPAN has been used as a seed
coating and as coatings on roots of seedlings before trans-
planting. A further use is as a soil additive to increase the
water-holding capacity of marginal soils [54]. Superab-
sorbents have been used to remove water from organics
and are finding use in some fuel filters [54]. New classes of
starch graft copolymers are now capable of absorbencies
of up to 2000 times their weight in water.
Chemicals are produced from starch by either fermenta-
tion or biochemical production. Because starch yields pure
dextrose upon hydrolysis, it is now being used in many fer-
mentation processes. Chemicals produced from fermenta-
tion include acetic acid, citric acid, lysine, lactic acid, glu-
conic acid, and itaconic acid. The fermentation of glucose
to lactic acids, from a mass balance point of view, is better
than fermentation of glucose to ethanol. The molar yield of
lactic acid is two moles of lactic acid per mole of glucose
where commercial strains are used in anaerobic fermenta-
tion [55]. Fermentation of lactic acid does not produce car-
bon dioxide as does ethanol fermentation. The fermenta-
tion is very efficient, and typical commercial yields are
about 85-90% of a D, L- or L-lactic acid [56]. Some fer-
mentation losses occur due to cell metabolism. The main
difficulties in lactic acid manufacture are in the recovery
step. Other alcohols besides ethanol can also be fermented
from converted starch or glucose, such as butanol and iso-
propanol. Butanol and acetone can be produced by one of
the oldest industrial bacterial fermentation processes
(Weizman process) dating back to 1916 [58]. The yield of
solvent and the ratio of butanol and acetone varies depend-
ing on the bacterial species used. Acetic acid, butyric acid,
and ethanol are also produced during fermentation, but in
smaller concentrations. Today, acetone and butanol are
produced by a synthetic process that utilizes petrochemical
feedstocks. Other chemicals can also be fermented from
glucose, such as butyric acid, formic acid, and acetalde-
hyde [57].
Polyhydroxy compounds can be made from starch. Glu-
cose is the most common polyhydroxy compound obtained
from starch. Yields obtained from acid or enzymic depoly-
merization are about 90-95%. Glucose can be converted to
a variety of cyclic and acrylic polyols, aldehydes, ketones,
733
esters, and ethers [59]. The most widely used polyol made
from glucose is sorbitol. Sorbitol is produced by the hydro-
genation of glucose. Its functional properties (e.g., sweet-
eners, humectants, bulking agents) make it suitable for a
variety of applications. It is used in the manufacture of sur-
factants and emulsifiers for use in the food industry. Sor-
bitol is also used in the production of specialty polyethers
for urethane foam production. Current world production
capacity of sorbitol is about 2174 million pounds [60].
Other specialty polyols like methyl glucoside and allyl
glucoside can be synthesized from starch as well [59].
D. New and Future Uses of Starch
Since 1990, there has been a keen interest in replacing pe-
troleum-derived, disposable plastic articles with biode-
gradable polymers. Plastics intended for one-time use
such as food packaging are difficult to recycle and con-
stitute more than 17 billion pounds a year of the U.S. mar-
ket alone [52]. Because of starch's biodegradability, rela-
tive low cost, and ready availability, it has received
considerable attention as an additive to impart biodegrad-
ability.
Starch can be used to make plastic-like materials in
many ways. A loose-filled packaging material containing
95% starch was first introduced in 1990 [60]. Expanded
packaging foams (peanuts) are made by extruding moist
starch where water serves as the blowing agent. The origi-
nal foam was prepared from a slightly hydroxypropylated
high-amylose cornstarch [61]. A small amount of
poly(vinyl alcohol) was coextruded with the starch in the
presence of 16% moisture. The commercial loose-fill
foams on the market generally contain more than 90%
starch. Starch-based loose fill has now captured about
15-20% of the 90 million lb/yr loose-fill market [37].
Starch-based loose-fill foams have two main drawbacks:
(1) its resilience is not as good as that of expanded poly-
styrene (ESP), and (2) the bulk density of the starch-based
loose-fill is greater than that of EPS loose fill [62]. Greater
bulk densities of starch-based loose fill make it more ex-
pensive on a per volume basis. It also adds more weight to
the freight cost because more of it is needed to cover the
same volume. Starch-based loose fill does have the market
advantage of being water dispersible and biodegradable.
Starch-base loose fill also has the unexpected property of
being antistatic [63]. Applications for antistatic loose fill
include use in packaging of static-sensitive electronic
components, foods, and drug packaging.
Thin-walled molded articles such as plates, cups, trays,
and package cushioning (Fig 3) can be prepared by cook-
ing starch in a mold [64]. This technology is similar to
waffle manufacture in the food industry. An article is pre-
734
FIGURE 3 Starch foamed articles manufactured by baking technology.
pared by feeding an aqueous starch slurry into a mold, with
subsequent heating and evaporation of the water. Molded
articles can be made that contain 100% starch, but plant
fibers and plasticizer can be added to improve the physical
properties. Some items are already on the market in Eu-
rope. Potato is the starch source most often used in the
manufacture of these foamed articles, because potato
starch is less expensive in Europe where the manufactur-
ing plant is located. Cereal starches can be used where eco-
nomically feasible.
Gelatinized starch, referred to as destructurized starch
[65], is used to make starch-based plastic. The term "de-
structurized" describes starch extruded at 5-30% moisture
under elevated pressures and temperatures that are above
its glass transition temperature and melt temperature [66].
Starch that is prepared in this manner is thermoplastic and
will flow upon heating. The thermoplastic starch resins
usually contain various synthetic polymers [poly(vinyl al-
cohol), poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid), and poly(ethylene-
Lawton
co-vinyl alcohol)], plasticizers, and lubricants that im-
prove the properties of the resin and/or the properties of
the final product. Thermoplastic starch resins generally
contain at least 60% starch [67]. These types of starch-
based resins can be injection-molded into cutlery and golf
tees as well as blown into leaf and lawn compost bags and
mulch. They can be also blow-molded into bottles and oth-
er containers [60]. Unfortunately, starch-based resins have
not made much of an impact in the market. This is mostly
due to their greater cost and their physical properties being
inferior to those of comparable synthetic resins.
Granular starch has been used as a filler in some types of
plastic since the 1970s. Generally, starch is added to allow
for or increase the biodegradation and/or lower the cost of
the final plastic product. In these systems where starch is a
filler in a composite, starch is diluting the resin, which is the
contiguous phase. This can lead to the reduction of some of
the physical properties of the composite, such as tensile
strength, impact strength, and elongation [67]. The reduc-
Nonfood Uses of Cereals
tion of tensile properties usually limits granular starch con-
tents in composites to 40% or less [67]. Much of the early
work was done using starch as a filler in nonbiodegradable
synthetic polymers like polyethylene and polyvinyl chlo-
ride [68-70]. While it was known that synthetic resins
would not biodegrade, it was conjectured that biodegrada-
tion of the starch would lead to a destruction of the compos-
ite. Now pro-oxidants are added to the composites to pro-
mote the degradation of the synthetic polymers.
In the early 1990s new biodegradable polymers began
to be produced, like poly([3-hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxy-
valerate), poly(E-caprolactone), and poly(lactic acid).
These new polymers had excellent properties but were
more expensive than their nonbiodegradable counterparts.
Because of starch's biodegradability and low cost, it was
naturally thought of as a possible filler in these new poly-
mers to reduce the overall cost of the resins [71-74]. These
filled composites suffered from the same problem as the
nonbiodegradable filled synthetic polymers, i.e., the reduc-
tion of tensile properties. Treating the starch granule to im-
prove compatibility between the starch granule and the hy-
drophobic polymers has shown promise in allowing
greater percentages of starch to be used as filler [72]. How-
ever, treating the granules increases the cost of the result-
ing resins. New polymers are now being developed that
have an affinity for starch, which allows for starch loading
in the composite of greater than 50%. These new starch-in-
corporated resins will hopefully be able to compete in
price and properties with traditional resins and yet be
biodegradable.
In the United States, the only other cereal used besides
corn to produce substantial quantities of starch is wheat.
Wheat starch is a coproduct of the manufacture of wheat
gluten. About 1% of the total wheat demand goes into non-
food uses [74]. In 1994, about 745 million pounds of wheat
starch were produced in the United States [75]. Wheat
starch can be used in fermentation, in biodegradable plas-
tics, in adhesives, in paper, as both textile and paper siz-
ings, as well as being modified. In short, wheat starch can
be used in place of cornstarch in most cases. Due to its
lower gelatinization temperature, wheat starch has an ad-
vantage over cornstarch as a corrugated box adhesive.
Wheat starch is also preferred for laundry sizing, because
it produces a stiffer finish at lower temperatures than does
cornstarch. Due to the size of the B starch granule (5-10
pm) fraction in wheat starch, this starch can be used in car-
bonless carbon paper [76]. The small granules are slightly
larger than the ink granules protecting the ink from prema-
ture rupture. When a pen is pressed down, the starch gran-
ule is broken, which ruptures the ink granules, and a copy
of the writing is obtained.
735
IV. NONFOOD USES OF
CEREAL PROTEINS
As with starch, the cereal proteins most often used in non-
food applications come from corn, followed by wheat.
Other cereal proteins could be used in most of the nonfood
applications of corn and wheat proteins. However, they are
seldom used because of economic considerations. The
largest users of cereal protein (nonfood for humans) are the
animal feed and pet food industries. The high-protein cere-
al coproducts that are used by the animal industry are
wheat gluten, corn gluten meal, distillers' dried grains, and
corn gluten feed. Because of its cost, most nonfood wheat
gluten goes into pet food. From an ingredient point of
view, distillers' dried grains and corn gluten feed do not
have much industrial practicality, other than for animal
feeds. Distillers' dried grains and corn gluten feed make
great animal feed additives, but their high-protein label is
somewhat misleading. They are higher in protein content
than corn, but corn gluten feed and distillers' dried grains
are usually sold at 21% and 29-33% protein, respectively.
Wheat gluten and corn gluten are sold at 70-80% and 60%
protein, respectively, and corn gluten could be sold at high-
er protein contents. Distillers' dried grains and corn gluten
feed are also more heterogeneous than wheat gluten and
corn gluten. Both contain bran and germ, and distillers'
dried grains contain spent yeast cells. Industrial applica-
tions need higher protein contents to maximize the proper-
ties of the protein.
Zein, along with soy protein, has the most extensive in-
dustrial history of any of the vegetable proteins. Patents in-
volving zein and corn gluten date back almost 100 years
[77]. Zein is the only isolated protein from corn. It is ex-
tracted from corn gluten meal by using hot aqueous iso-
propanol as the solvent [78]. Aqueous ethanol can also be
used. The solution is chilled to about —15°C to precipitate
the zein. Commercial production of zein started in the
1930s and is still in commercial production. Sales of zein
peaked in the United States in the late 1950s at around 15
million pounds annually [79]. Today, worldwide produc-
tion of zein is around 1 million pounds a year. The reason
for this decrease is that zein is no longer used in several
products that once were major outlets. Excellent fibers were
once produced from zein by spinning the zein from aqueous
hydroxide solutions and curing the fiber with formaldehyde
[80,81] (Fig. 4). These fibers were commercialized by Vir-
ginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation under the trade name
Vicara in 1948 [82]. At the time Vicara was being produced,
the fiber was more expensive than cellulosic fibers but less
expensive than wool [83]. The fiber was used in woven or
knitted fabrics either alone or with other fiber (Fig 5). The
736
FIGURE 4 Textile fibers from zein. (From Ref. 78.)
fiber was said to add draping qualities to rayon, warmth to
nylon, and softness to wool [82,83]. In the most productive
year, 1954, about 4 million pounds of zein were sold for the
manufacture of Vicara [78]. Zein was used for many years
as backing in photographic films. Zein has also been used as
a replacement for shellac. During World War II when shel-
lac was in short supply, nearly 2 million pounds of zein
were sold for that purpose [78]. Zein was used in large
quantities as a paper coating to provide grease and scuff-re-
sistance [84]. Zein has also found uses as a binder for cork,
replacement of casein in the manufacture of buttons, re-
placement of shellac for phonograph records, and as a non-
staining adhesive [79]. Today, zein's major uses include in
edible coatings on candies, nuts, and confections, and as a
coating for pharmaceutical tablets [85].
Environmental concerns over the utilization of non-
biodegradable materials and manufacturing processes of
some synthetics have led to a reanalysis of cereal proteins
for industrial uses. New investigations on the properties of
zein and wheat gluten films are now beginning to show up
Lawton
in the literature [86,87]. A reexamination of the use of zein
and wheat gluten in molded plastic items is also taking
place [88,89]. Adhesives and glues are being tested that in-
clude wheat gluten as an ingredient [90,91]. Many patents
have recently been granted for new uses of wheat gluten,
which include use in the following: frost-resistant con-
crete, detergents, cosmetics, cat litter, ceramics, and dry-
cell batteries [74]. Many opportunities now exist for ex-
panded uses of cereal proteins in nonfood applications.
Some applications have been shown to work in the past.
The economics of using cereal proteins have to be im-
proved and the advantages of using cereal proteins must be
more fully disclosed before the opportunities of using ce-
real proteins can be truly realized.
V. INDUSTRIAL USES OF CEREAL OILS
As was the case for starch and protein, all cereals could be
used as an oil source, but for economic reasons the only
cereal used for major oil production in the United States is
Nonfood Uses of Cereals 737

Vicara is the miraculous new textile

fiber produced from protein by Vir-
ginia-Carolina Chemical Corporation.
Vicars is very similar in many ways
to wool—a natural protein fiber. liut
Vicara has important advantages-
luxurious, cashmere-like appearance...
soft, comfortable feel...high absorp-
a
tiveness ...moth and mildew resistance
shrink like uool.
and it does not
weave and
Vicara is easy to spin,
and it blends readily with 01 her
dye. such as nylon, rayon, wool and
fibers.
cotton. Many of the things you wear
d use-- suits, dresses, sport clothes,
't goods, hosiery, upholstery fabrics.
e will fieme rto you in better
y at El lowiii'Price because of the
"the fiber than
int of Vicara.
blend r ,

FIGURE 5 Display of 40% Vicara, 60% wool sweaters in Peoria store window, 1951.

corn. Corn is not considered an oilseed. On a percentage
basis, corn has low oil content (4.6%) (Table 1). However,
since the amount of corn produced and processed is so
large, the total amount of oil produced is very high (2.2 bil-
lion pounds in 1995). Corn oil production is second only to
soy oil production in the United States. Most of the corn
oil produced is used for food purposes. In 1989, it was es-
timated that only 1 million pounds were used for industrial
purposes [92].
Corn oil has a fatty acid content similar to that of soy oil
and has been used in similar industrial applications. Indus-
trial applications of corn oil include pharmaceuticals, cos-
metics, coatings, and vitamins. Corn oil is a relative heavy
oil that is not readily absorbed by the skin. Therefore, it is
used in cosmetics as an ingredient in hair and skin condi-
tors, in makeup preparation, and as an occlusive agent
[93]. Soapstock, a byproduct of corn oil refining, is used in
the manufacture of soap and associated products. Smaller
quantities of corn oil are used in paints and varnish, chem-
icals and insecticides, and textiles. Like soy oil, corn oil
can be classified as a semi-drying oil because of its iodine
values [94]. However, it has much less linolenic acid than
does soy oil, rendering it less desirable as a drying oil. Sul-
fonated corn oil has applications in tanning and leather
processing.
Like soy oil, the fatty acids that make up corn oil are
mainly palmitic (10%), oleic (23%), and linoleic (62%)
acid. Modified corn is being developed to produce oil with
higher oleic acid content [95]. This modified oil is mainly
being produced for the food industry because of its health
benefits. However, high-oleic acid oils would also be of in-
dustrial interest to provide feedstock for the production of
plastics, surfactants, and lubricants [96]. Due to the simi-
larity of its fatty acid composition with soy oil, corn oil has
been mentioned as a possible ingredient in biodegradable
printing inks [97].
Rice bran oil, also known as rice oil, is produced as a
by-product of the rice-milling industry. The technology for
738
producing the oil is relatively new, being first addressed 3.
only 50 years ago [98]. Not surprisingly, rice oil is used ex-
tensively in Asian countries [99,100]. Because of econom-
ics, rice oil production in the United States was stopped in 4.
the early 1980s [98]. Renewed interest in rice oil in the
United States has caused it to be regarded as a possible ex-
port commodity [101] and health food oil [102]. A new 5.
productions facility has recently opened in the United
States to extract rice bran [103]. Crude rice oil is not suit- 6.
able for edible purposes due to its high free fatty acid con-
tent. Currently, a major portion of the oil is extracted from 7.
unstabilized bran, which can lead to the crude oil having a
20-70% free fatty acid content [104]. Crude rice oil is used 8.
for industrial purposes in many developing countries as an
ingredient in soaps, anticorrosive agents, mold-release 9.
agents, and sulfonated oils for leather finishing [104]. The
10.
by-products from oil refining are used in soap manufac-
ture, cosmetics, food wraps, polishing agents, and emulsi- 11.
fying agents [98]. Refined rice oil is used as a cooking oil
in Japan and is sold at a premium [98]. In the United 12.
States, rice oil was previously sold as an industrial oil, with
some going to health food stores. New nutritional claims 13.
about the cholesterol-lowering effects of rice oil [105]
have increased the demand for this oil as a food oil in the 14.
United States. The estimated U.S. market was believed to
be 2-2.5 million pounds in 1991 [98].
15.
Oils from wheat and oats are now being used in the new
and growing natural ingredient cosmetic industry. These
16.
oils, along with corn and rice oil, are used in shampoos, lo-
tions, and conditioners [93,106,107]. The rationale for us- 17.
ing natural fats and oils is the belief that the lipids from
natural sources are similar to lipids found in human skin. 18.
This notion is not valid, but the popularity of these sub-
stances rests in part on the mystique of using natural lipids 19.
on the body [93], along with the cosmetics industries' in-
terest in convincing the public to use their products. Natur-
al oils do provide at least two clinically important benefits:
20.
occlusivity and the presence of essential fatty acids [93].
Occlusivity refers to the ability of a material to create a
21.
film on the skin surface that interferes with the evaporation
of moisture from the skin. The essential fatty acid, linoleic
acid, found in high levels in cereal oils, has been shown to 22.
give therapeutic skin benefits in some cases.
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26
FERMENTATION AND MICROBIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN
CEREAL FOODS
Pierre Gelinas and Carole McKinnon
Food Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, St. Hyacinthe,
Quebec, Canada
I. INTRODUCTION
Almost any food can be produced by fermentation of cere-
als (e.g., wheat, barley), leguminous plants (e.g., soya,
beans), vegetables (e.g., cabbage, cucumbers), tubers (e.g.,
cassava), fruits (e.g., grapes, apples), milk, meat, or fish.
The two main reasons to ferment food are (1) to improve
its keeping properties against the attack of unacceptable
microorganisms and (2) to create foods with better flavor,
aroma, and/or texture through acceptable production of
acids, alcohols, aromatic compounds, and others by mi-
croorganisms.
Cereals are a rich source of starch; they do not contain
much water and are one of the easiest food sources to pre-
serve (compared, e.g., to milk or meat). Historically, natural
transformation of cereals was obtained by the action of mi-
croorganisms naturally present in air, grain, and other in-
gredients. In antiquity, what was considered to be an act of
the gods was clearly the effect of microorganisms invisible
to the naked human eye. Various fermented cereal foods are
consumed throughout the world: a list is presented in Table
1; representative microorganisms associated with these
foods are shown in Table 2. A more complete description of
fermented foods, including cereals, was made by Beuchat
[1], Steinkraus [2], and Campbell-Platt [3].
This chapter briefly reviews major fermentation mi-
croorganisms and processes applied to the commercial
preparation of cereal-based food products, namely, bread,
beer, whiskey, soy sauce, and miso. Table 3 outlines the
most important characteristics of these processes.
741
II. MICROORGANISMS
A. Fermentative Microorganisms
1. Mixed and Pure Cultures
Natural cereal fermentations involve a mixture of two or
more organisms, which consists of known and often
unidentified species of bacteria, yeasts, and molds. In con-
trast to natural processes, certain commercial fermenta-
tions (e.g., baker's yeast production, ethanol production)
are carried out with pure cultures (preparations with only
one strain of microorganism). Mixed fermentations nor-
mally occur in food preparations even when started with
pure culture unless microorganisms naturally present in
medium have first been removed, usually by heat treat-
ment. This approach is suitable for commercial fermenta-
tion processes where the media are sterilized prior to inoc-
ulation with pure cultures. In food fermentations generally
no heat treatment is applied to milled grains before their
fermentation. Consequently, even when the starter of fer-
mentation is a pure culture, naturally present microorgan-
isms contribute to the characteristics of fermented foods.
The interior portion of the grain is normally sterile.
During milling, microorganisms present on the outside of
the grain will spread throughout the flour fractions. Hence
the more complete the flour, the more organisms it con-
tains. When there is sufficient water present in the cereal-
based medium, the most active and/or numerous microor-
ganism species will attack the primary grain components
generating compounds that may be transformed by another
742 Gelinas and McKinnon

TABLE 1 List of Foods Prepared from Fermented Cereals

Food name (synonym

Cereal or related food) Food type (characteristics) Area Main microorganism(s)

Barley Acid soup (braga, Drink (sour) Europe Lactic acid bacteria
kiesel, zur)
Beer (barley wine, Alcoholic beverage Europe, America Saccharomyces cerevisiae
iambic)
Breada Bread Europe Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Lactobacillus spp.
Enjeraa (injera) Pancake (sour) Ethiopia Candida milleri, Micrococcus spp.,
Bacillus spp.
Miso Condiment (salted paste) Japan Aspergillus oryzae, Lactobacillus
delbrueckii, Zygosaccharomyces
rouxii
Tallaa (tella) Alcoholic beverage Ethiopia Unknown
(beer-like)
Vinegar Condiment (sour) Europe, America Acetobacter spp.
Whiskey Alcoholic beverage America, Northern Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(distilled) Europe, Japan
Yakjua (maggally, Alcoholic beverage (sour; Korea Aspergillus usamii, Saccharomyces
takju) beer- or wine-like) cerevisiae, Hansenula spp.
Corn Arepa Bread-like South America Unknown
Broa Bread-like Portugal, Spain, Italy Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Lactobacillus spp.
Bus aa (busa) Alcoholic beverage or Kenya Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
porridge Lactobacillus plantarum
Chicha Alcoholic beverage South America Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
(cider-like) Lactobacillus spp.
Enjeraa (injera) Pancake (sour) Ethiopia Candida milleri, Micrococcus spp.,
Bacillus spp.
Jamin-bang Bread-like Brazil Yeast, bacteria
Kaanga-kopuwai Dough-like New Zealand Unknown
Kaffir (bantu, sorghum Alcoholic beverage Africa Lactic acid bacteria, Saccharomyces
beer) (beer-like) cerevisiae
Kenkey (abele, akasa, Boiled dough (porridge) Ghana Yeasts, bacteria, molds
akple, banku, koko,
kpekple)
Mahewub (mageu, Drink (sour) South Africa Leuconostoc mesenteroides,
magou) Lactobacillus delbrueckii,
Lactobacillus spp.
Munkoyo (Zambian Alcoholic beverage Zambia Unknown
beer) (beer-like)
Ogi (agidi, atole, uji) Porridge (yoghurt-like) Africa, Latin America Lactobacillus plantarum, yeasts
Pito Alcoholic beverage Nigeria Leuconostoc spp., Lactobacillus spp.,
(sweet-sour; beer-like) Saccharomyces spp., Candida spp.,
Geotrichum candidum
pozot Dough (liquid; sour) Mexico Agrohacterium azotophilum,
Aerobacter aerogenes, Geotrichum
candidum, Trichosporon cutaneum,
Candida spp.
Rabdib (rabadi) Mush (slightly sour; made India Pediococcus acidilactici, Bacillus
with buttermilk) spp., Micrococcus spp.
Tallaa (tella) Alcoholic beverage Ethiopia Unknown
(beer-like)
Fermentation and Microbiological Processes 743

TABLE 1 Continued

Food name (synonym Food type

Cereal or related food) (characteristics) Area Main microorganism(s)

Tape (lao-chao, Paste (sweet-sour; Indonesia, China Arnylomyces rouxii, Endomycopsis

madhu) alcoholic) burtonii, Rhizopus chinensis,
Endomycopsis spp.
Tesguino Alcoholic beverage Mexico Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bacillus
(slurry; beer-like) megaterium
Urwagaa Alcoholic beverage (sour Kenya Unknown
porridge; made with
banana)
Whiskey (bourbon) Alcoholic beverage America Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(distilled)
Yakjua (maggally, Alcoholic beverage (sour; Korea Aspergillus usamii, Saccharomyces
takju) beer-or wine-like) cerevisiae, Hansenula spp.
Millets Acid soup (braga, Porridge (sour) Europe Lactic acid bacteria
kiesel, zur)
Bagni Drink Caucasus Unknown
Braga Drink Romania Unknown
Busaa (busa) Alcoholic beverage or Kenya Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
porridge Lactobacillus plantarum
Darassum Drink Mongolia Unknown
Enjeraa(injera) Pancake (sour) Ethiopia Candida milleri, Micrococcus spp.,
Bacillus spp.
Ikigage Alcoholic beverage (sour) Rwanda Unknown
Kaffir (bantu, sorghum Alcoholic beverage Africa Lactic acid bacteria, Saccharomyces
beer) (beer-like) cerevisiae
Mbege Alcoholic beverage (sour Tanzania Unknown
porridge-type; made
with banana)
Munkoyoa (Zambian Alcoholic beverage (mild; Zambia Unknown
beer) beer-like)
Ogia (agidi, atole, uji) Porridge (yoghurt-like) Africa, Latin America Lactobacillus plantarum, yeasts
Tallaa (tella) Alcoholic beverage Ethiopia Unknown
(beer-like)
Tape (lao-chao, Paste (sweet-sour; Indonesia, China Amylomyces rouxii, Endomycopsis
madhu) alcoholic) burtonii, Rhizopus chinensis,
Endomycopsis spp.
Thumba (bojah) Alcoholic beverage (mild) Bengal Endomycopsis fibuliger
Urwaga Alcoholic beverage (sour
porridge; made with Kenya Unknown
banana)
Oats Acid soup (braga, Porridge (sour) Europe Lactic acid bacteria
kiesel, zur)
Bread' Bread Europe Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Vellieb Porridge (sour) Finland Lactobacillus acidophilus,
Bifidobacterium bifidus,
Lactobacillus spp.
Rice Anka (aga-koji, Color additive Asia Monascus purpureus
ang-kak, beni-koji,
red rice)
Balao-balao Condiment (made with Philippines Yeasts, lactic acid bacteria
shrimps)
Burong dalag Preserved fish (sour) Philippines Pediococcus cerevisiae, Lactobacillus
plantarum
744 Gelinas and McKinnon

TABLE 1 Continued

Food name (synonym Food type

Cereal or related food) (characteristics) Area Main microorganism(s)

Hong-ru (lao-hong) Alcoholic beverage (red; Taiwan, China Rhizopus javanicus, Saccharomyces
wine-like) formosensis, Monascus purpureus
Hopper (appa) Bread-like (sour) Sri Lanka Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Idli (dhokla, dosai, Bread-type (sour; made India Leuconostoc mesenteroides,
dosas, doza) with beans) Enterococcus faecalis
Kanjia Sauce (sour; made with India Hansenula anomala
carrots)
Madhu Alcoholic beverage (light; India Unknown
wine-like)
Miso (kochujang, Condiment (salty paste) China, Japan, Aspergillus oryzae, Lactobacillus
tauco) Indonesia, Korea delbrueckii, Zygosaccharomyces
rouxii
Puto Bread-like (sour) Philippines Leuconostoc mesenteroides,
Enterococcus faecalis,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Ruhi Alcoholic beverage India Rhizopus spp., Mucor spp., yeasts,
(strong) lactic acid bacteria
Sake (hua-tiao, rice Alcoholic beverage Japan, Taiwan, China Aspergillus oryzae, Saccharomyces
wine, shao-hsing, (strong; wine-like) sake, Lactobacillus sake,
yellow wine) Pseudomonas nitroreducens
Sho-chiu (rice liquor) Alcoholic beverage Japan, Taiwan Rhizopus javanicus, Saccharomyces
(strong) peka
Sierra rice (amarillo, Seasoning (solid) Ecuador Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus
arroz fermentado, candidus, Bacillus subtilis
requemado, yellow
rice)
Tape (brem, lao-chao, Alcoholic paste, cake or Malaysia, Indonesia, Amylomyces rouxii, Endomycopsis
madhu, peugeum, beverage (sweet-sour) China burtonii, Rhizopus chinensis,
tapai) Endomycopsis spp.
Alcoholic beverage
Tapuy (sweet-sour; wine-like) Philippines Endomycopsis fibuliger, molds
Torani Seasoning for vegetables India Hansenula anomala, Candida
guilliermondii, Candida tropicalis,
Geotricum candidum
Vinegar Condiment (sour) Asia Acetobacter spp.
Yakjua (maggally, Alcoholic beverage (sour; Korea Aspergillus usamii, Saccharomyces
takju) beer or wine type) cerevisiae, Hansenula spp.
Rye Bread (pumpernickel, Bread (sour) Europe, America Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
rAgbrod) Lactobacillus spp.
Kvass Drink Eastern Europe Unknown
Whiskey Alcoholic beverage Northern Europe, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(distilled) America
Sorghum Burukutu Alcoholic beverage (sour; Nigeria Lactic acid bacteria, yeasts
creamy)
Busaaa (busa) Alcoholic beverage or Kenya Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
porridge (sour) Lactobacillus plantarum
Enj era' (injera) Pancake (sour) Ethiopia Candida milleri, Micrococcus spp.,
Bacillus spp.
Ikigage Alcoholic porridge (sour) Rwanda Unknown
Kaffir (bantu, sorghum Alcoholic beverage Africa Lactic acid bacteria, Saccharomyces
beer) (beer-like) cerevisiae
Fermentation and Microbiological Processes 745

TABLE 1 Continued

Food name (synonym

Cereal or related food) Food type (characteristics) Area Main microorganism(s)

Kisraa (aseeda) Flat bread; porridge (sour) Sudan Lactobacillus spp., Acetobacter spp.,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Merissa Drink Sudan Saccharomyces spp.
Mwenge Alcoholic beverage Uganda Unknown
Ogi (agidi, atole, uji) Porridge (yoghurt-like) Africa, Latin America Lactobacillus plantarum, yeasts
Pito Alcoholic beverage Nigeria Leuconostoc spp., Lactobacillus spp.,
(sweet-sour; beer-like) Saccharomyces spp., Candida spp.,
Geotrichum candidum
Sekete Alcoholic beverage Nigeria Unknown
Talla (tella) Alcoholic beverage Ethiopia Unknown
(beer-like)
Urwaga Alcoholic beverage (sour Kenya Unknown
porridge; made with
banana)
Soybeans Chee-fan Curd-like China Mucor spp., Aspergillus glaucus
Chinese yeast Side dish China Molds, yeasts
Hama-natto Condiment, snack Japan Bacillus natto, Aspergillus oryzae
Streptococcus spp., Pediococcus spp.
Kenima Snack Nepal, India Unknown
Ketjap Condiment Indonesia Aspergillus oryzae
Meitauza Cake-like China, Taiwan Actinomucor elegans
Meju Condiment Korea Aspergillus oryzae, Rhizopus spp.
Miso (chiang, Condiment (salty paste) China, Japan, Aspergillus oryzae, Lactobacillus
doenjang, Indonesia, Korea delbrueckii, Zygosaccharomyces
kochujang, tauco) rouxii
Natto Cake-type (strong Japan Bacillus natto
ammonia odor)
Soy sauce (kanjang, Condiment (liquid) Asia, America Aspergillus oryzae, Pediococcus
kecap, kicap, shoyu, halophilus, Lactobacillus
taosi) delbrueckii, Zygosaccharomyces
rouxii, Candida spp.
Sufu (tahuri, taokaoan, Condiment (curd) China, Tai wan Actinomucor elegans, Mucor hiemalis,
tao-hu-yi) Mucor spp.
Tairu (taire) Soybean milk Malaysia Lactic acid bacteria
(yoghurt-like)
Taotjo Condiment (semi solid) East Indies Aspergillus oryzae
Tempe (tempeh) Curd-like; meat substitute Indonesia, Malaysia Rhizopus oligosporus
Teff Enjera (inj era) Pancake (sour) Ethiopia Candida milleri, Micrococcus spp.,
Bacillus spp.
Tallaa (tella) Alcoholic beverage Ethiopia Unknown
(beer-like)
Wheat Acid soup (braga, Porridge (sour) Europe Lactic acid bacteria
kiesel, zur)
Bousa (bouza) Alcoholic beverage (sour) Egypt Yeasts, lactic acid bacteria
Beer (Iambic, weizen) Alcoholic beverage Europe, America Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Bread (bagel, crois- Bread (may be sour or Worldwide Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
sant, Danish pastry, sweet) Lactobacillus sanfrancisco,
English muffin, flat Lactobacillus spp., Candida milleri
bread, potato bread,
rusk, sourdough
bread, pizza, pretzel,
yeast doughnut)
746 Gelinas and McKinnon

TABLE 1 Continued

Food name (synonym

Cereal or related food) Food type (characteristics) Area Main microorganism(s)

Enjeraa (injera) Pancake (sour) Ethiopia Candida milleri, Micrococcus spp.,

Bacillus spp.
Hopper (appa) Bread-type (sour) Sri Lanka Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Jalebi Sweet-type, pretzel-type India Lactic acid bacteria, Saccharomyces
(made with milk) spp.
Kishkb (kushik, Dried balls (made with Egypt Middle East Lactobacillus spp., Bacillus spp.
kushuk) milk)
Kugelhopf (kouglof) Sweet-type bread Eastern Europe Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
(brioches) Lactobacillus spp.
Mahewua,b (mageu, Drink (sour) South Africa Leuconostoc mesenteroides,
magou) Lactobacillus delbrueckii,
Lactobacillus spp.
Minchin (fermented Condiment China Molds
gluten)
Panettone Sweet-type bread Italy Saccharomyces exiguus, Lactobacillus
(brioches) brevis
Shao-hsing (hua-tiao, Alcoholic beverage Asia Rhizopus spp., Aspergillus oryzae,
rice wine, yellow (wine-like) Amylomyces rouxii, Saccharomyces
wine) cerevisiae
Soda cracker Flat-type bread (dry) America Saccharomyces cerevisiae, lactic acid
bacteria
Soy sauce (kicap, Condiment (liquid) Asia, America Aspergillus oryzae, Pediococcus
shoyu) halophilus, Lactobacillus
delbrueckii, Zygosaccharomyces
rouxii, Candida spp.
Tana' (tella) Alcoholic beverage Ethiopia Unknown
(beer-like)
Trahanaa(tarhanas) Biscuit (made with milk) Greece, Turkey Streptococcus thermophilus,
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Vinegar Condiment (sour) Europe, America Acetobacter spp.
Whiskey Alcoholic beverage Northern Europe, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
America
Yakju (maggally, Alcoholic beverage (sour; Korea Aspergillus usamii, Saccharomyces
takju) beer or wine type) cerevisiae, Hansenula spp.

'Minor or uncommon food prepared from this cereal.

bContains living microorganisms.
Source: Refs. 1-3,33-39.

series of organisms. For example, in miso fermentation
(prepared from a mixture of rice and soybeans), both lactic
acid bacteria and yeasts will use starch and protein degra-
dation products already transformed by koji molds, which
have amylolytic and proteolytic activities [4].
Mixed cultures present in nature are easy to maintain
and to use as starters to carry out subsequent fermentations
by recycling. This practice has been extensively used in
the past and led to the development of most fermented
foods. However, problems associated with mixed cultures
compared to pure cultures are a greater variability of fer-
mentation with concomitant difficulty to maintain food
product quality and uniformity, maintenance of proper bal-
ance of microbial flora, and difficulty in detection of con-
taminating microorganisms [4].
In commercial practice, the fermentation starters and
processes are usually controlled to standardize the final
products. In these cases, a controlled process involves
heavy inoculation of the desired microorganism and adjust-
ment of pH, nutrient, temperature, and time conditions to
favor the main fermentation and to suppress the growth and
metabolism of the natural flora. Optimal temperatures for
fermentation are usually well known by practitioners. Me-
dia composition vary widely, and some guidelines are usu-
Fermentation and Microbiological Processes
TABLE 2 List of Representative Microorganisms Associated with Fermented Cereal Foods
Type of microorganism
Bacteria
Acetobacter spp.
Aerobacter aerogenes
Agrobacterium azotophilum
Bacillus spp.
Bacillus megaterium
Bacillus natto
Bacillus subtilis
Bifidobacterium bifidum
Enterococcus faecalis
Lactic acid bacteria
Lactobacillus spp.
Lactobacillus acidophilus
Lactobacillus brevis
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Lactobacillus delbrueckii
Lactobacillus plantarum
Lactobacillus sake
Lactobacillus sanfrancisco
Leuconostoc spp.
Leuconostoc mesenteroides
Micrococcus spp.
Pediococcus spp.
Pediococcus acidilactici
Pediococcus cerevisiae
Pediococcus halophilus
Pseudomonas nitroreducens
Streptococcus spp.
Streptococcus thermophilus
Molds
Actinomucor elegans
Amylomyces rouxii
Aspergillus candidus
Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus glaucus
Aspergillus oryzae
Aspergillus usamii
Geotrichutn candidum
Monascus purpureus
Mucor spp.
Mucor hiemalis
Rhizopus spp.
Rhizopus chinensis
Rhizopus javanicus
Rhizopus oligosporus
747
Food produced
Kisra (aseeda), vinegar
Pozol
Pozol
Enjera (injera), kishk (kushik, kushuk), rabdi (rabadi)
Tesguino
Hamma-natto, natto
Sierra rice (amarillo, arroz fermentado, requemado, yellow rice)
Vellie
Idli (dhokla, dosai, dosas, doza), puto
Acid soup (braga, kiesel, zur), balao-balao, bousa (bouza), burukutu, jalebi, kaffir (bantu,
sorghum beer), ruhi, soda cracker, tairu (taire)
Bread (bagel, croissant, Danish pastry, English muffin, flat bread, pizza, potato bread,
pretzel, pumpernickel, ragbrod, rusk, sourdough bread, yeast doughnut), broa, chicha,
kishk (kushik, kushuk), kisra (aseeda), kugelhopf (kouglof), mahewu (mageu, magou),
pito, vellie
Vellie
Panettone
Trahana (tarhanas)
Mahewu (mageu, magou), miso (chiang, doenjang, kochujang, tauco), soy sauce (kanjang,
kecap, kicap, shoyu, taosi)
Burong dalag, busaa (busa), ogi (agidi, atole, uji)
Sake (hua-tiao, rice wine, shao-hsing, yellow wine)
Bread
Pito
Idli (dhokla, dosai, dosas, doza), mahewu (mageu, magou), puto
Enjera (injera), rabdi (rabadi)
Hamanatto
Rabdi (rabadi)
Burong dalag
Soy sauce (kanjang, kecap, kicap, shoyu, taosi)
Sake (hua-tiao, rice wine, shao-hsing, yellow wine)
Hama-natto
Trahanas (tarhanas)
Meitauza, sufu
Shao-hsing (hua-tiao, rice wine, yellow wine), tape (brem, lao-chao, madhu, peugeum,
tapai)
Sierra rice (amarillo, arroz fermentado, requemado, yellow rice)
Sierra rice (amarillo, arroz fermentado, requemado, yellow rice)
Chee-fan
Hama-natto, ketjap, meju, miso (chiang, doenjang, kochujang, tauco), sake (hua-tiao, rice
wine, shao-hsing, yellow wine), soy sauce (kanjang, kecap, kicap, shoyu, taosi), tao-tjo
Yakju (maggally, takju)
Pito, pozol, torani
Anka (aga-koji, ang-kak, beni-koji, red rice), hong-ru (lao-hong)
Chee-fan, ruhi, sufu (tahuri, taokaoan, tao-hu-yi)
Sufu (tahuri, taokaoan, tao-hu-yi)
Meju, ruhi, shao-hsing (hua-tiao, rice wine, yellow wine)
Tape (brem, lao-chao, madhu, peugeum, tapai)
Hong-ru (lao-hong), sho-chiu (rice liquor)
Tempe (tempeh)
748 Gelinas and McKinnon

TABLE 2 Continued
Type of microorganism Food produced

Yeasts
Candida spp.
Candida guilliermondii
Candida milleri
Candida tropicalis
Endomycopsis spp.
Endomycopsis burtonii
Endomycopsis fibuliger
Hansenula spp.
Hansenula anomala
Saccharomyces spp.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces exiguus
Saccharomyces formosensis
Saccharomyces peka
Saccharomyces sake
Trichosporon cutaneum
Zygosaccharomyces rouxii
Pito, pozol, soy sauce (kanjang, kecap, kicap, shoyu, taosi)
Enjera, injera, torani
Bread, enjera (injera)
Torani
Tape (brem, lao-chao, madhu, peugeum, tapai)
Tape (bream, lao-chao, madhu, peugeum, tapai)
Tapuy, thumba (bojah)
Yakju (maggaly, takju)
Kanji, torani
Jalebi, kekap, merissa, pito
Beer (barley wine, Iambic, weizen), bread (bagel, croissant, Danish pastry, English muffin,
flat bread, potato bread, ragbrod, rusk, sourdough bread, pizza, pretzel, pumpernickel,
yeast doughnut), broa, busaa (busa), chicha, hopper (appa), kaffir (bantu, sorghum
beer), kisra (aseeda), kugelhopf (kouglof), puto, shaohsing (hua-tiao, rice wine, yellow
wine), soda crackers, tesguino, whiskey (bourbon), yakju (maggally, takju)
Panettone
Hong-ru (lao-hong)
Sho-chiu (rice liquor)
Sake (hua-tiao, rice wine, shao-hsing, yellow wine)
Pozol
Miso (chiang, doenjang, kochujang, tauco), soy sauce (kanjang, kecap, kicap, shoyu,
taosi)

Source: Refs. 1-3, 33.

ally given depending on expected results. For example,
concentrations of water and salt are usually specified for
best results. Cereal fermentations are anaerobic by nature,
but in some cases such as in soy sauce production, a slight
mixing of fermenting medium to incorporate some oxygen
is recommended for accelerating mold activity. Adjustment
of pH might be necessary in some cereal fermentations, but
the widespread presence of lactic acid bacteria in cereals
normally contributes to the rapid lowering of the pH.
2. Metabolism
Yeasts and bacteria are the most important fermentative mi-
croorganisms for cereal products. In some special cases,
molds act as major contributors of cereal fermentation. The
nature and the concentration of microbial species present in
the fermentation media markedly affect the nature of the fi-
nal products (e.g., aroma). Metabolism of lactic acid bacte-
ria (characterized by the production of lactic acid) is much
different than that of yeasts and molds. In essence, lactic
acid bacteria produce several acids that lower the pH, while
yeasts mainly form ethanol and gas [5]. Yeast fermentation
proceeds through the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, accord-
ing to which glucose is transformed into ethanol (via pyru-
vate and acetaldehyde), carbon dioxide, and traces of other
acids and carbonyl compounds. One gram of glucose yields
0.47 g of CO2 (270 mL) and 0.48 g of ethanol plus traces
(-0.5 g) of glycerol, succinic acid, aldehydes, ketones, eth-
yl esters, and others [6]. Glucose and fructose are readily
fermented by yeasts; of the disaccharides, sucrose is gener-
ally quickly inverted by yeast invertase and utilized as rap-
idly as the fermentable monosaccharides. Maltose is used
later. Yeast fermentative activity is quite constant at pH
4-7. The higher the temperature, the higher the yeast activ-
ity up to about 45°C [7].
In cereal fermentations, heterofermentative lactic acid
bacteria form lactic acid, acetic acid, ethyl esters of these
acids, carbon dioxide, and several aromatic compounds.
Homofermentative lactic acid bacteria form mainly lactic
acid. Molds slowly generate lipolytic, amylolytic, and pro-
teolytic enzymes; in soy sauce production, lactic acid bac-
teria and yeasts readily ferment sugar sources present as
fermentable sugars or derived from starchy materials by
the action of cereal, fungal, or bacterial amylases.
3. Commercial Starters
Since the 1920s, commercial microbial starters have been
the source for major commercial cereal fermentations. De-
signed for the widespread fermentation of bread doughs,
Fermentation and Microbiological Processes 749

TABLE 3 Major Commercial Fermentation Conditions for Cereal Foods

Fermentation
conditions Bread Beer Whiskey Soy sauce Miso
Main starters Baker's yeast Brewer's yeast Distillery yeast Molds Molds
(Saccharomyces (Saccharomyces (Saccharomyces (Aspergillus spp.) (Aspergillus spp.)
cerevisiae) cerevisiae) cerevisiae) Saccharomyces rouxii
Lactic acid bacteria Lactobacillus
delbrueckii
Cereals Milled wheat Barley (malted) Corn Soybeans (defatted) Rice
Milled rye Sorghum Rye (malted or not) Wheat Barley
Minor: Minor: Barley (malted) Minor: Soybeans
Barley (malted) Corn Wheat Barley flour
Wheat (malted) Rice
Wheat
Other ingredients Water Water Water Water Salt
Salt Hops Salt Hot pepper
Sugar Adjuncts
Fat (corn syrup, sugar
Emulsifiers or starch)
Dough strengtheners
Preservatives
Enzymes
Fermentation 1-6 h 2-10 days 2-3 days (Koji: 3 days at 30°C) (Koji: 2 days at 30°C)
conditions 20-42°C 3-24°C 32-35°C 3-12 months 2 days to 1 year
Aging: Aging: 15-30°C 30-50°C
3 days-1 month 2-3 years or more
0-13°C 21-30°C

baker's yeast is probably the most common of these
starters; it is commercially produced in liquid, paste (com-
pressed), or dry form. Recently, commercial lactic acid
bacteria starters have been introduced for cereal fermenta-
tions, but this application is less frequent than their regular
use in dairy or meat fermentations. A close control of the
performance of commercial starters is important, since it
has a major effect on the final products.
B. Contaminants
Considering the diversity of the microbial flora that may
be present in cereals to be fermented, undesirable microor-
ganisms are likely to be part of this flora and may produce
problems in the main fermentation process with subse-
quent adverse effects on the final product. Nowadays these
problems are lessened by good sanitary practices. Sources
of these organisms may be the cereals themselves, soil, as
well as any particular ingredient, surface contamination,
and unsanitary handling.
Table 4 summarizes microbial problems likely to occur
during major cereal fermentations. In general, undesirable
microorganisms that may be a problem are bacteria (usual-
ly spore-forming or lactic acid bacteria, especially in some
yeast fermentations), wild yeasts, and molds.
Several spore-forming bacteria (e.g., Bacillus spp.) may
produce amylases and degrade hydrated starchy materials.
In bread, heat-tolerant spores of Bacillus subtilis (formerly
Bacillus mesentericus) survive the baking process; after a
few days in bread, they produce a spoilage called ropiness,
characterized by yellow spots on crumb, putrid pineapple
aroma, and stringiness when breaking a piece of bread. The
spores of these species, when contaminating flour, may
cause a major problem in bakeries since they are highly re-
sistant in the environment and difficult to eliminate. How-
ever, these bacterial infections have become rare in recent
years, presumably due to improved sanitation. In beer, un-
desirable microbial contamination is exhibited by viscosity,
appearance, as well as aroma and flavor problems.
Microbial pathogens are usually not a problem for fer-
mented cereals because of the inhibition brought about by
acids and ethanol generated by fermenting organisms. A
large proportion of fermented cereals are also eaten shortly
after complete cooking. However, the biggest problem
750 Gelinas and McKinnon

TABLE 4 Major Defects of Microbial Origin for Some Cereal Foods

Food Defect Microorganisms

Beer Discoloration Acetobacter spp.

Granular sediments Pediococcus cerevisiae
Off-flavors Acetobacter spp.
Betabacterium spp.
Enterobacteriaceae
Obesumbacterium spp.
Zymomonas mobilis
Wild yeasts
Rope (oily texture) Acetobacter spp.
Lactobacillus spp.
Leuconostoc spp.
Pediococcus cerevisiae
Sarcina sickness (honeylike odor as a result of Leuconostoc spp.
diacetyl production) Pediococcus cerevisiae
Sourness (increased levels of acetic acid) Acetobacter spp.
Gluconobacter oxydans
Lactobacillus spp.
Leuconostoc spp.
Pediococcus cerevisiae
Wild yeasts
Turbidity Acetobacter spp.
Lactobacillus spp.
Pectinatus cerevisiiphilus
Pediococcus cerevisiae
Zymomonas mobilis
Wild yeasts
Bread Bleeding bread Serratia marcescens
Rope (yellow spots with putrid pineapple odor) Bacillus subtilis
Soy sauce/Miso Surface pellicle Torulopsis spp.
Undesirable flavor and aroma from koji Rhizopus spp.
Mucor spp.
Whiskey Off-flavors Lactic acid bacteria
Overacidification Lactic acid bacteria

with this type of food is the potential presence of molds,
especially that of toxins (mycotoxins) formed in highly
adulterated grains. Fermentation and baking do not elimi-
nate all problems of toxins.
III. MAJOR COMMERCIAL
FERMENTATION PROCESSES
A. Bread from Wheat
1. Yeast-Leavened Bread
In industrialized countries, most wheat breads are prepared
from yeast-leavened doughs. (For commercial production
methods, see Chapter 17.)
A few centuries ago, brewing residues were used as ad-
juncts for breadmaking. These residues were called brew-
er's yeast because it accelerated dough rising compared to
noninoculated dough. Modern bread doughs are massively
inoculated with a commercial culture of a yeast species,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, known as baker's yeast.
Throughout the years, strains were selected to meet the fol-
lowing requirements: good leavening activity, high bio-
mass yield, light color, fresh odor, good keeping quality
during storage, and high genetic stability. Processes used
for baker's yeast manufacture are presented elsewhere
[8,91.
Yeasted bread dough fermentation is a mixed fermenta-
tion involving baker's yeast pure culture and, to a limited
extent, lactic acid bacteria and several other yeast and bac-
teria species present as minor contaminants in flour and in
commercial yeast. During most commercial bread dough
fermentations, contaminating bacteria play a relatively
Fermentation and Microbiological Processes
small role in bread dough fermentation [10]. Bread-mak-
ing processes involving yeast as a starter are much shorter
(2-12 h) than other food fermentations (brewing, wine
making), and lactic acid bacteria do not have sufficient
time to produce much acidity and aromatic compounds.
The aroma of the fermenting dough resembles that of fer-
menting beer wort or wine, so true bread aroma is formed
during baking of the dough [11]. Nowadays, there is a
trend toward the use of lactic acid bacteria culture prepara-
tions as adjunct starters for bread making [12]. These cul-
tures may be used in addition to regular baker's yeast to
enhance bread aroma. In those breads the importance of
baker's yeast as a flavor factor may become minor in com-
parison to flavor effects of lactic acid bacteria [13]. Dry
sourdough bases are commercially available to reduce fer-
mentation periods [14,15]. For example, wine yeast [16]
and Zymomonas mobilis, a bacteria, have been proposed as
adjunct starters for bread making; the latter has good
gassing power when sucrose is used in the bread formula
but is more salt-sensitive than baker's yeast [17]. Strains
tailored for specific purposes have also been developed for
baking [18-20].
Yeast activity is markedly accelerated when sucrose,
glucose, or fructose is incorporated in dough. For example,
this practice is widespread in the United States, Canada,
England, Japan, and Australia; however, this is not the case
in most European and African countries. When these sug-
ars are absent, yeast fermentation becomes dependent on
amylase activity in dough to generate fermentable sugars
from starch. As stated before, once glucose, fructose, and
sucrose are depleted, yeasts may ferment maltose present
in the dough. However, high concentrations of sucrose,
glucose, or fructose (up to about 10-15% sugar) increase
the osmotic pressure of the system and retard yeast activi-
ty [21]. Yeast fermentation is strongly inhibited by sodium
chloride but is increased with higher increments of water
added to flour systems.
The longer the process, the higher the yeast activity if
sufficient nutrients are available (e.g., sugars, nitrogen, and
phosphorus). Optimal temperature for yeast growth is
28-30°C, but rate of fermentation is much higher if tem-
peratures of around 35-40°C are used. In commercial
practices it is not uncommon to ferment the doughs at tem-
peratures as high as 42-43°C during the final panproofing
stage, just prior to baking.
2. Sourdough-Type Bread
Before the use of massive yeast inoculation for doughs,
sourdough-type breads were the main bakery products
throughout the world. A summary of the major processes
used for sourdough production is presented in Onno and
Roussel [22] and Lonner and Ahrne [23]. Sourdough may
751
be prepared by three methods: without starter, with a
dough starter, and with a concentrated starter. In the first
procedure, the dough is simply prepared by mixing wheat
flour with water. Microorganisms present in these two in-
gredients will ferment sugars, supplied by amylolysis of
starch from flour, into carbon dioxide and ethanol. For re-
tail bakery operations, the sourdough preparations depend
on the presence of microorganisms in flour or those in the
environment. Consequently, these spontaneous fermenta-
tions are lengthy and give variable results. Once a suitable
starter is developed, it is kept active either by refreshening
with added flour, water, and sometimes sugar or by reusing
a portion of fermented bread dough from production as a
starter for new batches. There are numerous variations of
this process that give different types of bread products with
specific aroma and texture. Such sourdough starters may
be maintained for long periods or started from scratch
when needed. Because of this, the microbial composition
of sourdoughs is quite variable depending on flour, geo-
graphic region, or process involved in the preparation of
starters.
Characterization of these starters has been carried out in
different countries. In general, lactic acid bacteria (Lacto-
bacillus spp. mainly) and various species of yeasts, includ-
ing Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida milleri, have
been isolated from sourdoughs. Especially when only
spontaneously prepared starter is added, the bread-making
process may become highly variable since microorganisms
of flour (mainly), water, and air will initiate the fermenta-
tion. Obviously the flora of wheat flour is highly variable
according to crop and geography. Because lactobacilli fer-
ment more rapidly than yeasts, these organisms become an
important flora of the fermentation medium.
When commercial starters are used, it is clear that bread-
making becomes a less spontaneous process; hence breads
are more consistent than those from typical nonseeded
sourdough fermentations. According to Salovaara [24],
flour contains 104-106 colony-forming units (CFU) of bac-
teria per gram, including lactic acid bacteria (102-103) and
coliforms (102-104). If dough is inoculated with a "sour-
dough," concentration of lactic acid bacteria raises to more
than 109 cells, compared to 106-107 yeast cells per gram of
dough. Sourdoughs prepared with a portion of a dough may
be used as a starter for bread dough. Depending on the
method for preparing the starter, some species of lactic acid
bacteria may predominate. For example, ratio between
acetic acid and lactic acid may vary so the taste of the re-
sulting bread can be perceived as more or less acidic. Both
homofermentative (mainly forming lactic acid) and hetero-
fermentative (forming several acid types) lactic acid bacte-
ria have been isolated from dough. Natural selection of mi-
crobial species and strains is obtained in the long-term
752 Gams and McKinnon

operations. Interactions between bacteria and yeasts in also formed. Strains are screened according to specific
dough have been observed, which include stimulation and beer characteristics. Brewer's yeasts have specific qualities
inhibition, depending on species and environmental condi- compared to baker's yeasts: higher ethanol tolerance (to
tions. A good example of symbiosis has been shown in the ensure high ethanol content in beer), flocculation (to en-
dough of San Francisco sourdough bread: Lactobacillus sure ready separation from wort), and killer activity (pro-
sanfrancisco (which can metabolize only maltose) and Sac- duction of extracellular toxins that inhibit "wild" yeasts).
charomyces exiguus (unable to utilize maltose). Nowadays industrial breweries keep pure yeast cultures
and propagate them. Genetically modified yeast strains are
being sought that will have amylase properties or be capa-
B. Beer from Barley
ble of improving starch processing, with limited diacetyl
Throughout the world, about 10% of barley crops is used formation (off-flavor in beer), optimal flocculence, in-
for malt-brewing purposes. Basics of malting and brewing creased tolerance to the killer factor from wild yeasts, etc.
are described in further detail in Refs. 25 and 26 and Chap- However, commercial brewer's yeast strains are often
ter 22. quite stable and difficult to manipulate genetically, com-
To become an available source of sugars for alcoholic pared to laboratory strains [27]. For the moment, no genet-
fermentation by yeast, barley must be malted. This means ically modified yeast is currently used in brewing.
it must undergo controlled germination followed by dry-
ing. During germination, amylases (mainly a-amylases), C. Whiskey from Corn or Others
proteases, cellulases, and possibly other enzymes are
There exist several types of whiskey, a distilled alcoholic
formed. Amylases convert starch to fermentable sugars
liquor. The most important types are prepared from corn,
and other enzymes modify nonstarch barley components
barley, wheat, or rye. The mash is prepared by cooking
during the beer-production process. Among cereals, only
ground grain, either in a batch or in a continuous process at
barley has the constituents to suit it for brewing. In brief,
atmospheric or higher pressure. To reduce mash viscosity,
malting includes steeping, germination, and kilning (dry-
about 0.1% malt is added to liquefy portions of starch and
ing) steps. Brewing itself includes malt milling, mashing,
gums, respectively, by the action of amylases and hemicel-
and fermentation. Fermentation begins by the addition of
lulases; proteases also alter protein components. In fact,
5-10 million yeast cells per milliliter to a sterile wort. Too
whiskey preparation is similar to that of an unhopped beer.
much yeast will cause bitterness in the final product.
Contrary to brewing, distillery malt is highly diastatic,
Yeasts play a major role in brewing by transforming fer-
which means that it contains more enzymes to transform
mentable sugars present in the mash into ethanol and car-
starch in different ways. Distillery malt, like in brewing, is
bon dioxide. Yeasts also form many compounds, volatile
used as an a-amylase source to convert the majority of
or not, that contribute to the final flavor of beer. The pres-
starch into fermentable sugars for maximal yield of alco-
ence of wild yeasts must be avoided, or off-flavors will ap-
hol. Malt is normally prepared from barley [28].
pear. Historically, two yeast species, Saccharomyces cere-
Yeasts (S. cerevisiae) convert fermentable carbohy-
visiae (top ale yeast) and Saccharomyces uvarum (bottom
drates into alcohol and aromatic compounds, which will be
lager yeast), have been used for beer production. Nowa-
concentrated by distillation. Strains are selected for their
days, both species are considered as different strains of S.
tolerance to high ethanol concentrations present at the end
cerevisiae. Bottom yeast stays in suspension in the wort
of the fermentation (12-15%). Fermentation conditions
but settles to the bottom of the fermentation vats near the
and yeast strains have some effects on the flavor of spirits
end of the fermentation. Top-fermenting yeasts concen-
[29]. Industrial distilleries produce their own yeast cultures
trate at the surface of the wort at the end of the fermenta-
or buy commercial dry yeasts. Lactic acid bacteria such as
tion. Flocculating characteristics of yeasts are important
Lactobacillus delbrueckii, a fast acid producer that does
during their separation from the wort. For some beers,
not form off-flavors, may be added to acidify the mash to
Brettanomyces spp. may be used to prepare ale. Most
be fermented and prevent it from contamination with un-
brewers recycle yeasts harvested from previous fermenta-
desirable microorganisms. The mash will be sterilized just
tions several times.
before yeast inoculation.
Saccharomyces spp. can ferment a wide range of sugars
including sucrose, glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose,
D. Soy Sauce/Shoyu from Wheat
maltose, and maltotriose [27]. Ethanol and carbon dioxide
and Soybeans
are the major fermentation end products, but substantial
amounts of glycerol (undesirable in brewing), esters A well-known liquid condiment, soy sauce, bears different
(mainly ethyl acetate), acetic acid, and higher alcohols are names in different countries, so starters as well as process--
Fermentation and Microbiological Processes
es may vary [30]. For the industrialized world, the Japan-
ese shoyu is often a synonym for soy sauce, which is de-
scribed here. The major type of shoyu is called koikushi
shoyu and is prepared from an equal mixture of defatted
soybeans (soaked overnight and cooked) and slightly
crushed roasted wheat. Minor shoyu types include shiro
shoyu (mostly made with wheat) and tamari shoyu (mostly
made with soybeans). In China, tamari is the most impor-
tant soy sauce.
Commercial starter (tane koji) consists of spores of As-
pergillus oryzae (usually) or Aspergillus soyae, but shoyu
fermentation may also be performed with spontaneous
starters. Soy sauce production is now one of the most mod-
ern fermentation processes available worldwide [31]. Fer-
mentation proceeds at 30°C for about 3 days, with frequent
stirring. The resulting medium is called shoyu koji. The
temperature and moisture content of koji are selected to fa-
vor a high protease activity. The second step of fermenta-
tion involves the preparation of a stirred mash (moromi)
consisting of an equal volumes (or up to about 1:1.2) of
shoyu koji and a solution containing 17-19% salt. Fermen-
tation is carried out with minimal stirring so that anaerobic
yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (either pure cultures or natu-
ral inocula) ferment the mash for about 3-12 months at
temperatures varying between 15 and 28°C (maturation in-
cluded). Lactic acid bacteria use the sugars freed by the
mold culture and lower the pH to about 4.5; this creates an
optimum growth medium for yeasts to use sugars and form
ethanol plus carbon dioxide. Most of the organisms in-
volved include Saccharomyces rouxii and Lactobacillus
delbrueckii, which are very salt-tolerant. Final solution is
decanted and bottled. There is a trend toward shortening
the period of fermentation by increasing the temperature
and using more starters [32].
E. Miso from Rice and Soybeans
A paste condiment containing about 45-50% moisture,
Japanese miso, is usually prepared from rice (soaked
overnight then steamed), nondefatted soybeans (soaked
overnight then steamed), and salt. It may also be prepared
solely from barley or rarely soybeans. Miso is less known
in the western world than soy sauce, but it is certainly of
equal importance in Asia [32]. Like soy sauce, tane koji is
prepared by inoculating rice with specified strains of A.
oryzae, except that the rice concentration is higher, and
fermentation proceeds for about 2 days at 30-35°C (in-
stead of 3 days). In general, A. oryzae strains used here are
richer in amylases but poorer in proteases than those for
soy sauce production [32]. Salt is added to the koji to stop
the fermentation. Koji is then mixed with the prepared soy-
beans, and the second fermentation stage proceeds with a
753
starter containing yeasts (S. rouxii). In traditional manufac-
turing, other yeasts such as Torulopsis versatilis and lactic
acid bacteria (Pediococcus halophilus and Streptococcus
faecalis) may be part of miso flora.
Despite the fact that the microbial flora of the second
fermentation is important, the proportions of tane koji, salt,
and soybeans have a great influence on miso characteris-
tics. Various types of miso exist depending on fermenta-
tion time and temperature, rice: soybean ratio, as well as fi-
nal taste, color, and shelf life: (1) White Miso (2-4 days at
50°C; 2:1 ratio; very sweet; short shelf life), (2) Light Yel-
low Salty Miso (30 days at 30-35°C; 0.6:1 ratio; salty;
long shelf life), and (3) Red Salty Miso (60 days at
30-35°C; 0.5:1 ratio; salty; long shelf life). After the fer-
mentation, a final ripening period of 2 weeks up to about 1
year (sometimes more) follows.
IV. CONCLUSION
A highly efficient way of preserving foods, fermentation of
cereals plays a major role in our lives. The use of microor-
ganisms to transform cereals leads to the development of
foods with interesting organoleptic properties. Bread, beer,
whiskey, soy sauce, and miso are among the most impor-
tant fermented cereal foods. In upcoming years, the grow-
ing use of microbial starters may improve the diversity and
flavor of these very popular foods. It is then expected that
more fermented cereals will be commercialized. However,
more research is needed on several of these fermented
foods before they are industrialized.
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3, Foods and Feeds (D. K. Arora, K. G. Mukerji, and
E. H. Marth, eds.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1991,
p. 329.
31. Wang, H. L., and Hesseltine, C. W., in: Prescott & Dunn's
Industrial Microbiology (G. Reed, ed.), 4th ed., AVI Publ.
Co., Westport, CT, 1982, p. 492.
32. Wood, B. J. B., in: Economic Microbiology, Vol. 7. Fer-
mented Foods (A. H. Rose, ed.), Academic Press, London,
1982, p. 39.
33. Aubert, C., Les Aliments Fermentes Traditionnels, Terre
Vivante, Paris, 1985.
34. Ashenafi, M., World J. Microbiol. Biotech., 10:69 (1994).
35. Umeta, M., and Faulks, R. M., J. Cereal Sci., 9:91 (1989).
36. Sanni, A. I., and Lonner, C., Food Microbiol., 10:517
(1993).
37. Hamad, S. H., Wicker, G., Vogel, R. F., and Hammes,
W. P., Appl. Microbiol. Biotech., 37:728 (1992).
38. Wang, H. H., in: Rice, Vol. II. Utilization, 2nd ed. (B. S.
Luh, ed.), AVI, New York, 1991, p. 195.
39. Salovaara, H., The time of cereal based functional foods is
here: Introducing Yosa®, a vellie, in Proceedings from the
26th Nordic Cereal Congress (Skrade, G. and Magnus,
E. M.), Haugesund, Norway, 1996, p. 195.
27
SPECIAL FOOD INGREDIENTS FROM CEREALS
Joseph G. Ponte, Jr.*
Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
Ismail Sait Dogan
Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey
Karel Kulp*
American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas
I. INTRODUCTION
A number of functional food ingredients are produced
from various cereals. Some of these ingredients are by-
products resulting from processing of cereals, while others
are components separated from cereals because of the in-
trinsic value of the components when incorporated into
food systems. The ingredients are utilized for many pur-
poses, including structure building, flavor enhancement,
nutritional fortification, food preparation (e.g., frying oils),
viscosity control, etc. The purpose of this chapter is to
summarize some of these ingredients, describe how the in-
gredients are produced, their properties, and applications
of the ingredients in the production of food products.
II. CEREAL PROTEINS
Wheat gluten, or vital gluten, is by far the most important
cereal protein in terms of usage. Dubois [40] has traced the
history of vital wheat gluten. Gluten is widely used in bak-
ing for structural purposes, but its components find appli-
cations in many other foods. In some cultures, wheat
gluten is utilized directly in meal preparation: in China, for
example, gluten balls are oil-fried [25] and gluten meat
analogs are made by hand or simple extrusion [60]. Corn
gluten or zein is also employed, to a smaller extent, as a
food ingredient.
*Retired.
755
A. Wheat Gluten
1. Properties and Composition
Commercial wheat gluten extracted from wheat or wheat
flour and dried is a cream/tan-colored free-flowing powder
of bland flavor. When hydrated, it regains virtually all of
its original functionality. Compositionally, it is a lipid-pro-
tein complex with some included starch. Codex require-
ments for wheat gluten are shown in Table 1 [56] and typi-
cal compositions of flash-dried and spray-dried gluten in
Table 2 (note: different nitrogen conversion factors are uti-
lized in the two tables) [83].
Wheat flour, with the addition of water and input of
mixing energy, can form doughs that possess the unique
ability to trap and retain gases during fermentation, permit-
ting the dough to expand and subsequently to bake into an
aerated, palatable loaf of bread. This ability is directly at-
tributable to the formation of a cohesive and viscoelastic
mass, namely gluten, which occurs when flour is hydrated
in an aqueous medium. The two major protein components
of gluten that contribute to viscoelasticity are glutenin and
gliadin, which differ markedly in their chemical and phys-
ical properties. Glutenin proteins are multichained, with
very high molecular weights. When isolated from wheat
gluten, glutenin exhibits pronounced resiliency but little
extensibility and therefore appears to provide the elastic
properties of gluten. Gliadin from wheat consists of some
50 single-chained proteins of relatively low molecular
756 Ponte et al.

TABLE 1 Codex Alimentarius International TABLE 3 Comparison of Wheat Gluten Composition

Standard for Vital Wheat Gluten
Gliadin Glutenin
Component (%)
Highly extensible Less extensible
Protein (N x 6.25, dry basis) 80.0 min Less elastic Highly elastic
Moisture 10.0 max Soluble in alcohols Insoluble in alcohols
Ash 2.0 max Low in molecular weight High in molecular weight
Fat (ether extracted) 2.0 max Intramolecular bonds Intra- and intermolecular bonds
Fiber 1.5 max
Source: Ref. 64.
Source: Ref. 56.

charges and little potential positive charges, resulting in a

low charge density. Repulsion forces within the gluten pro-
TABLE 2 Composition of Flash and Spray-Dried
teins are thereby weak, allowing for enhanced interaction,
Wheat Gluten
which is important in dough formation [59]. Yet another
Wheat gluten property of gluten is that about 35% of its total amino acids
possess hydrophobic side chains, leading to greater surface
Component Flash-dried Spray-dried
hydrophobicity and hydrophobic interactions. Hydropho-
Major components bic interactions among gluten proteins may have an impor-
Moisture 8.2 5.4 tant role stabilizing gluten structure as well as in rheologi-
Protein (N x 5.7) 75.2 76.0 cal and baking properties of dough [59].
Fat 1.8 1.2
Fiber 0.6 0.6 2. Production of Wheat Gluten
Ash 1.0 1.0
(a) Background. Wheat gluten is produced in over 50
Carbohydrates 19.4 19.9
Energy (kcal/100 g) 370 378 plants, located in many countries around the world. Pro-
Minerals (mg/100 g) duction of wheat gluten has increased 6-8% annually in
Calcium 142.0 166.0 recent years [57]. The United States, followed by Ger-
Iron 5.2 280.0 many, Australia, the Netherlands, and France, were the five
Phosphorus 260.0 5.7 largest producing countries in 1995 (Fig. 1).
Potassium 100.0 106.0 A number of processes have evolved over the years to
Sodium 29.0 68.0 produce gluten [46,72,83,124]. Generally, gluten extrac-
tion from wheat flour is based on either a dough system or
Source: Ref. 83.
a batter system. The processes have varied considerably in
terms of starting material/s and other parameters, for ex-
ample, whole wheat or flour; hard or soft wheat; consisten-
weight. Upon isolation from wheat gluten, gliadins are no- cy of wheat flour/water mixture (dough vs. batter); disper-
tably extensible and quite sticky and therefore seem to pro- sion method (water or other solvent); and types of
vide the extensibility and cohesive properties of gluten. equipment for achieving starch and gluten separation [83].
Some properties of glutenin and gliadin are summarized in Obviously, a major consideration is the wheat available to
Table 3. a given plant. Different wheats vary widely in the amount
The viscoelasticity of hydrated wheat gluten protein is of gluten they can yield; up to 17% commercial gluten can
attributed to several factors, including its water compati- be recovered from North American spring wheats while
bility and ability to swell and undergo physicochemical in- softer European wheats may yield 9-10% gluten [46].
teractions [58]. As the gluten takes up water, it goes When poor-quality flour is the starting material, the en-
through a glass transition where the proteins change from a zymes pentosanases and cellulases may be utilized to en-
hard, glassy stage to one that is rubbery and elastic. An un- hance gluten yield and starch recovery. Aside from consid-
usual property of gluten that sets it apart from other plant erations of availability and quality of the starting material
proteins is the low level of polarity of its amino acid struc- other factors involved in wheat gluten production include
ture [56]. Gluten proteins are very high in glutamic acid the method of processing wheat starch as a co-product in a
(which occurs as glutamine), about 35% of the total pro- ratio of up to 6:1, starch:gluten; handling of effluent water
tein, and are notably low in the basic amino acids. The from manufacturing; gluten yields; water balance; pH of
gluten proteins therefore have no potential negative flour slurry; and capital and operating costs [83].
Special Food Ingredients from Cereals 757

1551.7 MIMI 1995 Capacity

Australia 661 I J 1995 Production
Belgium
61
11111.11 .1111 I
Canada -,1 14420 1 I

France 152
59

Germany 167
85

Japan

Netherlands 1 158
65

United Kingdom 24 1
32

United States 58.7

120
I I I
Others 149.8 I 198.7
I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Thousands Tonnes

FIGURE 1 Major wheat gluten producers. (From Ref. 64.)

FIGURE 2 Martin process. (From Ref. 46.)

(b) Martin Process. The Martin process appears to be
the oldest for wheat gluten recovery, originating in Paris in
1835, and until recently has been the most widely used
method. A flow sheet of the Martin method is shown in
Figure 2, but as noted above, many variations have been
practiced. Five basic steps are involved: mixing flour and
water in a ratio of about 2:1 into a dough; washing out the
starch; drying the recovered gluten; refining the starch; and
drying the starch. The aim of mixing is to obtain a smooth,
developed, well-hydrated dough. The water is usually
20°C [72] but may be 35°C to speed dough development
[46] and should contain some mineral salts, because soft
water causes the gluten to be soft or slimy [72]. The hy-
drated dough is then subjected to a washing stage; suffi-
cient water is used to wash the starch from the dough,
while it is kneaded or rolled, without dispersing or break-
ing the gluten into small pieces. Many devices have been
developed for this purpose, including ribbon blenders, ro-
758 Ponte et al.

tating drums, twin screw troughs, and agitator vessels. Wet this process, flour and water are mixed in roughly equal
gluten is then screened from the starch liquor utilizing ro- proportions to form a smooth soft dough with a solids con-
tary or vibrating screens. The process is controlled in such tent of 48-55%. When fully developed, more water is
a manner that the gluten leaving the washer has a mini- added to the system with continued mixing, which causes
mum protein content of 75% on a dry solids basis. The the gluten to coalesce into curds. The curds are collected
Martin process has the advantage of being well suited for on a gyrating screen and thus separated from the starch
low protein (7-10%), weak flour; however, a major disad- liquor. Further water additions and screening are carried
vantage is that large quantities of operational water are re- out to achieve a 75% protein content of the gluten on a dry
quired in production, complicating starch recovery as well solids basis.
as posing a substantial effluent-handling problem. (d) Raisio/Alfa-Laval Process. A variation of the batter
process is the Raisio/Alfa-Laval method (Fig. 4). A con-
(c) Batter Systems. The batter process is practiced in
cept of this method was to separate the constituent parts in
various forms and is the mainstay of the industry today
their natural sequence of specific gravity [118]. In this sys-
[46]. Figure 3 outlines an example of a batter process. In
tem, flour and water are combined in a ratio of 5.6:5.10 de-
pending on the flour type used. Mixing is done at high
FLOUR shear in a pin mill to obtain a smooth dispersion. A hori-
zontal decanting centrifuge then separates the dispersed
WATER
SCREW mixture into starch and gluten fractions. The gluten frac-
CONVEYOR
RIBBON BLENDER
tc..84.6801 tion coalesces, allowing a separation by screening. Advan-
tages of this process include high throughput and low wa-
CUTTING
PUMP ter need [46].
SCREEN
(e) Hydrocyclone Process. The KSH company of the
Netherlands has described a batter process utilizing hydro-
SCREEN cyclones, as outlined in Figure 5. A batter is mixed using
recycled wash water and flour, which is then directly intro-
STARCH TO duced into a series of hydrocyclones. The "A" starch
CONVENTIONAL
SCREEN
PROCESS (prime or heavy starch) and bran fiber are washed out in
11*
GLUTEN
the underflow, and the fiber is removed. A gluten-rich frac-
tion comes out of the overflow. This fraction is mixed with
FIGURE 3 Improved batter process. (From Ref. 46.) water and/or recycled process water and the agglomerated

WATER

FLOUR
100 PARTS
DRY
BASIS

19 PARTS DRY
BASIS 'A' STARCH
10 TO 90 0.3% PROTEIN
MINUTES

FINE FIBER
VITAL
GLUTEN IS PARTS DRY
0, DRY OASIS
VITAL GLUTEN
T740% PROTEIN
II PARTS DRY
BASIS SOLUBLES
191 PROTEIN
00% SUGARS
r„,, 17 PARTS DRY
ar STARCH 25% Ls. BASIS SECOND
GRADE 111* STARCH
7% PROTEIN

FIGURE 4 Raisio wheat starch and gluten process. (From Ref. 46.)
Special Food Ingredients from Cereals
ROTATING GLUTEN WASHER
FLOUR 0.3.2.0 ma HOLES
WATER
2.5m PER METRIC
TON FLOUR
FIBER
FIGURE 5 K.S.H. hydrocyclone wheat starch and gluten process. (From Ref. 46.)
gluten is recovered on filters. An advantage of the hydro-
cyclone process is its reduced requirements for water and
low operating costs [83].
(f) Other Processes. Several other processes for pro-
duction of wheat gluten cited in the literature [46,72,
83,124] are briefly mentioned here. The Fesca process
[124] takes advantage of differences in sedimentation rates
between starch and gluten proteins to separate compo-
nents. The alkali process [35] utilizes alkaline solutions
(sodium hydroxide) to dissolve gluten, allowing insoluble
starch to be removed by filtration or centrifugation. Anoth-
er alkaline process, using ammonium hydroxide, was pro-
posed by the National Research Council of Canada [100].
A hydroprocess (Pillsbury Hydromilling) was developed
to maximize endosperm recovery [72]; this process uses,
as its starting material, wheat steeped in acid solution. The
Farmarco Process [104] utilizes wheat tempered to
15-22% moisture, followed by flaking in a roller mill; the
flakes are hydrated to form a dough-like mixture, which is
then washed with high-pressure water sprays to separate
the components.
(g) Gluten Drying. A critical step in wheat gluten pro-
duction is the drying stage. Wet gluten rapidly deteriorates,
mostly due to the activity of proteolytic enzymes naturally
occurring in wheat and also from microbial growth. The
proteolytic degradation leads to impairment of the unique
cohesive, viscoelastic properties of the gluten. Commer-
cial wheat gluten is therefore almost always marketed in
the dry state. Since wet gluten is a sticky material and also
sensitive to heat, which can cause it to easily denature, the
759
GLUTEN SO% d b. PROTEIN
-460 WASTE WATER
'0' STARCH
'15* STARCH
STRIPPING
10mm IIYDROCLONES 30'.401C
.A. STARCH CONCENTRATION
'A° STARCH 04% d.b. PROTEIN
drying of gluten poses many problems. Principal methods
used today to dry gluten are flash-drying and spray-drying;
although not presently used commercially, other methods
used to dry gluten include vacuum-drying, drum-drying,
and freeze-drying [83]. Flash-drying and spray-drying
methods of wheat gluten are briefly described below.
Flash-drying. More than 90% of all wheat gluten is
flash-dried [46]. Similar to many hydrated proteins, wet
gluten is sensitive to heat, and it is important that gluten be
dried rapidly under controlled conditions to minimize de-
naturation. Since wheat gluten is less sensitive to heat at
lower moisture contents [70], it is usual practice to incor-
porate the wet gluten (about 70% moisture) with an
amount of previously dried gluten such that the moisture
of the blend is about 25-30%. During production, small
pellets of the fresh, wet gluten are fed into the disintegrator
of a ring dryer, where contact is made with previously
dried gluten fragments. The resulting blend is then fed into
a drying unit where, in a medium of hot air, rapid transfer
of heat and moisture takes place [11,66]. Larger and wetter
particles are separated from dry product and are caused to
recycle around the ring again. The dried wheat gluten is
then usually put through a sieve and oversize particles are
reground. A screen size of 150-250 gm is typical and a pin
mill is often used to regrind the gluten [46,131].
Spray-drying. In this process, a wheat gluten suspen-
sion is typically sprayed into a tower along with hot air.
Under these conditions, the moisture in the droplets of ma-
terial is quickly flashed off and the small dried particles
fall to the bottom for collection by a screw conveyor. The
760 Ponte et al.

heated air, now laden with moisture, is removed by a blow- TABLE 4 Comparison of End Uses of
er or fan [103]. Since the starting feed stock has a solids Wheat Gluten
content of about 12-14%, nearly 6 metric tons of water End use 1980 1995
must be evaporated for every ton of dry gluten produced
[46]. Baking 77 46
The starting wet wheat gluten must be uniformly incor- Milling 4 35
porated in a dispersion of appropriate viscosity for suc- Cereals 3 1
Snacks 0 1
cessful spray-drying. Ammonia or acetic acid are used as
Breadings and batters 0 1
dispersing agents: ammonia has the advantage of being
Meats 0 1
quickly flashed off from the dryer vent [46]. Carbon diox- Pet foods 10 12
ide apparently has also been used to form gluten disper- Other animal feeds 4 1
sions [124]. Spray-dried gluten has excellent functionality Devitalized 1 0
[46], but this drying method has not been widely used be- Others 1 2
cause water removal is costly and the quality of spray- Total (%) 100.0 100.0
dried gluten is not sufficiently better than that of the flash-
Source: Ref. 64.
dried product to justify its cost [66].
3. Applications of Wheat Gluten
The unique properties of wheat gluten have led to its in- TABLE 5 Wheat Gluten Consumption by End Use
creased utilization in a wide array of applications-food as
End use Australia North America EU
well as nonfood. As noted previously, wheat gluten has the
ability to form a viscoelastic mass when fully hydrated; Baking 54.0 83.0 16.5
this along with other properties such as film-forming abili- Milling 8.9 0.5 66.0
ty for gas retention, thermosetting properties for structural Cereals 11.4 1.0 0.0
rigidity, water absorption, and retention capacity for prod- Snacks 0.8 1.8 0.0
Breadings and batters 0.0 0.1 0.0
uct softness accounts for much of its functionality in bak-
Meats 8.4 1.0 0.0
ery foods and some other product applications. Hydrated
Pet foods 12.7 12.0 13.5
wheat gluten may be extruded, texturized, or drawn into Other animal feeds 0.4 0.0 0.0
fibers and spun; the adhesive, cohesive, film-forming char- Others 3.4 0.6 4.0
acteristics and thermosetting properties form the basis of Total (%) 100.0 100.0 100.0
many applications in various meat, poultry, and fish prod-
ucts [56]. Wheat gluten may also be added to some foods Source: Ref. 64.
to increase its protein content in order to meet nutritional
protein enhancement. A discussion of wheat gluten appli-
cations in some food products, with an emphasis on cereal- production in many areas of the world and that Australia
based foods, is provided below. uses a relatively large amount of wheat gluten in breakfast
(a) Overall Usage. The most important application of cereals and meats.
wheat gluten has been in the production of bakery foods. (b) Milling Applications. One of the obvious and fun-
Worldwide, Table 4 shows that 46% of wheat gluten was damental uses of wheat gluten is the adjustment of flour
used in baking in 1995, down from a value of 77% in 1980, protein level, either by the flour miller or at the bakery lev-
while 35% wheat gluten was used in milling in 1995, up el. It is well established that if other factors (oxidation, ab-
from a figure of 4% in 1980. Presumably, most of the sorption, mixing time) in baking tests are optimized, the
gluten utilized in milling ends up in baking. If one com- loaf volume obtained is directly related to the protein con-
bines the baking and milling usage for both time periods, tent of the flour [117]. In recent years, flour millers have
the totals for 1980 and 1995 are identical, namely 81%. increasingly used wheat gluten to supplement local, often
Table 5 shows that Australia and particularly North Ameri- weaker-type wheats in order to produce flours that satisfy
ca use most of their wheat gluten directly in baking, while the demands of bakers [82]. This trend has been especially
the greatest use of wheat gluten in the EU is in milling. The pronounced in Europe, as shown in Table 5, where gluten
high usage of gluten for milling in the EU is probably a re- supplementation of weaker flours provides an alternative
flection of the relatively weak bread flours in that area and to blending with more expensive, imported higher protein
the need for strengthening. Table 5 also indicates that con- wheats in the production of bread flours with satisfactory
siderable quantities of wheat gluten are used in pet food functional attributes [76]. Aside from Europe, wheat
Special Food Ingredients from Cereals 761

gluten supplementation of flour is practiced by flour TABLE 7 Typical Usage Levels of Wheat Gluten in
millers in Australia (Table 5) and many other regions Bakery Foods
around the world, but only to a very small extent in North Use level
America (Table 5). The ready availability of higher-pro- Bakery foods (% based on flour)
tein, relatively strong wheats in the United States and
Canada largely obviates the need to supplement flour with High-fiber, reduced-calorie bread 8-12
gluten by the miller. Whole meal bread 5-7
Research has been done for some years to develop bak- High-protein bread 5-6
Bagels 5-6
ery foods made with composite or nonwheat flours for use
Multigrain bread 4-5
in developing countries. Millet, cassava, maize, and other Wheat bread with bran 3-4
indigenous nonwheat grains and flours have been used in Raisin bread 3-4
composite flour systems; the addition of wheat gluten to Frozen doughs 2-5
these flours helps produce satisfactory bakery foods [56]. Hamburger buns, Vienna bread, hard rolls 2-3
(c) Baking Applications. Some criteria that a baker Pizza crust 1-2
may apply to the use of wheat gluten include (1) the quali-
ty and quantity of protein in the currently available flour,
(2) the demands of the dough system, and (3) the current
cost of wheat gluten. A list of important gluten parameters usually requires no gluten supplementation, at least in
in bread making is provided in Table 6 [30]. North America, although an exception could occur during
Another reported advantage of wheat gluten is that it those times when wheat crop protein levels are unduly low.
can help bakers reduce flour inventories; bakers may not Table 7 lists typical wheat gluten usage levels in various
need to inventory high-protein flours for production of types of bakery foods. Generally, higher wheat gluten lev-
specialty breads [115]. According to an FDA regulation els are indicated in those dough systems containing appre-
(FDA CFR 184.1322), wheat gluten is recognized as ciable quantities of nonwheat materials, such as bran or
GRAS (generally recognized as safe), and it may be used other fibers and raisins or other fruits. The added gluten
in bakery foods at any level not to exceed GMP (Good enhances and complements the inherent strength of the
Manufacturing Practices) [41]. The making of white bread flour protein. High-fiber, reduced-calorie breads typically

TABLE 6 Important Gluten Parameters for Use in Breadmaking

Influence on end-use properties
Recommended
Parameter level Comments/limitations
Moisture Below 10% Very low contents causes difficulty in handling; high contents
promotes quality deterioration.
Protein High High level is defined by Codex Alimentarius; minimum 80% on db.
Attaining high levels may be accompanied, however, by removal
of desirable components.
Ash Generally low A high level can indicate use of a very high extraction flour rich in
bran and/or undesirable germ/aleurone components and/or use of
salt to wash out the gluten.
Free lipids Low Low value should be an index of low-extraction flour, good shelf life,
and low level of detrimental oxidized free fatty acids but not be the
result of overheating during drying.
Particle size Low Should be low for fast hydration but not too low to create problems in
handling.
Sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation test High Can be useful as complementary tests for low gluten vitality caused
Dispersibility in 3 M urea Variable by heat damage. Precise values are dependent, however, on the
strength of the flour to which the gluten was added.
Baked gluten volume High In general, should be large as a test of high-quality vital gluten.
Source: Ref. 30.
762
contain substantial amounts of nonwheat materials in their
formulation, thereby requiring relatively high levels of
added wheat gluten.
The production of presliced hamburger buns and hot
dog rolls usually entails the addition of 1-2% wheat gluten
to strengthen the hinge that holds together the two parts of
the bun or roll. Bagels are made today in the United States,
with high-protein and/or gluten-fortified flour to help pro-
vide the typical chewy texture associated with this product.
The use of wheat gluten to enhance protein in hard rolls
serves to aid crust crispness and improve overall appear-
ance. Frozen doughs usually require a stronger flour com-
pared to conventional bread making to achieve satisfactory
results. If relatively weaker flours are used in frozen dough
production, the use of 2% gluten in white bread doughs
improves loaf volume and grain structure and extends
frozen storage and freeze-thaw stability [126,127].
Wheat gluten may also be used to achieve some nutri-
tional objective or to meet a nutritional labeling claim. For
example, since commercial wheat gluten contains about
75% protein, increasing a 10% protein flour to 12% re-
quires about 2.5 lb (1.13 kg) of gluten per 100 lb (45.4 kg)
of flour [117].
Since wheat gluten requires time to sufficiently hydrate,
it is beneficial to add the gluten early in bread making; if
the sponge dough process is used in bread production,
adding the wheat gluten at the sponge mixing stage would
be most effective [117]. Modified gluten products are now
available that are reported to have several advantages: they
hydrate more rapidly, decrease mixing time, and can be
used at lower levels, all compared to conventional wheat
gluten. Some modified glutens are combined with surfac-
tant [128] or with surfactant and encapsulated ascorbic
acid [115].
(d) Breakfast Cereals, Snacks. Wheat gluten is used in
some breakfast cereals where it offers at least three advan-
tages: the gluten provides added protein to the cereal, de-
sired for nutritional claims; the gluten helps bind the vita-
min-mineral enrichment components to the cereal or berry;
and the gluten contributes to the structural integrity of the
flaked cereal [82]. In terms of the gluten's use for protein
fortification, the low level of lysine is not an important is-
sue, since breakfast cereals are usually consumed with
milk, which supplements this amino acid [124].
In extruded snacks, added wheat gluten contributes nu-
tritional value, crispness, and desired texture. Use levels
are generally 1-2% [82]. Examples of nutritional snacks
include Australian wafers made with 30-45% wheat
gluten, Japanese fu cakes, European gluten ball products,
and Chinese fried gluten entrees [124]. The use of 1%
gluten in pretzels has been recommended by Knight [70]
Ponte et al.
to improve resistance to breakage. A high-protein snack
product has been described that involves the fluidized bed
drying of a dough made with dairy curd, potato mash, and
wheat gluten [80].
(e) Breadings, Batter Mixes, and Coatings. Achieving
proper adhesion of batter to the surface of fried foods is a
common production problem. Baker et al. [10] reported
that predusting fried chicken with protein materials, in-
cluding dry wheat gluten, improves adhesion, reduces
cooking loss, and enhances appearance. In batter mixes,
the film-forming properties of wheat gluten reduce the loss
of liquid and produce crisp, appetizing surfaces. Wheat
gluten has been used in coating dry roasted nuts, where it
provides adhesion for the salt and other seasonings [82].
(f) Other Wheat Gluten Applications. Wheat gluten is
used in many other food systems, including pet foods;
meat, fish, and poultry products; and aquaculture feeds, as
well as in nonfood applications [65,82].
4. Evaluation of Commercial Wheat Gluten
Considerable effort has been expended in developing test
procedures for the evaluation of wheat glutens. Ultimately,
the quality of wheat gluten is best determined by function-
ality tests reflecting performance in end-use applications,
and, as pointed out previously, most often these would be
related to bread making. Aside from strictly functional
tests, however, a number of other general tests, for varying
reasons, might be utilized, including protein content, rate
and extent of hydration, particle size, color, physical prop-
erties, ether-extractable (free) fat level, and solubility in
acetic acid [124]. The International Wheat Gluten Associa-
tion has published several test bake methods for gluten
[63].
Protein could be important as part of a functional re-
quirement and also to satisfy nutritional labeling claims for
a particular food. The rate and extent of hydration might be
important in short-time dough processing, where it would
be desirable for the gluten to quickly become functional
and interact with native flour protein [110]. Generally,
wheat gluten particles should be relatively fine to be com-
patible with flour particles and also to assure rapid hydra-
tion [23]. The color of wheat gluten is important since it
can influence the color of the flour to which it is added
[47,85]. Simple sensory evaluations of odor and flavor are
also of obvious importance to ensure desired blandness in
wheat gluten [124].
(a) Baking Tests. The most widely used method to
evaluate wheat gluten for baking applications is the bake
test. Bake tests to determine intrinsic wheat gluten quality
have been conducted for many years, and bake test evalua-
tions are often a reference point for other test methods used
to estimate wheat gluten quality. The usual bake test for
Special Food Ingredients from Cereals 763

gluten quality involves the addition of low levels of gluten,
about 2%, to a standard test flour, which often is of a
"weak" type, and observing the effects on bread quality.
Water absorption is adjusted as appropriate for the gluten
levels added [23]. A stressed gluten-enriched baking test
was identified [31], which assumes that gluten is added to
enable production of specialty breads using substantial
levels of non-gluten-containing ingredients such as rye
flour, dietary fiber, bran and germ, or raisins [49]. Czucha-
j owska and Pomeranz [31] described a simple, repro-
ducible method for baking undiluted gluten, highly corre-
lated with the gluten-enrichment baking test.
A prime reason for performing end-use tests of func-
tionality, of course, is to monitor variations in the quality
of commercial wheat glutens that can occur. Differences
among commercial gluten are usually attributable to varia-
tions in the starting material, wheat or flour, and/or
changes caused by production processing conditions. Dur-
ing processing, the drying of gluten is critical, as noted
above, and investigators have shown that less than opti-
mum heat treatment can lower the baking quality of gluten
[14,49,98,111,130]. However, McDermott [85] reported
no definite relationship between manufacturing variables
and gluten quality in a group of 30 commercial glutens.
Dreese et al. [38] studied commercial and hand-washed
lyophilized gluten and found that differences were more
attributable to washing procedures than to drying proce-
dures.
Results obtained by other methods that have been stud-
ied typically are compared to results obtained by some
type of baking test. McDermott [85] compared baking
(Chorleywood bake test) and other properties of 30 com-
mercial glutens, mostly of European origin (Table 8), and
found that under his test conditions six samples were of
relatively poor quality; correlation between baking perfor-
mance and other measured properties was not high.
Weegels and Hamer [130] studied a group of 32 European
commercial glutens. These workers devised a test involv-
ing protein content, denaturation index (based on a series
of sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation measurements),
and extensigraph resistance; a model utilizing these tests
was able to predict 59% of the baking quality variation of
the glutens. Bushuk and Wadhawan [20] examined 27
commercial gluten samples, although only 8 were subject-
ed to extensive end-use testing; the highest correlation co-
efficients were between loaf volume and acetic acid-solu-
ble protein (r = 0.88) and between loaf volume and
fluorescence of acetic acid extract (r = 0.98).
(b) Nonbaking Tests. Considerable efforts have been
expended in developing nonbaking tests to evaluate the
quality or vitality of wheat gluten for baking purposes. The
baking test is often cited as being labor intensive, relative-
ly expensive, requiring skilled workers, and not effectively
differentiating gluten quality [86]. The farinograph has
been used to evaluate gluten for many years. The usual ap-
proach has been to test the gluten as a gluten-flour mixture
(e.g., Refs. 5, 18, 36, and 49), while an alternative method

TABLE 8 Properties of 30 Commercial Glutens

Baking performance
Property Average Range Poor Average Good
Increase in loaf volume, %a 10 7.7-12.2 8.3 10.2 11.8
Protein, %b 77.4 66.4-84.3 76.2 77.4 81.1
Moisture, % 7.5 5.3-10.2 8.8 7 7.7
Particle size, % <160 p.m 88.8 55.8-98 80.5 91 90.3
Color 68.3 56.5-75 65.2 68.9 69.5
Lipid, % 5.8 4.2-7.6 5.8 6.1 5.1
Ash, % 0.69 0.44-0.94 0.71 0.74 0.6
Chloride, %` 0.08 0.01-0.28 0.1 0.08 0.08
Water absorption, mug protein 2.37 1.84-2.93 2.26 2.45 2.29
SDS sedimentation volume, ml/g protein 99 55-159 70 107 127
Lactic acid sedimentation, % reduction in turbidity 18 2-68 49 11 7
Hydration time, min 0.9 0.2-10 2.7 2.4 0.6
Extensibility, units/min 3.8 0.7-9.3 3.2 3.9 3.9
Viscosity, cP 117 73-222 159 109 101
'2% gluten protein.
hDry matter basis.
`As NaCl.
Source: Ref. 85.
764 Ponte et al.

has involved the use of a gluten-starch mixture [62]. The typically has about 50-70% moisture and contains 60%
mixograph has also been used as a tool to measure wheat protein, 15-18% fat, 20-25% carbohydrate, 3.5% fiber,
gluten properties. For example, Neufeld and Walker [93] and 1-2% ash on a dry basis. Free fatty acids comprise
devised a mixograph method involving a model dough about 20-30% of the fat [17]. During 1996, about 2.240
system with wheat starch, a water-solubles replacer, and billion pounds of CGM were shipped by the corn wet-
potassium iodate, formulated to a constant 15% protein milling industry [28].
content for each gluten tested. The mixograph method ap-
(b) Applications. Most of the CGM produced is used as
peared to be sensitive to differences in bread-baking quali-
animal feed. CGM is valued in cattle feed because it pro-
ties; the authors concluded their method may be a viable
vides a high level of rumen bypass protein [125] and high
rapid alternative to a baking test for evaluation of gluten
xanthophyl and protein. Low fiber makes it useful as a
quality. Lang et al. [78] found that increasing concentra-
poultry feed [133]. Limited quantities of CGM are used in
tions of three commercial glutens—control, modified
food production because its typical strong odors and fla-
(with soy lecithin), and enhanced (with vitamins and emul-
vors, largely due to a high unsaturated fatty acid content,
sifier)—increased curve peak height and area under the
are susceptible to oxidative rancidity.
curve compared to doughs with no added gluten. The
Buck et al. [17] found that CGM decreased flavor rat-
mixograph was also used to compare commercial gluteus
ings in bread, extruded products, and pasta, but not cook-
in frozen dough studies [127]. Recent work was done to
ies, and decreased texture ratings in bread, extruded prod-
assess gluten quality using the 2 g direct-drive mixograph
ucts, and cookies, but not pasta. The use of CGM, with or
[69].
without other materials, in production of extruded products
Other physical testing methods for gluten quality in-
was also investigated by others [13,94]. El Saied and El-
clude the Glutensimeter to measure extensibility, the vis-
Farra [42] reported that addition of the by-products corn
coelastograph to measure firmness and elastic recovery,
gluten water, rice gluten water, and rice steep water im-
and the Glutograph to estimate stretching and elastic prop-
proved the physical properties of unyeasted dough, as
erties of gluten [31]. Perten [99] described a method to es-
measured on the farinograph and extensigraph; moreover,
timate gluten quantity and quality in whole meal or flour
these by-products improved the quality of Balady and Eu-
samples. The method involves washing gluten from a sam-
ropean breads and increased their protein content. Mottern
ple with a Glutomatic [5], centrifuging the sample on a
et al. [89] reported that arepas or Colombian corn cakes
special sieve, then reporting the total gluten and the gluten
could be made with corn gluten at the 5% level without
retained on the sieve (Gluten Index, a measure of quality).
changing the character of the baked product. In a study of
Another approach to evaluating gluten is that of Miller
the binding ability of seven nonmeat proteins in the pres-
and Hoseney [86], who described a simple compression
ence of 8% salt and 2% sodium tripolyphosphate, corn
test that measured the distance a sample had to be com-
gluten was ranked third highest [113]. Hydrolyzed corn
pressed to obtain a constant stress of 100 g; the method
gluten finds application as a flavor enhancer in various
was found to be reproducible and correlated highly with
food products (e.g., Ref. 120).
baking tests. NIRS was utilized to predict the composition
Research has been done to improve CGM as a food in-
of vital dry gluten and, to a limited extent, how the com-
gredient. Harris et al. [52] utilized solvent extraction to re-
position affected end-use properties [30]. Bushuk and
move lipids and pigmens from CGM and reported en-
Wadhawan [20] reported three parameters that would be
hanced functionality, which could lead to greater consumer
suitable for measuring gluten vitality during the manufac-
acceptance of food products made with CGM. Wu et al.
turing process: wet gluten stretching force, amount of
[132] found that supercritical CO2 or hexane-ethanol ex-
acetic acid—soluble protein, and intrinsic fluorescence of
traction significantly improved the flavor of CGM, and the
dry gluten.
resulting product should have increased acceptability as a
food ingredient.
B. Corn Gluten
1. Corn Gluten Meal 2. Zein
(a) Properties and Composition. Corn gluten meal (a) Properties and Composition. Zein is the water-in-
(CGM) is a coproduct of corn wet milling, obtained after soluble prolamine of corn gluten. Although insoluble both
the germ, oil, bran, and starch are extracted from shelled in water and anhydrous alcohol, it is soluble in a combina-
corn [17,133] (see also Chapter 2). After isolation of the tion of both solvents, apparently due to the preponderance
other corn components, the CGM is concentrated by cen- of the hydrophobic acids leucine, proline, and alanine. The
trifugal separation and then dried to a meal form. CGM insolubility of zein is attributable to the high proportion of
Special Food Ingredients from Cereals
hydrocarbon group side chains and the high percentage of
amide groups present with a relatively low number of free
carboxyl acid groups [43]. In whole corn, zein occurs as a
heterogeneous mixture of disulfide-linked aggregates.
Commercially produced zein is a powdered material, with
a molecular weight of 25,000-35,000. When aqueous alco-
holic solutions of zein are evaporated, a clear, glossy, hard
film is formed; this film is edible and has protective prop-
erties (see below).
(b) Production. Zein is commercially produced by ex-
tracting corn gluten with alkaline aqueous isopropyl alco-
hol containing sodium hydroxide [133]. The zein will pre-
cipitate from the extract when it is cooled.
(c) Applications. Zein and a group of other materials
have been used for many years as edible, protective films
and coatings. Present and potential functions of edible films
and coatings include retardation of moisture, gas (oxygen
and carbon dioxide), and fat migration; improvement of
mechanical handling and structural integrity of foods; re-
tention of volatile flavor compounds; and as carriers of an-
tioxidants and other food additives [48,68]. Zein has been
used to protectively coat fruit cubes, nuts, freeze-dried and
compressed bite-size foods [74], and tomatoes, where it re-
duced moisture loss and helped maintain color [138]. Her-
ald et al. [55] reported that turkey breast wrapped in zein
film with antioxidant and emulsifier had a lower hexanal
content than control samples wrapped in PVDC. Zein films
have enhanced properties when prepared with certain plas-
ticizers [76]. Zein can be combined with other ingredients
and coloring agents to provide a variety of coatings [43].
C. Wheat and Corn Germ
1. Wheat Germ
Wheat germ is generally separated from white flour during
milling because, in part, (1) it contains glutathione, a re-
ducing component that exerts deleterious effects during
breadmaking, and (2) it contains unsaturated fat, which
tends to become rancid during storage. Similar to other ce-
real germs, wheat germ has excellent nutritive value be-
cause it is high in protein, minerals, oil, and vitamins
[121]. It has a composition of about 36% protein, 10% oil,
4% ash, and 5% crude fiber [67]. To improve fuctionality,
especially in baking, most wheat germ is defatted and heat-
treated [92]. Unprocessed germ becomes rancid in 2
weeks; storage life is extended to 12 weeks by defatting, to
20 weeks by drum-drying, and to 26 weeks by toasting or
steaming [67].
Bakers add wheat germ to some variety breads because
of its nutritional characteristics [92]. Pomeranz et al. [101]
reported that the use of raw germ in bread making de-
creased loaf volume, but up to 15% glutathione-inactivated
765
(heat-treated, also defatted) germ had no deleterious effect.
Tsen [121] fopnd that modifying the bread-making process
and adding certain surfactants effectively improved the
quality of germ-fortified bread and cookies.
Besides applications in bread making, commercial de-
fatted, heat-treated wheat germ is used in snack foods, pas-
ta products, baby foods, special dietary products, and other
food products; it has over 30% protein, over 15% fiber, and
less than 1% fat [9,45]. Wheat germ is also an important di-
etary supplement, providing a rich source of vitamin E [29].
2. Corn Germ
Corn germ is rarely used in human food production. How-
ever, some studies have shown it could have applications
as an additive in bakery foods such as bread and cookies
(e.g., Ref. 121). Zayas and Lin [136] found that hexane-de-
fatted corn germ protein had high meat emulsion stability;
because of its better functional properties, these authors
recommended the use of hexane-defatted corn germ pro-
tein obtained by a modified process for use as an additive
in food products.
III. CEREAL STARCHES
Starch is the most available and widely distributed food
component derived from cereals, representing more than
60% of the composition of cereals. It is a D-glucose poly-
mer occurring as essentially linear (amylose) chains linked
with a-1,4 bonds and as highly branched (amylopectin)
chains with oc-1,4 and oc-1,6 bonds. It is estimated that in
the year 2000 worldwide cereal starch production will be
more than 900 million metric tons [13]. One of the major
industrial applications of starch in the food industry is to
provide the characteristic texture, consistency, and mouth-
feel of many foods, besides contributing to nutritive values
(Fig. 6). The choice of starches and derivatives depends on
Baked Batters
Sauces, Gravies Goods and
and Breading
Pie Filling Soups Beverage
and and
Puddings Drinks
Meats --01. Confections
and
Seafood
Dairy
Glazes Products
Frozen Dressings
Dry
Desserts Mixes
FIGURE 6 Applications of cereal starch in the food industry.
766 Ponte et al.

TABLE 9 Some Functions of Starches in Food Systems applications in the food industry. Some physical and chem-
ical properties of cereal starches are given in Table 10.
Adhesion Breaded products
Clouding Cream filling, drinks
1. Corn Starch
Coating and glazing Nuts, pastry glaze
Crispness Snack foods, breakfast cereals Corn starch is the most economical starch available in the
Dusting Bread, gum United States for the food industry. It is available in un-
Encapsulation Flavor modified powdered as well as modified forms [88]. Corn
Expension Breakfast cereals, snack foods has some advantages over other starches and offers vari-
Flowing control Baking powder eties in composition including common dent corn starch
Foam Strengthening Marshmallows, drinks (27% amylose, 73% amylopectin), waxy corn starch (only
Functional fiber Breakfast cereals, noodless, amylopectin), and high-amylose corn starch (up to 80%
snack foods amylose) [44].
Moisture retention and binding Batters, breadings
Dent corn starch can be used as a thickener in gravy and
Moulding Confectionary
sauces, where the shelf life is very short. When unmodified
Oily texture in reduced fat
products Bakery products, dry mixes starch is used in canned and frozen foods, cooled starch
Setting and gelling Confectionary, puddings gels undergo severe textural changes, giving the product a
Shaping Meat products poor appearance. Therefore, corn starch is not suitable for
Thickening, stabilizing and Gravies, sauces, soups, pie smooth texture either in pregelatinized or cooked form
viscosity control fillings, salad dressing [79]. The food industry requires clarity, flavor, stable vis-
cosity, and durability in some applications [88].
Waxy starches yield gels with different rheological
properties. These starches provide a cooled starch paste of
the commercial availability and functionality for the par-
high viscosity and clarity, resist syneresis, impart less cere-
ticular properties desired. If the required properties of two
al-like flavor, and give elastic gels [88].
or more available starches are the same, the choice would
High-amylose corn (amylomaize) starch is resistant to
probably be the most economic material. In the food indus-
swelling and difficult to cook, requiring high temperature
try starch can be used in its unmodified form or after vari-
and pressure. On cooling, amylomaize paste rapidly hard-
ous modifications to perform a variety of functions. Appli-
ens and yields very strong gels desired in confectionery
cations of starches are listed in Table 9.
such as gum drops and in breaded crispy foods [114].
A. The Most Commonly Used 2. Wheat Starch
Cereal Starches
Wheat starch comprises 6% of the total world starch pro-
The major source of starch used in the United States is duction of 40 million short tons, compared to 83% for corn
corn, although wheat, rice, and other starches find some starch [33]. Canada and Australia have major wheat starch

TABLE 10 Physical and Chemical Properties of Cereal Starches

Granule Size (p.m) Swelling

Amylose power Solubility Gelatinization General description
Starch Range Average (%) (at 95°C) (at 95°C) range (°C) of granule
Barley 2-35 20 22 56-62 Round, elliptical, lenticular
Corn
Regular 5-25 15 26 24 25 62-80 Round, polygonal
Waxy 5-25 15 —1 64 23 63-74 Round, oval indentations
High amylose 15 580 6 12 85-87 Round
Rice 3-8 5 17 19 61-80 Polygonal clusters
Rye 2-35 23 57-70 Elliptical, lenticular
Sorghum 5-25 15 26 22 22 68-78 Round, polygonal
Wheat 2-35 15 25 21 41 53-72 Round, elliptical, lenticular
Oat 2-10 27 56-62 Polygonal, compound
Source: Adapted from Ref. 102.
Special Food Ingredients from Cereals
industries, and wheat starch is becoming more important in
the European Union, since wheat is normally more plenti-
ful and cheaper than corn [118]. Currently, in Europe
54.2% of starch comes from corn, 22.5% from wheat,
21.9% from potato, and 1.4% from other starch sources
[57]. In Europe and Australia wheat starch is a by-product
of vital gluten manufacturing and is used as a thickener
and gelling agent similar to corn starch. Wheat starch gives
an opaque paste similar in clarity and texture to that of
corn starch, has medium paste strength under shear and
heating, and shows a pronounced setback, compared to
other starches [70]. The resulting short pastes are difficult
to deform and are grainy and thick-bodied as a result of
retrogradation of amylose fractions [102,109]. The viscos-
ity and gel strength are not as great as those of corn starch
[88].
3. Rice Starch
Rice has one of the smallest starch granules of the cereal
grains, ranging from 3 to 8 pm. Rice starch is not widely
used because of its higher price compared to corn and
wheat. However, it performs better than the other starches
in certain applications. After gelatinization the resulting
paste is smooth, creamy, and spreadable and has a bland
taste. It provides a textural perception similar to fat due to
the size of starch [24]. Waxy rice paste has good freeze-
thaw stability [51] and shows resistance to high tempera-
ture [24].
4. Oat Starch
Oat starch displays interesting cooked paste and cooled gel
behavior [96]. When cooked and cooled to 70 and 80°C,
oat starch pastes develop almost all of the consistency that
they display at a final cooled temperature of 30°C. The
cooled gels are clearer than wheat or corn starch gels, are
semirigid, and do not severely retrograde when stored at
5°C for up to 2 weeks. Doublier et al. [37] showed that the
lipid content of oat is between 1.2 and 1.5%. These lipids
are likely to alter the behavior of oat starch [97].
B. Starch Properties
Selection of the starch type to be used in a product is criti-
cal and requires a fundamental understanding of both the
starch properties and the food system. Quality criteria for
various applications may be clarity, stability to heat, shear,
and pH, and resistance to syneresis and retrogradation
[44]. Those criteria are influenced by the botanical source
of the starch, granular organization, the difference in lipid
and amylose content and modification [34].
Starches, as noted above, are used as thickeners, stabi-
lizers, gel formers, coating agents, and moisture holders in
food systems. The proper starch selection for certain appli-
767
cations requires knowledge of the physical and chemical
characteristics of the different starches. Some key factors
for starch property are given in the following sections.
1. Starch Paste Clarity
Paste clarity, in other words transparency or opacity, is one
of the most important quality criteria. Opacity is associated
with retrogradation of amylose fractions, which is desir-
able when the starch is used as a thickener in salad dress-
ings; dent corn starch or high-amylose starch may be suit-
able for this purpose. On the other hand, transparency is
desirable in fruit pie filling; waxy starches or cross-linked
starches serve better in this case. The phospholipid content
of starch affects paste clarity, paste stability, and viscosity.
Phospholipids complex with the amylose, reducing ab-
sorption and increasing opacity [54]. Starches with high
phospholipid content such as wheat, oat, and rice starches
produce opaque pastes.
2. Thickeners
The thickness of the paste and the properties of the starch
gel are important parameters to the food industry because
of the influence on final product characteristics [34,102].
The primary function of starch addition as a thickener is to
impart the desired viscosity profile to the foods consumed
either hot or cold such as gravies, pie filling, soups.
3. Paste Stability
Paste stability becomes important if a food is frozen or re-
frigerated. Cold storage promotes retrogradation and tends
to force the water held in swollen granules out of the sys-
tem (syneresis). Waxy starches perform better than un-
modified corn starch in such systems. Chemically stabi-
lized starch (introduction of ionic phosphate groups into
cross-bonded waxy starch) prevents gelling and syneresis,
controls textural appearance, and produces pastes that
withstand a freeze-thaw cycle before syneresis or weeping
happens [102].
C. Modified Starches
Unmodified starches have limited use in the food industry
in terms of emerging needs and functionality. Modification
of starches, either chemically, physically, or enzymatically,
enhances functional properties and offers advantages over
the native starch. Frozen, cold water—dispersible (instant),
encapsulated products and heat-and-serve foods can be
economically produced by using modified starches. Modi-
fication provides special (desired) rheological properties
[88]. Major starch modifications and their applications in
the food industry are given in Table 11. Modification
changes the interaction pattern among starch polymer
chains, altering hydrogen bonding, charge potential, and
768 Ponte et al.

TABLE 11 Physical and Rheological Properties of Modified Cereal Starches

Modified starch Treatment (example) Advantages over natural starch Examples of use in food
Pregelatinized Heat/moisture Cold water soluble Pie fillings, instant products, coatings
Acid-thinned Acid Low hot paste viscosity, high gel Gums, jellies
viscosity
Oxidized Hypochlorite Increased clarity, reduced setback Gravy, sauce, thickeners, jellies
Hydroxylalkyl ethers Propylene oxide Increased clarity and stability Salad dressings, pie fillings
Esterified Acetic anhydride Reduced setback Instant foods, frozen foods
Monophosphates Phosphoric acid Increased stability to freeze-thaw Frozen foods, infant formula
cycles
Cross-linked, e.g., distarch Phosphorus Oxychloride Increased stability to heat, pH, Wide range of canned and frozen foods
shear and Freeze-thaw cycles
Source: Adapted from Ref. 44.

hydrophobic interaction. The type and extent of modifica-
tion must be carefully controlled to meet the needs. Starch
modifications can be very sophisticated in response to di-
verse requests from the food industry, and developed
methods are patented by producers in most cases.
1. Pregelatinized Starches
Pregelatinized starch has low bulk density and possesses
the ability to disperse in cold water. It is commercially pro-
duced by precooking starch and then drying on heated
rolls, drums, or in a spray-dryer to produce cold water—
swelling starches. The physical characteristics and rheo-
logical properties of pregelatinized starch can be affected
by the particle size of the starch and drying conditions
[27,102]. Pregelatinized starches are used in instant-
starch—based puddings and ready-to-eat foods. They pro-
vide instant viscosity and desired textural properties.
2. Resistant Starch
A portion of starch in foods that escapes complete diges-
tion is called resistant starch (RS). The dietary fiber—like
property of enzyme-resistant starch has interested many
scientists. High levels of RS can be produced during heat
treatment and cooling of high-amylose starch. Crystalliza-
tion of amylose occurs readily and is considerably more
rapid than the crystallization of amylopectin [107]. It is re-
ported that high-amylose corn starch gave 21% RS, regular
corn starch 7% RS, and waxy corn starch 2.5% RS after
one heating and cooling cycle [114]. Amylose gels are
highly thermoresistant and have a crystalline melting tem-
perature (Tir,) approximately three times that of amy-
lopectin [81]. RS has a water-uptake capacity of less than 2
g/g of product [116].
Resistant starches are produced by controlled retrogra-
dation of partially hydrolyzed amylose [95]. The first com-
mercially developed RS, introduced in 1994, had 30% to-
tal dietary fiber [7]. Resistant starches have small particle
size, bland flavor, and low absorption compared to other
fiber sources. The smaller particle size does not adversely
affect the texture [7]. RS can be added as a part of the for-
mula in ready-to-eat cereals, pasta, and noodles without
exhibiting adverse effects on texture; extruded oat rings
made with 30% RS process like the standard base product
but provide 5.5 g of dietary fiber per 30 g serving [116].
3. Acid-Modified Starches
Acid-modified starches are prepared by adding dilute acid
to a warm starch-water slurry. The treatment hydrolyzes
glucosidic bonds in the amorphous region and weakens the
polymer, so that the starch granules takes up water quickly.
These starches cook completely in high-sugar systems.
They are also referred to as thin-boiling starches [114].
4. Dextrin
Dextrin is produced through acid modification, but hydrol-
ysis is more extensive than that in acid-modified starch.
Dextrin is used as a coating agent in baking and confec-
tionery. Coating the surface of fresh cookies and cakes
forms a film, which prevents moisture loss. In confec-
tionery, as moisture is removed from the solution, dextrin
forms a clear film, which provides a protective coating
[79], and it can also replace gum arabic in flavor oil encap-
sulation [91].
5. Oxidized Starches
These starches are manufactured by adding alkaline
hypochlorite (oxidizing agent) to starch suspensions. Oxi-
dized starch has a lower viscosity and whiter color and
yields a relatively more clear paste and soft gel than un-
modified starch. Oxidized starches have excellent film-
forming and adhesive properties. The process reduces
amylose retrogradation or association of chains in starch
Special Food Ingredients from Cereals
FIGURE 7 Stabilization of starch: by cross-linking (left), and
by substitution (right).
gels. It is widely used in breaded foods such as fish and
meat because of higher adhesion rates [91] and in confec-
tionery as smooth, glossy coating agents.
6. Cross-Linked Starches
Introduction of cross-linkages between molecules by phos-
phorus oxychloride or trimetaphospate does not significant-
ly affect the gelatinization temperature range but stabilizes
the granule against excessive swelling, heat, and shear
breakdown [79,102,114]. Cross-linking provides stable,
high-viscosity starch pastes in the presence of increased
acid level and severe agitation and provides proper perfor-
mance in particular applications (Fig. 7). Cross-linking
does not stabilize the glucosidic bonds against acid. The de-
gree of cross-linking affects the clarity and texture of foods.
The less cross-linked the waxy starch, the more clear it will
be. Pulpy texture of sauces can be obtained with the aid of
highly cross-linked and moderately coarse particles. This
slows the hydration rate, making dispersion easy [79].
Cross-linked starches are used in canned soups, gravies,
sauces, puddings, batter mixes for deep-fried food, and
fruit pie fillings. They thicken spoonable salad dressings
without viscosity breakdown, increase storage stability,
promote freeze-thaw stability by superior water-holding
under low temperature storage, and have more resistance
to effects of low pH than other starches [91].
7. Substituted (Stabilized) Starches
Chemical substitution reduces the cooking temperature,
improves paste clarity, stabilizes viscosity, and increases
freeze-thaw stability [4,84]. Stabilization in starch is ac-
complished by scattering anionic groups in the granule to
block association (Fig. 7). This process prevents gelling
and syneresis and produce pastes that are stable after sev-
eral freeze-thaw cycles [114]. Starch acetates tend to pre-
vent syneresis in frozen baked foods and extend the shelf
life of baby foods, canned fruit, and pie fillings. Starch
phosphates improves the emulsion of vegetable oil in wa-
ter [91]. These starches may provide stable viscosity in oil-
in-water emulsions such as spoonable salad dressings as a
result of the water affinity of the carbohydrate and the oil
affinity of the attached lipophilic groups [21].
Depending on the desired function in a specific system,
769
one can choose the source of starch and type and degree of
modification. It is also common to use a mixture of unmod-
ified, acid thinned, and cross-linked or substituted starches
to achieve needed viscosity, clarity, texture and stability.
IV. FAT REPLACERS
Lowering fat in the diet reduces the incidence of cancer
and heart problems. It has been suggested that fat intake
should be reduced to 30% of the total calories consumed.
To meet consumers' expectations, ingredient suppliers,
food companies, and research institutes have been working
to develop fat substitutes without sacrificing the quality at-
tributes of individual food products. Low-fat processed
food consumption in the United States increased from $29
billion in 1990 to $32 billion in 1991.
The most difficult part of formulating low-fat products
is to obtain the tenderness, moist mouthfeel, lubricity, and
flavor found in standard fat-containing products. The most
successful modified products are high in moisture, such as
mayonnaise, salad dressings, dairy products, frozen
desserts, sauces, and gravies. In a recent study, dairy prod-
ucts appear to be the most important category of low-fat
foods. Sales of low-fat foods for 1990-1995 are shown in
Table 12. More recently, however, consumer interest in
low-fat foods has declined, largely because consumers
seem unwilling to sacrifice taste and texture for fat reduc-
tion [139]. For example, the number of new reduced/low-
fat products introduced for the years 1996-1998 were:
2,076; 1,405; and 1,180, respectively [140].
Cereal-based products, mostly starch and starch deriva-
tives, represent substantial portions of fat replacers in the
market today. Early fat-replacer technology utilized starch
hydrolysis products, namely low-DE maltodextrins [105].
The role of starch-based fat replacers is, in part, to produce
TABLE 12 Actual and Projected
Sales of Low-Fat Food Products in the
United States ($ billion)
Year
Food product 1990 1995
Baked goods 1 6
Dairy products 10 16
Frozen desserts 3 7
Margarine 2 2
Frozen ready meals 2 6
Processed meats 2 8
Salty snacks 1 5
Total 21 50
Source: Ref. 77.
770
Carrier-Bulk. Agt. 23%
Spray Drying Aid 25%
FIGURE 8 Application of maltodextrins. (From Ref. 32.)
products with relatively high water contents. Basically,
there are three types of starch-based fat replacers: long-
chain molecules, short-chain dextrins, and microcrys-
talline particles produced from sheared, acid-hydrolyzed
starch [59]. These materials function to control water in
the system, forming gels that are necessary to obtain the
mouthfeel and texture of the fat-containing foods [2,134].
The starch-based fat replacers do not perform two impor-
tant functions of fat, namely air incorporation and flavor
trapping, which remain challenges to be solved.
A. Maltodextrins
Maltodextrins are nonsweet, short linear chain molecules,
with a DE of less than 20. They are used as bulking agents,
flavor carriers, spray-drying aids, food coatings, and fat re-
placers [1]. They impart rheological and textural properties
similar to fats in food products. The applications of mal-
todextrins are represented in Figure 8.
The cereal used to make commercial maltodextrin is
mostly corn; oats and rice can be used to a certain extent.
Maltodextrins are produced by acid or enzyme hydrolysis
[4]. The functions of maltodextrins differ, depending on
their DE, a measure of the reducing sugar content; higher-
DE maltodextrins do not have the same gelling properties
as low-DE maltodextins.
In addition the size, shape, and degree of branching in
maltodextrin may cause functional differences among low-
DE maltodextrins from various manufacturers. Available
commercial maltodextrins for fat replacement have low
DE, generally 5 or less. These dextrins are described as
Ponte et al.
Medical-Nutritional 17%
Fat Replacers 7%
Frozen Desserts 6%
Dairy-Nondairy 5%
Salad Dressing 5%
Icing-Fondants 5%
Food Coatings 3%
Others 4%
yielding a short texture, smooth mouthfeel, and bland fla-
vor. One of the cereal-based fat replacers obtained from
oat contains 13-glucan along with low-DE maltodextrins. It
reduces calories and also cholesterol in the diet [1].
B. Starches
As mentioned earlier, starches function as thickeners. Un-
modified starches yield a firm gel and texture on cooling,
with the exception of gels from rice starch. Its very small
granule size provides a smooth texture. It is reported that
gelatinized rice starch has an excellent water-absorption ca-
pacity and makes creamy and spreadable gels; rice starch
can be used in ice cream, cheesecake, sour cream, salad
dressing, and to make an unheated cookie filling [75].
Modification of starch improves functional perfor-
mance. Lightly cross-linked (0.05-0.3%) and substituted
starches make pastes that tend to be short in texture,
creamy and smooth, and perform very well in moisture re-
tention [2,79]. Substituted corn starch with 50-60% amy-
lose content yielded pastes with thick and smooth consis-
tencies and functioned to enhancing body and mouthfeel,
providing high viscosity with low solid content. Modified
high-amylose starches reduce oil pick-up in fried foods as
a result of reassociation of amylose into film-forming,
strong gels [79].
Dextrins, starches, and their modified forms can be used
to replace butter in ice cream, vegetable oil in salad dress-
ing, and shortening in icing. In most applications, the use of
cereal starches and hydrolysates are not sufficient to pro-
vide proper texture and mouthfeel in foods. As fat is re-
Special Food Ingredients from Cereals 771

moved from the system, the water level increases, which re- TABLE 13 Total Dietary Fiber in Cereals
sults in deterioration in texture and alteration in water activ-
Moisture Total dietary
ity that is very critical. The use of antimicrobial agents and
(%) fibera (%)
bulking agents such as maltodextrins and corn syrup solids
to replace water and aseptic processing become more im- Cereals
portant [134]. To simulate the same textural and rheological Whole grains
properties provided by fat sometimes requires the use of Triticale 11.2 18.1 ± 1.7
two or more starches combined with maltodextrins, corn Barley, scotch 9.2 17.3 ± 0.3
Barley, pearled 9.9 15.6 ± 0.3
syrups, emulsifiers, and natural and synthetic gums.
Amaranth 13.3 15.2 ± 1.6
Millet 8.2 8.5 ± 0.5
V. SWEETENERS Bran
Corn bran 6.5 82.4 ± 0.9
Cereal starches today form the basis of a large industry that Wheat bran 11.6 42.6 ± 0.9
converts starch into a wide variety of sweeteners. About Rice bran 8.2 21.7 ± 0.9
70% of the world production of corn starch is converted Oat bran 7.8 17.9 ± 0.5
into sweeteners, and in the United States virtually 100% of Rice polish 12.0 15.3 ± 1.2
starch-based sweeteners are derived from corn starch Flour
[108]. As noted earlier, wheat starch production predomi- Dark rye flour 11.1 32.0 ± 0.3
nates in Australia and is increasing in the European Union, Roman Meal 9.1 18.0 ± 0.1
Medium rye flour 8.8 14.7 ± 1.2
therefore this starch is important for the production of
Whole wheat flour 11.5 14.6 ± 1.1
starch-based sweeteners in these geographical areas.
Triticale flour 9.4 14.6 ± 0.5
A detailed discussion of conversion of starch to sweet- Light rye flour 10.6 14.6 ± 0.6
eners is given in Chapter 2. Corn flour 10.9 13.4 ± 0.4
Amaranath flour 13.0 10.2 ± 0.3
Buckwheat flour 12.3 10.0 ± 0.1
VI. FOOD FIBER
Masa harina 11.3 9.6 ± 0.2
Foods vary widely in dietary fiber content. Information on Oat flour 12.2 9.6 ± 0.7
dietary fiber in many foods is readily available; Dreher Corn meal, degermed 10.3 9.5 ± 0.4
[39], for example, has compiled an extensive list drawn All purpose flour (Brand A) 11.2 5.6 ± 0.4
from many sources. Data on total dietary fiber (TDF) in All purpose flour (Brand B) 11.3 5.3 ± 0.1
Brown rice flour 12.9 4.6 ± 0.4
baked products and cereals were developed and reported
High gluten flour 14.3 4.1 ± 0.6
by Cardozo and Eitenmiller (Table 13).
Semolina flour 11.7 3.9 ± 0.5
Given the great interest in dietary fiber and the recom- Cake flour 11.6 3.7 ± 0.1
mendation by many health groups that Americans should Cornmeal 11.0 3.6 ± 0.2
increase their fiber intake from an average 11-12 g to Arrowroot flour 11.4 3.4 ± 0.4
20-35 g per day [16], considerable efforts have been made Rice flour 11.9 2.4 ± 0.1
to amplify the fiber content of many consumer products. A All purpose flour (Brand C) 12.9 2.3 ± 0.5
wide variety of fiber from many plant sources is presently Tapioca flour 11.0 0.9 ± 0.5
available for the purpose of enriching the fiber content of Rice
foods [6,15,39,123]. A select group of fiber materials limit- Wild rice 8.4 5.2 ± 0.5
ed to those derived from cereal sources is provided in Brown rice 11.7 3.9 ± 0.2
Instant rice (Brand A) 9.0 2.9 ± 0.2
Table 14. These are typical values; cereal fiber materials
Short-grain rice 11.1 2.8 ± 0.2
with characteristics different from those shown may be
Glutinous rice 10.1 2.8 ± 0.3
available from various commercial sources. Commercial Rice-a-roni 71.5 2.5 ± 0.3
suppliers of fibers have been identified in several publica- Instant rice (Brand B) 8.6 2.3 ± 0.1
tions [6,39,123]. Parboiled rice, dry 10.4 2.2 ± 0.4
Among the cereal-based foods made with added fiber Medium-grain rice 11.7 1.7 ± 0.1
are breads [16,73,119], muffins, biscuits, cookies, some Noodles and pasta (uncooked)
cakes, snack foods [39], and breakfast cereals [87,112, Spaghetti, whole wheat 8.8 10.7 ± 0.2
122,129]. Spaghetti, spinach 8.7 10.6 ± 0.5
Breads are perhaps the most important product catego- Pasta, artichoke 9.7 9.8 ± 0.5
ry in terms of quantities of fiber utilized. Production of Noodles, spinach-egg 8.5 6.8 ± 0.1
772 Ponte et al.

TABLE 13 Continued Dubois [40] and Bruinsma [16] have discussed some of
the changes in the bread-making process that may become
Moisture Total dietary
fiber' (%) necessary when making high-fiber breads. These changes
(%)
typically include use of a relatively stronger, higher-pro-
Noodles, udon 11.5 5.4 ± 0.4 tein flour; higher water levels in the dough (high-fiber
Noodles, chow-mein 0.8 4.7 ± 0.4 breads have a moisture content of about 43-45% com-
Macaroni, protein fortified 8.5 4.3 ± 0.1 pared to about 38% for white pan bread); an increase of
Pasta, multicolor 10.1 4.3 ± 0.4 wheat gluten to 8-12%; slightly higher yeast levels; use of
Noodles, somen 11.3 4.3 ± 0.6
dough conditioners such as sodium-stearoyl-2-lactylate
Noodles, egg 9.5 4.0 ± 0.4
3.9 ± 0.2 and ethoxylated monoglycerides; full development during
Noodles, Chinese rice 6.2
dough mixing; and a decrease in floor time and possibly a
'Values represent means ± standard deviation on wet weight basis. proof to a greater height.
Source: Ref. 22. In general, the production of high-fiber breads is more
demanding than that of white pan bread. Close attention to
formulation and processing is critical to the successful pro-
TABLE 14 Dietary Fiber Content of Selected duction of quality end products.
Cereal Materials' Certain nonstarch carbohydrate enzymes have been
Total Insoluble Soluble beneficial in high-fiber doughs. The use of high levels of
dietary fiber fiber fiber increases dough absorption, as noted above, which
fiber (%) (%) (%) greatly alters dough rheological properties and causes dif-
ficulties in the machinability of dough. The utilization of
Barley bran flour 70 67 3 hemicellulase-type enzymes can promote limited hydroly-
Barley flour, high-protein 36 34 2
sis of fiber polymer components (e.g., gums such as pen-
Brewers' spent grains 53 53 0
tosans) without affecting gluten strength. The pentosans
Corn bran 55 55 0
Corn fiber 88 88 0 release water as the fibers hydrate, with the net result that a
Oat bran 26 15 11 more favorable dough hydration is achieved, along with
Oat fiber 93 93 0 better viscoelastic properties and better bread-making
Rice bran 40 properties [16,53,90].
Rice bran, stabilized 35 21 14
Rice fiber 75 72 3
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INDEX

Amylopectin [Bakery foods, yeast-leavened]

barley, 387, 389 enzymes, 568
corn, 38 flour indices, 562, 566
sorghum, 153 flour shipments to bakeries, 539-541
waxy starch, 183, 387-389 formulas (see Formulations)
Amylose ingredient functionality, 564-565
barley, 387 ingredient limits, 563
corn, 38, 387, 390, 393 ingredients, 567-568, 571-572
corn starch, 387, 390, 393 yeast, 551, 567
millets, 183-184, 387-388 freezing, 542, 548
oats, 139, 357, 389 functionality flour testing, 548-549
rice, 387-390 baking tests, 548, 562
rye, 387-388 production equipment, 546-547, 549-550, 553-554
sorghum, 387-389 stability, 551-552, 569-570
starch, 387-389 freshness determinations, 569-570
triticale, 387-388 microbial changes, 552, 571-572
wheat, 387-388, 390, 393 staling, 569-570
wild rice, 283 wholesale product mix, 544
Barley, 81-124
Bakery foods, yeast-leavened, 539-573 biotechnology, 81, 84, 87-88, 112
bakery foods, 539-573 breeding, 84, 90-92
manufacturing, 539-547 hybrid barley, 90-92
bagels, 545, 556 population breeding methods, 90
breads, 539-542, 546-561 chemical composition, 98-100, 106-109, 112-115,
buns and rolls, 543, 553 617
croissants, 544-545, 556 ash content, 106, 107, 112-115
Danish, sweet goods, 543-544, 554 13-glucans, 99, 116
English muffins, 545, 557 carbohydrates, 98-99, 106- 108, 110-117
pizza, 543-556 dietary fiber, 100, 106-108, 112-115, 771-772
pretzels, 545 nonstarch-polysaccharides, 98-100, 114
baking industry trends, 539-546 starch, 99, 100, 106-107, 766
production, 539, 542 sugars, 99, 100, 106-107
shipments, 544 fats, 98-99, 106-107, 112-114
breads and yeast-leavened products, 539-572 minerals, 99, 106, 109, 113, 485-488
consumption, 539, 543 phenolics, 99, 107

777
778 Index

[Barley] [Breads]
protein, 100, 106, 109, 112-115 flour indices, 562, 566
vitamins, 107, 482 formulations, 545, 559-561
classes, 119 ingredient limits, 563
cultural practices, 93 ingredients, 20-22, 266-268, 567-568, 571-572, 564-565,
fertilizers, 95-96, 99 695, 761
harvesting, 96 manufacturing, 539-547
nitrogen, 95-97, 99, 100 Breakfast cereals, ready-to-eat, 615-645
planting, 93, 95, 117 additives/formulation, 634-637
rotation, 94-95 baked granules, 632-633
cytogenetics, 87-90 coatings, 637-640
feed, 107, 109-112, 114, 116 flakes, 629, 637
food, 112 history, 615
genetics, 81, 84, 86-92 ingredients, 616-617, 634-641, 762
chromosomes, 81, 84, 86-88 composition, 617
genes, 81, 84, 86-88 grain form, 618
germplasm resources quality, 617-618
collections, 90 sources, 616-617
composite crosses, 88, 90, 92 inlays, 640-641
wide crosses, 88, 90, 91 packaging, 641-642
hay, 111 processing, 618-634
history, 81-83 puffed-products, 623, 626-629, 634
inheritance, 81 ready-to-eat, 615-616, 619
linkage maps, 84, 89 shredded, 625, 630-631, 640
malting, 109, 111, 114, 117-119, 685-690 toasting, 632-634
marketing, 114, 119 Brewing process
classification, 114 aging, 692-693
exports, 114, 121 fermentation, 692
storage, 114 mashing, 690-692
pest control, 95, 96-98, 101-105, 120
diseases, 96-97, 101 Cakes, 598
insects, 95, 97-98, 104-105, 120 Cereal carbohydrates
weeds, 97, 102-103 amaranth, 192
processing and utilization, 107, 109-112, 114, 116-118 amylopectin, 388
production, 83-85, 92-98, 110 barley, 387, 389
climatic requirements, 92, 95-96 corn, 38
drought resistance, 93 sorghum, 153
moisture conditions, 92, 99, 100 waxy starch, 183, 387-389
soil requirements, 92 amylose, 388, 390
temperature conditions, 92-93, 96 barley, 387
silage, 111 corn, 38, 387, 390, 393
straw, 111, 115 corn starch, 387, 390, 393
structure, morphology, 92-96, 97, 98-99 corn, waxy, 388
development, 92-96 lipid complex, 387
floret, 92, 96 methods (determination), 406-407
kernel, 92 millets, 183-184, 387-388
root, 92, 94-95 oats, 139, 387, 389
spike, 92, 95 rice, 387-390
types rye, 387-388
six-rowed, 92, 95, 100, 109, 113, 119 sorghum, 387-389
spring barley, 81, 99, 117 sorghum, waxy, 388
two-rowed, 81, 92, 95, 100, 107, 109, 119 starch, 387-388
winter barley, 81 triticale, 387, 388
Beer, 117, 159-163, 270-271, 752-753 wheat, 387-388, 390, 393
Breads wild rice, 283
consumption, 539, 543 barley
dough microbiology, 750-753 amylopectin, 387, 389
Index 779

[Cereal carbohydrates] [Cereal carbohydrates]

amylose, 387, 389 millets
composition, 106, 387 amylose, 183-184, 387-388
glucans, 101, 118, 400 free sugars, 183-185, 191
pentosans, 387 glucan, 387
starch, 101-102, 108-109 pentosans, 387
TDF, 108, 387, 771 starch, 387
cell walls, 400 TDF, 771
rice, 206-207, 217 oats
composition amylose, 387
barley, 106-108, 387 free sugars, 386
corn, 387 glucosan, 387
millets, 387 pentosans, 387
oats, 387 TDF, 387, 771
rice, 387 pentosans
rye, 387 barley, 387
sorghum, 387 corn, 387
triticale, 387 millets, 387
wheat, 387 oats, 387
corn rice, 387
amylose, 38, 387-388, 390, 393 rye, 387
bran, 59 sorghum, 387
composition, 387 triticale, 387
free sugars, 386 wheat, 387
pentosans, 399-400 rice
starch, 387-388 amylose, 387
TDF, 399-400, 771 composition, 387
free sugars, glucan, 387
barley, 100, 106-107, 386 hull, 217
corn, 386 pentosans, 387
millets, 183-185, 191 starch, 387, 766
oats, 386 TDF, 387, 771
rice, 386 rye
rye, 340, 386 amylose, 387
sorghum, 154, 386 free sugars, 340, 386
wheat, 386 glucan, 387
glucan pentosan, 387
barley, 108, 116, 400, 402, 690 starch, 387
corn, 400 TDF, 387, 771
methods, 409 sorghum
millet, 387 amylose, 387
oats, 139-141, 400, 402 glucan, 387
rice, 400, 402 pentosan, 387
rye, 387 starch, 387
sorghum, 387 TDF, 387, 771
triticale, 387, 402 starch (see also individual cereals)
wheat, 387, 402 amylose, 387, 390
lipid complex, 387 barley, 99, 106, 387, 617, 766
amylose, 387 corn, 38, 58, 60-62, 70-72, 387, 617, 766
methods granule properties, 387, 389-394
amylose, 406-407 methods, 406-407
dietary fiber, 408 millet, 387
glucan, 409 oats, 139, 387, 617, 767
pentosans, 409 rice, 387, 617, 767
starch, 406, 407 rye, 387, 767
starch damage, 407 sorghum, 157-158, 387, 767
sugars, 405-406 wheat, 387, 617, 766-767
780 Index

[Cereal carbohydrates] [Corn]

total dietary fiber (TDF) milling
amaranth, 771 dry, 47-50, 52, 53
barley, 106, 387, 771 wet, 47, 51-59
corn, 399-400, 771 mill products
oats, 387, 771 bran, 55, 59
rice, 387, 771 gluten feed, 54
rye, 387, 771 gluten meal, 54
sorghum, 387, 771 oil, 55-56, 60-63
triticale, 387, 771 starch, 54, 55, 68, 69-72
wheat, 387, 771 acid-modified, 60, 62, 70, 768
wild rice, 771 amylomaize, 36, 38
Chemical testing, 505-512 bleached, 61, 70
AACC Approved Methods, 506 derivatized, 61
ash, 509 dextrinized, 61, 768
bleaching agents, 507, 512 high amylose, 54
fiber, 507-508, 516 modified, 60-62, 70-72, 767-769
gluten, 506, 508, 524 oxidized, 60, 70, 768
maturing agents, 507, 512, 520-521 pregelatinized, 60, 70, 768
minerals, 506, 508 waxy, 36, 54
moisture, 505-506 moisture equilibrium, content, 33
NIR, 507, 514, 516 moisture sorption isotherms, 33, 35
protein, 507, 509 production, 32, 48, 55
starch, 511 sales, 48, 54
Color testing, 509-511, 516 silage, 40
Cookies, 596-598 structure, 32-34
Corn, 31-80 supply, 41-42, 48
composition, 32, 33, 35, 38, 617 sweeteners, 62-64, 69, 73-75, 771
amino acids, 37, 43 consumption, 75
ash, 38, 42 dextrose equivalent, 63
bran, 59 glucose syrup, 62, 73
fat, 35, 38, 42 high fructose syrup, 63, 73, 75
fiber, 38, 42, 59, 771-772 types, 34-36
minerals, 44, 485-487 amylomaize, 36
nutrient analysis, 42 dent, 34, 35, 36
protein, 38, 42, 64 flint, 34, 36, 37
starch, 38, 42, 58, 766 flour corn, 34, 37
vitamins, 44, 482 high-lysine, 37
wet-milled products, 58 high-oil, 36
consumption, 69, 75 opaque-2, 37
conversion, 66-67 pod corn, 34, 37
corn cobs, 64-65, 76, 77 pop corn, 34, 36, 37, 45, 46, 47
furfural, 64, 77 sweet corn, 34, 37, 44, 45, 47, 48
feed, 40-47, 54 waxy, 36
food, 40, 43, 45, 50, 670-672 utilization, 38-40, 41, 49, 53, 54, 59, 63, 66, 67, 69
alkali-cooked, 40 yield, 31-32
hominy, 46 zein, 58-59, 65, 764-765
Mexican type, 46
popcorn, 37, 45-47, 48 Dietary guidelines, 719
sweet, 44-45 Donuts, 599
germ, 35, 765
grading standard, 37, 41 Enrichment, 697- 704
harvest, 32 cost/benefits, 704
history, 1 definition, 697-698
industrial use, 66, 67, 69 expanded, 700
industry, 54, 55 FDA regulations, 698
Index 781

[Enrichment] [Fiber, food]

government purchased commodities, 700 total dietary fiber in cereals, 771-772
history, 697 usage, 771-772
ingredient labeling, 703 Formulations
nutrient sources, 701-703 bagels, 556
nutrient stabilities, 702-703 breads, 545,559-561
nutrition labeling, 701 breakfast cereals, 634-637
nutritional quality, cereal grain products, 698 buns, 553
standards cakes, 603
other countries, 699 cookies, 586-587, 592,601,669
United States, 699-700 crackers, 599,670
Enzymatic activity, measurements, 512-513 croissants, 556
AACC Approved Methods, 506 donuts, 607
a-amylase, 509,512 English muffins, 557
13-amylase, 513 fig bars, 602
lipase, 513 icings, 596
proteolytic enzymes, 506,513 pizza, 555,672
Enzymes, 492-497 pretzels, 605,681
barley, 495 puff pastry, 607
corn, 495 snacks, extruded, 676
inhibitors, 500 sweet doughs, Danish, 554
millet and sorghum, 495 Fortification (see Enrichment)
rice, 495-496 Functionality testing, flours, 509-511,548-549
rye, 496 AACC Approved Methods, 508
sorghum, 495 baking tests, 508-511,526,536,548,562,762-763
wheat, 496
Ethanol production, 158-160 Germ, corn, 35,765
Germ, wheat, 1,22,765
Fat replacers, 769-771 Gluten, corn
maltodextrins, 770 corn gluten meal, 764
starches, 770-771 applications, 764
usage, 769 properties and composition, 58,764
Feed, animal zein
barley, 107,109-112,114,116 applications, 59,765
corn, 40-47,54 production, 765
sorghum, 163-164,168 properties and composition, 764-765
triticale, 257,268-269 Gluten, wheat, commercial, 755-764
Fermentation and microbial processes in cereal foods, applications
741-754 baking, 761-762
cereal-based ferment products, 741-746 breadings, coatings, 762
beer, 752-753 breakfast cereals, snacks, 762
breads, 750-753 milling, 760-761
miso, 753 other, 762
soy sauce (wheat and sorghum), 752-753 evaluation, 762-764
whiskey, 752 baking tests, 762-763
contaminants, 749 physical tests, 763-764
culture, pure and mixed, 741,746 production, 756-760
fermentation conditions, 746-747 properties, composition, 755-756,761
fermentation microorganisms, 741,747-748
foods, by fermentation, 741-746 Icings, 593
metabolism, 748
pathogens, 749 Lipids, 417-476
starters, 746-749,753 abbreviations of terminology, 417,427
yeast, 750-752 bound, 417,446,452
Fiber, food carotenoid, 420,436
dietary fiber content, cereal materials, 772 corn, 436
782 Index

[Lipids] [Millets]
corn fractions, 437 antiinflammatory effect, 194
grain, 436 antithyroid effect, 188
sorghum, 438 goitrogen, 188
wheat, 437 oxalate, 188
wheat fractions, 438 trypsin inhibitor, 188
fatty acids, 419-420, 431-432, 444, 447, 456-457, 459, chemical composition
461, 463 amino acids, 181-183
free lipids, 417, 446, 452, 471 ash content, 181, 186, 191, 193
glycolipids, 418, 457-459 bound lipids, 184-185
in cereals enzymes, 180, 183-184, 188
barley, 106, 419, 444, 447-449 fat (oil), 180-181, 184-186, 191, 194-195, 292
corn, 418-419, 429, 446, 450-451 fatty acids, 184-185
millets, 418-419, 429, 446, 452-453 free lipids, 184-185
oats, 138-140, 419, 429, 446, 450-451 minerals, 180, 186
rice, 419, 429, 464 pentosans, 184
rye, 419, 429, 463 phenols, 186-188
sorghum, 419, 425 phytate, 187-188
triticale, 419, 429, 465 proteins, 179-183
wheat, 419, 429, 455, 466 proximate analysis, 181
in grain fractions, 422-436, 444, 445, 456, 467 saccharides, 184
nonpolar, 447, 458-459, 462 starch, 180-184, 191
nonsaponifiable, 420 tannins, 187
carotenoids, 420, 436 tryptophan, 183
sterols, 421 vitamins, 184, 186, 482
tocols, 420, 433-436 food uses, 191-192
nonstarch lipids, 417-418, 428-429, 431-432, 446-454, biscuits, 191
459-460, 464-469, 472-473 chapatis, 191
phospholipids, 418, 447, 455, 458-459, 462-463, 470 flat breads, 191
phosphorous (lipids), 488 gruel, 191
starch lipids, 417, 428, 454, 458-459, 462 porridge, 191
starch surface lipids, 470-471 rotis, 191
sterols, 440 snack foods, 191
sorghum, 440 teff, 191
rice, 441 weaning foods, 191-192
wheat, 440 milling, 189-191
wheat flour, 443 dry, 189-191
total lipids, 417, 446, 449, 452-454 wet, 191
whole grain, 417 nutritional value, 192-193
biological value, 192
Malt decortication, effect on, 193
analysis, 690, 693-695 digestibility, 182, 193
baking applications, 693-695 fermentation, effect on, 193
brewing, 270-271, 690-693 germination, effect on, 193
distilled spirits, 695 human studies, 194-195
history, 685 production, 178
syrups, 693-695 rancidity, 186
types, 689 structure, (kernel), 179-180, 182
Malted cereals, 685-696 aleurone, 179-180
Malting process, 112-114, 685-690 caryopsis, 178-179
germination, 687-688 endocarp, 179-181
kilning, 688-689 endosperm, 178-180
malt aging, 689-690 epicarp, 179
steeping, 687 germ, 179-181
Millets, 177-201 kernel density, 179
antinutritional factors, 179, 186-188 kernel shape, 178
antichymotryptic activity, 188 mesocarp, 179
Index 783

[Millets] [Nonfood uses of cereals]

pericarp, 179-180 plastics, 725
seed coat, 180 starch, 730
testa, 179 starch derivatives, 730-734
types, 177-178 adhesives, 732
finger millet, 177-181,184 dextrin parameters, 732
fonio, 177-182,186 in paper production, 730,732,734
foxtail millet, 177-184 foamed articles, 734
pearl millet, 177,178,180 new and future uses, 733
pearl millet, hybrid, 177-178,180 other uses, 734
proso millet, 177-179,180,182,184,186 Nutrition-related components
teff, 177,179-182 effects of processing and storage, 500
yield, 177 enzyme inhibitors, 500
Minerals, 483-494 phytate, 498
calcium, 484 tannins, 500
cereal grains Nutritional characteristics of cereal-based products, 168-170,
barley, 99,106,109,113,485-488,492 268-269,291,293,714-717
buckwheat, 486-487 allergy to cereals, 718-719
corn, 44,485-487 antinutrients, 179,186-188,258,263,718-719
millet, 180,186,486-487 amylase inhibitors, 717
oats, 141,485-488,493 lectins, 717
pasta, 657 mucotoxins, 717-718
rice, 207,485-487 phytases, 718
rye, 246,255,485-488,491 protease inhibitors, 188,717
sorghum, 155,485-487 tannins, 717
triticale, 485-487 breakfast cereal nutrition information, 714
wheat, 24,485,489-490 cereal grain production, 705-706
wild rice, 282,485-487 cereal lipids, 706 (see also Lipids, in cereals)
copper, 490 cereals in diets, 706-707
fertilization effects, 489-493 dietary fibers, 710-711
iron, 487 enrichment, 713-715
magnesium, 485 fortified foods, 715
phosphorus, 485 lysine scores, 708
potassium, 490 major nutrients of cereals, 706
sodium, 490 milling, impact on nutrients, 712-713
zinc, 489 minerals, 710
nutritional characteristics of cereals, 705
Nonfood uses of cereals, 725-740 protein quality, 707-708
cereal oils, 736 snack foods, 715-716
industrial uses, 736-738 vitamins, natural in cereals, 706
cereal proteins, 735-737
nonfood uses, 735-736
textile fibers, 736-737 Oats, 127-148
composition of cereals, 726 breeding, 130-131
ethanol production, 725-726,728 chemical composition, 617
comparison with other fuels, 729-730 amino acids, 136,139-140
economics, 729 dietary fiber, 144,771-772
price, 728 lipids, 136,138-141
processing, 727 minerals, 141,485-488
producers, 727 polysaccharides, 139-141
nonfood products, 725-728 B-glucan, 130,139-141,144
adhesives, binders, 725 starch, 139
amylose triacetate, 725 protein, 136,138-140
ethanol, 725-728 vitamins, 141-142,482-483
fibers, 725 genetics, 128
full, 725 chromosomes, 128
glues, 725 cytoplasmic variability, 129
784 Index

[Oats] [Oilseeds and oil-bearing materials]

genes, 128-129 structure (seed), 297
germplasm, 130-131 cotyledon, 297
milling, 128 endosperm, 297
morphology, 131-133,135 germ, 297
aleurone, 133 hull content, 297
caryopsis, 133 rootlet, 297
embryo, 133 oil-bearing materials, 297-362
endosperm, 133 cereal byproducts, 297
inflorescence, 132 chicken fat, 297
origin, 127 corn germ, 297
processing, 141-144 greases, 297
cleaning, 142-143 lard, 297
hulling, 143 rice bran, 297
production, 134,137 tallow, 297
products oil extraction, 304-326
bran, 142,144 principles, 304-306
flakes, 143-144 crushing margin, 304
flour, 142-144 extraction process, 306
groats, 142-143 solvents, 306
novelty products, 144 seed preparation and extraction, 312-322
rolled oats, 142 cooking and full processing, 314
species, 127-130 dehulling/separation, 312-313
supply and disappearance, 137 desolventizing, 318-322
utilization, 141-142 expanders, 315-316
vitamins, 141-142 flaking, 314
yields, 134-135,137 preheating/cooking, 314-315
Oilseeds and oil-bearing materials, 302-326 prepressing, 314-315
composition, soy products, 334-335 solvent extractors, 316-318
amino acids, 333-334 stabilizing of oils, 322
carbohydrates, 334 species differences in oil extraction, 322-329
nutrition parameters, 334 cottonseeds, 324
definition, oil/fat, 298 corn germ, 324
fatty acid profile, 301 peanut, 325
harvesting, cleaning, drying, and storage of seeds, 306-310 soybean, 323
aflotoxin, 307 sunflower seed, 323
crop maturity, 306-307 other fat and oil sources, 298
drying, control, 307-308 primary products, 298-299
prestorage cleaning, 307 production of oilseeds, 301-303
storage, 308-310 collections (seeds), 301
oilseeds, 297-362 major oil producing countries, 304
agricultural factors, 300-301 processing sites, 301
climatic effects, 300 product trade, 302
photoperiod effect, 300-301 protein meals, 303
regions of maturing, 301 vegetable and marine oils, 303
seed maturity, 301 world production, 302-303
temperature effect, 301 protein processing and utilization, 326-329
analytical methods, 298 full-fat soybean products, 327-328
location of oil in cereals, 297 solvent-extracted food proteins, 326-327
location of oil in oilseeds, 297 secondary products, 298-299
oilseed types, 297-362 vegetable food proteins, 328-329
cotton seed (Gossypium hirsutum), 297 baking applications, 336
peanut, 299 flake products, extracted, 329
rapeseed/canola, 298-299 food applications, 336-337
soy bean (Glysine max), 297 food-grade, full-fat soy flours, 328
sunflower seed, 298-299 ingredient functionality, 335-336
Index 785

[Oilseeds and oil-bearing materials] Physical testing, grain

vegetable oil processing, 337-341 grain hardness, 514
chemistry, 337-341 milling, 514-516
fat and oil products, 349-360 test weight, 513
fat solid profiles, 349, 352 Physicochemical testing, 524-525
vitamin E, 297 AACC Approved Methods, 507
waxes, 297 alkaline water retention, 524
gas production, 506, 509, 525, 533
Pasta, 647-665 MacMichael viscosity, 510, 524
definition, 647 maturograph, 525, 535
detection of common wheats in pasta, 658 Pelshenke test, 524
government regulations, 648-649, 651 rheofermentor, 533-534
history, 647-648 sedimentation, 507, 524
markets, 661 swelling ability, 507, 524
milling durum, 651 Pie crust, 598, 605
noodles, 658 Pigments, 497-498
nutrient profile, 655-657 barley, 497
amino acids, 655-657 corn, 480, 497
minerals, 657 rice, 498
vitamins, 657 sorghum and millet, 498
packaging, 655 wheat, 480, 498
production Pizza, 672-673
drying, 654-656 Popcorn, 45-47, 678-680
extrusion, 652-653 Pretzels, 598-599, 605-606, 680-682
packaging, 655 Proteins, 363-383 (see also individual
products, 662 cereals)
protein-fortified, 656-657 amino acids, 365
quality evaluation, 660-661 barley, 109, 369
quality factors protein fractions, 369
lipids, 659 corn, 43, 365
low-test weight grain, 659 protein fractions, 369
other wheat types, 657-658 oats, 136, 139, 365
protein quality, 659 protein fractions, 370
regrinds, 660 rice, 205, 207, 211, 365
sprout-damaged grain, 658 protein fractions, 367
raw materials, 648 rye, 227, 242-244
durum wheat, 648-651, 661 sorghum, 153
semolina, 649-650, 652, 657 protein fractions, 366
water, 652 wheat, 368-372
specification, 648 protein fractions, 366
Physical testing, dough, 507-511, 513-538, 763-764 wild rice, 282
AACC Approved Methods, 507 fractions
alveograph, 521, 528-529 albumins, 362-363, 366-369
amylograph, 506-507, 509, 523, 530-532 globulins, 363, 366-370
consistograph, 518 glutenins, 363-364, 366-370
do-corder, 521, 517 prolamins, 363, 366-368
dynamic rheometry, 522, 529 sorghum, 153
extensigraph, 507, 509, 519-521, 525, 527-528 storage proteins, 363-364
extensometer, 521 wheat, 23
falling number, 506, 509, 523, 532 identification (proteins), 363, 377-378
farinograph, 507, 517, 519, 520 barley, 378
mixograph, 507, 517-518, 522-523 maize (corn), 378
rapid visco analyzer, 523, 533 oats, 378
resistograph, 519-520 rice, 378
TA.XT2 texture analyzer, 522, 529 rye, 227, 241-242
water absorption, 509, 517, 521 wheat, 377, 378
786 Index

[Proteins] [Rice]
separation methods, 363-365 hull, 205, 218
electrophoresis, 364 husk, 205
capillary, 365 types, 205-207
isoelectric focusing (IEF), 364 uses, 215-218
two-dimensional, 365 food, 215
HPLC, 366-368 livestock feed, 217-218
Osborne solubility, 364 Rye, 223-256
PAGE and variations, 364 animal feed, 230
SDS PAGE, 364 antinutritional factors, 228
triticale, 263, 266-267, 269 phytic acid, 228, 250
wild rice, 282 area/harvest, 224, 226-227
Puff pastry, 599 baking quality, 225-226
breeding, 224
classification, 223
Rice, 203-221 composition, 223, 241-242
characteristics of varieties, 206 amino acids, 227, 242-244
cooking, processing, 206, 213 fatty acids, 245
chemical composition, 207, 211, 215, 617 fiber, 771
amylose content, 209 lipids, 244, 248
ash, 211 lysine, 227, 243
fat, 207 minerals, 246, 255
fiber, 207, 771 pentosans, 226-227, 241
minerals, 207 protein, 227, 241-242
protein, 205, 207, 211 resorcinol, 228, 250
starch, 205, 214 saccharides, 228, 244
vitamins, 207, 211, 482 starch, 228, 236, 241, 244
consumption, 209, 217 sugars, 244
distribution, 205 vitamins, 228, 236, 244, 482
enrichment, 207, 211, 217 consumption, 234
environmental growth conditions, 204, 211 disappearance, 234
exports/imports, 204, 209 ergot, 228, 251
genotype, 205 export, 225, 233
grading standards, 208-215 flour, 218, 225-226, 241, 249, 251, 254-255
growth areas, 203-204 food uses, 229, 230, 252-253
conditions, 204 alcoholic beverages, 230
history, 203 breads, 229
hulls, 205-206 breakfast cereals, 230
livestock feed, 217-218 crackers, 230
markets, 209 rolls, 230
millers, 208, 212-213 genetics, 223-224
milling, 206-208 crosses, 223-224
enrichment, 207 ears branching, 223
fissures, 207 fragility, 223
mills, 208, 212-213 inheritance, 223
objective, 206, 209 grade, 236, 238-239, 241
parboiling, 207-208, 211 grain reserves, 225
processes, 206, 210 growing conditions, 224
physical measurements, 206, 208-209 history, 223
production, 203-205, 207 imports/exports, 233
quality, 208-209 industrial uses, 230
specialty rice, 218 kernel characteristics, 224-225
structure, 205-207 market values, 225, 235
aleurone, 205 milling, 224, 239, 260
caryopsis, 205 morphology, 224-225
endosperm, 205, 207 nutrient composition, 226, 246-248, 254-255
germ, 205 PER, 228
Index 787

[Rye] [Soft wheat flour products]

production, 224,228-229 chlorination, 577
standards, 225 specifications, 575-577
storage, 225 salt, 590
unit weights, 225,230-232 shortening, 583
varieties, 224 spices, 592-593
yearly stocks, 225,235 sweeteners, 587-590
yields, 225,230-232 composition, 588,590
preparation, 589
sugars, 587-589
Snack foods, 667-683 sweetness, relative, 588-589
bite-sized, 667 water, 577-578
cereal meal (granola) bars, 680 product types
consumption, 669-670 baked pastry, 599
cookies, 669 cakes, 598
corn chips, 670-672 cookies, 596-598
crackers, 669-670 rotary molded, 596-597,600
ethnic, 668 soft cookies, 598
extruded, 674-678 trolley goods, 598,603
imported, 673 wire-cut, 597-598,600
masa, 670-671 production methods of cookies, 600
nutrition emphasis, 667 production methods of crackers, 596,599
oriental, 673-674 products
pizza, 672-673 crackers, 594,599
popcorn, 678-680 chemically leavened, 596
pretzels, 680-682 Graham, 599
processing, 671,673-677,680-681 saltines, 594
rice crackers, 673-674 donuts, 599
sales, 667-669,672 extruded dough, 610
toaster pastries, 682 fig bars, 602
tortilla chips, 670-672 formulation, cookies, 586-587
Soft wheat flour products, 575-614 pie crust, 598,605
baking internal temperatures, 583 pretzels, 598-599,605-606
composition, 575-576 puff pastry, 599,607,609
functionality of ingredients, 604 refrigerated dough, 602,609
icings, 593 scoring of products, 602,611-612
ingredients, 575-594 Sorghum, 149-175
baking powder, 578,582 appearance, color, 152
baking soda, 578 chemical composition, 152-155
chemical leavening, 577-582 fat, 153-155
neutralization value, 579 fatty acids, 154
colors, 592,595 fiber, 153-154
chocolate, 589-591 minerals, 155,485-487
dairy ingredients, 590,592-593 pentosans, 154
egg products, 591,593-594 phenols, 154-156
emulsifiers, 579-580 protein, 151
enrobing, 591-593 starch, 151-153,157-158
fats, 579-580 sugars, 154
fat replacers, 581-586 tannins, 154,156
carbohydrate-based, 583 vitamins, 155,482
fat-based, 585-586 ethanol production, 158-160
Litesse (polydextrose), 583 feeds, 163-164,168
neutralization value, 579 food products
protein-based, 585 bakery foods, 165-166,169
flavors, 592-593 beer, 158-163
flour, 575-577 fermented foods, 166-167,170
baking characteristics, 577 flour, 158,169
788 Index

[Sorghum] [Triticale]
grits, 158, 160, 165, 169 protein, 263, 266-267, 269
malt, 159-161 starch, 271
pasta, 165 vitamins, 482
syrups, 165-167 feed, 257, 268-269
tortillas, 165-166 food uses, 257
traditional, 158, 164-167, 169 forage, 270
genetic factors, 152 genetics, 262
market classes, 152-153 kernel morphology, 263
milling, 155-159 milling, 265, 267
molds and mycotoxins, 170 color, 266, 269
nutritional value, 168-170 extraction rate, 262
origin, 150 protein, 266-267
processing effects, 169-170 nutritional quality
production, 150 biological value, 268-269
structure, morphology protein digestibility, 269
aluerone, 151 pathology, 262
endosperm, 151 potential, 271
germ, 150, 152 production, 258-259
kernel, 150-151 problems, 271
pericarp, 150, 152 sprouting, 270
types unleavened products, 265
brown or low tannin, 149-150, 152, 168-169 uses
low tannin, 149, 152, 170 baking, 264, 267-268
sweet sorghum, 149 feed grain, 268-269
waxy sorghum, 149, 168 foods, 263-265
yields, 150 glycanase product, 269
Starch (see individual cereals) metabolizable energy, 269
Sweeteners, 62-64, 69, 73-75, 165-168, 771 yields, 257, 271

Tortillas, 165-166
Triticale, 257-274 Vital wheat gluten (see Gluten, wheat, commercial)
agronomy, 262-263 Vitamins, 479-483
aluminum tolerance, 262 cereal grains
antinutrition factors, 263 barley, 107, 482, 694
growing conditions, 258 corn, 44, 482
machinery, 262 malted barley, 694
mineral conditions of soil, 262 millet, 482
salt, 262-263 oats, 141-142, 482-483
antinutritional factors, 258, 263 pasta, 657
baking properties, 264, 267-268 rice, 207, 211, 482-483
bread, 266-268 rye, 228, 236, 244, 482
crackers, 265 sorghum, 155, 482
breeding, 258-259 triticale, 482
comparison with other cereals, 259 wheat, 24-25, 482-483
cross (wheat-rye), 257 wild rice, 293, 482
germplasm base, 259 fat-soluble, 479
methodology, 260-261 retention, 479
brewing, 270-271 stabilities, 481
chemical composition, 263 water-soluble, 479, 482
a-amylase, 270 biotin, 483
amino acids, 263 folic acid, 481
ash, 265 niacin, 480
fat, 419, 429, 465 pantothenic acid, 483
fiber, 387, 771 pyridoxine, 481
nonstarch polysaccharides, 263, 269, 271 riboflavin, 480
protease, 271 thiamine, 479
Index 789

Wheat, 1-29 [Wheat]

aleurone, 2 milling, 13-20,24-27
amino acids air classification, 27
milling fractions, 24 breaks, 13
wheat, 24 durum, 25-26
breeding, 2,3 effect of grain size, 14
chemical composition, 3,23-24,25, flour, 20
617 flour types, 20-22
aleurone, 3 grading, 16
amino acids purification, 16-18
milling fractions, 24 reduction, 18
wheat, 24 sieving, 16
bran, 1,22,771-772 sizing, 18
embryo (germ), 1,22 soft wheat, 26-27
fatty acids split milling, 21
kernel parts, 25 mills
wheat, 25 controls, 19
fiber, 771-772 roll corrugations, 13-15,18
lipids, 23-24 roll speeds, 13-14
protein specifications, 15
gliadin, 23 minerals
glutenin, 23 effect of milling on, 24
solubility, 23 origin, 1
wheat fractions, 23 plant parts, 1
wheat types, 23 processing
classes, 4-6 blending, 9
classification, 1,5-8 cleaning grain, 9-11
common, 1 conditioning grain, 11-12
durum, 5,25-26 milling, 13-20,24-27
endosperm, 2 storage, 9
hard types, 3 tempering, 12
soft types, 3 production, 5
evaluation, 8 world, 5
exports, 6 soft winter, 3,5
fatty acids spring plant types, 3
kernel parts, 25 standard (grain), 5
wheat, 25 storage, 9
flour tempering, 12
color, 22 testing, 8
granulation, 22 triticum aestivum, 1
milling, 13-22 triticum durum, 1
types, 20-22 utilization, 4-5
genes, 4 annual use, 6
grades, 5-8 varieties, 1
growing conditions, 2,3 vernalization, 3
hard red spring, 3,5 vitamins, 24-25,482-483
sub classes, 5 effect of milling, 24
hard red winter, 3,5 milling fractions, 25
vernalization, 3 wheat (hard red spring), 25
hard white winter, 5 white wheat, 5
hardness, 3,4 subclasses, 6
kernel winter type, 5
color, 3 Wild rice, 275-295
hardness, 3,8 broken kernels, 275
morphology, 1 chemical composition, 291-293
parts, 1,2 amino acids, 291-292
size, 3,8,15 ash, 282
790 Index

[Wild rice] [Wild rice]

fat, 282 processing, 277-279
fatty acids, 293 curing and fermentation, 281-283
fiber, 282 drying, 282-285
minerals, 282 grading, 286-287
protein, 282 hulling, 279
starch, 283 storage, 282
vitamins, 293,482 processing plants, 278
grades, 290 custom, 279
grain characteristics, 281-282 plants, 278
harvesting, 275-278 production, 277-278
kernel characteristics, 275 quality, 290-291
markets, 293-294 seeds, 276
microbiology, 282,284 specifications, 286-287
nutritional quality, 291,293 varieties, 276
occurrence, 275
prices, 294 Zein (see Gluten, corn)