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8
 Eighth Edition
Everything’s an Argument with Readings
Andrea A. Lunsford

STANFORD UNIVERSITY

John J. Ruszkiewicz

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN

Keith Walters

PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY

9
For Bedford/St. Martin’s

Vice President, Editorial, Macmillan Learning Humanities: Edwin Hill

Executive Program Director for English: Leasa Burton
Senior Program Manager: John E. Sullivan III
Executive Marketing Manager: Joy Fisher Williams
Director of Content Development, Humanities: Jane Knetzger
Senior Developmental Editor: Rachel Goldberg
Associate Editor: Lexi DeConti
Editorial Assistant: William Hwang
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Production Coordinator: Brianna Lester
Media Project Manager: Jodi Isman
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Director of Design, Content Management: Diana Blume
Text Design: Claire Seng-Niemoeller, Anna Palchik, and Graphic
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Cover Images: (laptop) fStop Images/Epoxydude/Getty Images; (polar

10
bear) dagsjo/Getty Images; (vegan label) Good_Studio/Getty Images;
(free speech sign) Imfoto/Shutterstock; (kids with cell phones) Hero
Images/Getty Images

Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013, 2010 by Bedford/St. Martin’s.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except
as may be permitted by law or expressly permitted in writing by the
Publisher.

1 2 3 4 5 6 23 22 21 20 19 18

For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street,

Boston, MA 02116

ISBN-13: 978-1-319-21159-2(mobi)

Acknowledgments
Text acknowledgments and copyrights appear at the back of the book
on pages 793–94, which constitute an extension of the copyright page.
Art acknowledgments and copyrights appear on the same page as the
art selections they cover.

11
Preface
When we began work on this text in 1996 (the first edition came out in
1998), we couldn’t have anticipated all the events of the next two
tumultuous decades, or all the changes to public and private discourse,
or the current deeply divided state of our nation. But we have tried
hard, over these decades, to track such changes and the ways rhetoric
and argument have evolved and responded to them.

Certainly, we recognized the increasingly important role digital culture

plays in all our lives, and so with each new edition we have included
more on the technologies of communication, particularly those
associated with social media; and we early on recognized that, like
rhetoric itself, social media can be used for good or for ill, to bring
people together or to separate them.

We have also carefully tracked the forms that arguments take today,
from cartoons and graphic narratives to blogs and other postings to
multimodal projects of almost every conceivable kind. While argument
has always surrounded us, today it does so in an amazing array of
genres and forms, including aural and visual components that
strengthen and amplify arguments.

The sheer proliferation of information (not to mention misinformation,

disinformation, and outright lies) that bombards all writers led us to
reaffirm our commitment to studying and teaching style, since (as
Richard Lanham and others argue) in the age of information overload,
style is the tool writers possess to try to capture and keep the attention
of audiences. Attention to style reveals other changes, such as the

12
increasing use of informal registers and conversational styles even in
academic arguments.

Perhaps most important, though, a look back over the last twenty-two
years reaffirms the crucial role that rhetoric can and should play in
personal, work, and school lives. At its best, rhetoric is the art, theory,
and practice of ethical communication, needed more sorely today than
perhaps ever before. Everything’s an Argument with Readings presents
this view of rhetoric and illustrates it with a fair and wide range of
perspectives and views, which we hope will inspire student writers to
think of themselves as rhetors, as Quintilian’s “good person, speaking
well.”

Key Features
Two books in one, neatly linked. Up front is a brief guide to
Aristotelian, Toulmin, and Rogerian argument; common types of
arguments; presenting arguments; and researching arguments. In the
back is a thematically organized anthology of readings in a wide range
of genres. Handy cross-references in the margins allow students to
move easily from the argument chapters to specific examples in the
readings and from the readings to appropriate rhetorical instruction.

Short, relatable excerpts weave in the debates that rage around us.
From #metoo tweets and protest posters to essays and scholarly
writing, boldfaced examples illustrate the arguments happening in
politics, economics, journalism, and media, with brief student-friendly
analyses.

Five thematic readings chapters that encourage students to explore

13
complex arguments. Readings on “How Does Popular Culture
Stereotype You?,” “Has the Internet Destroyed Privacy?,” and “How
Free Should Campus Speech Be?” demand that students consider the
many sides of contemporary issues across the political spectrum, going
beyond a simple pro/con stance.

A real-world, full-color design that builds students’ understanding

of visual rhetoric. Presenting readings in the style of their original
publications helps students recognize and think about the effect that
design and visuals have on written and multimodal arguments.

New to This Edition

A new section on rhetorical listening in Chapter 1. The very first
chapter of the eighth edition now emphasizes the importance of
listening rhetorically and respectfully, encouraging readers to move
beyond “echo chambers” and build bridges among all viewpoints.

Eight new full-length models in the guide provide engaging, topical

arguments of fact, definition, evaluation, cause and effect, proposals,
and rhetorical analysis. Legal scholar Stephen L. Carter offers a
Toulmin analysis of whether racial epithets should be considered free
speech, while New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof presents an
op-ed in defense of public wilderness.

Five new annotated student essays address topics students care about,
from millennials’ love of food to breaking a social media addiction.

Thirty-one engaging new readings on hot-button issues such as free

speech, food, language, privacy, and stereotypes. Selections

14
represent a range of genres and span the full gamut of social and
political views, including:

excerpts from a recent Gallup poll showing what college students

think about First Amendment issues
visual arguments and a scholarly essay supporting and critiquing
the concept of racial microaggressions
best-selling essayist Roxane Gay on the language we use to
describe sexual violence
an Economist blog post acknowledging that sport shooting can be,
well, fun
an argument against veganism . . . written by a vegan

A new introduction in the instructor’s notes. Focusing on the

teaching of argument, this new introduction gives experienced and
first-time instructors a strong pedagogical foundation. Sample syllabi
for both semester and quarter courses provide help for pacing all types
of courses.

We’re all in. As always.

Bedford/St. Martin’s is as passionately committed to the discipline of
English as ever, working hard to provide support and services that
make it easier for you to teach your course your way.

Find community support at the Bedford/St. Martin’s English

Community (community.macmillan.com), where you can follow our
Bits blog for new teaching ideas, download titles from our professional
resource series, and review projects in the pipeline.

15
Choose curriculum solutions that offer flexible custom options,
combining our carefully developed print and digital resources,
acclaimed works from Macmillan’s trade imprints, and your own
course or program materials to provide the exact resources your
students need. Our approach to customization makes it possible to
create a customized project uniquely suited for your students and,
based on your enrollment size, return money to your department and
raise your institutional profile with a high-impact author visit through
the Macmillan Author Program (“MAP”).

Rely on outstanding service from your Bedford/St. Martin’s sales

representative and editorial team. Contact us or visit
macmillanlearning.com to learn more about any of the options below.

LaunchPad for Everything’s an Argument with Readings:

Where Students Learn
LaunchPad provides engaging content and new ways to get the most
out of your book. Get an interactive e-book combined with assessment
tools in a fully customizable course space; then assign and mix our
resources with yours.

Reading comprehension quizzes, to help you quickly gauge your

students’ understanding of the assigned reading.
Interactive exercises and tutorials for reading, writing, and
research.
Diagnostics provide opportunities to assess areas for improvement
and assign additional exercises based on students’ needs. Visual
reports show performance by topic, class, and student as well as
improvement over time.

16
 Pre-built units—including readings, videos, quizzes, and more—
are easy to adapt and assign by adding your own materials and
mixing them with our high-quality multimedia content and ready-
made assessment options, such as LearningCurve adaptive
quizzing and Exercise Central.
Use LaunchPad on its own or integrate it with your school’s
learning management system so that your class is always on the
same page.

LaunchPad for Everything’s an Argument with Readings can be

purchased on its own or packaged with the print book at a significant
discount. An activation code is required. To order LaunchPad for
Everything’s an Argument with Readings with the print book, use
ISBN 978-1-319-25363-9. For more information, go to
launchpadworks.com.

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Argument with Readings
Bedford/St. Martin’s offers a range of formats. Choose what works
best for you and your students:

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Add value to your text by packaging a Bedford/St. Martin’s resource,
such as Writer’s Help 2.0, with Everything’s an Argument with

17
Readings at a significant discount. Contact your sales representative for
more information.

Writer’s Help 2.0 is a powerful online writing resource that helps

students find answers, whether they are searching for writing advice on
their own or as part of an assignment.

Smart search. Built on research with more than 1,600 student

writers, the smart search in Writer’s Help 2.0 provides reliable
results even when students use novice terms, such as flow and
unstuck.
Trusted content from our best-selling handbooks. Andrea
Lunsford’s user-friendly tone ensures that students have clear
advice and examples for all of their writing questions.
Diagnostics that help establish a baseline for instruction.
Assign diagnostics to identify areas of strength and areas for
improvement and to help students plan a course of study. Use
visual reports to track performance by topic, class, and student as
well as improvement over time.
Adaptive exercises that engage students. Writer’s Help 2.0
includes LearningCurve, game-like online quizzing that adapts to
what students already know and helps them focus on what they
need to learn.

Student access is packaged with Everything’s an Argument with

Readings at a significant discount. Order ISBN 978-1-319-25623-4 for
Writer’s Help 2.0, Lunsford Version, to ensure your students have easy
access to online writing support. Students who rent or buy a used book
can purchase access and instructors may request free access at
macmillanlearning.com/writershelp2.

18
Instructor Resources
You have a lot to do in your course. We want to make it easy for you to
find the support you need—and to get it quickly.

Instructor’s Notes for Everything’s an Argument with Readings is

available as a PDF that can be downloaded from
macmillanlearning.com. Visit the instructor resources tab for
Everything’s an Argument with Readings. In addition to chapter
overviews and teaching tips, the instructor’s manual offers an
introduction about teaching the argument course, sample syllabi,
correlations to the Council of Writing Program Administrators’
Outcomes Statement, and potential answers to the “Respond” questions
in the book.

Acknowledgments
We owe a debt of gratitude to many people for making Everything’s an
Argument with Readings possible. Our first thanks must go to the
thousands of people we have taught in our writing courses over nearly
four decades, particularly students at the Ohio State University,
Stanford University, the University of Texas at Austin, and Portland
State University. Almost every chapter in this book has been informed
by a classroom encounter with a student whose shrewd observation or
perceptive question sent an ambitious lesson plan spiraling to the
ground. (Anyone who has tried to teach claims and warrants on the fly
to skeptical first-year writers will surely appreciate why we have
qualified our claims in the Toulmin chapter so carefully.) But students
have also provided the motive for writing this book. More than ever,
they need to know how to read and write arguments effectively if they

19
are to secure a place in a world growing ever smaller and more
rhetorically challenging.

We are deeply grateful to the editors at Bedford/St. Martin’s who have

contributed their formidable talents to this book. In particular, we want
to thank the ingenious and efficient Rachel Goldberg for guiding us so
patiently and confidently—helping us locate just the right items
whenever we needed fresh examples and images and gracefully
recasting passage after passage to satisfy permissions mandates. Senior
content project manager Ryan Sullivan was relentlessly upbeat and
kind in all his communications, making the ever-more-complex stages
of production almost a pleasure. We also appreciate the extensive
support and help of Lexi DeConti, who kept us attuned to examples
and readings that might appeal to students today. We are similarly
grateful to senior program manager John Sullivan, whose support was
unfailing; Kalina Ingham, Arthur Johnson, and Tom Wilcox, for text
permissions; Angela Boehler and Krystyna Borgen, for art
permissions; William Boardman, for our cover design; Bridget Leahy,
copyeditor; and William Hwang, editorial assistant. All of you made
editing the eighth edition feel fresh and creative.

We’d also like to thank the astute instructors who reviewed the seventh
edition: Brigitte Anderson, University of Pikeville; Samantha Battrick,
Truman State University; Kathryn Bennett, Old Dominion University;
Jeanne Bohannon, Kennesaw State University; Rebecca Cepek,
Duquesne University; Laura Dumin, University of Central Oklahoma;
Tim Engles, Eastern Illinois University; Karen Feldman, Seminole
State College of Florida; Africa Fine, Palm Beach State College;

20
Darius Frasure, Mountain View College; Erin Gallagher, Washington
State University; Ben Graydon, Daytona State College; Joseph
Hernandez, Mt. San Jacinto College; Julie Moore-Felux, Northwest
Vista College; Laurie Murray, Anderson University; Kolawole Olaiya,
Anderson University; Leslie Rapparlie, University of Colorado;
Thomas Reynolds, Northwestern State University; Loreen Smith,
Isothermal Community College; Benjamin Syn, University of
Colorado; Gina Szabady, Lane Community College; Amy Walton,
Iowa State University; and Miriam Young, Truman State University.

Thanks, too, to Sherrie Weller of Loyola Chicago University and

Valerie Duff-Stroutmann of Newbury College, who updated the
instructor’s notes for this eighth edition with a new introduction, new
model syllabi, new points for discussion, and new classroom activities.
We hope this resource will be useful as instructors build their courses.
Finally, we are grateful to the students whose fine argumentative
essays or materials appear in our chapters: Cameron Hauer, Kate
Beispel, Jenny Kim, Laura Tarrant, Natasha Rodriguez, Caleb Wong,
Juliana Chang, George Chidiac, and Charlotte Geaghan-Breiner. We
hope that Everything’s an Argument with Readings responds to what
students and instructors have said they want and need.

Andrea A. Lunsford

John J. Ruszkiewicz

Keith Walters

Correlation to Council of Writing Program

21
Administrators’ (WPA) Outcomes
Everything’s an Argument with Readings works with the Council of
Writing Program Administrators’ Outcomes Statement for first-year
composition courses (last updated 2014).

2014 WPA Support in Everything’s an Argument with Readings, 8e

Outcomes

Rhetorical
Knowledge

Learn and use Chapter 1, “Understanding Arguments and Reading

key rhetorical Them Critically” (pp. 3–31), establishes the central
concepts elements of the rhetorical situation and encourages
through rhetorical listening.
analyzing and
composing a Chapter 6, “Rhetorical Analysis” (pp. 97–132), further
variety of texts. develops these concepts and teaches students how to
analyze a rhetorical analysis and compose their own.

Each chapter offers dozens of written, visual, and

multimodal texts to analyze, in both the guide portion
and the thematic reader.

Gain experience Everything’s an Argument with Readings provides

reading and engaging readings across genres, from academic essays
composing in and newspaper editorials to tweets and infographics.
several genres to “Respond” boxes throughout each chapter (e.g., pp.
understand how 56–57) invite students to think critically about the
genre material. For more genre variety, Everything’s an
conventions Argument with Readings also contains a five-chapter
shape and are thematic reader with additional multimodal genres,
shaped by including an art installation, Web articles, scholarly
readers’ and essays, and political cartoons.
writers’

22
practices and Each chapter on a specific type of argument features
purposes. project ideas (e.g., p. 186), giving students detailed
prompts to write their own arguments of fact,
arguments of definition, evaluations, causal arguments,
and proposals.

Develop facility Chapter 13, “Style in Arguments” (pp. 321–45),

in responding to addresses word choice, tone, sentence structure,
a variety of punctuation, and figurative language, with engaging
situations and examples of each.
contexts, calling
for purposeful The “Cultural Contexts for Argument” boxes
shifts in voice, throughout the text (e.g., p. 163) address how people
tone, level of from other cultures might respond to different styles or
formality, structures of argument. This feature offers suggestions
design, medium, on how to think about argument in an unfamiliar
and/or structure. cultural context.

Understand and Chapter 16, “Multimodal Arguments” (pp. 381–402),

use a variety of addresses how new media has transformed the array of
technologies to choices for making arguments and reaching audiences.
address a range This chapter teaches how to analyze multimodal
of audiences. arguments as well as how to create them through Web
sites, videos, wikis, blogs, social media, memes, posters,
and comics.

Match the Chapter 14, “Visual Rhetoric” (pp. 346–62), discusses

capacities of the power of visual rhetoric and how students can use
different visuals in their own work.
environments
(e.g., print & Chapter 15, “Presenting Arguments” (pp. 363–80),
electronic) to includes material on incorporating various media into
varying presentations and Webcasts.
rhetorical
situations. Chapter 16, “Multimodal Arguments” (pp. 381–402),
analyzes the evolving landscape of argument across
media platforms.

23
 Chapter 17, “Academic Arguments” (pp. 405–37),
covers the conventions of academic arguments.

Critical Thinking,
Reading, and
Composing

Use composing Chapter 1, “Understanding Arguments and Reading

and reading for Them Critically” (pp. 3–31), features a section called
inquiry, learning, “Why Listen to Arguments Rhetorically and
thinking, and Respectfully” (pp. 7–8). It teaches students to listen
communicating openly and constructively and calls attention to the
in various need to escape “echo chambers,” respectfully consider
rhetorical all viewpoints, and find common ground.
contexts.
Throughout Everything’s an Argument with Readings,
students are invited to delve deeper into current issues
in the world around them, considering the various
arguments presented in tweets, newspapers, scholarly
papers, court rulings, and even bumper stickers.
Everything’s an Argument with Readings guides students
in asking critical questions about these contexts and
learning how to respond to and create their own
compositions. Chapters dedicated to central types of
argument explain how students might best approach
each writing situation. The chapters close with a guide
to writing arguments of that type:

Chapter 8, “Arguments of Fact” (pp. 164–96)

Chapter 9, “Arguments of Definition” (pp. 197–223)

Chapter 10, “Evaluations” (pp. 224–54)

Chapter 11, “Causal Arguments” (pp. 255–85)

Chapter 12, “Proposals” (pp. 286–318)

24
 Chapter 16, “Multimodal Arguments” (pp. 381–402)

Read a diverse Chapter 7, “Structuring Arguments” (pp. 135–63),

range of texts, examines making claims and using evidence to support
attending those claims. It delves into the structure of Rogerian and
especially to Toulmin arguments, showing how different argument
relationships types work for different writing situations.
between
assertion and Each Guide to Writing features sections on
evidence, to “Formulating a Claim” and “Thinking about
patterns of Organization” (e.g., pp. 212 and 214), emphasizing the
organization, to use of evidence and the structure of the argument.
interplay
between verbal
and nonverbal
elements, and
how these
features function
for different
audiences and
situations.

Locate and Chapter 18, “Finding Evidence” (pp. 438–53), covers

evaluate primary locating evidence from print, electronic, and field
and secondary research sources.
research
materials, Chapter 19, “Evaluating Sources” (pp. 454–63),
including journal addresses how to assess those sources effectively.
articles, essays,
books,
databases, and
informal Internet
sources.

Use strategies — Chapter 20, “Using Sources,” provides detailed

such as explanations of summary, paraphrase, and quotation
interpretation, and when to use each approach (pp. 467–73). The

25
synthesis, chapter discusses framing with introductory phrases
response, and signal verbs, and it presents multiple ways to
critique, and connect source material to a student’s own ideas — by
design/redesign establishing a context, introducing a term or concept,
— to compose developing a claim, highlighting differences, and
texts that avoiding “patchwriting” (pp. 480–82).
integrate the
writer’s ideas Chapter 21, “Plagiarism and Academic Integrity” (pp.
with those from 484–93), highlights the importance of acknowledging
appropriate another writer’s work.
sources.
Chapter 22, “Documenting Sources” (pp. 494–532),
concludes the research section of the book with a
discussion of MLA and APA documentation, including a
wide range of citation models in both formats.

Processes

Develop a Chapter 17, “Academic Arguments” (pp. 405–37),

writing project stresses the importance of working through multiple
through multiple drafts of a project, using revision and peer feedback to
drafts. improve the document.

Develop flexible Writing is a fundamental focus of Everything’s an

strategies for Argument with Readings, and students learn to critique
reading, their own work and the work of others in almost every
drafting, part of the book. Each Guide to Writing, focusing on a
reviewing, specific type of argument in the Part 2 chapters,
collaboration, contains step-by-step advice on drafting, researching,
revising, and organizing, as well as peer review questions about
rewriting, the claim being made, the evidence provided for the
rereading, and claim, and the organization and style of the essay.
editing.
The Guide to Writing also asks students to review their
spelling, punctuation, mechanics, documentation, and
format.

26
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Anarchy
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Anarchy

Author: Robert LeFevre

Release date: November 1, 2023 [eBook #72001]

Language: English

Original publication: Colorado Springs: The Freedom School, 1959

Credits: Bob Taylor, Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was
produced from images made available by the HathiTrust
Digital Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANARCHY

***
ANARCHY
by Robert LeFevre
 Copyright 1959, by Robert LeFevre

Permission to reprint in whole or in part

granted without special request.

PRINTED IN COLORADO SPRINGS, U.S.A.

Published June, 1959

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:

59-13480

THE FREEDOM SCHOOL

P.O. Box 165
Colorado Springs, Colorado
 EDITOR’S NOTE
Robert LeFevre, president and founder of the Freedom School, has
also served as the editorial writer for the Gazette Telegraph in
Colorado Springs, since 1954. In addition to several thousand
editorials, he has written numerous articles for the Freeman
Magazine, including: “The Straight Line,” “Jim Leadbetter’s
Discovery,” “Shades of Hammurabi,” “Grasshoppers and Widows,”
and “Coercion at the Local Level.”
His article “Even the Girl Scouts” (Human Events, 1953) led to a
recall of the Handbook of this organization and extensive revisions.
His book, “The Nature of Man and His Government,” has recently
been published by Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho.
 ANARCHY

A RATIONAL BEING, intent upon learning the nature of liberty or

freedom, is confronted almost at once with innumerable
instances of governmental predation against liberty.
As the subject of liberty is pursued, the more frequently and the
more persistently the fact emerges that governments have been one
of the principal opponents if not the only principal opponent to liberty.
Invariably, this discovery leads the perspiring seeker after truth to
a fork in the road. Is it possible, the aspirant to libertarian certainty
asks himself, to pursue the end of the rainbow of liberty into a
miasma of quicksand and uncertainty?
Might I not end at a place where I would advocate the cessation of
all government? And if I reached such a conclusion, would I not find
myself aligned with the very forces I sought to oppose in the
beginning, namely, the forces of lawlessness, chaos and anarchy?
At this fork in the road, libertarians hesitate, some briefly and
some for lengthy periods of time. The choice to be made is a difficult
one. To abandon liberty at this juncture and to endorse minimal
governments as devices which might prevent license, could cause
the devotee of liberty to endorse the active enemy of liberty, albeit in
small doses. On the other hand, to pursue liberty to its logical
conclusions might end in an endorsement of license, The very
antonym of liberty.
It is at this juncture that the word “anarchy” rears its dreadful
visage. It becomes incumbent upon sincere seekers after liberty to
grapple with this word and to seek to understand its implications.
Anarchy has very ancient roots. It is not wholly essential to probe
to the last hidden tendril altho such a probe can be highly instructive.
What does appear to be a necessary minimal effort, however, is to
explore at least the principal authors of anarchistic thought with the
view to discovering what it was that motivated these men.
We can begin with William Godwin of England. Godwin is
noteworthy as the “father of anarchistic communism” (Encyclopaedia
Britannica).
In 1793 he published the first of several works on this subject
entitled, “Inquiry Concerning Political Justice.” He is probably most
famous as the author of an anarchistic novel which he named,
“Caleb Williams.”
It was Godwin’s thesis that governments are instruments of eternal
bickering and war; that wars are fought over property; that the
ownership of property privately is the greatest curse ever to beset
the human race. As a specific example of tyranny in its worst form,
Godwin suggests marriage.
Before we lay the soubriquet “crackpot” behind his name, let us
look at the England of Godwin’s time to try to find an explanation for
his radical conclusions.
In Godwin’s day (1756-1836) with only a few minor exceptions, all
property was owned by the nobility, which is to say by the persons
favored by government. The common people owned little save the
shirts on their backs. As for marriage, women were chattels, given by
a male parent to another male, during a governmentally approved
ceremony. The idea of one person actually owning and controlling
another, which we would call slavery, and which Godwin saw as the
marriage state, was repellent to him. He insisted that females were
human beings and as such had as much right to individuality as
males.
To cure the malady, which Godwin saw as ownership of property,
the early Briton recommended an abolition of governments. It was
the government which sanctified and protected property rights, even
in marriage. To return to a state of nature (see Rousseau)
governments would have to be abolished.
Be it noted to Godwin’s credit that he despised violence. And in
this position he is far removed from both the true communist and the
anarchists of action who followed him.
The next anarchist to be examined is Pierre Joseph Proudhon of
Bexancon, France (1809-1865). Proudhon drank deeply from
Godwin’s well and came forward with certain modifications and
extensions of the Godwin doctrine.
Proudhon acknowledged a debt of gratitude to both Plato and
Thomas More, a pair of dedicated socialists (see Plato’s “Republic”
and More’s “Utopia”) and busied himself with some practical means
for implementing the socialist dream.
Like his precursors, he was fundamentally opposed to property
ownership. His most famous work, “Qu’est-ce que La Propriete?”
(“What Is Property?”), got him into immediate difficulties with the
government. Proudhon, in this opus, declared that “property is
robbery” and set about outlining a social order in which no property
could be privately owned.
The Encyclopedia Americana says that Proudhon was the “first to
formulate the doctrines of philosophic anarchism.”
It is probably true that there are no better writings extant extolling
individualism as opposed to collectivism than Proudhon’s early
essays. Yet, it should be recalled that Proudhon’s aim, in addition to
a society free of governmental coercion, was a state in which
property as a private device was abolished.
It is also interesting to recall that Karl Marx was deeply moved by
Proudhon’s arguments. The first of Proudhon’s writings appeared in
print in 1840 and formed the basis of Marx’s first expostulations
which appeared in 1842. Shortly thereafter, Marx veered away from
Proudhon’s individualism and contrived his concept of collectivism as
the natural and the inevitable course of history.
Marx, however, was never an anarchist, despite the well-known
phrase frequently attributed to him that in time the government of the
proletariat would simply “wither away.” This phrase should properly
be attributed to Lenin.
However, it is known that Marx did make an attempt to lure the
anarchists of France into the first “Internationale” and was hooted
down for his pains. The anarchists of that time were shrewd enough
to sense that the enlargement of government into a general holding
company for all property, would never result in the abolition of private
ownership of property. Rather, it would result in the perpetuation of a
privileged class of persons who would have possession of the
property to the exclusion of all others, the very contingency the
anarchists sought to avoid. And since the aim of the anarchists was
to eliminate exclusive ownership, they could not agree to the Marxist
arguments respecting the usefulness of a government as the
repository of all property.
We pass from Proudhon to another noteworthy anarchist, the
Russian Prince Peter Alexeivich Kropotkin (1842-1921). In his
hands, the doctrine of anarchism took on an international aspect. In
point of fact he added little to either Godwin or Proudhon, except the
more grandiose concept of a world order. He suggested that ALL
governments must be overthrown either peacefully or in any other
manner after which “the present system of class privilege and unjust
distribution of the wealth produced by labor that creates and fosters
crime” would be abolished.
It was Kropotkin who endeavored to preserve the ideals of a
property-less society after the most exciting and destructive of all the
anarchists had done his work. This was Michael Bakunin (1814-
1876). Bakunin took his ideology both from Proudhon and from Marx
and endeavored to unite the objectives of the former with the
methods of the latter.
Bakunin despaired of bringing about a state of universal property-
less-ness by means of education and propaganda. So did Marx.
Marx declared that those who owned property would never give it up
without a struggle. This idea entranced Bakunin. He devised what
was to be called “propaganda of action.”
It was Bakunin’s contribution to anarchistic methods that persons
who held governmental offices should be assassinated while they
held office. Such assassination, he argued, would have a persuasive
effect upon future politicians. If the offices could be made sufficiently
dangerous and risky, there would be few who would care to hazard
their necks in such unrewarding positions. The answer to the force of
government, according to Bakunin, was the force of non-
government. As an educational device, a thrown bomb was
considered to be the final argument.
It is unnecessary to embroider the result. The peaceful arguments
of Proudhon and Godwin went by the boards as anarchists rallied to
Bakunin’s banner. Beginning in 1878 there was a series of
assassinations and attempted assassinations against the heads of
governments.
Germany’s Emperor William had a narrow escape and so did the
German princes in 1883. In 1886 in Chicago, a bomb explosion in
the Haymarket killed a number of persons. In the resulting hysteria,
seven arrests were made, all of persons known to be teaching
anarchy. Four were hanged, two drew life sentences, and one was
imprisoned for 15 years. No one to this day is certain who threw the
bomb.
Anarchists were pictured in cartoons as bearded radicals carrying
smoking bombs. President Carnot of France was assassinated in
1894. The Empress Elizabeth of Austria was assassinated in 1898.
King Humber of Italy was assassinated in 1900. President McKinley
was assassinated in 1901.
But Bakunin’s enthusiasm wrecked the anarchist movement
despite all Kropotkin could do to save the fragments. These
excesses, which have even been repeated in modern times, have
had the effect of uniting public opinion against anything that smacks
of anarchy.
There were, of course, other anarchists. Some have credited
Rousseau, and some even Zeno with the actual birth of the idea of a
property-less society. But the four men briefly reviewed here, with
the possible additions of Elisee Reclus and the American, Benjamin
R. Tucker, made the major contributions to anarchist doctrine. There
is no serious cleavage in anarchist ranks.
It is these thoughts which must confront the libertarian as he seeks
to understand the meaning of individualism, liberty, property, and so
on.
But in complete candor, the sincere libertarian cannot be called an
anarchist whichever fork of the road he elects to pursue. It must be
recalled that without exception, anarchists wished to do away with
private ownership of property. Some advocated peaceful means
ending the abolition of government. Some advocated violent means
by destroying politicians in government. But by any yardstick
employed, and whether we are speaking of “philosophic anarchists”
or “anarchistic communists,” the central aim of the anarchist
movement was to eliminate private ownership. The reduction of the
government to zero was simply, to them, a necessary first step.
In contrast, the libertarian is a better economist. From first to last
he is in favor of private ownership. It is, in fact, the abuses of private
ownership inflicted by government which arouse the most ardent
libertarians.
If we take the “communist” anarchists, we are confronted with
violence as a means to abolish private ownership with the abolition
of government as the first step. If we take the “philosophic”
anarchists, we are confronted with essays on individualism and the
desire to do away with private ownership by means of the elimination
of government.
The aim of the anarchist is to eliminate private ownership. The
libertarian is dedicated to the perpetuation and the full enjoyment of
private ownership.
Never could two doctrines be more in opposition.
The most constructive of the anarchists were, socially speaking,
individualists, peaceful and harmless. The least constructive, socially
speaking, were dedicated to the overthrow of force by counter force.
But without exception, in the realm of economics, every anarchist
comes unglazed.
In brief, let us define the anarchist as a political individualist and
an economic socialist. In contrast, the libertarian can be defined as
an individualist, both politically and economically.
 As the libertarian approaches or hesitates at the fork in the road,
one direction seems to him to indicate anarchy and the other, an
advocacy of coercion in minor doses. But, on careful analysis, the
branch which seems to carry the banner “anarchy” does no such
thing.
The libertarian, however he mulls over this dilemma to his
progress, is not concerned with government. His concern is with
liberty. He is not opposed to government. He favors freedom. The
libertarian wishes to preserve all human rights, among which and
predominantly among them is the right to own property privately and
to enjoy it fully.
The libertarian is a champion of individualism. He is an advocate
of tools which can perform certain functions for him. He has no
objection to the formation of any kind of tool that will assist him to
protect his rights or his property. But he cannot brook the forceful
compulsive tool which he is compelled to pay for when he has no
use for it.
He has no objection to policemen whose function is solely that of
protection. But he resists the supposition that others know better
than he, how much protection he needs or can afford.
He sees in government a tool of man’s devising. He has no
objection to this tool so long as it is totally responsive to the man
who hires the tool and pays for its use. He does object to the
employment of this tool by some against others in an aggressive
manner, since he is primarily concerned with human liberty and the
preservation of it for all individuals.
But it is destructive of libertarian aims and objectives to label a
seeker after total freedom with the opprobrium of “anarchist.”
Economically speaking, all anarchists are, socialists, however they
may coalesce to the political spectrum. Economically speaking, the
libertarian is an individualist, believing in and supporting the concept
of private ownership, individual responsibility and self-government.
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