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Indian Shield
Indian Shield
Precambrian Evolution and
Phanerozoic Reconstitution
A.B. Roy
Ritesh Purohit
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
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material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-809839-4
Copyrighted material
vi Contents
Copyrighted material
Contents vii
CHAPTER 10 Southern Granulite Belt ................. .. ..... .......... ....... ... .. ............... ......... .. ...211
10.1 lntroduction .............................................................................................................. 2 17
10.2 Palghat-Cauvery Shear Zone: A Zone of Crustal Interaction .................................. 218
Copyrighted material
viii Contents
10.3 Lithology and L ithostratigraphy of the Southern Granulite Belt ............................. 224
10.4 Geochronology and Tectono-Magmatic/Metamorphic
Evolutionary History ................................................................................................ 230
10.5 The Chanockite Riddle ............................................................................................ 232
References ................................................................................................................ 234
CHAPTER 11 Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt ............ ......................... .. ....... ................. ... 237
11.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 237
11.2 Litho-tectonic Characterization of the E astern Ghats Granulite Belt ...................... 238
11.3 Defining tbe Western Contact of the Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt... ...................... 238
11.4 Li tho-tectonic Zonation of the Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt .................................. 244
11.5 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................... 246
References ................................................................................................................ 247
CHAPTER 12 Precambrians of Shillong Plateau ... ....... ........... ...... ................. .......... ... 249
12.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 249
12.2 Geology and Lithostratigraphic Relationships of the
Precambrian Rocks .................................................................................................. 250
12.3 Summary of the Evolutionary History ..................................................................... 255
References ................................................................................................................ 257
Copyrighted material
Contents ix
CHAPTER 15 Gondwana Supergroup: Origin and Evolution ..... ....... ... .. ..... .......... .... .. 287
15.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 287
15.2 Origin and Evolution of Gondwana Basins ............................................................. 287
15.3 Basin Tectonics and Sedimentation Pattern ............................................................. 291
15.4 Geophysical Characterization of the Gondwana Basins .......................................... 292
References ................................................................................................................ 292
Copyrighted material
x Contents
PART 7 EPILOGUE
CHAPTER 21 Correlation and Evolutionary History of Indian Shield .......... ... ..... ..363
21.1 Precambrian Evolution of Indian Shield .................................................................. 363
21.2 Phanerozoic Reconstitution ..................................................................................... 366
2 1.2. 1 The Concept of Stability of Indian Shield ................................................... 366
2 1.2.2 The Factors Causing Phanerozoic Reconstitution of Indian Shield ............ 368
References ................................................................................................................ 3 70
Copyrighted material
Prologue
The book Indian Shield: Precambrian Evolution and Phanerozoic Reconstitution depicts precisely
what is indicated in the title itself. Whereas in the first part we tried to provide a comprehensive geolog-
ical account of the evolution of the Precambrian Indian Shield, the second part discusses the different
post-Precambrian processes that caused reconstitution of the Indian Shield changing its pristine shape,
size, and constitution into that of the present-day Indian Subcontinent, a geomorphic terrain compris-
ing countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. The complete geological history of
the changeover is as spectacular as the temporal span of the two events. The evolutionary history of the
Indian Shield covered a protracted span of about 3000 million years. By contrast, the period of recon-
stitution seems to have taken a little over 500 million years.
This book discusses the regional geology of the terrain in terms of the history of evolution of the Crust,
describing how the Precambrian Shield evolved from a stable continental region to a tectonically unstable
zone marked by frequent high-intensity earthquakes in a totally continental setting. It is a comprehensive
and well-illustrated readable account of the history of growth and evolution of the Indian Subcontinent.
The strength of the book is the illustrations, both line drawings and photographs/images, used to
supplement the text. Many illustrations mainly the photographs and images were drawn from different
parts of the Indian Subcontinent in order to familiarize readers with the rocks and features of the terrain.
This, we believed, would enhance the understanding of the subject we dealt with in the book.
An important point we would like to focus is that many terms and nomenclatures used in geology
are derived from the names of common objects or features we are familiar with like ‘crust’, ‘mantle’,
‘core’, ‘plate’, ‘shield’, ‘platform’, and ‘trap’. In order to avoid confusion in the mind of common
readers whenever such common nouns are used for specific geological features, these are written with
capitalized first letter. In addition, the text has been supplemented with ‘boxes’, providing additional
information that is usually provided in footnotes.
Scripting a book like this is truly an arduous task. But we feel fortunate to have received help from in-
numerable friends, colleagues, acquaintances, and many others whom we requested for support. But before
anyone else, we must thank Mukesh Suthar for drafting a large number of line drawings and figures, with
utmost fineness and care, making them scientifically very useful documents. We also extend our gratitude to
all those who have extended their helping hand in various ways in our book-writing project. The list is long
that includes Manoranjan Mohanty, Sisir Mondal, H. N. Bhattacharya, Sarbani Patranabis-Deb, Dilip Saha,
A. N. Sarkar, Sanjib Sarkar, Alokesh Chatterjee, Erfan Mondal, N. V. Chalapathi Rao, P. R. Golani, Surjaram
Jakhar, Harsh Bhu, Indrani Roy, L. S. Chamyal, Om Bhargava, Rajneesh Bhutani, Debjani Roy, Indrajit
Roy, J. Ganguly, V. S. Kale, Ikramul Hasan Sakil, Y. Sheedhar Murthy, Saibal Gupta, M. Jayananda, Adhir
Basu, Raymond Duraiswami, Kamal Kant Sharma, N. K. Chauhan, S. K. Haldar, Arun Vyas, G. R. Ravindra
Kumar, T. R. K. Chetty, C. Leelanandam, R. H. Sawkar, Jonali Medhi, Pranjali Kakoti, Bidyananda M., S.
A. Sameeni, Sukanta Dey, Santosh Kumar, T. K. Biswal, Ashutosh Pandey, Mukund Sharma, Anupendu
Chatterjee, Asima Saikia, Surya Prakash Singh, Vinod Singh, Sadhana M Chatterjee, B. P. Singh, and Rachit
Parihar. Our sincere apologies to those whom we forgot to acknowledge for their help.
And finally, we individually acknowledge the personal helps and comfort provided by our dear fam-
ily members during the process of scripting the book.
Ashit Baran Roy
Ritesh Purohit
xi
I NDIAN SH I ELD:
CONCEPT AND
PERSPECTIVE
CHAPTER
CONCEPT OF INDIAN
SHIELD: EVOLUTION AND
RECONSTITUTION
1
1.1 THE CONCEPT OF INDIAN SHIELD, DEFINITION AND EXTENT
A Shield is defined as a large area of exposed Precambrian terrane made dominantly of igneous and
metamorphic rocks that remained tectonically stable since the youngest Precambrian. The oldest surviving
rocks in the Shield areas of the world are generally as old as 3.5 billion years or even more. The youngest
rocks on the other hand are those that evolved before the onset of Cambrian. Barring some minor cratonic
deformations, the Shield area rocks have presumably remained free from any major tectonic/orogenic
deformation during the latter ‘post-Precambrian’ Phanerozoic Eon.
BOX 1.1
The term Shield used here is the English translation of the original German word ‘Shild’ by H.B.C. Sollas (Suess, 1901).
The Canadian Shield is considered a model example of Shield in the world today. The term ‘Shield’ itself is derived from
the outline of the spatial extent of the Canadian Shield, which is quite similar to the shape of armour used by ancient
warriors to protect their bodies.
Traditionally, the triangular-shaped Precambrian terrane of the southern Indian Peninsula is de-
scribed as a Shield. The term ‘Indian Shield’ that receives wide reference in literatures does not truly
fulfil the shape criteria implied in the definition of Shield. But even assuming that the shape criterion
needs not be a necessary constraint, the available geological information, however, suggests that the
Precambrian terrane of Indian Peninsula was once a part of much larger crustal block that evolved as
a Shield like the Canadian or some other Shield areas of the world. The concept of ‘Greater India’ ap-
peared to have emerged from such an understanding about nine decades ago (Argand, 1924).
BOX 1.2
The term ‘terrane’ is used following the definition given in Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia, to simply describe a series
of related rock formations or an area having a preponderance of a particular rock or rock groups. On the other hand, the
term ‘terrain’ is used for a geographical ground or a piece of ground, especially with reference to its physical character.
The pristine size of this Precambrian crustal block that evolved as Indian Shield is difficult to
ascertain because of the fact that a considerable part of it in the north has undergone extensive re-
constitution during the ‘Continent-Continent’ collision that led to the growth of the Himalayas dur-
ing the late Cenozoic time. The geological and geophysical data from the Himalayas also provide
evidence that much of its edifice is made of components sliced off from the Indian Shield (Qureshy,
1969; Qureshy and Kumar, 1992; Warsi and Molnar, 1977). The concept is ingrained in the expression
Indian Shield. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809839-4.00001-1
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
3
4 CHAPTER 1 INDIAN SHIELD: EVOLUTION & RECONSTITUTION
‘extrapeninsular rocks’ used for all the ancient Precambrian rocks that constitute the youngest moun-
tain belt, the Himalayas by the late 18th-century to early 19th-century geologists of the Geological
Survey of India (Medlicott and Blandford, 1879–1881).
Several attempts have been made trying to reconstruct at least partially the true spatial extent (or
the size) of the Indian Shield in its northern part. Though they differ in detail, the central strand in all
these models is that the pristine Indian Precambrian crustal block constituting the Indian Shield had
an extension varying between 500 and 950 km (Ali and Aitchison, 2008) in the north of the Himalayan
Frontal Thrust (the southernmost base of the Himalayas, Valdiya, 1998). These estimates are compat-
ible with some of the suggested geodynamic and geophysically derived models depicting the subducted
Indian Lithosphere beneath Tibet and the estimates of the Himalayan shortening (DeCelles et al., 2002;
Dewey et al., 1989; Le Fort, 1975; Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975; Searle et al., 1987; Virdi, 1987;
Valdiya, 1984; Warsi and Molnar, 1977).
Apart from its reconstitution along the northern part, the slicing of the Indian Shield due to the sepa-
ration of Antarctica in the southeast and Madagascar and Seychelles islands in the southwest during the
late Phanerozoic has also added further complications in reconstructing the pristine size and shape of
the Indian Shield prior to its decimation during the late Phanerozoic (Roy, 2004).
There are studies suggesting Indo-Antarctic connection based on the correlation of granulite belts
of the two regions (Yoshida et al., 1992; Sen et al., 1995; Sengupta et al., 1999; Dasgupta and Sengupta,
2003; Bhadra et al., 2004; Gupta et al., 2005; Kelly et al., 2002). Such a correlation implies that the
boundary of the Indian Shield does not end at the eastern margin of the Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt
but extends far into East Antarctica. However, because of the lack of geological information, it is im-
possible even to guess what could even vaguely be the actual eastern boundary of the granulite belt in
Antarctica (placing Antarctica against the present-day India).
Like the granulite belt of Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt and its continuity into the East Antarctica,
the Southern Granulite Belt along with Sri Lanka and Madagascar formed a continuous Precambrian
terrane in the south and southwest of Peninsular India (Harris et al., 1994; Jayananda and Peucat,
1996; Kröner et al., 1991; Radhakrishna et al., 1994, 1999; Storey et al., 1995; Torsvik et al., 2000;
Veeraswamy and Raval, 2004; Yoshida et al., 1992). This suggests the extension of ‘Greater Indian
Shield’ much beyond the boundary of the southern and southeastern peninsular India.
FIG. 1.1
Fragmentation of the Precambrian crustal block constituted of India, Antarctica, and Madagascar during Plume
outbursts. Possible position of Plumes, indicating the age of outburst. Kg, Kerguelen; M, Marion; Ru, Reunion.
Reproduced from Raval and Veeraswamy (2003) with permission.
6 CHAPTER 1 INDIAN SHIELD: EVOLUTION & RECONSTITUTION
FIG. 1.2
Schematic illustration showing evolution of Himalaya through upthrusting of slices of the northern part of the
Indian Shield during the process of ‘continental collision’. ITSZ, Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone.
FIG. 1.3
The satellite imagery indicating three physical divisions of the Indian Subcontinent.
Modified from Google Earth image.
INDIAN SHIELD: EVOLUTION & RECONSTITUTION 7
Madagascar) is popularly known as Pan-African events in India (Roy, 1999a, 1999b, 2004; Valdiya,
1993). Some Shear Zones have reportedly developed in the Southern Granulite Belt in the Kerala re-
gion of southern Peninsula.
Reports of Cambrian fossil-bearing beds in the Salt Range region are indications of the earliest
marine shelf deposits in the northwestern part of the Subcontinent. Scattered occurrence of lower
Palaeozoic fossil-bearing marine sediments also occurs in the northwest of the Kashmir Valley, which
continue for some distance into the Liddar Valley around Pahelgam east of Srinagar and in the Spiti
Valley in the Tethys Himalayas. Continuity of these fossil-bearing lower Palaeozoic rocks is not trace-
able further east of this. Records of continuity of sedimentation in these basins during the Ordovician
and Silurian are, however, quite equivocal, although both the periods are represented by fossils.
After a break in sedimentation of about 200 Ma between the Ordovician and the early Permian, the
deposition of sediments in the Indian Subcontinent started with the formation of tillites and glacial
boulder beds in close association with Permian marine beds. This was accompanied by the deposition
of fluvial and fluviolacustrine sediments in linear intracontinental rift basins. These sediments, along
with the intercalated plant remains that ultimately turned into coal seams, constitute the Gondwana
Supergroup.
The Gondwana sedimentation, which began in the Permian, continued until the Lower Jurassic.
The next major global event that had a major effect on the Indian continental block was the break-up of
Gondwana at around 165 Ma. The initial separation resulted in marine incursions and deposition of sed-
iments in the northwestern Rajasthan and in the Kachchh region of Gujarat along WNW-ESE trending
rift basins. The deposition of continental sediments, which had earlier stopped in different Gondwana
basins before the Lower Jurassic, was resumed at least in certain cases. The Gondwana break-up event
was also responsible for the development of arrays of fracture systems in the Indian continental block.
Geomorphologically expressed as Lineaments, these features developed either as a new set of ruptures
or as a reactivation of old tectonic structures. The newly emerged fracture system helped in shaping the
geomorphologic and geophysical character of the Indian Crust in a variety of ways.
As the Indian continental block along with attached parts of Madagascar, Seychelles, and Antarctica
moved northwards following the dismemberment of the Gondwana Supercontinent, it was affected suc-
cessively by the outbursts of four ‘Plume heads’ centred at Marion, Reunion, Crozet, and Kerguelen
Islands. The manifestations of the Crozet Plume outbursts are virtually unknown. The Marion Plume
outbursts resulted in the separation of Madagascar from the Indian continental block at around 88–
90 Ma. Evidence for this comes from the occurrence of acid and mafic rocks of similar age in different
parts of central and north Kerala, St. Mary’s Island off the Karnataka coast, and also Madagascar. The
Rajmahal Traps, the Sylhet Traps, and also those that underlie the Bengal Basin are the manifestations
of Kerguelen Plume activities during 117 ± 1 Ma. The Plume that triggered the successive separation of
Antarctica from the Indian continental block induced Cretaceous marine ingress, both in the southeast-
ern part of the Peninsula and in the southeast of the Bengal Basin. Record of another Plume outburst
around 80/82 Ma linked with the 85° East Ridge in Bay of Bengal has been correlated with opening of
the Bengal Basin (Roy and Chatterjee, 2015). Plume outbursts have grossly affected the shaping of the
Indian Shield as indicated in Fig. 1.1, apart from the opening of new basins.
Deposition of shelf facies sediments was resumed during the Carboniferous in zones of marine in-
cursions along intracratonic rift basins that had developed in the Salt Range and in the Kashmir region.
The deposition in some basins continued until the Triassic. There are records of contemporary volca-
nism in the Pir Panjal Range and in other places in the east. Both marine and continental sediments
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