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Before the UN Sustainable
Development Goals
 Before the UN
Sustainable
Development Goals
A Historical Companion

Edited by
MARTIN GUTMANN
DANIEL GORMAN

1
 3
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 Acknowledgments

Complex problems can rarely be understood or solved with the tools of a single
academic discipline. The issues at the heart of the UN’s Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals are no different. Moreover, the SDGs address problems that, while
regional in triggers and impact, are global in nature. These facts are reflected
in the diverse group of authors of this volume, among whom all continents and
various disciplinary approaches are represented: anthropology, economics, engi-
neering, environmental studies, international relations, geography, water studies,
and history. We would like to thank this group of scholars for embarking on this
intellectually challenging but, we hope, richly rewarding exercise. Without fail they
did so with a spirit of openness, collaboration, and generosity.
Among this group of exceptional scholars, Jeremy Caradonna and Derek
Byerlee deserve particular mention for providing valuable feedback on the book’s
framing and for critically reading several key passages.
We would also like to thank the team at Oxford University Press, in particu-
lar Adam Swallow, Laheba Alam, Henry Clarke, and Sarah Posner, for taking on
this project and for deftly stewarding it from start to finish. We are also grate-
ful to Prabhu Chinnasamy and Rob Wilkinson for their help in preparing the
manuscript.
Additionally, I (Martin) would like to thank my past students of ETH Zurich’s
Public Governance and Administration program, who first convinced me of the
need to historicize the SDGs and for allowing me to test some early ideas with
them. At ETH Zurich, Michael Ambühl and Stefano Brusoni also have my deepest
appreciation for their support during the early phases of this project. The IKM at
the Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts provided me with a grant to
finalize my work on this book during my first semester on its faculty—a truly gen-
erous act for which I am very grateful, especially to Matthes Fleck and Thomas
Wozniak. Finally, and most of all, I would like to thank my family—Djahane,
Espen, Emil, and Ylva—for putting up with the various headaches that inevitably
spill over into family life during a book project.
I (Dan) am grateful to the many colleagues and students at the Balsillie School
of International Affairs from whom I have learned so much over the years about
global governance. I am fortunate to work in a scholarly community where inter-
disciplinary studies are valued and supported. I also appreciate the collegiality of
my friends in the History department at the University of Waterloo. As always,
Evan, Sam, Ryan, Sadie, and Jo have been there for me along the way.

Daniel Gorman, Waterloo

Martin Gutmann, Freiburg im Breisgau
April 2021
 Table of Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables x
Notes on Contributors xi
Overview of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals xvi

Introduction: The Long and the Short Road to the

Sustainable Development Goals 1
Martin Gutmann and Daniel Gorman
1. SDG 1 – On the Origins of the Idea of Ending Poverty 14
Martin Ravallion
2. SDG 2 – The Elusive Global Quest to End Hunger 54
Derek Byerlee and Jessica Fanzo
3. SDG 3 – Historical Perspectives on Health and Well-Being
as International Policy Goals 83
Martin Gorsky and Erica Nelson
4. SDG 4 – Global Education Unfolding: Concepts,
Emergence, Objectives 124
Eckhardt Fuchs
5. SDG 5 – A Long, Short, and Unfinished History of the
Journey to Gender Equality 160
Claire Somerville and Maria Amalia Pesantes
6. SDG 6 – Changing International Policies on Safe Water
and Sanitation after the Second World War 176
Petri S. Juuti, Riikka P. Juuti, Jarmo J. Hukka, and
Tapio S. Katko
7. SDG 7 – A History of Fossil Fuel Consumption and Its
Replacement with Renewable Sources of Energy 210
Anthony N. Penna
viii table of contents

8. SDG 8 – Growth, Decent Work, and the Green Transition 241

Zhun Xu and Shouvik Chakraborty
9. SDG 9 – Historicizing Production, Innovation, and
Infrastructure, from the Industrial Revolution to
Contemporary African Strategies of Industrialization 265
Martin Gutmann and Olutayo Adesina
10. SDG 10 – The Politics and Policies of Inequality in the
West, 1800–2015 295
Anne Marie Brady
11. SDG 11 – The Past, Present, and Future of Sustainable Cities 321
Jeremy L. Caradonna and Cameron E. Owens
12. SDG 12 – Sustainability and the World of Goods since the
Industrial Revolution 355
Aniruddha Bose and Benjamin Möckel
13. SDG 13 – How Societies Succeeded or Failed to Respond
to Environmental Disruption 385
John Haldon, Adam Izdebski, Luke Kemp, Lee Mordechai,
and Benjamin Trump
14. SDG 14 – Exploiting and Managing the Alien and Unseen
World below Water 425
Poul Holm
15. SDG 15 – Caretaking, Conservation, and Exploitation in
the Evolving Relationship between Humans and Life on
Land 448
Christine Fürst and Martin Gutmann
16. SDG 16 – The Many Pieces of Peace 477
Christine Smith-Simonsen
17. SDG 17 – The History of Global Partnerships and
International Cooperation 504
Daniel Gorman

Index 536
 List of Figures

1.1. Global absolute poverty rates, 1981–2015 19

1.2. Consumption floor and overall mean, 1981–2015 43
1.3. Growth and poverty reduction across countries, 1990–2015 44
2.1. Millions of deaths from famines by decade, 1860–2010 61
2.2. Annual increment in population (left axis and bars) and world population
(right axis and solid line), with projections after 2020 68
2.3. Approximate trends in the number undernourished (left axis) and
prevalence of undernourished (right axis) 79
2.4. Indices of global per capita cereal production, cereal area per capita, and
real grain prices (1961=100) 81
6.1. Evolution of globally-dominant development paradigms in water
governance 202
6.2. Overall results from seven countries and one region, compiling a global
ranking on perceived priorities of six criteria on water by students 206
10.1. United States, median household income and wealth by race, $’000,
adjusted for inflation 312
10.2. US cumulative percent change in real annual wages, by wage group,
1979–2018 315
10.3. Evolution of the 10th, 50th, and 90th percentile of the wage distribution
(a) Germany, (b) France, (c) United Kingdom 317
11.1. Raworth’s (2013) Doughnut of Social and Planetary Boundaries 322
11.2. Three Methods of GHG Accounting 328
11.3. Urban Farming 343
11.4. Contribution of various components to US food system greenhouse gas
emissions in twenty-first century 346
11.5. Global Waste Composition (World Bank 2018) 348
11.6. Waste generated by income level (global) (World Bank 2018) 351
15.1. Systemic drivers, their interactions and emerging properties in
deforestation processes in the tropics 455
15.2. Draft of a simple network model to test opportunities and trade-offs from
realizing SDG 15 473
 List of Tables

2.1. Per capita grain production in selected regions before and after the Second
World War (kg) 68
2.2. Summary of major summits and their declarations by the UN on ending hunger 75
3.1. Global inequalities of wealth and health in the twentieth century 84
6.1. Establishment of selected bilateral agencies for development cooperation 185
6.2. Phases and changes on focus of the IHP program 1975–2021 189
6.3. Selected key global water policy meetings and processes from 1965 to 2015 197
14.1. Human harvests from the oceans, 2015 (metric tons) 438
 Notes on Contributors

Olutayo Adesina is Professor and Head, Department of History, University of Ibadan,

Nigeria. Adesina is current editor of Africa Review and has served as editor of The Nigerian
Journal of Economic History (1998–2006) and as guest editor of Journal of Global Initia-
tives (Special Edition on Globalization and the Unending Frontier, 2008). His publications
include “Soccer Victory authorized by the gods: Prophecy, Popular Memory and the Pe-
culiarities of Place,” in Global Perspectives on Sports and Christianity (2018), “Feeding the
Millions: Understanding Africa’s Food Security Problem” in Contemporary Issues in Africa’s
Development: Wither the African Renaissance? (2018) and “A Terrain…Angels Would Fear
to Tread”: Biographies and History in Nigeria” in Southern Journal of Contemporary History
(2020).
Aniruddha Bose is Associate Professor of History at Saint Francis University, Loretto,
Pennsylvania. He is the author of Class Conflict and Modernization in India (Routledge,
2018), a history of port labor in colonial Calcutta. He is currently working on a manuscript
that examines the survival strategies of India’s railway workers in the 1939–1949 decade.
His research demonstrates the centrality of organization in the survival and success of this
workforce through this turbulent decade.
Anne Marie Brady is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of Public Service at New York Uni-
versity’s Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service and is the Worker Rights and
Equity Research Director at Cornell University’s ILR Worker Institute. Brady is an expert
in welfare rights and responsibilities in Germany, Britain, and the United States where she
has researched income maintenance and poverty reduction, unemployment support and
training, schooling and education, and housing and community development.
Derek Byerlee is Adjunct Professor, School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University, and
Vice Chair of the Board of the International Food Policy Research Institute, both based in
Washington DC. He previously worked for the World Bank where he led the World De-
velopment Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. He has also served as Director of the
Economics Program, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, based in Mex-
ico and Associate Professor of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University. In recent
years his research has focused on the twentieth-century history of tropical agriculture, with
emphasis on science, and food security.
Jeremy L. Caradonna is an Adjunct Professor of Environmental Studies at the University
of Victoria and works as a climate policymaker in his provincial government. He is the
author of three books, including Sustainability: A History (OUP, 2016), which will be re-
leased as a second edition in 2022, and writes regularly on environmental history, ecological
economics, sustainable agriculture, and climate action.
xii notes on contributors

Shouvik Chakraborty is a researcher at the Political Economy Research Institute, UMASS-

Amherst.
Jessica Fanzo is the Bloomberg Distinguished Professor of Global Food Policy and Ethics
at the Berman Institute of Bioethics, the Bloomberg School of Public Health, and the Nitze
School of Advanced International Studies at the Johns Hopkins University. She also serves
as the Director of Hopkins’ Global Food Policy and Ethics Program, and as Director of Food
& Nutrition Security at the JHU Alliance for a Healthier World. From 2017 to 2019, Jessica
served as the Co-Chair of the Global Nutrition Report and the UN High Level Panel of
Experts on Food Systems and Nutrition.
Eckhardt Fuchs is Director of the Leibniz Institute for Educational Media, Georg Eckert
Institute and Professor History of Education at the Technical University Braunschweig.
He has worked in a variety of academic institutions and served as a visiting professor
in Sydney, Umeå, Tokyo, and Seoul. His research interests include the global history of
modern education, international education policies, and textbook development. He has
published ten books and more than 100 articles and chapters on these issues, including The
Palgrave Handbook of Textbook Studies (2018), Connecting Histories of Education: Transac-
tions, Transculturalism and Transnationalism (2014), and Transnationalizing the History of
Education (2012).
Christine Fürst is Professor of Sustainable Landscape Development at Martin Luther Uni-
versity Halle-Wittenberg since 2016 and member of the German Centre for Integrative
Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig. She studied Forestry Sciences at Ludwig-
Maximilian University Munich and did her PhD in Soil Sciences at Dresden University
of Technology and her habilitation with venia legendi in Natural Resource Management at
University of Bonn. Her research interests are in social-ecological systems modeling, assess-
ment of the impacts of land use and management changes on biodiversity and ecosystem
services and in participatory scenario development and planning. She has published almost
200 papers and books/book contributions of which almost 100 are in ISI listed journals.
Daniel Gorman is a Professor of History at the University of Waterloo and the Balsillie
School of International Affairs. He is the author of Uniting Nations: Britons and Interna-
tionalism, 1945–1970 (Cambridge University Press, 2022), International Cooperation in the
Early Twentieth Century (Bloomsbury, 2017), The Emergence of International Society in
the 1920s (Cambridge University Press, 2012), and Imperial Citizenship: Empire and the
Question of Belonging (Manchester University Press, 2007).
Martin Gorsky is Professor of History at the Centre for History in Public Health, London
School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. His research interests lie in the modern history
of health systems and policy. His early work was on British voluntary hospitals and sick-
ness insurance funds, and their interplay with the incipient welfare state. He subsequently
studied the political history of the British National Health Service, before turning to com-
parative health systems. A current project examines the conceptual and policy history of
“health systems strengthening” in international organizations. His latest book is The Politi-
cal Economy of the Hospital in History (Huddersfield University Press, 2020), co-edited with
J. Pons Pons and M. Vilar-Rodrı́guez.
 notes on contributors xiii

Martin Gutmann is a university lecturer at the Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and
Arts, Switzerland. Previously, he was a senior lecturer and Managing Director of the ETH
Zurich Swiss School of Public Governance where, among other projects, he designed an
executive education program for international policy makers on leadership and the SDGs.
His research has been supported by, among others, the European Union Marie Skłodowska-
Curie fellowship program, the Mellon Foundation, and the American Council of Learned
Societies.
John Haldon is Director of the Climate Change and History Research Initiative at Princeton
University. His research focuses on the history of the medieval eastern Roman (Byzantine)
empire; on pre-modern state systems; on the impact of environmental stress on pre-modern
social systems; and on the production, distribution, and consumption of resources in the
late ancient and medieval world.
Poul Holm is Professor of Environmental History at Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. In the
past two decades he has been at the forefront of developing new modes of inquiry into
human exploitation of the sea and understanding the impact of human extractions for the
marine environment. He directed the History of Marine Animal Populations project (2000–
2010) which established baselines of historical fisheries in 15 major habitats. From 2021 he
leads a European Research Council Synergy project 4-OCEANS on the history of humans
and marine life through the last two millennia.
Jarmo J. Hukka is a senior WASH advisor and an Associate Professor (Futures research in
water sector) at the CADWES Research Team, Tampere University, Finland. He has 44 years
of professional experience. His research interests cover water services—institutional frame-
work for governance, provision and production, reforms, pricing, asset management, green
economy, sustainability, and resilience. He has authored 200 publications. He has worked
12 years for WASH projects in the Cayman Islands, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Kosovo, and for the
ADB in Gambia, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone.
Adam Izdebski is Independent Research Group Leader at the Max Planck Institute for the
Science of Human History in Jena, Germany and tenured faculty at the Jagiellonian Uni-
versity in Krakow, Poland. He works on environmental history and has a strong interest
in adapting knowledge on past socio-ecological crises to understand and respond to the
contemporary pandemic(s) and the climate crisis.
Petri S. Juuti is the head of the CADWES and IEHG research teams and is a historian,
UNESCO Professor and Associate Professor in Finnish History (University of Turku, Fin-
land), in Environmental History (University of Tampere, TUNI, Finland), and in History of
Technology (University of Oulu, Finland). He is currently working at TUNI and is also vis-
iting research professor at the University of South Africa and Quest professor at the Hubei
University, China. His major area of interest is environmental history and the interaction
between society, technology, and nature has been the focus of his research.
Riikka P. Juuti is the head of the Capacity Development of Water and Environmental
Services (CADWES) research team and is UNESCO co-professor and Associate Profes-
sor/Docent in Water Services (Tampere University). She is currently working at Tampere
University and also acts as visiting research professor at the University of South Africa. Her
xiv notes on contributors

areas of expertise and research interest are water and environmental services, resilient water
and sanitation services, water services management, and environmental history.
Tapio S. Katko is currently a Visiting Senior Expert and Associate Professor (Water Services
Development) at the CADWES Research Team, Tampere University, Finland. In 2012–
2020 he was the UNESCO Chairholder, and in 1998–2017 he acted as the leader of the
CADWES research team. His professional career of 44 years covers working abroad for
some five years including in the Southern Africa region and the United States. He has au-
thored or co-authored 37 scientific monographs and numerous other publications on water
services evolution, management, institutions, policy, and governance. He has received six
international and six national prizes or honors.
Luke Kemp is a research associate at the Centre for the Study of Existential Risk (CSER) at
the University of Cambridge. His research focuses on understanding societal transforma-
tions and collapses in both the past and future. He is interested in using tools from systems
dynamics to help understand complex, historical case studies.
Benjamin Möckel is assistant professor at the University of Cologne (Germany). His first
book was on the war memories of children and young people in East and West Germany. His
current research project is titled “The Invention of the Ethical Consumer: Consumption and
Political Protest in Britain and West Germany since the 1950s.” Since 2019, he is the head
of the Research Network “Economy and Morality: Economic Norms and Practices in the
Long 20th Century.” He has also published on the history of human rights, the history of
generations, and historical concepts of “time” and “future.”
Lee Mordechai is a senior lecturer in the Department of History at the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem. His research focuses on disasters such as epidemics and earthquakes, particularly
in the Eastern Mediterranean in late antiquity (300–700 CE). Lee is also interested in the
shifting ways in which we frame the past and in our changing attempts to learn from it and
use it in the present.
Erica Nelson is a historian and anthropologist of community participation and the politics
of public health in Latin America and internationally. From 2018–2021 she was a research
fellow at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine’s Centre for History in Pub-
lic Health. Prior to this, she held a post-doctoral research fellowship at the University of
Amsterdam’s Institute for Social Science Research attached to a Latin America-focussed
adolescent sexual and reproductive health intervention. She has a longstanding interest in
power dynamics and accountability processes in public/global health, and is currently based
at The Institute of Development Studies.
Cameron E. Owens is a Teaching Professor in Geography at the University of Victoria
(Canada). His teaching and research interests surround community efforts to overcome po-
litical barriers and promote socio-ecological health and sustainability, with a regional focus
on the Pacific Northwest (of North America) and Europe. With appreciation for experien-
tial and community-engaged learning, he has developed numerous local and international
field school programs. He is grateful to be living with his wife Kristi and son Finn on the
unceded territories of Lək̓ʷəŋən peoples (Victoria).
 notes on contributors xv

Anthony N. Penna is Professor Emeritus of Environmental History, Northeastern Univer-

sity, Boston, Massachusetts, United States. In recent years, he has written and edited the
following books: Nature’s Bounty: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on the Environ-
ment (1999); The Human Footprint: A Global Environmental History (2008, 2015); Remaking
Boston: An Environmental History (edited volume); Natural Disasters in a Global Envi-
ronment (2012); and A History of Energy Flows: From Human Labor to Renewable Power
(2020).
Maria Amalia Pesantes holds an MPH and a PhD in Medical Anthropology from the Uni-
versity of Pittsburgh. Her research focuses on Indigenous health with an emphasis in the
Peruvian Amazon and intercultural health efforts in Peru. She also conducts research
around unequal access to Primary Health Care among other vulnerable groups such as
immigrants, rural populations, and people with chronic conditions. She is currently an
Assistant Professor at the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology and a Research
Associate at CRONICAS at the Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia. She is currently
working on a Swiss National Science Foundation-funded project to understand Indige-
nous responses to the COVID-19 pandemic at Primary Health Care facilities in the Ucayali
region in Peru.
Martin Ravallion holds the Edmond D. Villani Chair of Economics at Georgetown Uni-
versity. He is a past Director of the World Bank’s research department, past President of
the Society for the Study of Economic Inequality, and has been affiliated with a num-
ber of other scholarly institutions. He has written extensively on economic development
and antipoverty policy, including six books and over 250 papers in scholarly journals and
edited volumes. His various prizes and awards include the John Kenneth Galbraith Prize,
and a Frontiers of Knowledge Award from Spain’s BBVA Foundation. He holds a PhD in
economics from the London School of Economics and an Honorary Doctorate from the
University of Fribourg.
Christine Smith-Simonsen is an associate professor in history with the Centre for Peace
Studies (CPS) and the Institute for Archaeology, History and Religious Sciences (AHR) at
UiT The Arctic University of Norway. From 2013–2019, she served as Director of the Centre
for Peace Studies.
Claire Somerville is a medical anthropologist specializing in gender. She gained her PhD
from the University of Cambridge and has since held positions at the University of New-
castle, Australia; Queen Mary University of London; Trinity College Dublin, and presently
at The Graduate Institute Geneva. Claire’s research seeks to forge links between policy and
practice whilst bringing ethnographic and theoretical depth, and a gender lens to research
in global health.
Benjamin Trump is a Research Social Scientist for the US Army Engineer Research and De-
velopment Center. His work focuses on decision making and governance of activities under
significant uncertainty and developing organizational, infrastructural and social resilience
to systemic threats to complex interconnected systems.
Zhun Xu is Associate Professor of Economics at John Jay College, City University of New
York. His recent book is From Commune to Capitalism: How China’s Peasants Lost Collective
Farming and Gained Urban Poverty (Monthly Review Press, 2018).
Overview of the 17 Sustainable Development
Goals

1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Well-being
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. Clean Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
10. Reducing Inequalities
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
13. Climate Action
14. Life Below Water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions
17. Partnerships for the Goals

More information can be found on the official UN SDG homepage: https://www.

un.org/sustainabledevelopment
 Introduction
The Long and the Short Road to the Sustainable
Development Goals
Martin Gutmann and Daniel Gorman

The Short and the Long History of the SDGs

In 1825, New York State Governor Dewitt Clinton celebrated the opening of the
Erie Canal. At 584-km long, the Canal created a direct shipping route between
New York City and the interior of the North American continent.1 Before the first
shovels had hit the ground in 1817, various commentators referred to the project
as “Clinton’s Ditch” or “Clinton’s Folly,” few believing that a project of that scale
would pay off. They were proven wrong almost immediately. Before the Canal,
the various resources from the country’s vast interior had to be shipped down the
Mississippi and on from New Orleans up the East Coast or carted by animals across
the Appalachian Mountains. The Canal reduced shipping costs by 95%. Within five
years, the Canal had paid for itself.2 In the following years, the constructions of the
Ohio and Welland canals completed the process of connecting the interior to the
coastal cities and thereby altering the continent’s economic prospects.3
Infrastructure, often defined as “the basic systems that support an economy,”
has been vital in human economic life for thousands of years.⁴ From the roads and

1 The authors would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers, as well as Martin Ravallion, Derek
Byerlee, and Jeremy Caradonna for their valuable feedback and Nora Meier and Moritz Wüthrich for
preliminary research.
2 Stanley L. Engerman and Kenneth L. Sokoloff, Digging the Dirt at Public Expense: Governance in
the Building of the Erie Canal and Other Public Works (University of Chicago Press, 2006); Ronald E.
Shaw, Erie Water West-A History of the Erie Canal, 1792–1854 (Lexington, Kentucky: The University
Press of Kentucky, 2013).
3 John N. Jackson, The Welland Canals and their Communities: Engineering, Industrial, and Urban
Transformation (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000); A. Kalabon et al., “Rise and Fall of the
Ohio and Erie Canal,” Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice 139, no. 3
(2013), https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000147.
⁴ Cambridge Dictionary, accessed March 30, 2021, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/
english/infrastructure.

Martin Gutmann and Daniel Gorman, Introduction. In: Before the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
Edited by Martin Gutmann and Daniel Gorman, Oxford University Press. © Martin Gutmann and Daniel Gorman (2022).
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192848758.003.0001
2 martin gutmann and daniel gorman

irrigation ditches of the earliest empires to the GPS system and broadband Internet
of today, infrastructure can and has had a profound impact on an area’s economic,
social and political trajectories. In the case of the Erie Canal, it transformed New
York City, which suddenly found itself a hub that connected the rich resources of
the continent to the world beyond. The city’s preeminence today is, at least in part,
a result of the Canal. The Canal also—unbeknownst to its proponents and critics
at the time—laid one of many foundations in the drastic reworking of a continent’s
interior that today finds itself teetering towards ecological disaster.⁵
Some 200 years after the Canal’s opening, in September 2015, the United
Nations General Assembly adopted the Agenda 2030 composed of 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). These goals serve as blueprints and indicators for the
global community to work towards a sustainable and equitable future. Sustain-
ability, in colloquial usage, brings forth environmental concerns. Yet sustainable
development, as defined by the SDGs, includes the full spectrum of environmen-
tal, economic and social domains. The goals are uniquely comprehensive and
seek through their 169 targets to address the full palette of challenges the global
community faces today—from mitigating the effects of climate change and rapid
urbanization to promoting peace, equality, health, education, decent work, and
infrastructure.⁶
The SDGs are—in origin, substance and presentation—a product of our time.
The goals emerged through a participatory process unparalleled in international
cooperation. Beyond government representatives, stakeholders from a broad
range of regions, organization types and policy domains contributed to the formu-
lation of the goals. Ban Ki Moon, UN Secretary General at the time, boasted that,
“Some 8.5 million people have made their voice heard to the United Nations.”⁷
In their governance structure, too, the goals bear the unmistakable hallmark of
the 21st Century. Unlike their predecessors, the Millennium Development Goals
and many traditional international agreements, the SDGs are non-binding and
work on a principle of national ownership rather than regulation or market-based
approaches.⁸ Their presentation too, is uniquely contemporary, with each goal
represented by a colorful icon and a snappy tag line.
As such, the SDGs are young. Their historical origin is usually traced to the
1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, when the ten-
sion between environmental considerations and economic development was first
articulated at a multinational level. At the same time, there is a longer history

⁵ William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991),
56; on current ecological crisis in the American West, see Chapter 15.
⁶ A good introductory resource is the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals website:
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/.
⁷ https://www.undispatch.com/5-key-quotes-from-the-sustainable-development-summit/
⁸ Frank Biermann, Norichika Kanie, and Rakhyun E. Kim, “Global governance by goal-setting:
the novel approach of the UN Sustainable Development Goals,” Current Opinion in Environmental
Sustainability 26–27 (2017): 26, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2017.01.010.
 introduction 3

of the SDGs to consider. The various phenomena with which the SDGs con-
cern themselves—conflict, inequality, environmental degradation, and economic
hardship, to name but a few—have accompanied humans for centuries, if not mil-
lennia. So too, the history of human awareness and attempts at addressing those
challenges is long—the Erie Canal being a case in point. In some cases, contempo-
raries were not even aware of how the phenomenon affected human development.
Climate change, though not yet human-caused, played a significant role in the col-
lapse of numerous civilizations, including the Mayan and the Viking colonies in
Greenland.⁹ Other phenomena, such as violent conflict, have been experienced
vividly and shaped deliberately by humans since our earliest days. It is this longer
history of the SDGs which this book sets out to chart.
This book aims to enable professionals, scholars and students engaged with the
SDGs to develop a richer understanding of the legacies and historical complex-
ities of the policy fields behind each goal. It is, however, far from the only book
on the SDGs. The SDGs have generated extensive academic and popular interest.
Recounting the full array of available works is neither feasible nor value-adding in
this Introduction. A brief overview of existing work reveals five clusters of inquiry.
First, there are books that examine the process of formulating the SDGs, what
we may call the recent history of the SDGs.1⁰ The second cluster includes works
that provide information on the Goals and corresponding indicators.11 Third
are works that advocate for or examine methods for achieving the SDGs, many
of which take an entrepreneurial angle.12 The fourth cluster includes works that
look at one specific SDG or the implementation of SDGs in one particular region.13

⁹ J. Donald Hughes, An Environmental History of the World: Humankind’s Changing Role in the Com-
munity of Life, 2nd ed. (London; New York: Routledge, 2009), 42–48; Jared M. Diamond, Collapse: How
Societies Choose to Fail or Survive (London: London: Penguin Books, 2011), 248–277.
1⁰ Macharia Kamau, Transforming Multilateral Diplomacy: The Inside Story of the Sustainable
Development Goals, ed. Pamela S. Chasek and David O’Connor (London: London: Routledge, Taylor
& Francis Group, 2018).
11 World Bank Group, Atlas of sustainable development goals: from world development indicators
(2017); Mark Swilling, The Age of Sustainability: Just Transitions in a Complex World (London: London:
Routledge, 2020).
12 Julia I. Walker, Alma Pekmezovic, and Gordon R. Walker, Sustainable Development Goals:
Harnessing Business to Achieve the SDGs through Finance, Technology and Law Reform (Chichester
West Sussex United Kingdom: Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom: Wiley, 2019); Samuel O.
Idowu, René Schmidpeter, and Liangrong Zu, The Future of the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
Business Perspectives for Global Development in 2030 (Heidelberg: Springer, 2020); Godwell Nhamo,
Gbadebo O. A. Odularu, and Vuyo Mjimba, Scaling up SDGs Implementation. Emerging Cases from
State, Development and Private Sectors (Heidelberg: Springer, 2020); Joachim Monkelbaan, Gover-
nance for the Sustainable Development Goals: Exploring an Integrative Framework of Theories, Tools,
and Competencies (Heidelberg: Springer, 2020).
13 Godwell Nhamo and Charles Nhemachena, SDG7-Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable, Sustainble
and Modern Energy (New York: Emerald, 2020); Jarkko Saarinen, Tourism and Sustainable Development
Goals: Research on Sustainable Tourism Geographies (London: Routledge, 2019); Maano Ramutsindela
and David Mickler, Africa and the Sustainable Development Goals, Sustainable Development Goals,
(Heidelberg: Springer, 2019).
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 COMMON TOMATA SAUCE.

Tomatas are so juicy when ripe that they require little or no liquid
to reduce them to a proper consistence for sauce; and they vary so
exceedingly in size and quality that it is difficult to give precise
directions for the exact quantity which in their unripe state is needed
for them. Take off the stalks, halve the tomatas, and gently squeeze
out the seeds and watery pulp; then stew them softly with a few
spoonsful of gravy or of strong broth until they are quite melted.
Press the whole through a hair-sieve, and heat it afresh with a little
additional gravy should it be too thick, and some cayenne, and salt.
Serve it very hot.
Fine ripe tomatas, 6 or 8; gravy or strong broth, 4 tablespoonsful:
1/2 to 3/4 hour, or longer if needed. Salt and cayenne sufficient to
season the sauce, and two or three spoonsful more of gravy if
required.
Obs.—For a large tureen of this sauce, increase the proportions;
and should it be at first too liquid, reduce it by quick boiling. When
neither gravy nor broth is at hand, the tomatas may be stewed
perfectly tender, but very gently, in a couple of ounces of butter, with
some cayenne and salt only, or with the addition of a very little finely
minced onion; then rubbed through a sieve, and heated, and served
without any addition, or with only that of a teaspoonful of chili
vinegar; or, when the colour is not a principal consideration, with a
few spoonsful of rich cream, smoothly mixed with a little flour to
prevent its curdling. The sauce must be stirred without ceasing
should the last be added, and boiled for four or five minutes.
 A FINER TOMATA SAUCE.

Stew very gently a dozen fine red tomatas, prepared as for the
preceding receipt, with two or three sliced eschalots, four or five
chilies or a capsicum or two (or in lieu of either, with a quarter of a
teaspoonful of cayenne pepper), a few small dice of lean ham, and
half a cupful of rich gravy. Stir these often, and when the tomatas are
reduced quite to a smooth pulp, rub them through a sieve; put them
into a clean saucepan, with a few spoonsful more of rich gravy, or
Espagnole, add salt if needed, boil the sauce stirring it well for ten
minutes, and serve it very hot. When the gravy is exceedingly good
and highly flavoured, the ham may be omitted: a dozen small
mushrooms nicely cleaned may also be sliced and stewed with the
tomatas, instead of the eschalots, when their flavour is preferred, or
they may be added with them. The exact proportion of liquid used is
immaterial, for should the sauce be too thin it may be reduced by
rapid boiling, and diluted with more gravy if too thick.
 BOILED APPLE SAUCE.

Apples of a fine cooking sort require but a very small portion of

liquid to boil down well and smoothly for sauce, if placed over a
gentle fire in a close-shutting saucepan, and simmered as softly as
possible until they are well broken; and their flavour is injured by the
common mode of adding so much to them, that the greater part must
be drained off again before they are sent to table. Pare the fruit
quickly, quarter it, and be careful entirely to remove the cores; put
one tablespoonful of water into a saucepan before the apples are
thrown in, and proceed, as we have directed, to simmer them until
they are nearly ready to serve: finish the sauce by the receipt which
follows.
Apples, 1/2 lb.; water, 1 tablespoonful; stewed very softly: 30 to 60
minutes.
Obs.—These proportions are sufficient only for a small tureen of
the sauce, and should be doubled for a large one.
For this, and all other preparations, apples will be whiter if just
dipped into fresh water the instant before they are put into the
stewpan. They should be quickly lifted from it, and will stew down
easily to sauce with only the moisture which hangs about them. They
should be watched and often gently stirred, that they may be equally
done.
 BAKED APPLE SAUCE.

(Good.)
Put a tablespoonful of water into a quart basin, and fill it with good
boiling apples, pared, quartered, and carefully cored: put a plate
over, and set them into a moderate oven for about an hour, or until
they are reduced quite to a pulp; beat them smooth with a clean
wooden spoon, adding to them a little sugar and a morsel of fresh
butter, when these are liked, though they will scarcely be required.
The sauce made thus is far superior to that which is boiled. When
no other oven is at hand, a Dutch or an American one would
probably answer for it; but we cannot assert this on our own
experience.
Good boiling apples, 1 quart: baked 1 hour (more or less
according to the quality of the fruit, and temperature of the oven);
sugar, 1 oz.; butter, 1/2 oz.
 BROWN APPLE SAUCE.

Stew gently down to a thick and perfectly smooth marmalade, a

pound of pearmains, or of any other well-flavoured boiling apples, in
about the third of a pint of rich brown gravy: season the sauce rather
highly with black pepper or cayenne, and serve it very hot. Curry
sauce will make an excellent substitute for the gravy when a very
piquant accompaniment is wanted for pork or other rich meat.
Apples pared and cored, 1 lb.; good brown gravy, third of pint 3/4
to 1-1/4 hour. Pepper or cayenne as needed.
 WHITE ONION SAUCE.

Strip the skin from some large white onions, and after having
taken off the tops and roots cut them in two, throw them into cold
water as they are done, cover them plentifully with more water, and
boil them very tender; lift them out, drain, and then press the water
thoroughly from them; chop them small, rub them through a sieve or
strainer, put them into a little rich melted butter mixed with a spoonful
or two of cream or milk, and a seasoning of salt, give the sauce a
boil, and serve it very hot. Portugal onions are superior to any
others, both for this and for most other purposes of cookery.
For the finest kind of onion sauce, see Soubise, page 126, which
follows.
 BROWN ONION SAUCE.

Cut off both ends of the onions, and slice them into a saucepan in
which two ounces of butter have been dissolved; keep them stewing
gently over a clear fire until they are lightly coloured; then pour to
them half a pint of brown gravy, and when they have boiled until they
are perfectly tender, work the sauce altogether through a strainer,
season it with a little cayenne, and serve it very hot.
 ANOTHER BROWN ONION SAUCE.

Mince the onions, stew them in butter until they are well coloured,
stir in a dessertspoonful of flour, shake the stewpan over the fire for
three or four minutes, pour in only as much broth or gravy as will
leave the sauce tolerably thick, season, and serve it.
 SOUBISE.

(English Receipt.)

Skin, slice, and mince quickly two pounds’ weight of the white part
only of some fine mild onions, and stew them in from two to three
ounces of good butter over a very gentle fire until they are reduced
to a pulp, then pour to them three-quarters of a pint of rich veal
gravy; add a seasoning of salt and cayenne, if needed; skim off the
fat entirely, press the sauce through a sieve, heat it in a clean
stewpan, mix it with a quarter of a pint of rich boiling cream, and
serve it directly.
Onions, 2 lbs.; butter, 2 to 3 oz.: 30 minutes to 1 hour. Veal gravy,
3/4 pint; salt, cayenne: 5 minutes. Cream, 1/4 pint.
 SOUBISE.

(French Receipt.)

Peel some fine white onions, and trim away all tough and
discoloured parts; mince them small, and throw them into plenty of
boiling water; when they have boiled quickly for five minutes drain
them well in a sieve, then stew them very softly indeed in an ounce
or two of fresh butter until they are dry and perfectly tender; stir to
them as much béchamel as will bring them to the consistence of very
thick pea-soup, pass the whole through a strainer, pressing the onion
strongly that none may remain behind, and heat the sauce afresh,
without allowing it to boil. A small half-teaspoonful of pounded sugar
is sometimes added to this soubise.
White part of onions, 2 lbs.: blanched 5 minutes. Butter, 2 oz.: 30
to 50 minutes. Béchamel, 3/4 to 1 pint, or more.
Obs.—These sauces are served more frequently with lamb or
mutton cutlets than with any other dishes; but they would probably
find many approvers if sent to table with roast mutton, or boiled veal.
Half the quantity given above will be sufficient for a moderate-sized
dish.
 MILD RAGOUT OF GARLIC, OR, L’AIL À LA BORDELAISE.

Divide some fine cloves of garlic, strip off the skin, and when all
are ready throw them into plenty of boiling water slightly salted; in
five minutes drain this from them, and pour in as much more, which
should also be quite boiling; continue to change it every five or six
minutes until the garlic is quite tender: throw in a moderate
proportion of salt the last time to give it the proper flavour. Drain it
thoroughly, and serve it in the dish with roast mutton, or put it into
good brown gravy or white sauce for table. By changing very
frequently the water in which it is boiled, the root will be deprived of
its naturally pungent flavour and smell, and rendered extremely mild:
when it is not wished to be quite so much so, change the water every
ten minutes only.
Garlic, 1 pint: 15 to 25 minutes, or more. Water to be changed
every 5 or 6 minutes; or every 10 minutes when not wished so very
mild. Gravy or sauce, 1 pint.
 MILD ESCHALOT SAUCE.

Prepare and boil from half to a whole pint of eschalots by the

preceding receipt; unless very large, they will be tender in about
fifteen minutes, sometimes in less, in which case the water must be
poured from them shortly after it has been changed for the second
time. When grown in a suitable soil, and cultivated with care, the
eschalots are sometimes treble the size that they are under other
circumstances; and this difference must be allowed for in boiling
them. Drain them well, and mix them with white sauce or gravy, or
with good melted butter, and serve them very hot.
 A FINE SAUCE, OR PURÉE OF VEGETABLE MARROW.

Pare one or two half-grown marrows and cut out all the seeds;
take a pound of the vegetable, and slice it, with one ounce of mild
onion, into a pint of strong veal broth or of pale gravy; stew them
very softly for nearly or quite an hour; add salt and cayenne, or white
pepper, when they are nearly done; press the whole through a fine
and delicately clean hair-sieve; heat it afresh, and stir to it when it
boils about the third of a pint of rich cream. Serve it with boiled
chickens, stewed or boiled veal, lamb cutlets, or any other delicate
meat. When to be served as a purée, an additional half-pound of the
vegetable must be used; and it should be dished with small fried
sippets round it. For a maigre dish, stew the marrow and onion quite
tender in butter, and dilute them with half boiling water and half
cream.
Vegetable marrow, 1 lb.; mild onion, 1 oz.; strong broth or pale
gravy, 1 pint: nearly or quite 1 hour. Pepper or cayenne, and salt as
needed; good cream, from 1/4 to 3/4 of pint. For purée, 1/2 lb. more
of marrow.
 EXCELLENT TURNIP, OR ARTICHOKE SAUCE FOR BOILED
MEAT.

Pare, slice, and boil quite tender, some finely-grained mild turnips,
press the water from them thoroughly, and pass them through a
sieve. Dissolve a slice of butter in a clean saucepan, and stir to it a
large teaspoonful of flour, or mix them smoothly together before they
are put in, and shake the saucepan round until they boil: pour to
them very gradually nearly a pint of thin cream (or of good milk
mixed with a portion of cream), add the turnips with a half-
teaspoonful or more of salt, and when the whole is well mixed and
very hot, pour it over boiled mutton, veal, lamb, or poultry. There
should be sufficient of the sauce to cover the meat entirely;[58] and
when properly made it improves greatly the appearance of a joint. A
little cayenne tied in a muslin may be boiled in the milk before it is
mixed with the turnips. Jerusalem artichokes make a more delicate
sauce of this kind even than turnips; the weight of both vegetables
must be taken after they are pared.
58. The objection to masking a joint with this or any other sauce is, that it
speedily becomes cold when spread over its surface: a portion of it at least
should be served very hot in a tureen.

Pared turnips or artichokes, 1 lb.; fresh butter, 1-1/2 oz.; flour, 1

large teaspoonful (twice as much if all milk be used); salt, 1/2
teaspoonful or more; cream, or cream and milk mixed, from 3/4 to 1
pint.
 OLIVE SAUCE.

Remove the stones from some fine French or Italian olives by

paring the fruit close to them, round and round in the form of a
corkscrew: they will then resume their original shape when done.
Weigh six ounces thus prepared, throw them into boiling water, let
them blanch for five minutes; then drain, and throw them into cold
water, and leave them in it from half an hour to an hour,
proportioning the time to their saltness; drain them well, and stew
them gently from fifteen to twenty-five minutes in a pint of very rich
brown gravy or Espagnole (see Chapter IV.); add the juice of half a
lemon, and serve the sauce very hot. Half this quantity will be
sufficient for a small party.
Olives, stoned, 6 oz.; rich gravy, 1 pint: 15 to 25 minutes. Juice,
1/2 lemon.
Obs.—In France this sauce is served very commonly with ducks,
and sometimes with beef-steaks, and with stewed fowl.
 CELERY SAUCE.

Slice the white part of from three to five heads of young tender
celery; peel it if not very young, and boil it in salt and water for twenty
minutes. If for white sauce put the celery, after it has been well
drained, into half a pint of veal broth or gravy, and let it stew until it is
quite soft; then add an ounce and a half of butter, mixed with a
dessertspoonful of flour, and a quarter of a pint of thick cream or the
yolks of three eggs. The French, after boiling the celery, which they
cut very small, for about twenty minutes, drain and chop it; then put it
with a slice of butter into a stewpan, and season it with pepper, salt,
and nutmeg; they keep these stirred over the fire for two or three
minutes, and then dredge in a dessertspoonful of flour: when this
has lost its raw taste, they pour in a sufficient quantity of white gravy
to moisten the celery, and to allow for twenty minutes’ longer boiling.
A very good common celery sauce is made by simply stewing the
celery cut into inch-lengths in butter, until it begins to be tender; and
then adding a spoonful of flour, which must be allowed to brown a
little, and half a pint of good broth or beef gravy, with a seasoning of
pepper or cayenne.
Celery, 3 to 5 heads: 20 minutes. Veal broth, or gravy, 1/2 pint; 20
to 40 minutes. Butter, 1-1/2 oz.; flour, 1 dessertspoonful; cream, 1/4
pint, or three yolks of eggs.
 WHITE CHESTNUT SAUCE.

Strip the outer rind from six ounces of sound sweet chestnuts,
then throw them into boiling water, and let them simmer for two or
three minutes, when the second skin will easily peel off. Add to them
three quarters of a pint of good cold veal gravy, and a few strips of
lemon rind, and let them stew gently for an hour and a quarter. Press
them, with the gravy, through a hair-sieve reversed and placed over
a deep dish or pan, as they are much more easily rubbed through
thus than in the usual way: a wooden spoon should be used in
preference to any other for the process. Add a little cayenne and
mace, some salt if needed, and about six tablespoonsful of rich
cream. Keep the sauce stirred until it boils, and serve it immediately.
Chestnuts without their rinds, 6 oz.; veal gravy, 1 pint; rind of 1/2
lemon: 1-1/4 hour. Salt; spice; cream, 6 tablespoonsful.
Obs.—This sauce may be served with turkey, with fowls, or with
stewed veal cutlets.
 BROWN CHESTNUT SAUCE.

Substitute rich brown gravy for the veal stock, omit the lemon-rind
and cream, heighten the seasonings, and mix the chestnuts with a
few spoonsful of Espagnole or highly flavoured gravy, after they have
been passed through the sieve.
 PARSLEY-GREEN, FOR COLOURING SAUCES.

Gather a quantity of young parsley, strip it from the stalks, wash it

very clean, shake it as dry as possible in a cloth, pound it in a mortar,
press all the juice closely from it through a hair-sieve reversed, and
put it into a clean jar; set it into a pan of boiling water, and in about
three minutes, if gently simmered, the juice will be poached
sufficiently; lay it then upon a clean sieve to drain, and it will be
ready for use.
Spinach-green, for which particular directions will be found at the
commencement of Chapter XXIV., is prepared in the same manner.
The juice of various herbs pounded together may be pressed from
them through a sieve and added to cold sauces.
 TO CRISP PARSLEY.

Wash some branches of young parsley well, drain them from the
water, and swing them in a clean cloth until they are quite dry; place
them on a sheet of writing paper in a Dutch oven, before a brisk fire,
and keep them frequently turned until they are quite crisp. They will
become so in from six to eight minutes.